Seminar Report 2013

Autonomous Car

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

The inventions of the integrated circuit and later, the microcomputer, were
major factors in the development of electronic control in automobiles. The importance
of the microcomputer cannot be overemphasized as it is the “brain” that controls
many systems in today’s cars. For example, in a cruise control system, the driver sets
the desired speed and enables the system by pushing a button. A microcomputer then
monitors the actual speed of the vehicle using data from velocity sensors. The actual
speed is compared to the desired speed and the controller adjusts the throttle as
necessary.
A completely autonomous vehicle is one in which a computer performs all the
tasks that the human driver normally would. Ultimately, this would mean getting in a
car, entering the destination into a computer, and enabling the system. From there, the
car would take over and drive to the destination with no human input. The car would
be able to sense its environment and make steering and speed changes as necessary.
This scenario would require all of the automotive technologies mentioned above: lane
detection to aid in passing slower vehicles or exiting a highway; obstacle detection to
locate other cars, pedestrians, animals, etc.; adaptive cruise control to maintain a safe
speed; collision avoidance to avoid hitting obstacles in the road way; and lateral
control to maintain the car’s position on the roadway. In addition, sensors would be
needed to alert the car to road or weather conditions to ensure safe traveling speeds.
For example, the car would need to slow down in snowy or icy conditions. We
perform many tasks while driving without even thinking about it. Completely
automating the car is a challenging task and is a long way off. However, advances
have been made in the individual systems.
Google’s robotic car is a fully autonomous vehicle which is equipped with
radar and LIDAR and such can take in much more information, process it much more
quickly and reliably, make a correct decision about a complex situation, and then
implement that decision far better than a human can. Google anticipates that the
increased accuracy of its automated driving system could help reduce the number of
traffic-related injuries and deaths
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The Google car system combines information gathered for Google Street View
with artificial intelligence software that combines input from video cameras inside the
car, a LIDAR sensor on top of the vehicle, radar sensors on the front of the vehicle
and a position sensor attached to one of the rear wheels that helps locate the car's
position on the map. As of 2010, Google has tested several vehicles equipped with the
system, driving 140,000 miles (230,000 km) without any human intervention, the only
accident occurring when one of the cars was rear-ended while stopped at a red light.
Google anticipates that the increased accuracy of its automated driving system could
help reduce the number of traffic-related injuries and deaths, while using energy and
space on roadways more efficiently.

Figure 1.1 Google Car

The combination of these technologies and other systems such as video based
lane analysis, steering and brake actuation systems, and the programs necessary to
control all of the components will become a fully autonomous system. The problem is
winning the trust of the people to allow a computer to drive a vehicle for them,
because of this, there must be research and testing done over and over again to assure
a near fool proof final product. The product will not be accepted instantly, but over
time as the systems become more widely used people will realize the benefits of it.

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CHAPTER 2
BLOCK DIAGRAM

The block diagram of Google’s driverless car is shown below. It includes

sensor section, processor section and drive by wire technology.

Figure 2.1 Block diagram of the system

The main controller of the vehicle is the microprocessor section. There are two
processors; one is for the general working and one for handling the sensory inputs
which is real time. There are two coprocessors for handling the steering and the brake.
Accelerator is directly controlled by the general purpose processor. The sensory
inputs include inputs from the lidar, radar, position estimator and street view images.
Lidar creates a 3 D images platform for mounting the obstacles and map.
The camera visuals are used for detecting the colour of the traffic signal based
on which the vehicle moves on the road. The general purpose processor is constantly
communicating with the engine control unit.

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CHAPTER 3
CONTROL UNIT

3.1 HARDWARE SENSORS

3.1.1 Radar

Radar is an object-detection system which uses electromagnetic waves

specifically radio waves - to determine the range, altitude, direction, or speed of both
moving and fixed objects such as aircraft, ships, spacecraft, guided missiles, motor
vehicles, weather formations, and terrain.

Figure 3.1 MACOM SRS Radar

The radar dish, or antenna, transmits pulses of radio waves or microwaves
which bounce off any object in their path. The object returns a tiny part of the wave's
energy to a dish or antenna which is usually located at the same site as the transmitter.
The modern uses of radar are highly diverse, including air traffic control, radar
astronomy, air-defense systems, antimissile systems; nautical radars to locate
landmarks and other ships; aircraft anti collision systems; ocean-surveillance systems,
outer-space surveillance and rendezvous systems; meteorological precipitation
monitoring; altimetry and flight-control systems; guided-missile target-locating
systems; and ground-penetrating radar for geological observations. High tech radar
systems are associated with digital signal processing and are capable of extracting
objects from very high noise levels.
A radar system has a transmitter that emits radio waves called radar signals in

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predetermined directions. When these come into contact with an object they are
usually reflected and/or scattered in many directions. Radar signals are reflected
especially well by materials of considerable electrical conductivity- especially by
most metals, by seawater, by wet land, and by wetlands. Some of these make the use
of radar altimeters possible. The radar signals that are reflected back towards the
transmitter are the desirable ones that make radar work. If the object is moving either
closer or farther away, there is a slight change in the frequency of the radio waves,
due to the Doppler effect.
Radar receivers are usually, but not always, in the same location as the
transmitter. Although the reflected radar signals captured by the receiving antenna are
usually very weak, these signals can be strengthened by the electronic amplifiers that
all radar sets contain. More sophisticated methods of signal processing are also nearly
always used in order to recover useful radar signals.
The weak absorption of radio waves by the medium through which it passes is
what enables radar sets to detect objects at relatively-long ranges at which other
electromagnetic wavelengths, such as visible light, infrared light, and ultraviolet light,
are too strongly attenuated. Such things as fog, clouds, rain, falling snow, and sleet
that block visible light are usually transparent to radio waves. Certain, specific radio
frequencies that are absorbed or scattered by water vapor, raindrops, or atmospheric
gases (especially oxygen) are avoided in designing radars except when detection of
these is intended.
Finally, radar relies on its own transmissions, rather than light from the Sun or
the Moon, or from electromagnetic waves emitted by the objects themselves, such as
infrared wavelengths (heat). This process of directing artificial radio waves towards
objects is called illumination, regardless of the fact that radio waves are completely
invisible to the human eye or cameras. High tech radar systems are associated with
digital signal processing and are capable of extracting objects from very high noise
levels
Here we use the MA COM SRS Radar Resistant to inclement weather and
harsh environmental conditions, 24 GHz ultra wide band (UWB) radar sensors
provide object detection and tracking. Parking assistance can be provided by rear
mounted sensors with 1.8 m range that can detect small objects in front of large
objects and measure direction of arrival. Sensors with ability to scan out up to 30 m

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provide warning of imminent collision so airbags can be armed and seat restraints
pretension. Figure shows the RADAR waves in the system

Figure 3.2 RADAR waves in autonomous cars

3.1.2 Lidar
LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging also LADAR) is an optical remote
sensing technology that can measure the distance to, or other properties of a target by
illuminating the target with light, often using pulses from a laser. LIDAR technology
has application in geometrics’, archaeology, geography, geology, geomorphology,
seismology, forestry, remote sensing and atmospheric physics, as well as in airborne
laser swath mapping (ALSM), laser altimetry and LIDAR Contour Mapping. The
acronym LADAR (Laser Detection and Ranging) is often used in military contexts.
The term "laser radar" is sometimes used even though LIDAR does not employ
microwaves or radio waves and is not therefore in reality related to radar.
LIDAR uses ultraviolet, visible, or near infrared light to image objects and can
be used with a wide range of targets, including non-metallic objects, rocks, rain,
chemical compounds, aerosols, clouds and even single molecules. A narrow laser

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beam can be used to map physical features with very high resolution. LIDAR has
been used extensively for atmospheric research and meteorology.

Figure 3.3 Lidar used for 3D imaging

Downward-looking LIDAR instruments fitted to aircraft and satellites are used
for surveying and mapping. A recent example being the NASA Experimental
Advanced Research Lidar. In addition LIDAR has been identified by NASA as a key
technology for enabling autonomous precision safe landing of future robotic and
crewed lunar landing vehicles. Wavelengths in a range from about 10 micrometers to
the UV (ca.250 nm) are used to suit the target. Typically light is reflected via
backscattering.
There are several major components to a LIDAR system:
1. Laser — 600–1000 nm lasers are most common for non-scientific applications.
They are inexpensive but since they can be focused and easily absorbed by the eye the
maximum power is limited by the need to make them eye-safe. Eye-safety is often a
requirement for most applications .A common alternative 1550 nm lasers are eye-safe
at much higher power levels since this wavelength is not focused by the eye, but the
detector technology is less advanced and so these wavelengths are generally used at
longer ranges and lower accuracies. They are also used for military applications as
1550 nm is not visible in night vision goggles unlike the shorter 1000 nm infrared
laser. Airborne topographic mapping lidars generally use 1064 nm diode pumped
YAG lasers, while bathymetric systems generally use 532 nm frequency doubled
diode pumped YAG lasers because 532 nm penetrates water with much less
attenuation than does 1064nm
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2. Scanner and optics — How fast images can be developed is also affected by the
speed at which it can be scanned into the system. There are several options to scan the
azimuth and elevation, including dual oscillating plane mirrors, a combination with a
polygon mirror, a dual axis scanner. Optic choices affect the angular resolution and
range that can be detected. A hole mirror or a beam splitter are options to collect a
return signal.

Figure 3.4 3-D map of car surroundings

3. Photo detector and receiver electronics — two main photo detector technologies are
used in lidars: solid state photo detectors, such as silicon avalanche photodiodes, or
photomultipliers. The sensitivity of the receiver is another parameter that has to be
balanced in a LIDAR design.
4. Position and navigation systems — LIDAR sensors that are mounted on mobile
platforms such as airplanes or satellites require instrumentation to determine the
absolute position and orientation of the sensor. Such devices generally include a
Global Positioning System receiver and an Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU).3D
imaging can be achieved using both scanning and non-scanning systems. "3D gated

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viewing laser radar" is a non-scanning laser ranging system that applies a pulsed laser
and a fast gated camera.
3.1.3 Global Positioning System
The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based global navigation
satellite System (GNSS) that provides location and time information in all weather,
anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line of sight to four or
more GPS satellites.GPS receiver calculates its position by precisely timing the
signals sent by GPS satellites high above the Earth.

Figure 3.5 Google Map

Each satellite continually transmits messages that include
• The time the message was transmitted
• Precise orbital information (the ephemeris)
• The general system health and rough orbits of all GPS satellites
The receiver uses the messages it receives to determine the transit time of each
message and computes the distance to each satellite. These distances along with the
satellites' locations are used with the possible aid of trilateration, depending on which

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algorithm is used, to compute the position of the receiver. This position is then
displayed, perhaps with a moving map display or latitude and longitude; elevation
information may be included. Many GPS units show derived information such as
direction and speed, calculated from position changes. Three satellites might seem
enough to solve for position since space has three dimensions and a position near the
Earth's surface can be assumed. However, even a very small clock error multiplied by
the very large speed of light — the speed at which satellite signals propagate results
in a large positional error. Therefore receivers use four or more satellites to solve for
the receiver's location and time. The very accurately computed time is effectively
hidden by most GPS applications, which use only the location. A few specialized GPS
applications do however use the time; these include time transfer, traffic signal
timing, and synchronization of cell phone base stations.
3.1.4 Position sensor
A position sensor is any device that permits position measurement Here we
use a rotator encoder also called a shaft encoder, is an electro-mechanical device that
converts the angular position or motion of a shaft or axle to an analog or digital code.
The output of incremental encoders provides information about the motion of the
shaft which is typically further processed elsewhere into information such as speed,
distance, RPM and position. The output of absolute encoders indicates the current
position of the shaft, making them angle transducers. Rotary encoders are used in
many applications that require precise shaft unlimited rotation—including industrial
controls, robotics, special purpose photographic lenses, computer input devices (such
as opto mechanical mice and trackballs), and rotating radar platforms.
3.1. 5 Cameras
Google has used three types of car-mounted cameras in the past to take Street
View photographs. Generations 1–3 were used to take photographs in the United
States. The first generation was quickly superseded and images were replaced with
images taken with 2nd and 3rd generation cameras. Second generation cameras were
used to take photographs in Australia.

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Figure 3.6 Street View camera system.

The system is a rosette (R) of 15 small, outward-looking cameras using 5
megapixel CMOS image sensors and custom, low-flare, controlled-distortion lenses.
The shadows caused by the 1st, 2nd and 4th generation cameras are occasionally
viewable in images taken in mornings and evenings. The new 4th generation cameras
HD will be used to completely replace all images taken with earlier generation
cameras.
Thus the total sensor components can be explained using the below figure
assembled on the car. All the components are already explained.

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Figure 3.7 Components of Google Car

3.2 LOGIC PROCESSING UNIT

3.2.1 Google Street View
Google Street View is a technology featured in Google Maps and Google
Earth that provides panoramic views from various positions along many streets in the
world. It was launched on May 25, 2007, originally only in several cities in the United
States, and has since gradually expanded to include more cities and rural areas
worldwide.
Google Street View displays images taken from a fleet of specially adapted
cars. Areas not accessible by car, like pedestrian areas, narrow streets, alleys and ski
resorts, are sometimes covered by Google Trikes (tricycles) or a snowmobile. On each
of these vehicles there are nine directional cameras for 360° views at a height of about
8.2 feet, or 2.5 meters, GPS units for positioning and three laser range scanners for the
measuring of up to 50 meters 180° in the front of the vehicle. There are also
3G/GSM/Wi-Fi antennas for scanning 3G/GSM and Wi-Fi hotspots. Recently, 'high
quality' images are based on open source hardware cameras from Elphel.

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Figure 3.8 Street View

Where available, street view images appear after zooming in beyond the
highest zooming level in maps and satellite images, and also by dragging a "pegman"
icon onto a location on a map. Using the keyboard or mouse the horizontal and
vertical viewing direction and the zoom level can be selected. A solid or broken line
in the photo shows the approximate path followed by the camera car, and arrows link
to the next photo in each direction. At junctions and crossings of camera car routes,
more arrows are shown.
3.2.2 Artificial intelligence software
Artificial intelligence is the intelligence of machines and the branch of
computer science that aims to create it. AI textbooks define the field as "the study and
design of intelligent “agents” where an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its
environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success. John McCarthy,
who coined the term in 1956, defines it as "the science and engineering of making
intelligent machines". Here the details about the software are a trade secret of Google.
The hardware components are placed in the vehicle boot and is shown below.

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Figure 3.9 Hardware assembly of the system

3.3 PROCESSOR UNIT

3.3.1 Xeon Processor
Xeon Processor is a multi-core enterprise processors built on 32-nanometer
process technology .It has up to 8 execution cores. Each core supports two threads
(Intel Hyper-Threading).The main features of Xeon processor are:
• 46-bit physical addressing and 48-bit virtual addressing
• A 32-KB instruction and 32-KB data first-level cache (L1) for each core
• A 256-KB shared instruction/data mid-level (L2) cache for each core
We need two processor here for handling real time sensor values and for
general working.
3.3.1 Cortex Coprocessors
Two separate Cortex-A9 processors are used for
• Steering
• brake
The ARM Cortex-A9 MPCore is a 32-bit multicore processor providing up to
4 cache-coherent Cortex-A9 cores, each implementing the ARM v7 instruction
set architecture. They are high performance ARM processor with 1-4 cores version .It
work on AXI high-speed Advanced Microprocessor Bus architecture. Its main feature
is the increased peak performance for most demanding applications

CHAPTER 4
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ROBOTIC CAR DESIGN

4.1 MULTICORE HETROGENOUS COMPUTING

Lab VIEW applications on two HP dual quad-core servers performed sensor

data and image processing and ran decision-making and planning modules. Compact
RIO managed the lower level vehicle interface. An NI touch panel in the dashboard
helped switch between autonomous and manual operation modes.

Figure 4.1 Robotic car design

Heterogeneous computing systems refer to electronic systems that use a

variety of different types of computational units. A computational unit could be a
general-purpose processor (GPP), a special-purpose processor (i.e. digital signal
processor (DSP) or graphics processing unit (GPU)), a co-processor, or custom
acceleration logic (application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) or field-
programmable gate array (FPGA)). In general, a heterogeneous computing platform
consists of processors with different instruction set architectures (ISAs).

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A multi-core processor is a single computing component with two or more

independent actual processors (called "cores"), which are the units that read and
execute program instructions. The data in the instruction tells the processor what to
do. The instructions are very basic things like reading data from memory or sending
data to the user display, but they are processed so rapidly that human perception
experiences the results as the smooth operation of a program. Manufacturers typically
integrate the cores onto a single integrated circuit die (known as a chip multiprocessor
or CMP), or onto multiple dies in a single chip package
4.2 SENSOR DATA ACQUISITION
Sensor data acquisition and processing Lab VIEW applications running on
multicore servers with Linux and Windows OSs processed and analyzed data from
three IBEO ALASCA multi planar LIDARs, four SICK LMS LIDARs, two IEEE
1394 cameras, and one Novatel GPS/INS. Ethernet cables acted as the interface for all
sensors. sensor data acquisition means gathering of the data that the sensors are
providing which collected from the current environment, then the collected data is
processed here.
4.3 JAUS INTEROPERABLE COMMUNICATION
Joint Architecture for Unmanned Systems (JAUS), formerly known as Joint
Architecture for Unmanned Ground Systems (JAUGS), was originally an initiative
started in 1998 by the United States Department of Defense to develop an open
architecture for the domain of unmanned systems. Lab VIEW helped develop and
deploy a set of tools for JAUS, an autonomous ground vehicle standard for passing
messages and status information among various vehicle subsystems. This SAE AS-4
JAUS interoperable architecture was designed for use in other autonomous
applications as well.
4.4 DRIVE BY WIRE SYSTEM
Drive-by-wire, technology in the automotive industry replaces the traditional
mechanical control systems with electronic control systems using electromechanical
actuators and human machine interfaces such as pedal and steering feel emulators.
Hence, the traditional components such as the steering column, intermediate shafts,
pumps, hoses, belts, coolers and vacuum servos and master cylinders are eliminated
from the vehicle.

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CHAPTER5
ALGORITHM

Start simulation

Initialize variables

Determine car’s position on the path

Calculate lateral deviation and heading angle

Determine velocity and steering inputs

Update car position

End Show plots

End simulation

Figure 5.1 Algorithm of car working

5.1. INTERACTIVE ALGORITHM

Interactive algorithms for path following involve direct communication with
external sources such as receiving navigation data from the leader or consulting GPS
coordinates. The Follow-the-Past algorithm is one such example; it involves receiving

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and interpreting position data, orientation data, and steering angle data from a leader
vehicle.
The objective is to mimic these three navigational properties in order to
accurately follow the path set by the leader. As orientation and steering angle are
associated with GPS positional data, the following vehicle can update its navigational
state to match that of the leader vehicle at the appropriate moment in time.
One developed algorithm is best described as a placing a trail of breadcrumbs
based on the leading vehicle's position. A cubic spline fit is applied to the generated
breadcrumbs to establish a smooth path by which to travel. This developed algorithm
was tested and showed centimeter level precision in following a desired path.

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CHAPTER 6
DRIVE BY WIRE TECHNOLOGY
The working of the system can be explained by using the integration of drive by
wire technology and processors using the artificial intelligence and the algorithm. We
need to control only three driving parts.
• STEERING
• BRAKE
• THROTTLE

6.1 DRIVE BY WIRE TECHNOLOGY

Drive-by-wire, DbW, by-wire, or x-by-wire technology in the automotive
industry replaces the traditional mechanical control systems with electronic control
systems using electromechanical actuators and human-machine interfaces such as
pedal and steering feel emulators. Hence, the traditional components such as the
steering column, intermediate shafts, pumps, hoses, belts, coolers and vacuum servos
and master cylinders are eliminated from the vehicle. Examples include electronic
throttle control and brake-by-wire.
Safety can be improved by providing computer controlled intervention of
vehicle controls with systems such as Electronic Stability Control (ESC), adaptive
cruise control and Lane Assist Systems. Ergonomics can be improved by the amount
of force and range of movement required by the driver and by greater flexibility in the
location of controls. This flexibility also significantly expands the number of options
for the vehicle's design.
The cost of DbW systems is often greater than conventional systems. The
extra costs stem from greater complexity, development costs and the redundant
elements needed to make the system safe. Failures in the control system could
theoretically cause a runaway vehicle, although this is no different from the throttle
return spring snapping on a traditional mechanical throttle vehicle. Another
disadvantage is that manufacturers often reduce throttle sensitivity in the low-mid

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throttle range to make the car easier or safer to control - or to protect the drive train
(gearbox, clutch, etc.) from driver abuse. The normal drive by wire technology and
associated hardware are shown in the figure.

Figure 6.1 Drive by wire technology

6.2 STEER BY WIRE
Steer by wire can be basically explained with the help of electronic power
steering technology. Almost all modern vehicles are based on electronic power
steering (EPS). EPS systems have variable power assist, which provides more
assistance as the speed of a vehicle decreases and less assistance at higher speeds.
They do not require any significant power to operate when no steering assistance is
required. For this reason, they are more energy efficient than hydraulic systems.

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Figure 6.2 Electronic power steering

The EPS electronic control unit (ECU) calculates the assisting power needed
based on the torque being applied to the steering wheel by the driver, the steering
wheel position and the vehicle’s speed. The EPS motor rotates a steering gear with an
applied force that reduces the torque required from the driver. The steering angle and
torque is obtained from the steering and the motor drives it freely for the driver with
much easiness. The motor is controlled by the engine control unit by checking the
vehicle speed.

There are four forms of EPS, based on the position of the assist motor. They
are the column assist type (C-EPS), the pinion assist type (P-EPS), the direct drive
type (D-EPS) and the rack assist type (R-EPS). The D-EPS system has low inertia and
friction because the steering gear and assist unit are a single unit. The R-EPS type has
the assist unit connected to the steering gear. R-EPS systems can be used on mid- to
full-sized vehicles due to their very relatively low inertia from high reduction gear
ratios. . These systems can be tuned by simply modifying the software controlling the
ECU. This provides a unique and cost effective opportunity to adjust the steering
"feel" to suit the automotive model class. Additional advantages of EPS are its ability

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to compensate for one-sided forces such as a flat tire. It is also capable of steering in
emergency maneuvers in conjunction with the electronic stability control.

In driverless car the steering angle and the steering torque are calculated based
on the algorithm and the data is fed on the ECU. So the driver need not to adjust the
vehicle, the ECU controlled motor will rotate the steering.

7.2 BRAKE BY WIRE

Brake-by-wire refers to the technology in which mechanical and hydraulic
components of traditional braking systems are replaced by electronic sensors and
actuators to carry out the function of braking in a vehicle. Brake-by-wire is a
combination of electronic control systems coupled with a set of electromechanical
actuators and a human-machine interface, which is in this case, the brake pedal. The
use of brake-by-wire systems enumerate many benefits such as weight reduction and
space saving, lower operating noises and vibrations, and quicker reaction time due to
the absence of mechanical linkages, which would result in shorter stopping distances.
However for successful application on an extensive basis, the wrinkles in the system's
working need to be ironed out to devise a fail-safe version with a clear indication of
its distinctive advantages over conventional braking systems, to warm vehicle
manufacturers and consumers alike to the idea of its ubiquitous implementation in
vehicles.

Due to the safety critical nature of brake-by-wire systems, incorporating a

degree of fault tolerance is vital. The most commonly suggested solution is a
redundant or back-up brake system, such as a conventional hydraulic system, that
would be brought into activation in the event that the primary system suffers a failure.

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Figure 6.3 Brake by wire technology

The brake pedal sensor input is calculated using the radar and lidar using the
algorithm .It is dependent on the distance to the object and braking emergency. The
sensory input makes the driver free from applying brakes.

6.3 THROTTLE BY WIRE

Electronic throttle control (ETC) is an automobile technology which connects

the accelerator pedal to the throttle, replacing a mechanical linkage. Most automobiles
already use a throttle position sensor (TPS) to provide input to traction control,
antilock brakes, fuel injection, and other systems, but use a bowden cable to directly
connect the pedal with the throttle. An ETC-equipped vehicle has no such cable.
Instead, the electronic control unit (ECU) determines the required throttle position by
calculations from data measured by other sensors such as an accelerator pedal position

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sensor, engine speed sensor, vehicle speed sensor etc. The electric motor within the
ETC is then driven to the required position via a closed-loop control algorithm within
the ECU.

The benefits of ETC are largely unnoticed by most drivers because the aim is
to make the vehicle power-train characteristics seamlessly consistent irrespective of
prevailing conditions, such as engine temperature, altitude, accessory loads etc. The
ETC is also working 'behind the scenes' to dramatically improve the ease with which
the driver can execute gear changes and deal with the dramatic torque changes
associated with rapid accelerations and decelerations.

ETC facilitates the integration of features such as cruise control, traction

control, stability control, and precrash systems and others that require torque
management, since the throttle can be moved irrespective of the position of the
driver's accelerator pedal. ETC provides some benefit in areas such as air-fuel ratio
control, exhaust emissions and fuel consumption reduction, and also works in concert
with other technologies such as gasoline direct injection.

CHAPTER 7
ONGOING RESEARCHES IN THE FIELD
As of 2010, Google has tested several vehicles equipped with the system,
driving 1,000miles (1,600 km) without any human intervention, in addition to
140,000 miles (230,000 km) with occasional human intervention, the only accident
occurring when a car crashed into the rear end of a test vehicle while stopped at a red
light. The project team has equipped a test fleet of seven vehicles, consisting of six
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Toyota Prius and an Audi TT, each accompanied in the driver's seat by one of a dozen
drivers with unblemished driving records and in the passenger seat by one of Google's
engineers. The car has traversed San Francisco's Lombard Street, famed for its steep
hairpin turns and through city traffic. The vehicles have driven over the Golden Gate
Bridge and on the Pacific Coast Highway, and have circled Lake Tahoe. The system
drives at the speed limit it has stored on its maps and maintains its distance from other
vehicles using its system of sensors. The system provides an override that allows a
human driver to take control of the car by stepping on the brake or turning the wheel,
similar to cruise control systems already in cars.
Many companies such as General Motors, Volkswagen, Audi, BMW, Volvo,
have begun testing driverless car systems. General Motors has stated that they will
begin testing driverless cars by 2015, and they could be on the road by 2018. Volvo
has begun to develop an almost autonomous road train system for highways which
could be integrated in cars by 2020. Google has lobbied for two bills which, in June
2011, made Nevada the first state where driverless vehicles can be legally operated on
public roads. The first bill is an amendment to an electric vehicle bill that provides for
the licensing and testing of autonomous vehicles. The second bill provides an
exemption from the ban on distracted driving to permit occupants to send text
messages while sitting behind the wheel..
In 2006 the United Kingdom government's 'Foresight' think-tank revealed a
report which predicts a RFID- tagged driverless cars on UK's roads by 2056, and the
Royal Academy of Engineering claims that driverless trucks could be on Britain's
motorways by 2019.

CHAPTER 8
APPLICATIONS
The various applications of the technology are
1. Intelligent transporting
Intelligent transport systems vary in technologies applied, from basic
management systems such as car navigation; traffic signal control systems; container
management systems; variable message signs; automatic number plate recognition or
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speed cameras to monitor applications, such as security CCTV systems; and to more
advanced applications that integrate live data and feedback from a number of other
sources, such as parking guidance and information systems; weather information;
bridge deicing systems; and the like. Additionally, predictive techniques are being
developed to allow advanced modeling and comparison with historical baseline data
this technology will be a revolutionary step in intelligent transportation.
2. Military applications
Automated navigation system with real time decision making capability of the
system makes it more applicable in war fields and other military applications.
3. Transportation in hazardous places
The complete real time decision making capability and sensor guided
navigation will leads to replace the human drivers in hazardous place transportation.
4. Shipping
Autonomous vehicles will have a huge impact on the land shipping industry.
One way to transport goods on land is by freight trucks. There are thousands of freight
trucks on the road everyday driving for multiple days to reach their destination. All of
these trucks are driven by a paid employee of a trucking company. If the trucks were
able to drive on their own, a person to move the vehicle from one point to another is
no longer needed. The truck is also able to drive to their destination without having to
stop to sleep, eat, or anything besides more fuel. All that is necessary is someone to
load the vehicle and someone to unload the vehicle. This would save trucking
companies a very large amount of money, but it would also put thousands of people
out of jobs. These people would have to find and learn a new profession as driving a
freight truck is a full time job with little time spent at home to learn how to do another
profession. This is potentially life ruining for many employees in this industry
5. Taxi services
Another business that would be strongly affected is taxi services. It is based
solely on driving someone around who does not have a car or does not want to drive.
Then an employee is dispatched to go and pick up the person and bring them to their
destination. This type of service could lower the number of vehicles on the road
because not everyone would have to own a car, people could call to request an
autonomous car to bring them around. Taxis also drive around cities and wait in busy
areas for people to request a cab. A taxi service comprised completely of autonomous

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vehicles could be started. A person can call in and request to be picked up and then be
brought to their destination for a fee. There could be autonomous taxis waiting in
designated areas for people to come and use them. Many taxi drivers need the job
because they are unable to perform other jobs for various reasons. The need for a
human in the service goes away almost completely. This is another example of a large
amount of people being removed from their jobs because of autonomous vehicles
being able to perform the task without the need of an extra person.
6. Public transportation
Various forms of public transportation are controlled by a human operator.
Whether it is on a bus, in a train, subway, streetcar, or shuttle, there is a person sitting
in the driver’s seat and they are controlling what the vehicle is doing. For trains and
other rail-based transportation, it is a simpler process more involved with accelerating
and decelerating the train from and into stops with no concern over keeping in a lane.
However, on a bus or shuttle, a person must follow rules, watch the actions of other
drivers and pedestrians, keep the bus in lane, and make sure they stop at every bus
station. These are many tasks that one person must be able to handle and react to
and control at the same time. In the early stages of implementation, it would most
likely keep the driver behind the wheel as a safeguard in case there is a problem with
the system. The driver would also be needed in the beginning in order for the general
public to trust it at first. As the life of the autonomous vehicle systems progresses, bus
drivers would no longer be needed as the system would be able to perform all of the
required tasks. It is a simple job of following a specific route and stopping at
designated points. The problems would arise from actions of other vehicles in the
area. The most ideal situation is when the autonomous vehicle systems have matured
to the point that nearly every vehicle on the road is autonomously driven.

CHAPTER 9
MERITS AND DEMERITS

10.1 MERITS
• Safety
Safety issues have the most serious impact on daily life out of all the
transportation problems. Traffic accidents have colossal negative effects on economy.
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Traveling by car is currently the most deadly form of transportation, with over a
million deaths annually worldwide. For this reason, the majority of the research
projects in the transportation sector concentrate on developing safety systems.
Implementation of autonomous vehicles can greatly reduce the number of crashes,
since 90 percent of the traffic accidents are caused by human error. Intelligent safety
systems that are currently in use have already proven their success in helping drivers
avoid accidents. According to EUROSTAT data, the number of road fatalities in the
EU has been reduced from 56,027 to28,849 people per year between the years of 1991
and 2010.This data indicates a reduction of about 30 percent, which reflects the better
safety performance of recent vehicles when compared to previous vehicle generations.

• Impacts on Traffic
With the introduction of a fully autonomous vehicle, traffic flow would
drastically change. Traffic is currently a nuisance to drivers all over the world. In the
early stages of implementation to the highway system there would be a combination
of autonomously driven vehicles and human controlled vehicles. This could cause
some confusion and problems concerning the reaction of motorists to the driverless
vehicles and how well the autonomous vehicles can integrate into traffic flow. The
autonomous vehicles would be following all traffic laws while human drivers have the
choice to break the law. As time progresses and the autonomous car becomes a more
commonly used vehicle on the road, traffic would become far less congested. Cars
would be able to seamlessly merge into moving traffic and then exit the highway just
as easily. With the reduction of traffic, there is a chance that there could be economic
improvements. Also, with less stop and go traffic, average fuel economy would be
improved. Vehicles are also following each other consistently which would help with
fuel usage as well.
• Fuel economy
Autonomous vehicles will eliminate ineffective speeding up and braking,
operating at an optimum performance level in order to achieve best possible fuel
efficiency. Even if the fuel efficiency achieved by the autonomous vehicles were 1
percent better, this would result in billions of dollars of savings in the US alone. It is
possible to obtain superior fuel efficiency as a result of the implementation of

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autonomous safety systems. Total savings that can be achieved by the increased fuel
efficiency can be calculated by making some assumptions such as:
o 10% as a result of more efficient driving.
o 5% as a result of cars being 300 pounds lighter on average.
o 10% as a result of more efficient traffic flow.
According to the assumptions made above, the implementation autonomous
vehicles will result into fuel savings of 25 percent, which is rough estimate

• Time Costs
The phrase ‘time is money’ is true for most situations in modern life and the
monetary value of time is increasing every day. Using automated cars could save
considerable amount of time in a person’s life, especially if the person resides in a
busy city. Even if the time savings were not considered as having monetary value,
having more time for leisure activities would raise our life standards. Lowering the
amount of time lost will also enable people to be on time and more dynamic, resulting
in a significant improvement in work efficiency. One of the biggest advantages of this
technology will be the elimination of traffic problems in cities, which are at the top of
the most frustrating problems list for most people. By enabling a smoother traffic
flow, the new system will be saving a lot of time which can be used for work or
leisure.

Figure 9.1 Features of autonomous car

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9.2 DEMERITS

• The equipment’s and technologies used are costly the main equipment’s used
in this technology are radar, lidar, position sensor, gps module, Multicore
heterogeneous processor, JAUS interoperable communication systems, high
resolution cameras are very costly now.
• Complex artificial intelligence software the brain of the robotic car is its
intelligent real time decision making software the design and implementation of this
part of the system is much more complicated.
• Present road conditions may vary and which will affect the decisions made by
the software since our system is mainly based on pure artificial intelligence, the non
ideal conditions and decisions made by other human drivers may vary. This may
affect the ideal operation of the robotic car.
• Professional drivers will be jobless

CHAPTER 10
FUTURE SCOPE

The transition to an automated transportation structure will greatly prevent

many problems caused by the traffic. Implementation of autonomous cars will allow
the vehicles to be able to use the roads more efficiently, thus saving space and time.
With having automated cars, narrow lanes will no longer be a problem and most
traffic problems will be avoided to a great extent by the help of this new technology.
Research indicates that the traffic patterns will be more predictable and less
problematic with the integration of autonomous cars. Smooth traffic flow is at the top

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of the wish list for countless transportation officials. Car manufacturers are already
using various driver assist systems in their high-end models and this trend is
becoming more and more common. As a result of this trend, the early co- pilot
systems are expected to gradually evolve to auto-pilots.
All developments show that one day the intelligent vehicles will be a part of
our daily lives, but it is hard to predict when. The most important factor is whether the
public sector will be proactive in taking advantage of this capability or not. The
Public Sector will determine if the benefits will come sooner rather than later. Since
these assist systems are very similar with the systems that are used in autonomous car
prototypes, they are regarded as the transition elements on the way to the
implementation fully autonomous vehicles.

CHAPTER 11
CONCLUSION

Currently, there are many different technologies available that can assist in
creating autonomous vehicle systems. Items such as GPS, automated cruise control,
and lane keeping assistance are available to consumers on some luxury vehicles. The
combination of these technologies and other systems such as video based lane
analysis, steering and brake actuation systems, and the programs necessary to control
all of the components will become a fully autonomous system. The problem is
winning the trust of the people to allow a computer to drive a vehicle for them,

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because of this, there must be research and testing done over and over again to assure
a near fool proof final product. The product will not be accepted instantly, but over
time as the systems become more widely used people will realize the benefits of it.
The implementation of autonomous vehicles will bring up the problem of replacing
humans with computers that can do the work for them. There will not be an instant
change in society, but it will become more apparent over time as they are integrated
into society.

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2. S. Thrun, W. Burgard, and D. Fox, Probabilistic Robotics (Intelligent Robotics and

Autonomous Agents), 2001
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3. Nilotpal Chakraborty, Raghvendra Singh Patel, “Intelligent Agents and

Autonomous Cars : A Case Study”, International Journal of Engineering Research &
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