TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents
Conversions i

GENERAL MATHEMATICS

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~ ERING SCIENCES
Mechanics ;.;; "',,'.,"

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ISBN 971-91931-5-8
I ENGINEERING
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5' ion Engines

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!r DMC Busa Printers

Sanciangco St.
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Tel. No. (032)416-8016

INDUSTRIAL PLANT ENGINEERING

Heat Transfer. ';',"

~~~~~~~re.ssor~: ::: ..: ..::: '.:..'.:..: ::..: ::..:.,.,.. : :.'.:;.:.:.'~~,,~';1~;'!~jin,:' statute mile = 5280 feet
Fans and Blowers ; ,.L~'''!,>.,
Refrigeration .................................................•
= 1760 yards
Air Conditioning
L_~
1 nautical mile = 6080 feet
~~v
1 league = 3 nautical miles
= 18240 feet
MACHINE DESIGN
Strength of Materials ...........................•........... 261
1 yard = 3 feet
= 0.9144 m
Engineering Materials 273
Pressure Vessels 283
1 meter = 100 cm
Shaft 285
= 1000 mm
Keys...... . 290
= 3.28 feet
Coo~~~. . 2~
= 1.093 yard
Flywheels 294
1 foot = 12 inches
=
~~~:~~s
Bolts andScrews 297
;g~
1 inch

1 rod
=
=
=
2.54 cm
25.4 mm
5.5 yards
16.5 feet
Roller Chains . .. 312
Wire Ropes , 315
1 furlong = 40 rods
Gears 318 = 220 yards
Clutch. : 334 1 cable length = 720 feet
Brakes 336 1 fathom = 6 feet
Bearings 339 1 span = 9 inches
Riveted Joints 344 1 vara = 33.33 inches
Welded Joints 347 1 mil = 0.001 inch
Machine Shop Practice.... .. 350
Piping System 353
Area
1 hectare = 10,000 sq. m
= 11,960 sq. yards
1 acre = 43560 sq. ft
= 4046.8 sq. m
= 0.4047 hectare
1 square meter = 10.76 sq. It
= 1.195 sq. yard
 CONVERSIONS iii
ii CONVERSIONS
Work/Energy
Volume
1 Btu = 778 ft-Ib
1 quart = 2 pints
= 252 cal
1 US gallon = 231 cu. inches
= 3. !~liter.s- _ = 0.252 kcal
= 4 quarts .- .~ = 1.055kJ
1 kcaJ = 4.187 kJ
1 British gallon = 277.42 cu. inches"-,
1 cal = 4.187 Joule
1 co. m = 1000 liters
= 35.31 cu. ft 1 erg = 1 d~e-cm
:;: 10' Joule
1 <; ==. 264.2 US gallon
I
----1 cu. ft = 7.48 US gallon 1 Joule = 1 N-m
1 kJ = 1000 Joule
= 28.32 liters
1728 cu. inch
1 ganta = 3Uters
= 8 chupas Power
1 horsepower= 550 ft-Ib/sec
1 cavan = 25 gantas
= 33,000 ft-Ib/min
= 2545 Btu/hr
Angle
= 42.4 Btu/min
60 degrees = 21t radians
= 0.746 kw
= 400 grads
= 746watts
= 6400 mils
= 1.014 MHp
. = 1 rev
1 kw = 3413 Btu/hr
90 deg = 100 grad
= kJ/sec
1 deg ::: 60 min
1 walt = J/sec
1 min = 60 sec
1 MHp = 0.736 kw
1 Boiler Hp = 33,480 Btulhr
Mass & Weight
= 35,322 kJlhr
1 ton = 2000 pounds (Ibs.)
1 long ton = 2240 Ibs
1 metric ton = 1000 kg
Temperature
= 2200lbs
1 pound = 16 ounces °C = ~(OF - 32)
·9
1 kip = 1000lbs
1 kg = 2.22 lbs of = !:°C + 32
1 kg1 = 9.80665 Newtons 5
1 Newton = 0.1019 kg oK = °C + 273
= 0.04591b oR = of + 460
.', oound (Ib) = 0.453592 kg i
= 0.13825j N
I
I

iv CONVERSIONS
CONVERSIONS v
/lOC = ~ WF) Fundamental Constants:
9 2
acceleration of tree fall (g) 9.80665 m/s
/loF = !: We) Avogadro constant (L, NA) ••••••••••••••••••••• 6.02252 x 1~3 mar'
5 Boltzmann constant (k = RlNA): ••••••••••••• 1.380622 x 10.23 J/K
/loC = /loK ,2 ••
electric constant (1:0) ••••••••••••••••••••••••.••••• 8.854 x 10. F/m
/loF = f,°R , electronic charge(e) ..............•................ 1.602192 x 10. C
19
3
electronic rest mass (me) 9.109558 x 10- ' kg
Faraday constant (F)....................... 9.648670 X 104 e/mol
Pressure gas constant (R) ..........................•................ 8.31434 J/k~ mol-oK
1 atmospheric pressure (atm) = 101.325 kPa gravitational constant (G) 6.664 x 10" N m2/kp'
= 14-7 psi Loschmidl's constant (NL) •.••••••.•••••••.•••• 2.68719 x 1025 m'
= 760mm Hg magnetic constant (uo) .41t x 10.7 H/m
= 29.92 in Hg neutron rest mass (mn).~ 1.67492 x 1O.27kg
1.033 kg/cm2
34
= Planck constant (h) 6.626196 x 10. Js
27
1 bar = 100 kPa proton rest mass (mp) ••••••••••••••••••.•••.••.•• 1.672614 X 10. kg
1 Pa = 1 N/m2 speed of light (c).......................................... 2.99792458 x 10· m/s
1 kPa = 1 kN/m2 Stefan-Boltzmann constant (a) 5.6697 x 10.6 m" K4
= 1QOOPa

Properties of Air:
Fluids
~ . kJ
1 poise = 1 dyne-sec/em" Cp = 024~ 0.24 = 1.0-- -
Ib·o. F 0
kg-OC kg- C
= 0.1 Pa-s
1 stoke = 1 cm2/s
= 0.001 m2/s
0.716_k_J _
t lo-sec/tt" = 478.7 poises Cy O.171~
Ib_O F
1 ft2/S = 929 cm2/s
kg_O C

ft3/S = 0.646 million gallons per day (mgd)

= 448.8 gal/min (gpm)
3
1m /s = 1000 litis
= 35.31 tels
k = 1.4
~"

-,
r
., i

j
'. \
 'ALGEBRA 1

ALGEBRA
~". ',' .' .-',', (

~ETS AND NUMBERS

'ASETiS a well-defined collection of distinct objects. A w~lI-

'defined set means that it is possible to determine whether an
kJ 144 Btu
latent heat of fusion = 335 Object .belongs .toaglven set. The objects are called
kg Ib
members or elements of a set. We use the symbol E to
(jehote the element of a set. Also. the symbol a II' S is read
Specific (sensible) heat of ice =2.093 _kJ_ as' a is not an element of set S."
kg-OC
Venn Diagram a diagram drawn with circles which
portrays the relations of sets.
= 0.5 Btu
Ib~OF
Two Ways of Describing a Set
1. The Tabular or Roster form is a method where the
Latent heat of vaporization (from and at 100°C) elements are separated by commas and enclosed by

I = 2257 ~
kg
= 970.3 Btu
Ib
braces.
2. The Rule form is a method which makes use of the
description {xl ..... }. This is read as "x such that."

I Latent heat of water vapor in air and flue gases

(average)
A set which contains no element is called an empty or null
set. We denote the empty set by { } or 0. The set {0} is
not empty since it contains one element.

I = 2442 ~ 1050 Btu Kinds of Sets:

kg Ib 1. Equal Sets
Sets A "and B are equal, denoted by A = B, if they have the
same elements. The sets A = {1. 2, 3} and B. = {2, 1, 3}
are equal sets.

I
i
ALGEBRA ALGEBRA 3
7. Disjoint Sets
pivalenf Sets . _ B, if they,
Two sets are disjoint if they have no common element. The
and B are equIValent, denoted by A C = {a b, c}
e same number of elements. The sets _' 0 sets E = {a, b, c} and F = {e, f, g} are disjoint sets, since
={4,5, 6} are equivalent sets. Also, {5} {}, no element is common. ,The sets {O} and {0} are also
th~y.have the same number of elements. disjoint sets,

itfiSet 8. Subsets
"if it contains only a countable .number of elements. Set A is a subset of set B denoted by A c B, if every
A. B, C, D given above are fimte sets. ' element of A belongs to B. In symbol,

'fe'Set d The IA c B if x E /1" then x E BI

Jnfinite if the counting of elements has no ,en .
,il'lfegersZ. positive integers N (or natural numbers),
'integers Z -, and nonnegative integers (or whole
) are infinite sets. ' If A = {1, 2, 3} and B :: {1, 2, 3, 4} then A c B.
~>,= {....,,-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ....}
,,={1. 2, 3•.... } Aside from the definition, if there is at least one element
''''= {-1. -2. -3, } tound in B but not in A, then A is a proper subset of B
W = {D. 1,2, } denoted by A c B. These are two improper subsets of any
given set, the empty set and the set itself,
<'~~sets of positive odd integers {1, 3. 5•...... } and positive
~venihtegers {2, 4, 6, ... } are also infinite sets. Operations on Sets
The operations on sets behave in a manner somewhat

'1~!~~~~~7f.I;~:
:~;j;'f
:~::.::;::~;:~~~~,~:
considering no other set present, is U = {1, 2. 3, 4, 5}.
similar to the basic operations on numbers.
The Venn diagram of sets make use of a rectangle
representing the universal set and circles are subsets which
may be shaded under consideration.

Joiqt.Sets Four Basic Operations on Sets

that have common elements are joint sets. The sets
4.5,6} arid 8 = {6, 10, 11} are joint sets, since 6 is
1. Union of sets A andB
. )0 both A and 'B.
A v B = set of all elements found in A or in B or both
= {xix E A and x E B}
 4 ALGEBRA ALGEBRA 5
Example: 4. Differences of sets A and B
{a, b, d, e} u {b, e. f, g} = {a, b, d, e. f, g} A - B = set of elements found in A but. not in B
AuU=U Au0 =A = {xix E A and x l" B}

Example:
A= {4, 5, 6, 7},
A -B = {4,5}
B o {1,.J,B9 I,! 'UBI
Note: that 0' = U, while U' = 0. Also any set is always a
subset of a universal set, L E. A c U. 0 c U,
2. Intersection of sets A and B A-B c U.
A n B = set of all elements common to A and B
= {xix E A and x E B} Laws of Sets
Sets involving the operations of union, intersection
Example: complement and differences satisfy properties which w~
{1, 2, 3, 4} rv {O, 2, 3,4, 9} = {2, 3, 4} shall refer to the laws of sets.
AnU=A An0=0
1. Commutative Laws - the order in which the sets are
taken does not affect the result.
AuB =BuA

2. Associative Laws - the grouping in which the sets are

taken does not affect the result.
A u (B u C) (A u B) u C
3. Complement of A A n (B () C) =
(A n B) n C
A' = set of all elements in the universal set but not found in A

[]I
= {xix E U and x l" A} 3. Distributive Laws - these laws involve three sets with
two different operations, distributing the first operation over
the second one.
Example:
A = {1,2}, U = {1,2,3,4,5} A u (B n C) = (A u B) rv (A u C) left distributive law
A' = {3, 4, 5) A n (B u C) = (A n B) u (A n C) left distributive law
(A n B) u C (A u C) n (B u C) right distributive law
. (A u B) n C (A n C) u (B n C) right distributive law

6 ALGEBRA ALGEBRA 7
4. Identity laws - a set operated to another called the Equality, denoted by " = " is used to imply a relation of
identity element gives the set itself. . identity between two quantities.
A u 0 = A, for union of sets, the identity element is the
empty set. Properties of Equality:
A n U = A, for intersection of sets, the identity element is 1. Reflexive: a = a
the universal set. Example: 2 = 2

2. Symmetric: If a = b, then b = a
The Real Number System Example: If x = y, then y = x

The real number system consists of a set of elements called 3. Transitive: If a = band b = c, then a = c
real numbers. A real number may be positive, negative, or Example: =
If x y and y = 3, then x =3
zero and can be classified as either rational or irrational
number. 4. Addition Properly of Equality(APE):
_ If a = b, then a + c = b + c
A rational number is any number that can be expressed as Example: If x = 2, then x + 4 = 2+ 4
the ratio of two integers, i.e. a number of the form' alb where
a and b are integers and b l' O. 5. Multiplication Properly of Equality (MPE)
If a = b, then ac = be
Decimals classified as fractions may either be terminating or Example: If x = 5, then x(3) = 5(3)
non-terminating repeating decimals.
6. SUbstitution: If a = b, then a can be replaced by b in any
Example: mathematical statement Without changing the value of the
5/2 = 2.5 and 1/5 = 0.2 are terminating decimals statement
2/3 = 0.666 .. and 14/99 = 0.1414 ... are non-terminating
repeating decimals Properties of Real Numbers:
1. Closure
Real numbers that are not rational are irrational numbers. The set of real numbers R is said to be closed under a given
These numbers are also called non-terminating non- operation if upon performing any two elements in R, the
repeating decimals. result also belong to R.
a + b E R, for any a, b E R
Example (the following are irrational numbers) ab E R, for any a, b E R
.Ii , V5, 3, 1t
 8 ALGEBRA ALGEBRA 9

1. Find the LCM of 4, 6, ~nd 8.

2. Commutative
The order in which the numbers are taken does not affect (a). 4 : 2 (2) there are only2 twos
the sum and product, i.e,' '(b).. 6 = 3 (2) there is only 1 two

; A+B=B+A (C). 8: 2 (2) (2) there are 3 twos

AB : 'BA Choose the three twos, highest number of occurrence of
such a factor 2.
In (a) no three
3. Associative
The grouping in which the numbers are taken does not affect In (b) 1 three
the sum and product, l.e. In (c) none
A + {B + C} : (A + B) + C Choose one three, highest number of occurrence of such a
A(BC} = (AB)C factor 3: Therefore the LCM of 4, 6 and 8 = 2(2){2)(3) :
.24. 24 IS the smallest number which is exactly divisible by 4,
4. Identity - A number on the identity element equals itself 6 and 8. No other number less than 24.
a + 0 = a, For addition, the identity element is O.
a . 1 = a, For multiplication, the identity element is 1. . 2. Find the LCM of 2(3-x){3+x); 4(x-3)(xc1); and 3(x-3)2
(a). -2(x-3)(x+3)
5. Inverse - A number operated on its inverse equals the (b). 4(x-3)(x-1)
identity element. (c) 3(x-3)(x-3)
a + (-a) = 0, -a as additive inverse or negative of a LCM = 12(x-3l(x-1 )(x+3)
a . (t/a) : 1, 1/a as multiplicative inverse or
Exponents and Radicals
reciprocal of a

Laws of Exponents:
6. Distributive of Multiplication over Addition
a(b + c) = ab + ac aO = 1 : a·m
(a + b}c : ac + be am

am a" = am+n ami" = ~

THE; LEAST COMMON MULTIPLE (LCM)
am
It is the product of all the different prime factors of the given : am-n (ab)" : ambm
numbers or given polynomials each taken the greatest a"

i number of times it occurs in any of the given numbers or

given polynomials.
(am)" amn
(~r (::) :

10 ALGEBRA ALGEBRA
Laws of Radicals: II. Linear equations in two or more unknown
Solution:
l.'i;J;=~rfb a. Substitution
b. Elimination

2. if = ~
c.

III.
determinants

Quadratic equation in one unknown

3. ~ = m~
al 0
·~pr
Standard form : + bx + c

4. ~ ~ = (amr
Solution:
a. Factoring ( if factorable)
mQ+nP
b. Quadratic Formula:
-b±Jb2
x : -~:...:..._~ -4ac
a nO
2a
"~amQ+IP
Properties of roots:
Factors and Products b
Sum of roots: x, + X2 :
a
a(x + y ) : ax + ay c
(x + y)2 = X2 + 2xy + ( Product of roots
a
{x-d= l-2xy+(
(x + y} (x - y) : x2 - i Note: If b2 4ac, the roots are equal.
If b2 > 4ac, the roots are real and unequal
3
(X + Y) = (x + y) (X2 - xy + l> 2
If b < 4ac, the roots are imaginary
(X3 - y3J : (x - y) (X2 + xy + 1')
(x + y} : x3 + 3ly + 3xi + l
(x - y}3 x3 - 3ly + 3x( - l c. Completing the square

Types of equations and how the.unknowns are solved

I. Linear equation in one unknown

Solution: Simple transposition
 12 ALGEBRA ALGEBRA 13
WORDED PROBLEMS IN ALGEBRA b. Consecutive odd (or even) numbers: x, x + 2, x + 4
(Two consecutive odd or even numbers have a
A. Age Problem difference of 2).
The difference in the ages of two persons always remains
the same. c. The number: 100z + 10y + x

B. Clock Problem x = units digit

The minute hand travels 12 times faster than the hour hand. y tens digit
z hundreds digit
C. Motion(Rate) Problem
Distance = Rate x Time Sum of the digit = x + y + z
Product of the digit xyz
D. Mixture Problem
H. Interest Problem
Interest =
Principal x Period x Interest Rate per Period
Percentage of a component Amount of the Component
Total amount of mixture I. Lever Problem
In the mixture
Force A x Lever Arm A = Force B x Lever Arm B

E. Percentage Problem

Percentage of Part = amount of part VARIATIONS

a. Direct Variation: x varies directly as y
Total amount of whole

xocy
F. Work Problem
x = ky
Part of work accomplis:ld by a team= NumbelOfdaysworked
Nurnberof daysthe tearualene b. Inverse Variations: x varies inversely as y
can do the entii e work
1
x oc
y
G. Digit and Number Problem

a. Consecutive numbers: x, x + 1, x + 2
(Two consecutive numbers have a difference of 1.)

14 ALGEBRA ALGEBRA 15
c. Joint Variation:' x varies directly as y and inversely as z
a(l-r")
x oc 1- S n = number of terms
I-r
z-
L = the nth term
S = sum

Geometric Progression w:th infinite number of terms

(n =
ec]:

PROGRESSIONS S = _a_
I-r
A. ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION - a series of numbers
having a common difference. C. HARMONIC PROGRESSION - a series of numbers
whose reciprocals form an Arithmetic Progression.
Example: 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, (d 3) I 1 I 1
15, 13, 11, 9, 7, (d -2) Example:
)' s' 7' 9' ..... is a harmonic

progression because the reciprocal 3, 5, 7, 9 is an

L a + (n-1)d where: a first term
arithmetic progression.
d common difference
n = number of terms

S ~ (a + L) L the nth term PERMUTATION. COMBINATION AND PROBABILITY

2 .
S = sum Permutation - an ordered arrangement of a group of things
- an arranqernent of objects in a definite order.

The number of permutations of "n" things taken "r' at a time

B. GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION - a series of numbers nl
having the common ratio. P (n, r) = --'- where: n! = n factorial
(n - r) !

Example: 2, 6, 18, 54,162, .... (r = 3) = 1 x 2 x 3 x 4", ....n

64, 32, 16, 8, 4, ... (r Y»
P (n, n) = n! (Note O! 1)
L = a r n-t where: a = first term
r =common ratio
 ALGEBRA 17
16 ALGEBRA
Permutation of n different things in a circle
Example:
P :: (n - 1)!
1: How many permutations can be made out of the letters
x, yand z taken two at a time?
Example:

Solution: 1. How many ways can four people be seated in a round

3! table? .
P(3,2) 6

;
(3 - Z)!
Solution:
or P (3, 2) :: 3 x 2 :: 6
!'j
P :: (4 - 1)! :: 3! :: 6 ways
these are: xy, yx, xz, zx, yz, zy
Combination - a part or all of a set of things
Permutation of n things not all are alike. - an arrangement of objects regardless of
sequence or order of arrangement.
The permutation of n things in which q are alike, rare
alike, and so on is: The number of combinations of "n" things taken "r" at a
n! time.
p ::
ql r! . :: P (n,r) n!
C (n, r)
r! (n-r}r!
Example: C (n. n) ::

1. How many permutations can be' made out of the letters Example:
.in the word ENGINEERING.
1. How many combinations can be taken out of the letters
Solution: x, yand z taken two at a time?

n :: 11, 3 E's, 3 N's, 2 G's, 2 I's Solution:

II! 3'
P :: :: 277,200 C (3, 2) :: - 3
3! 3! 21 2! (3 - 2)'2!
these are: xy, XZ, yz

18 ALGEBRA ALGEBRA 19
Combination of n different things 1, 2, 3, n at a time. C. Dependent Events - two or more events are said to be
dependent if the happening of one affects the

•i
C :: 2" - probability of the happening of the others.

Example: !he total probability of the happening of two or more

Independent of dependent events is the product of their
1.. How many ways can a luxury car be painted if there are individual probabilities.
3 colors that are available?
D. Mutually Exclusive Events - two or more events are
Solution: said to be mutually Exclusive if it is impossible for more
than one of them to happen in just a single trial.
C :: 23 - 1 :: 7 ways
The total probability that someone, two or more
Probability - number of occurrences of a certain event per mutUally exclusive events to happen is the sum of their
total number of occurrences. individual probabilities,

i A. Single Event

Number of ways that an event could happen:

Example:

1. A box contains 4 blue balls and 5 red balls.

i P :: No. of favorable ways a.lf one ball is drawn at random, what is the
probability
Total no, of ways that it is blue?
b. If two balls are drawn at random, what is the
Number of ways that an event can fail: probability that both are red?

i Q :: No. of unfavorable
Total no. of ways
and P + Q :: 1
ways c. If two balls are drawn at random, what is the
probability that one is blue and the other is
red?
d. If one ball is drawn at random, what is the
probability of not getting blue.
B. Independent Events - two or more events are said to
be independent if the happening of one does not affect
the probability of the happening of the others.

i
20 ALGEBRA ALGEBRA 21
Solution: d. Single Event
a. Single Event
P = 2.
p = i 9
9
2. From a box containing 6 red balls, 8 white balls and 10
b. Dependent Event blue balls. one ball is drawn at random. Determine the
probability that it is: (ME Bd. Oct 93)
First draw: Second draw:
a. red b. not red c. white
5 4 d. red or white
Pz = -
9 8
Solution:
5 4 20 5
x - = - 6 1
9 8 72 18 a. P = - -
24 4
c. Mutually Exclusive Events 18 3
b. P = -
24
-
4
First draw red second draw blue: 8
545
c. P = -
24
= -3I
PI = -9 X -
8 18
6 8 14 7
d. P -
24
+ -
24
-
24
= -
First draw blue second draw red: 12

Pz = -49 x -
5
8
5
18 3. Roll a pair of dice one. What is the probability that the
sum of the numbers is 7 or 11?

Solution:

5 5 10 5
- + = - Total number of occurrences = 6 x 6 36
18 18 18 9
Number of occurrences that sum is 7:
(1-6. 2-5. 3-4, 4-3. 5-2, 6-1 = 6)

• I
,f;

-2-:2~-----' -=A-=-L-=G=e=B=RA:-:------· T ------T-R-IG-O-N-O-M-E-T-R-Y----2=3°--

Number of occurrences that sumis 11: TRIGONOMETRY

(5-6, 6-5 = 2)
6 2 8 2
Probability = + - ...THE RIGHT TRIANGLE
36 36 36 9
Basic Properties:

~:
4. In how many ways can a PSME Chapter with1S'
direetorschoose a President, a V-Pres, a Secretary, a
Treasurer and an Auditor, If no member can hold more
2. A+B+C=180o
than one position?
A. C
Solution: b ab
3. Area
2
P =~ 360,360
(l5-5)!
Basic Trigonometric Functions:

or No. of ways 15x14x13x12x11 360,360 Hypotenuse

Sine = Opposite Cosecant =
Hypotenuse Sine Opposite
Adjacent Hypotenuse
Cosine Secant =
Hypotenuse Cosine Adjacent
Opf'osi-te Cotangent = __ 1_ = Adjacent
Tangent -
Adjacent Tangent Opposite

Sin A = alc = Cos (90 - A) Cot A = b/a 1fTan A

Cos A = b/c Sin (90 - A) Sec A = c/b 1/Cos A

Tan A = alb Cot (90 - A) Csc A = cia = 1/Sin A

RELATIONS AMONG TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Sin A z
Tan A Sinz A + Cos A = 1
Cos A
TanzA + 1 = Sec2A
 4 TRIGONOMETRY
TRIGONOMETRY 25
MEASUREMENT OF ANGLE: Degrees, Gradients, Radians
ANGLE OF ELEVATION AND ANGLE OF DEPRESSION
deg = 60 min or 60' 90 deg =
100 grad
1 min = 60 sec or 60" II rad = 180 deg

Radian Measure of an Angle:

S
8 (rad)

Angle of Elevation (8 ) - angle between the horizontal and

the line of sight which is above the horizontal

FUNCTIONS OF COMMON TRIANGLES Angle of Depression (u) ~ angle between the horizontal and
..roHcl'I!l~ the line of sight which is below the horizontal

zj 45°
.

1
.45°
1
.fi. DIRECTION AND BEARING

Direction - the angle of the path of a moving object referred

from the standard directions.
Example: Direction of A: N 8° E or 8° E of N
sin 30° = 1/2 = 0.5 sin 45° = 1/.fi. = 0.707
cos 30° = .[3/2 = 0.866 cos 45° 1/ .fi. = 0.707 Bearing - the angle of the line of sight on a stationary object
referred from the standard directions.
tan 30° = 1/ .[3 = 0.577 tan 45° Example: Bearing of B: S UO E

N
sin 60° = .[3 /2 0.866= I

! 8 A
cos 60° 1/2 = iJ.5
tan 60° = .[3 /1 = 1.732 w------~
a \12. ~UL.- n,~
S
\ 'G/L- " {'''L Z~ ~
0 '/Ji ~ o<.l

--~

"""="27""6
~--~---:T=R::I-=G-=O-:';N-::O~M;;:E::;:T:;;R~Y~--~-.:;·""····
~----T-R-IG-O-N--:-O-M-E-T-R-Y--~2=-=7::-

FUNCTIONS OF SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF Two x

ANGLES . cos
2
sin (x + y) sin x cos y + cos x sin y 1- cos x
tan !..
sin (x - y} = sin x cos y c cos x sin y
2 sin x
cos (x + y) cos x cos y - sin x sin y
cos (x -y} cos x cos y + sin x sin y
.1

tan.x + tan y ; INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTION

tan (x + y) =
1 - tanxtany
If sin 8 = x, then:
tanx + tany
tan (x - y) = 8 = arcsin x
1 - tanxtany

FUNCTIONS OF DOUBLE ANGLES

where: 8 = the angle
x = function
arc = means inverse
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos .x

cos 2x = cos'x - sin2x

2 tan x OBLIQUE TRIANGLES
tan 2x
- one angle is more than 90° or less than 180°
1 - tan2 x
C
FUNCTIONS OF TRIPLE ANGLES

sin 3x = 3 sin x - 4 sln" x

cos 3x 4 cos" X - 3 cos x A~"

c
3 tan x - tan) x
tan 3x
1 - 3tan2x
Sine Law: use sine law if the angle is less than 90°
a b c
FUNCTIONS OF HALF ANGLES Sin A Sin B Sin C
-. x Jt-cosx
sin - = ---
2 2
 LOGARITHM 29
28 LOGARITHM

Cosine Law: (use cosine law if 3 sides given or 2 sides and

2. log MN log M + log N =
I M
included angle is given) 3. log - = log M - log N
N
a2 b2 + c2 2bc cos A 4. log. a = 1
b2 = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B
c2 a2 + c2 2ab cos C log. 1 0

6. log. an = n

LOGARITHM NOTE:
1. A negative number has no logarithm. .
Definition: 2. Logarithm of number one (1) to any base IS zero.
3. Numbers between 0 and 1 have negative logarithm.
If MX = Y. then 10gM Y = x 4. Numbers greater than one have positive logarithm.

The logarithm of a number Y to the base M. is the number Example:

that will raise M to get Y.
1. Given 10glO x = 2. Solve for the value of x,
where' M base= I
. (Note' base 10 logarithm is called common ogan
unm
Solution:
and b~se e is called nattirallogarithm, In).
Y ='thenumber . 10glOX = 2
x = the power or exponent x = 102 100

INVERSE LOGARITHM: 2. Given In x = 3. Solve for the value of x.

MX = Y Solution:
logM Y = X
Y = antiiogM x In x = 3
'1 = means inverse logarithm
x = e3
where: anti og
3. In x = In 2 + In 3 + In 5
RULES OF LOGARITHM:
Solution:
In = natural logarithm
1. log MX = x log M
In =
loge In x = In (2)(3)(5) In 30
""here: =
e 2.7182818
x = 30

'';:,-'-'--~---P-LA-N-E-G-E-O-M-E-T-R-Y-----=-3--:-1
30 LOGARITHM f,~--'_-'--'-~ _
4. 10glo x = log 10 12 + 10glo 13 - log10 3
PLANE GEOMETRY
Solution:
12(13)
10glo x = IOg10
3 • .'<
1. Axiom - a statement accepted as true.
x = 52
Postulate - a statement assumed to be true, as a basis
5. In x 2 In Y, In 2 + ,In 5 + In 12 for argument.

Solution: Hypothesis - an unproved theory tentatively accepted to

In x = In
(+r (5)(12)
explain certain facts

Theorem a proposition that can be proven from

2 , , accepted premises
x = 7.5
Corollary - a proposition that follows from one already
6. In x = 3 + In 5 proved.

Solution: 2. Altitude of a triangle - a perpendicular from any vertex of

a triangle to the side opposite.
In x - In 5 3
x 3. Angle - the opening between two straight lines drawn
In -
5
= 3
from the same point.

x'
-
5
= e
3
4. Apothem the radius of the inscribed circle of a
polygon
x = 5 e3
5. Area - the number of unit squares of a plane figure

6. Center of Polygon the common center of the

inscribed and circumscribed circles of a regular polygon.

7. Circle c a closed plane curve every point of which is

equally distant from a point in the plane of the curve.

8. Complementary Angles two angles whose sum is

equal to a right angle (or 90°).
 PLANE GEOMETRY (".------_-:.:..:-=-=-=-~=--:..::..:..:...----
PLANE GEOMETRY 33
32
~L22. Rhombus - an equilateral parallelogram.

2/23. Similar Polygons polygons whose corresponding

• angles are equal and whose corresponding sides are
~.,.
proportional.

(24. Supplementary Angles - two angles whose sum is

••
J equal to two right angles (or 180°).

'\ 25.Tangent - a straight line which meets a curve only at

~ one point,

•••
i 26. Trapezoid - a quadrilateral tow and only two of whose
;.sides are parallel. .

Triangle - a plane figure bounded by three straight

••
!
lines; a polygon with three sides.

Vertical Angles
lines,
- opposite angles of two intersecting

•
••
29. II (pi)
diameter.
- the ratio of the circumference

30. Right Isosceles Triangle

are equal.
-
of a circle to its

a right triangle whose legs

POLYGONS
3 sides Triangle
4 sides Quadrangle
5 sides Pentagon
6 sides Hexagon
7 sides Heptagon (Septagon)
8 sides Octagon
9 sides Nonagon
____ 11Lsides - Decagon

PLANE GEOMETRY 35
,34 PLANE GEOMETRY
;ROPERTIES OF TRIANGLES:
Formulas:
The sum of the three angles of a triangle is equal to two
right angles (or 180°).
1. Sum of Interior Angles
T~e s~m of two sides of a triangle is greater than the
S = (n - 2) 180° third side, and their difference is less than the third side.

2. Each Interior Angle, e, regular polygon

0
If iwo. sides of a triangle are unequal, the angles
e = (n-2) 180 opposite are unequal, and the greater angle is opposite
n the greater side; and conversely.

3. Nu-nber of Diagonals If two sides of- a triangle are equal (an isosceles
triangle), the angles opposite these sides are equal;
D = n (n-3)
and conversely.
2
where: n = no. of sides
Th~ bi~ectors of the angles of a triangle meet at a point
which IS the center of the inscribed circle.
THEOREMS
The perpendicular bisectors of the sides of a triangle
LINES: meet at a point which is the center of the circumscribed
1. If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal: circle.
a. alternate interior angles are equal
b. exterior-interior angles are equal Th~ . m.edians ~f a triangle are concurrent at a point
c. angles on the same side of the transvers which IS two-thirds of the distance from any vertex to
are supplementary the midpoint of the opposite side.

2. If a line is perpendicular to one of two parallel lines, it i Two triangles are congruent if two angles and the
oerpendicular to the other also. included side of one are equal, respectively, to two
angles and the included side of the other.
3. Any point in the perpendicular bisector of a
equally distant from the extremities of the line.
TwO triangles are congruent if two sides and the
included angle of one are equal, respectively, to two
4. Two points each equally distant from the extremities
sides and the included angle of the other.
a line determines the perpendicular bisector of the line;

10. Two triangles are congruent if the three sides of one

are equal, respectively, to the three sides of the other.
'~~-----=~:-:::=-=~~~::::-:-------::!.'\'-'--'----------------------;
36 PLANE GEOMETRY ,j; PLANE GEOMETRY 37
.=.:::=------~....:....:::....::..::=--,..---------___,11l~-~---',-----------------
RIGHT TRIANGLES ~CIRCLES
1. Theorem of Pythagoras: .In any right triangle the . 1. ' Through three points not in a straight line one circle,
square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the -and only one can be drawn.
squares of the other two sides.
i 2. A tangent to a circle is perpendicular to the radius at the
2. Two triangles are equal if ? side and the hypotenuse of point of tangency; and conversely.

~~~ot:~~s:~~~~~:,s~r~CtlVeIY, to a side and the f3. The tangents to a circle drawn from an external point
are equal, and make equal angles with the line joining
Two right triangles are equal if the hypotenuse and an ~.' the point to th~ center.
3.
adjacent angle of one are equal, respectively to the "
hypotenuse and an adjacent angle of the other. '/4. An inscribed angle is measured by one-half the
intercepted arc.
4. If a perpendicular is drawn from the vertex of the righ
angle to the hypotenuse of a right triangle, the tw An angle inscribed in a semi-circle is a right angle.
triangle~ formed are Similar to each other and to th
given triangle. 6.. If two chords intersect in a circle, the product of the
segments of one is equal to the product of the
segments of the other.
SIMILAR TRIANGLES
1. Two tri~ngles are similar if the angles of one ar 7, The circumferences of two circles are in the same ratio
respectIvely equal to the a~gles of the other; or if tw as their radii, and the arcs of tWocircles subtended by
angles of one are respectIvely equal to two an les equal central angles are in the same ratio as their radii.
the other. g

2. T~O triangles are similar if their sides are in the sam

ratio. .
3. Two triangles are similar Jf their sides are res ectivel
parallel each to each.' p

4. Two triangles
. are similar is their sides are' respect'IveI
perpendicular each to each.

38 PLANE AREAS PLANE AREAS 39

ircle Circular Sector
PLANE AREAS
Square Recu.ngle ~~v.-'
,.,'....

r
.

D·
'",~.
r:
'~······:'·"······.····.···;····.. ···.·O···.·.···.·· .

a~ A = ab'
P = 4a tc.
;".J",
p= 2a+2 ~/;.,
a ~ "

Parallelogram Trapezoid =~/ = A

a =' 2ltr

ftb\ 'pircular Segment Ellipse

A = bh
A'(~)h "~
Triangle

~ h~ A',=~-A",~"
b
b
A = bh
Parabolic Segment
2

Heros Formula (Three sides given):

A ~ LxD
3
A = Js(s -a)(s - b)(s...,c)
L

Symbols: A = area
s = 'Semi-perimeter = a+b~
P = perimeter
2
C = circumference
40 VOLUMES
VOLUMES 41
VOLUMES :PYRAMID

CUBE RECTANGULAR PARALLELEPIPED

V ..!.. Ah
r---------:1Ic 3

where: A = area of base

a a
t·,
v = abc :~({USTUMS:

SA = 2ab + 2ac + 2bc

CYLINDER CONE

SPHERE
SPHERICAL SEGj

v = A h = rr ~ h = ~h
4
V.= "!"rrr1h
3
-~'T
LSA = 2rr r h LSA = ..!.. C L
2

= ..!..(2rrr)~r2 + h2 rrhL
V = -(3R- h)
2 3

SA = 411R2
Z = area of zone = 2 rr R h

42 VOLUMES .ANALYTIC GEOMETRY 43

PRISMATOIP PRISM,
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

.Car1esian or Rectangular Coordinate System:

t y-axis
,
j x (abscissa) P(x, y)
r····_··············· __····_····__·········.,

~ 1 y (ordinate)
v = Ah i, L

---- -- --L .-. -------- ---._--, -------. -. x-sxis

OJ origin

Pappus Theorem:
iDISTANCE BETWEEN TWO POINTS
I. Surface Area of. Revolution
SA=211XL

where: L = length of line that is rotated

~ = distance of centroid of line from axis of rotation

II. Volume of Solid of Revolution

V=211 x A

where: A = area of figure that is rotated SLOPE OF A LINE

~ = distance of centroid of figure from axis of rotatio Slope, m = Y2 - YI

Tan e = m

, STRAIGHT LINE
~ a line that does not change in oirecuon.
 ~4~4 Y
--!.AN~~AL~YT~IC~G~E~O~M~E:..:T:..:R:.:Y
;.~,~ ~ANAL YTIC GEOMETRY 45_

General Equation: Ax + By + C = 0 or x + by + c = o : ka. Intercept Form (Given x-intercept E. and y-lntercept 12 )

Slope of line = tan e m ~ + 1:. = I V.

a b ! b =. y-intercept
PERPENDICULAR LINES:
PARALLEL LINES: i
!P(O,b)
a = x-intercept
h
were: .
z a =intercept on x-axis ! P(a, 0)
Yt~. i
,L b = intercept on y-axiS··-·····
o;--··· -.'.' " X
!
1
.. ': .. '."'.'
e e
..•. _....••. X ;'4. Two-Point form [Given two points P,(x" y,) and
Pz(xz, yz) J
V. i

~
,
i
: Pz(xz, Yz)
STANDARD EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINE: ... j-. .•............•..........••. X
0;
1. Point·Slope Form [Giv~n a point (x, y,) and a slOP:, m) i

y . y, = m(x - x.) v.
i ,DISTANCE OF A POINT FROM A LINE
i
i
where: m = slope i
X,,y, are the coordinates of i Equation of line: Ax + By + C = 0
i
a point on the line _·oj· .J!.. ............•• X Coordinates of the point: (x"y,)
-slope = m = tan s ;.
Ax, +BYI +C
Ax + By + C = 0
2. Slope-Intercept Form' (Given slope, m and v-intercept, b :D =
'±~A 2 +S2
i"~
y= mx+b
v+i i "..
!"o P(x" y,)
i ........... -1. _ ...........••. X
where: m = slope ! P(O, b) Use: (+) if B is positive 0,
b = intercept on the y-axis
•. !...•.•.•.•.•.•.•.•...•• x (-) if B is negative ;
°1
b = y-intercept
slope = m = tan e

46 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY
ANAL YTICGEOMETRY 47
D1STANCE'BETWEEN TWO PARALLEL LINES

Ax + By ,+ C, = 0
tGe~eral
e», E~uation of a Conic: Ai+BxY+CV+Dx+EY+F =0
Lz = Ax+ By + Cz = 0 V.
i -,JIiircle (formed by a plane perpendicular to the axis. of the
! . l'cone)
C2 - Cj i ..d
······
d .:ellipse (formed by a plane oblique to the axis of the cone)
JA2+S2 i
i
{Parabola (formed by a plane parallel to the lateral side of the
"cone)
.. • .•.•..... ~.......• _...•.....•.•.•.•.•.••. X
~:l-Iyperbola (formed by a plane parallel to the axis of the
°1, I,<:one)

'!CIRCLE
-r.i

flDefinition: . Locus of points which are eqUidistant from a point

ANGLE BETWEEN TWO LINES:
,:'called the center.

Yt, ;:~General Equation: XZ + l+ Ox + Ey + F = 0

;
Tan e = ;
i
i
i tStandard equation With center at origin, C (0,0) and radius of r:
i
i
·"·'01"""--' . XZ + V= .~ Yi Xl + l = f

-EPJ--x !

: )
Standard equation with center at (h, k) and radius

V)Q
;
;

! . C(h, k)
r
of r:

,
"'0(-'-'..-.- - x
48 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY -c· ANAL YTIC GEOMETRY ~
PARABOLA
~?pening to the right: y2 = 4ax Opening to the left: .; = -4ax

Definition: Locus of points whose distance from a fixed point

(called the focus) is equal to the distance from a fixed line-
-- Vt v.•.
(called the dtrecmx),

Directrix
•• i
;' v(o,or=-'X~V(to1
~ !2a
·_·-c--_·-· j.._._.- ·-·-4-·_·_·_·-·_·- .-._._-.
Axis JJ! a , a :, ['Standard equations, vertex at (h, k):
: i i2a~Focus
Vertex' ! !
! ~
;'Opening upward:
Opening downward:
t{x. h)2 =
4a(y. k)
(x- hl = ·4a(y - k)
Eccentricity, e = 1 .0

Length of Latus Rectum 4a

General Equation:
x2 + Cx + Dy + E = 0
I + Cx + Dy + E = 0

Standard equations, vertex at origin V{O,O):

Openi ngto the right:
2 Opening to the left:
Opening upward: '-x2 = 4ay O~ ening downward: x' = -4a (Y-k) = 4a(X-h) (y - k)2 = -4a(x. h)
V. V •.
·_·-m--·~.~{~.:.~

I€
, ! X
,
,
;
, ~V(hk)
i i
·_··i-'·'-'·····'_···_··" X i
0; ·0"(·_·""_·_·_'--'-. X

50 -ANALYTIC GEOMETRY ANAL YTIC GEOMETRY 51

. ,tandard equation, center at origin:
ELLIPSE
_ x2 y2
Definition: Locus of points Whose distance from a fixed poln - + - = I (axis horizontal)
is less than the distance from a fixed line. a2 b2

y2
General Equation: Ax2 + sl + Cx + Dy + E = 0 + = I (axis vertical)
a2
: directrix d

,of ....
i
i:
Latus
Rectum!
I directrix
Standard equation, center at (h, k)

' :
j
(x- h)2 - (y _ k)2
!. --- + --- = I (axis horizontal)
1 b Focus' vertJ a2 b2
Minor ~*:.~!~
._.~E.~1!~_._._.?_. ._._._~._-. _.•.•••.

\'-1
M,
1_: \

I-I
-
04
c
•... '...
c
.:
I 1
I- '~HYPERBOLA
(axis vertical)

1 a '," a
1..-::......------..; I
- Major Axis = 2a ••Definition: Locus.of points whose distance from a fixed point
jis more than the distance from fixed line.

a > b - axis horizontal --General Equation:

Note: 2
a < b • axis vertical -- Ax • cl
+ Ox + Ey + F = 0 (axis horizontal)
C/ . Al+ Ox + Ey + F = 0 (axis vertical)

c ~ireetri7
Eccentricity, e = a < 1.0
Asy~~tote ~~ Asymptote
a d
. ; ~i ~ 1

"ri :5;t~~
a
Directrix, d = e

Latus .. ··r is • '"

Latus Rectum
R~ct~~ .-:9~~+]·1-'"--''-'··_·'''
a .... --- j .. ! ! i- 1 ("' ...

ae = Ja2 _b2
.......•......•
-,. a i a :

•
Transverse
•
axis :: 2a
 52 ANALYTIC GEOMETRY ANAL YTIC GEOMETRY 53
~
a = semi-transverse axis §,.POLARCOORDINATES
b = semi-conjugate axis
c a >·Distance Between Two Points in Polar Coordinates:
Eccentricity, e = - > 1.0
a d

ae = ~a2+b2
){) = JrJ2 +r22 -2rjr2 cos(8
2
-8 )
1

c2 = a2 + b2 /,~~82)
a
Directrix, d =
e

I
// ~ P,(r" 81)
2b2
Latus Rectum ....-·-·e2-eJ..~ ······ --;:
a ," .
oL::::'
Standard equation, center at origin, (0, 0):
x2
7-bT
y2
= 1 (axis horizontal) : Relation of Polar Coordinates and Cartesian Coordinates:
I
I
y2 x2 !Polar Point (r, 8):
- - = 1 (axis vertical)
7 b2 where: r = radius of vector
8 = polar angle
Standard equation, center at (h. k):
y.
(x - h)2
-a-2- -
(y - k)2
-b-2-
= 1 (axis horizontal) :.i

lan
+ V
e = Z
= ~
L_~. _ P(r, 9)
I
I
(y_k)2 _ (x_h)2 =1 y
(axis vertical) x
-a-2- b2

• where: x = r coss 8
O(f, -.:..-.:.._-'--- ...•. X
Equation of Asymptote: y-k = m(x - h) y = r sin8

where: (h, k) is the center,

m = alb if the axis is vertical
m = bla if the axis is horizontal
I
~••

.
,= •••..• -..:..oM-. __

- I
54 ANAL YTIC GEOMETRY
ANALYTIC GEOMETRY 55 I
II. SOLID ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Distance Between Two Points in Space:

YLINDER SPHERE

Z
III
II
II
Y

II
II
PLANES

z
z
II
II
x
x
II
ax. + by k ax + by + cz = k

JI
56 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS
/i' ,
,yo

DEFINITIONS _ogarithmic Functions

Let x =
any variable(representing any physical quantity such d(lo9aU) = ~
as pressure, temperature, area, etc).
ulna
d(ln u) = ~
dx = infinitely small change of x, which is called differentia u
of x.
xponential Functions
dy = differential of another variable y.
= a" In a du
dy = derivative of with respect to x.
dx U
e du
Differentiation - the process of determining the derivative V V 1
differentiaL 13. d(u ) = vU - du + U
V
In u dv

DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS: ,Trigonometric Functions

Algebraic Functions 14. d(sin u) = cos u du ( . <l(u.V):= s. tA.<Av

3. d.,(v..") = ,15. d(cos u) = -sin u du ~V~
1. die) = 0
~. tA~) ~ .16. d(tan u) = sec' u du
2. d(eu) = e du

'.17. d(eot u) = -csc" u du

~8. d(see u) = see u tan u du

58 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 59
~~yerseHyperbolic Functions
Inverse Trigonometric Functions f c.

du du
=
20. d(Arcsin u} = --,-, 2
Vi + u ~

21. d(Arccos u) =
VI 2
-du
--r---:;
+ u
-~ ;.;
u, du

du du
22. d(Arctan u) = --- 134. d(arctanh u)
I + u2 I - u2
-du du
23. d(Arccot u) = ---I -l- ~35. d(arccoth u)
u2

du
24. d(Arcsec u) '36. d(arcsech u) =
u~ u~
-du
du
25. d(Arccsc u) =
u~
~~7. d(arccsch u)
.s::
Hyperbolic Functions
.' APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS:
26. d(sinh u} = cosh u du
1. SLOPE OF CURVE
27. d(cosh u) = sinh u du
, Consider a curve whose equation is y = f(x}, then
28. d(tanh u} = sech
2
u du

fF
, slope =m = dy = y'
dx
=, -csch"
29. d(coth u} U du
Vi y = f(x)
30. d(sech u) = -sech u tanh u du i dy

31. d(csch u) = -csch u coth u du

i, dx
,
,
_.or'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-~ X
,

60 DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 61

2. CRITiCAL POINTS (Maximum and Minimum Points)

"

a Curve' ,
i','Timerate is the rate at which a variable changes with
At the critical points of a curve: me, such as:
dS
dy = y' = 0 Velocity = where:; S = distance
dx dt

Acceleration = dV
dt ' h
were: V = velocity
dQ '
D ischarge = dt . where: Q = volume

y = f(x) ~.APPROXIMATION OF CHANGE USING DIFFERENTIAL

'~he Differential can be used to approximate a measurable

Points of Inflection of a Curve: 'fhange, if the change is small.

At the points of inflection

fAATIAL DIFFERENTIATION
d2y
y" = = 0 ;1

dx2 ponsider the function: M = f(x,y)

When obtaining:
aM
3. MAXIMA AND MINIMA consider y as a constant
.J',
ax
To obtain the maximum or minimum value of a certa' aM
consider x as a constant
variable, differentiate the variable and equate the derivati BY'
to ZERO. .
62 INTEGRAL CALCULUS INTEGRAL CALCULUS 63
'13.1 Sec u du In (sec u + tan u) + C
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
~14. 1Csc u du = - In (esc u + cot u) + C
e

Definition 'J5. 1Sec u du

2
= tan u + C
f - the integral sign, representing the sum of infinitely small.' riG. 1Csc u du
2
= - cot u + C
quantities
*17. f Sec u Tan u du = sec u + C
INTEGRATION FORMULAS f
,'18. f Csc u Cot u du = -escu+C
1. f du = u + C

= = ,'19. J du .!.. Arcsin u + C

2. fa du a f du au + C
, Ja _u 2 2 a a

un+1
3. fun du + C n ~ - 1
n +1
.;20. f a2 ~u2
= J. Arctan ~ + C
a a
4. f du = In u + C
u
21. f du .!. Aresec u + C
5. f aU du
Ina
uJu _a2 2 a a

6. fe U
du = eU + C
22. Integration by Parts:
7. f(U1 + U2 + )du = [uou + lu2du + .
f u dv = uv - f v du
8. lin u du = u In u - u + C
23. Integration by Trigonometric Substitution:

9. f Sin u du = - cos u + C Let x a sin e for Ja 2 - x2

10. f Cos u du = sin u + C x a tan a for ~

11. fTanudu -Incosu + C = In sec u + C x a sec e for Jx 2 _ a2

12.ICotudu In sin u + C

64 INTEGRAL CALCULUS
INTEGRAL CALCULUS 65
24. Wallis Formula:
;2. Volume of Solid of Revolution

'::Cylindrical Disk Hollow Cylindrical Disk

dx
:;. ~dX __
where: Ct = 7tl2 if m and n are both even ; '.' y
Ct = 1 if otherwise '1-._ .. _.. .-. _._.-._

APPLICATION OF INTEGRATION
f It l dx
1. Plane Areas Vi.
;
;
v f It (y12 - y/) dx
Using Vertical Strip ;
!, Cylindrical Shell
;
;
-'or-'-'- .-._._.-...-.-._~ X
;

Area "1(V u - YL) dx

v
"I ~, f (Znx) Y dx

l~
Using Horizontal Strip

Volume of Miscellaneous Solids

Volume of Wedge:

Area ._.-._._.-._._.-._.• X
_._.+-.--_._.-
°1 V, = 2 f xz dy
 INTEGRAL CALCULUS 67
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
8. Centroids
v. Centroid of Plane Area:

\~
; / dx Ax =I dAx

dS = I + (:~r_._.-t:-·_·_·_·_·_·_·_·_·_·_·_·_·_·.
dx \
X
AY = IdA Y

5. Surface Area of Revolution

Centroid of Solid:

'Vx=IdVx
Yi.' ,t
SA = 12~dS
SA = I 21tY I +
(d')'
-
dx
]~i!-O~x
dx!
:
vY = I dV Y

0)
!
I
i
;

,
I-

I
-

_·_·_·-1-·- .-.-.- '-'-' _._. ,.-._.- ._._._ .• X

9. Moment of Inertia
6. Work
General Formula:
Work = Force x Distance = I dV x density x distance Area:
Volume:
Mass:
7. Fluid Pressure
Moment of Inertia of Plane Area:
F = force on a submerged area = I dA x depth x density
Ix = J dA 'i
Fluid Pressure = wIiA
Iy = J dA i

68 INTEGRAL CALCULUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 69

Moment of Inertia of Solid of Revolution:
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
Ix = I dV 'i
Iy = I dV i 1,PifferentiaJEquation - an equation containing derivatives or
,!differentials.
~~
';Ordinary differential equation a differential equation
Transfers Formula: ,,!nvolving only one independent variable and therefore
c --f;+;,---_-.",.,."t7!:-C
".containingonly ordinaryderivatives.

l"Order of a differential equation - the order of the highest

d
t>derivativethat occurs in the equation.

X-------....L.---'-x ;; Degree of differential equation - the algebraic degree in the

1 highest-ordered derivative present in the equation,
,~" .

: Solution of a differential equation - an expression, free from

INTEGRATION IN POLAR COORDINATES: l' derivatives. which is consistent with the given differential
, equation.

(a. General solution' - solution that contains arbitrary

j Constants.
>b. Particular solution - solution that does not contain any
S = Length of Curve ',.,
,more arbitrary constants,

TYPESOF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS:

Type I. VARIABLE SEPARABLE

This isa type of differential equation which can be put in the

form
F(x) dx + G(y) dy = 0

that is, the variables can be separated.

70 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 71
Example:
dP
1. Find the equation of the curve which passes through cc P
the point( 1, 2) if the equation of its slope dyfdx = 2x - 3. dt
dP
Solution:
= k P
dt
dy = (2x _ 3) J dP
dx = f k dt
P

dy = (2x - 3) dx -svartable Separable InP = kt + C ~ Eq. 1

y = f (2x - 3) dx :when = 0 (1986) P = 60 million.

= 10 (1986 - 1996) P
2x2 = 65miflion
Y = - - 3x + C = 14 (1986 - 2000) P = ?
2
2
Y = x - 3x +C Solving for constant C:
In 60,000,000 = k (0) + C
when x = 1 and y = 2: C = 17.91

2= 12 - 3( 1) + C Solvif\g for k:
':ji::' In 65,000,000 = k(10) + 17.91
C = 4 k = 0.0079

Therefore: The equation of the curve is y = ; - 3x + 4. Solving for the Population (P) in the year 2000:
In P = 0.0079 t + 17.91
2. The population of the Philippines in 1986 was 60 million; ~" P = 67,110,895 or 67.1 million
and at present (1996) is 65 million. If the rate of .
population growth is proportional to the population, find:. '
the population in the year 2000. type II. HOMOGENOUS DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

Solution: :;.This is a type of differential equation in which all the terms

'; are of the same degree.
Let P = population at any time t
dP = change in population Solution: Let y = vxor x = vy
dP =
population growth (change in population
; The substitution will make the equation variable separable
dt
with respect to time)

72 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
~~,
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION 73
iT

Example: .;:Exampfe:

1. Solve the differential equation: (; + I)'dx - xy dy = O. SOlve for y = f(x) from the differential equation:
f'· x dy + Y dx- 3x2 dx O. =
Solution:
Solution:
Let y = v x
'dy = vdx + xdv ~~. '.
x dy + Y dx - 3x2 dx = 0
(x2 + ylx2) dx - x(vx) (v dx + x dv) = 0 d (xy) = x dy + Y dx
-;;"

dx = x v dv Id (xy) = f 3x2 dx
f dx = I x dv variable separable 3x3
x xy = - + C
3
V2 xY=x +C 3
In x = - + C
2

Substitute v = yfx ; Type IV. LINEAR DIFfERENTIAL EQUATION

L..2
In x = + C ;'Atype of differential equation which can be put in the
2x2 ;:standard form:

dy + P(x) Y dx = Q(x) dx
Type III. EXACT DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
: Solution: 1. Put the given equation into the standard form;
This is a type of differential equation which when put in the
form
dx
F(x,y) dx + G(x,y) dy = 0
2. Obtain the Integrating Factor: I. F. = e -;- f
a function can be found which has for its total differential the ~. Apply the integrating factor to the equation in
expression
.its standard form;

F dx + G dy. 4. Solve the resulting exact equation.

A differential equation is exact if

of i3G
Oy Ox
74 DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION ENGINEERING MECHANICS 75
Example:
ENGINEERING MECHANICS
1. Solve the linear differential equation:

dy+1. dx - 3xdx = O. ~DEFINITIONS

x
Solution:
; Engineering Mechanlcs- science which deals with the study
1. dy + 1. dx = 3x dx '-of forces and motion of rigid bodies.
x i::
71. Statics • branch of mechanics which studies forces on
2. I. F. = x ' rigid bodies that remain at rest

2
3. x dy + Y dx = 3x dx Coplanar forces • forces that lie on one plane.
Ii'· Non-coplanar forces - forces that do not tie on one plane.
4. J d (x y) = J 3~dx
,:u. Dynamics - branch of mechanics which considers the
motion of rigid bodies caused by the forces acting upon
'xy + C them.

1. Kinematics - deals with pure motion

xy
2. Kinetics - related motion to the applied forces,

Newton's Laws of Mption for a Particle:

1. A particle acted upon by a balanced force system has

no acceleration.
2. A particle acted upon by an unbalanced force system
has an acceleration in line with and directly proportional
to the resultant of the force system.
-3. Action and reaction forces between two particles are
always equal and oppositely directed.

Physical Quantities:
1. Scalar Quantity - has magnitude only (Ex_ mass, speed,
volume, time, etc.)
2. Vector Quantity . has magnitude and direction (Ex.
weight, force, velocity, acceleration).

76 ENGINEERING MECHANICS
. ENGINEERIN.G >MECHANICS n
STATICS >~esultant of Three or More Concurrent Forces:
1~\'

Resultant of Forces:
F2 Yi
R i
; F1
;
;
i
- ;
.-._.-._ ... -._.-._._. _._.. c_._._._ ..•.. _._._._. X
i
;
By Cosine law:
,--------- ~
i
R = JF)2 - Fl - 2F)F2cos(180-9) ;
i
F2
..._._ _ ---.1 R
l:Fx = F1cos 91 + F2eas 92 + .
f; LFy = Ftsin 9t + F2 sin 92 +
; I
i
j 9 i
R = JIfx 2
+, ~)y2

_._._._._
... _._._._._._._._.-.' F
1 Tan 9 = IFy
R = JF)2 + F22 IFx

Tan 9 = .2. Moment of a Force = Force x Perpendicular distance

FI from the axis to the line of action of the force
FJ
9 = arctan ~ "Free Body" Diagram - diagram of an isolated body which
F1
shows only the forces acting on the body.

Forces in Equilibrium (Conditions of Statics):

L F. = 0
L Fy = 0
LM 0

F. = F cos e
Fy = F sin e
78 ENGINEERING MECHANICS ENGINEERING MECHANICS 79

PARABOLIC CABLES

FBD:
= Te = wy

L = tension at lowest point

= we
L

+ U2 •• A B

dI~H
...--.
. U4·.wL
y

x
c w (kg/m)
x
w (kg/m) 2

Force Triangle:
1: MA = 0:

H(d) - w(~X*) = 0

wL2
H =
3d
"where: F = frictional force
Where: d cable sag
N = normal force (reaction normal to the surface of
L cable span
contact)
W = pipe weight(kg/m)
f = coefficient of friction
a. coefficient of static friction
From force triangle:
(for bodies that are not moving)
b. coefficient of kinetic friction
(for bodies that are moving)

f = it depends only on the condition of surfaces

4
3d2 32d and the materials in contact.
Length of Cable = L + --
3L - Sr!

80 ENGINEERING MECHANICS ENGINEERING MECHANICS 81

DYNAMICS ; KINEMATICS: (ROTATION/ANGULAR MC'TION)

~. 1
:' 1. a = w2 - wI
KINEMATICS: RECTILINEAR MOTION :' t

Ii.: .• VI

~~r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
v 0 0 0 0 v 0 v 0 0 0 0 ~.
V2
;j~

-;;'3.
e
w/ = w/
wit + 'h a

+ 2ae
t

• S ~
(t) " where: a = angular acceleration, 'rad/sec or rev/sec2
w = anqular velocity, rad/sec or rev/sec
1. a a = acceleration, rn/sec". e = angular displacement, rad or rev
t = time, sec
(+) when accelerating
( -) when decelerating
PROJECTILE
2. S v.t + 'hat V = velocity, m/sec
S =
distance, m
t = time,sec
V H
3. V/ = v,2 + 2as Vy
·e yi
a = dV
V
dS
Vx
I X
dt dt x
R
KINEMATICS: (FALLING BODIES) v; = v; Cos e
Vy = V-oSin e
1. 9 = V2 - VI
t
g = acceleration of gravity
Horizonlal displacement: x = Vo cos et
2
= ·9.81 mrsec' = 32.2 ft/sec
+ when going down
Vertical displacement: y = Vo sin e t - Y, ge
- when going up
Equation of path of projectile (Parabola):
2. S = V1t + 'h gt gx2
y = x tan e -
3. V/ = v,2 + 2g5 2Vo2 cos2 e
 ---'.'.ll1..'
l-----:=:-::-=-::-::=------------il~j
ENGINEERING MECHANICS ENGINEERING MECHANICS
------=:...=..:=-=-.-=.::=-=.:..=..::.::=:=--_f:.... 83=- ;f~
':"
Range of the Projectile:
KINETICS
y'02 sin2a
R = W
g j;-F=ma= - a
g
Maximum height H of the Projectile:
2 where: F = force. N
H = Yosin a m = mass of the body, kg
2g a = acceleration of the body, m/sec"

RELATION OF ANGUlAR AND PERIPHERAL MOTION:

1 ;;REVERSED EFFECTIVE FORCE (0' Alembert's Principle)
1. S - r a
W
2. V = r e Motion (accelerating)
S
. ,---. P

•,
3. a = r (X
y2
4. an =

5. Fe = man = W
r

;
Motion (decelerating)
where: S = peripheral distance, m ... -.....• ~
r = radius, m 9
a = angle, rad
V = peripheral velocity, m/sec
ro = angular velocity, rad/sec N
a = peripheral 'acceleration. -m/sec"
(X = angular acceleration, rad/sec2 w
an = normal acceleration, m/sec2 - a = Reversed Effective Force (acceleration force)
g
~ Fe = centrifugal force; N
m = mass of body, kg a = acceleration

;
84 .EN~INEERING .MECHAN ..:-IC
__S__ ENGINEERING MECHANICS
-r-'
85
Apply Reverse Effective Force and treat as statics. m = mass of the body, kg .
V = velocity of the body, m/sec
Conditions: W mg = = weight of the body, N
I Fx 0= h = height, ni . .
I Fy =.0
IM = 0 - time rate of doing work ( in W or kW)
'Power = Foree x Dis Ian ee
WORK-ENERGY
-
METHOD
., Time = Force x Velocity

KE1 + PW - NW = KE; = initial kinetic energy iEfficiency = Power Output Work Output
Power Input Work Input
= __ wv2 1_
2g
PW = positive work ,IMPULSE AND MOMENTUM
NW = negative work
'.
KE2 = final kinetic energy 'ImpUlse = Force x Time = Ft
= wvl :Momentum = m V
2g

,:Law of Conservation of Momentum:

WORK, ENERGY AND POWER m,
.•. ~
Wbrk = Force x Distance
= F x 0 (in N - m or Joule)
,' Sl.
Energy - capacity to do work. Before Impact

Kinetic Energy
;Pendulum
KE = y, mV2 (in N-m or Joul.,1

Potential Energy

PE = W h = m g h (in N - In or Joule)
 ENGINEERING MECHANICS 87
86 ENGINEERING MECHANICS

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE and KINETICS OF ROTATION ;BANKING OF HIGHWAY CURVES:

~Ideal Angle of Banking:

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE:
{Consider a car of weight W that makes a horizontal turn on
my2 l' a curveof radius r while traveling at a certain velocity Y. The
Fe = :'curve is banked at an angle e with the horizontal so that
!there is no tendency to slide up or down the road.
WV2
= W
gr

y2
where: Fe = centrifugal force, N ==
m = mass of the body rotating, kg gr

y = 21t rN = 1t 0N
= vel of the body rotating, m/s

2WITH FRICTIONAL FORCE ON A BANKED CURVE:

KINETIC ENERGY OF A ROTATING BODY:
/When the car is traveling a banked curve with a velocity
KE = Yzm y2 )'greater than the rated speed of the curve and is about to
= Yz I fil
,skid up the plane;
Torque, T = F (r) == I a
IW
? Tan u = f (coefficient of friction)
y2
; Tan (8 + 1-1) = - gr
where: KE == kinetic energy of a rotating body, J
V = peripheral velocity, m/s "II = frictional angle
2
I = moment of inertia of the body, kg - m 9 banking angle
2
I == mk
(j) = angular velocity, rev/sec or rad/sec
2 2
a = angular acceleration, rad/sec or rev/sec

,.,."..,"._~-~ .._--- - ... - -----~~----_ ... _.- , _., -------, .. - .. " ... __ ..

88 ENGINEERING MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS

UNBANKED HIGHWAY CURVES:

FLUID MECHANICS
The car in travelling on a horizontal, unbanked highway
curve of radius r.
+:GENERAL FLOW EQUATIONS

W = N ':0 == Area x Velocity == A x Y

Ff = Fe where: A == area, m2
V == velocity, m/sec
y2
f ==
gr

N FLOW THROUGH NOZZLE

--- - _.
.--------------
~ -' - --
~-~-------_ . •Q

Cd ~ coefficient of discharge
A ==, area of nozzle
h ==, height of liquid above nozzle

HylDR[l~STATI~ PRESSURE (Pressure Head)

" A particle in a liquid exert

hi" pressurein all directions.

~,i ' P ~~::£~~~t~lan:thav~~he:::

Pressure == height x density

P = h x p
height == Pr essure
density
 FLUID MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS 91
where: P =
hydrostatic pressure (gage pressure) :SERNOULLI'S THEOREM:
h = height of liquid (pressure head)
p = density of liquid itNegleCting friction, tne sum' of the pressure head, velocity
;(head and elevation head of a point "is equal to the sum
;jot the, pressure head, velocity head and elevation head of
YELOCITY HEAD l,another poinf'. 2

Torrecelli's Theorem: . ,-~_~-'Q2

"The velocity of a liquid which discharges under a head ~s
equal to the velocity of a body which falls in the same head .

.fiih
v

h =
=

where:
y1
2g

h
Y
=
=
{[lv
velocity head
velocity of the liquid
-
PI

par +
y2
_1_
2g
+ ZI = .!2
f~
+ vl
2g
+ Z2

P
Pressure head =
P
FRICTION HEAD LOSS IN PIPE,S
V2
iULy1 Velocity head
1. hf = '1=-- (Darcy Formula) 2g
2g0 '
Elevation head = Z
2
2. hf = 2fl. V (Morse formula, and f should' be taken
gO
from Morse's Table). CONTINUITY EQUATION:

where: hf friction head loss, m

f = coefficient of friction
L = length of pipe, m
V = velocity, m/sec
g = 9.81 m/sec2
D =
internal diameter, m

92 FLUID MECHANICS FLUID MECHANICS 93

BUOYANCY

Archimedes Principle:
dViscosity - resistance to flow or the property to resist shear
:i;deformation.
'A body partly or wholly submerged il'] a liquid is buoyed up:.
by a force equal to the weight of the liquid displaced.
",1. Absolute or dynamic viscosity viscosity which is
;, ' determined by direct measurement of shear resistance,
(in Poise)
W Fe
Kinematic Viscosity - absolute viscosity divided by the
'~W density (in Stoke).
Fe = V x p
---'-
- - -
---
.';'··'·\""fi,,:.··';"~;:;'!;"·'-.f·;,q:~~· ", - -

----- - .- ---
--
,,'

------
------ ------ ------ ------ ~:ViSCOSityIndex - the rate at which viscosity changes with
------
------ ------ Ztemperature. '
.,-----------~-----------
--------_._--- :' Viscpsimeter - an instrument, consisting of standard
------------- ,
; orifice, used for measuring viscosity (in SSU and SSF).

W = Fe
~,Units of Viscosity:
where: Fe = buoyant force
W =
weight of the body
V = volume of the body submerged
V volume of the liquid displaced Metric/SI
p = density of the liquid
1 Poise = 1 dyne- sec
FORCE EXERTED BY A JET (HYDRODYNAMICS) cm2
F = m V ,= !!.- V 0.1 Pa-sec
g 1 dyne = 1 gr-cm
where: W = flow rate, kg/sec sec2
g 9.81 m/sec'
V velocity of jet, m/sec
Kinematic Viscosity:

PERIPHERAL COEFFICIENT 1 stoke ='

sec
Peripheral Velocity !tON'
Peripheral Coefficient = =
Velocity of Jet J2ih
94 FLUID MECHANICS ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 95
REYNOLDS NUMBER
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
Types of flow:

1. Laminar flow - particles run parallel to each other. C.'Engineering Economics - the study of the cost factors
2. Turbulent flow - particles run not in same direction. /illvolved in engineering projects, and using the results of
,such' study in employing the most efficient cost-saving
'r techniques without affecting the safety and soundness of the
:;,project.

: Investment - the sum total offirst cost (fixed capital) and

NR < 2000 it is Laminar Flow > working capital which is being put up in a project with the
NR > 4000 it is Turbulent Flow , aim of getting a profit.

where: NR = Reynolds Number, dimensionless ";Fixed Capital - part of the investment which is required to
D inside diameter, m J, acquire
or set up the business.
V = velocity, mls
fl = kinematic viscosity, m2/sec '. Working Capital - the amount of money set aside as part of
" the investment to keep the project or business continuously
. operating.

Demand - the quantity of a certain commodity that is

bought at a certain price at a given place and time ..

Supply - the quantity of a certain commodity that is offered

for sale at certain price at a given place

Perfect Competition - a business condition in which a

product or service is supplied by a number of vendors and
there is no restriction against additional vendors entering the
market.

Monopoly - as business condition in which as unique

product orservice is available from only one supplier and
. that supplier can prevent the entry of all others into the
market.

96 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 97

Oligopoly a condition in which there are so few suppliers
of a product or servtce that action by one will almost result in
similar action by the others. 1 year = 12 months = 365 or 366 days

Law of Supply and Demand: "Under conditions of perfect

competition, the price of a' product will be such that t~e :~OMPOUND INTEREST when simple interest that is
supply and demand are equal." :'due is not paid, the amount is added to the interest-bearing
.;principal, the interest calculated on this new principal is
Law of Diminishing Returns: "When the use of one of the : ~called compound interest.
factors of production is limited, either in increasing cost or
by absolute quantity, a point will be reached beyond which P(1 + i)"
an increase in the variable factors will result in a less than ; S
proportionate increase in output."
(I + i)11

INTEREST S = compound amount or future worth

P = original money or principal
Interest - money paid for the use of borrowed money. i :: interest rate per period
n = number of interest periods
SIMPLE INTEREST - is the interest paid on the principal (1 + i)" is called single payment compound amount
(money lent) only. factor

I = Pni. Flow Diagram - a graphical representation of cash

S = P + I = P + Pni . drawn on a time scale.
S = P(1 + nil S

where: P = principal or present value

n = number of interest periods ot'--+---+; j-
-~I---+~- "J--!
i = interest rate per period
( if not specified, consider per year) P
I = interest
S = sum or future value
Discount = S-P
Ordinary Simple Interest:
Rate .of discount = d = S- p
S
1 year = 12 months = 360 days
 98 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS ,99
NOMINAL AND EFFECTIVE INTEREST RATES:
Continuously Compounding Interest Rate:
Example:

Nominal Rate Effective RatelPer Period) Effective RaterPer Year)

F = future Worth
12 P = principal .
12% compounded = 6% per semi·annual I = 12.36%
2 r = continuously compounding interest rate
semi·annually
t = no. of interest periods

i = 12.55%

I = 12.68% ;Annuity - a series of equal payments occurring at equal

'!'intervals of time,

;Applications of annuity:
i = 12% rl installment purchase
~2. amortization of loan
C!( amortization - payment of debt by installment usually by
""equal amounts and at equal intervals of time)
To find effective rate per year:
h. depreciation
14. payment of insurance premiums

i = (I+~r-I ; Types of Annuity:

" Ordinary annuity: payments occur at the end of each period,
.

;' Annuity Due: payments occur at the beginning of each

where: in = nominal rate ; period.
m = periods per year !;Deferred annuity: first payment occurs later than at the end
" of the first period.

r
Effective rate per year: 12% compounded semi-annually
Ordinary Annuity: t
S

i = (I + 0~2 -1 = 0.1236 = 12.36% per year 1 7. 4:'i n

r--ltRll-t+-RI -::-t+-
-t-t ' -+t-
I ...I--··+---+----t
+P RR R ••••••••••••
R
--,

100
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
101

P =
(l+if
S = P (1 + i)8

where: P = present value of the periodic payments

- an annuity that continues indefinitely.
S. = future value of the periodic payments at the.
end of n periods P = ~
R = periodic payments i
i = interest rate per period
n no. of periods (no. of periodic payments) where: P - = present value of the perpetuity
R = periodic payments
Annuity Due i = interest rate per period
S

t
0
l-
t
I
I
2
I
3
I
4
I -j
t
R t t t ,,-epreciation - the decrease in value of a physical property'
R R R R
,.,ueto the passage of time.

1
Pp
Physical depreciation - type of depreciation caused by
the lessening of the physical ability of the property to
= R + R [(I+i)4_1] produce resous, such as physical damage, wear and
i(1 +i)4 tear.
S P (1 + i)5 Functional depreciation - type of depreciation caused
by the lessening in the demand for which the property is
designed to render, such as obsolescence and
inadequacy.
Deferred
0 I
I
Annuity

2
I
3 4
I
5 6 7
t
8 Purposes of Depreciation:
I

f n= 3
{ t
R
t
R
n = 5
t
R
I
t
R t
;1. To provide for the recovery
Invested in the property.
·2. To enable the cost of depreciation
,costof Producing the
of capital which has been

to be charged to the
P
.' products that are turned out by the property.
 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS
. ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 103
102·
~~ETHODS OF COMPUTING DEPRECIATION:
First Cost (Fe) - the total amount invested on the prope
until the property is put into operation. ~\
",.1; Straight Line Method
Economic Life - the length of time at which a property cari; ~Annual Depreciation = FC - SV
be operated at a profit. .J 'ttl.. . n
where: FC = first cost
Valuation (Appraisal) - the process of determining the value, SV = salvage value or scrap value
or worth of a physical property for specific reasons. . n useful life

Value - the present worth of all the future profits that are.t~ .;Book Value of ill years:
be received throughownership of the property. FC m(Annual Dep)

1. Market value - the price that will be paid by a willin!!

= FC _ m (FC-SV)
n
buyer to a willing seller for a property where
each has equal advantage and is under no compulsion, = Annual Depreciation
to buy or sell First Cost

2. Book value - the worth of a property as shown in th~

Sinking Fund Method
accounting records of an enterprise
FC-SV
Annual depreciation
3. Salvage or resale value - the price of a property when'
(I+i)n -I
sold second-hand; also called trade-in value. .
4. Scrap value - the price of a property when sold for junk'; i
where: = interest rate or worth of money
5. Fair value - the worth of a property as determined by a'
disinterested party which is fair to both seller and buyer . Book Value after ill years:

6. Use value - the worth of property as an operating unit [(I+ir -I]

FC - (Annual Dep) .
I
7. Face or Par value of a bond - the amount that appears-
on the bond which is the price at which the bond is first
3. Sum-Df-The-Years-Digits Method
bought
SYD 1+2 +3 + +n
Depletion - the decrease in. value of property due to the:
gradual extraction of its contents, such as mining properties, n(n + I)
oil wells, timber lands and other consumable resources. 2
where: n = useful life

104 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS . ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 105

Dep, = (FC SV) (_n_)

SYO
;; Service Output

:~'Depreciation (Per Unit)

or Production

=
Units Method

FC - SV

Dep2 (FC _ SV) (n -!\

SYO.)
~, . No. of Units Capacity

Working Hours or Machine Hours Method

Dep3 (FC _ SV) (n - 2)

SYO
~;Depreciation (Per Hour) = FC - SV
No. of Hours Capacity
ETC.
c,1:. CAPITAL RECOVERY.' (Factors of Annual Cost)
Book Value after ill years:
=FC - (Dep, + Dep, + Dep3 + 'oepm) 3.1. Using Sinking Fund Method:

4. Oeclining Balance Method (also called Diminishing Capital Recovery = nnual Depreciation + Interest on Capital
Balance Method, Matheson Method, Constant-
Percentage or Constant Ratio Method) "
FC-SV
=
k constant ratio = 1 _ Jsv
V"FC
Annual Depreciation
11+i)n-II
i
Interest on Investment i (Fe)
Dep- = k (Fe)
2. Using Straight Line Method
k (Fe) (1 - k)
Capital Recovery = Annual Depreciation + Average Interest
k (FC) (1 - k)2
Annual Depreciation = FC - SV
Dep, k (Fe) (1 - k)4 n

H n: I) (FC - SV) + i (SV)

Depn = k (Fe) (1 - k)""

Book Value after ill years:

= FC (1 - k)"
Capitalized Cos, - the sum of the first cost and the present
worth of all cost df replacement, operation and maintenance
a long time.
.106 ~_E_NG_IN_E_E_R_IN_G:....-:.E~C:-..::O:..::.N:..:.O:..:.M:.:.:I-=-C-=-S
_
ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 107

1. For Perpetual Life: "lJSINESS ORGANIZATIONS; CAPITAL FINANCING

Capitalized Cost = FC + OM ,ypes of Business Organizations (Form of Business or

ornpany ownership)
2. For Life n:
,) Individual Ownership or Single Proprietorship
Capitalized Cost = FC + OM + FC - SV type of ownership in business where
(I+i)n-I individuals exercise and enjoy rights in their
where: OM = annual operation and maintenance cost own interest.

Partnership
BREAK-EVEN ANALYSIS: an association of two or more individuals for
the purpose of operating a business as co-
Break-Even Point - the value of a certain variable for ~hich· owners of a profit.
the costs of two alternatives are equal.
.Corporation
Income & ~
Expenses i Expenses
is an artificial being created by operation of
law, having the right of succession and the
; powers, attributes, and properties expressly
L..
, authorized by law or incident to its existence.
-/.:r"I'-- Break-Even Point an association of not less than five but not
Fixedi
Cost jlOSS···· more than 15, all of legal age.

i '_0_.-'-._._._._._._._._._ a. Private Corporation - those formed for some private

No. or Units Produced and Sold (x)
'purpose or benefits.

To Break-Even: - those formed or organized for the

Income = Expenses
'c. Semi-public Corporation - those formed that is partly
P(x) = M(x) + L(x) + V(x) + FC ,government and partly a private individual.

where: x no. of units produced and sold ;d., .. Quasi-Public Corporation - those formed for public
P = selling price per unit utilities and contracts, involving public duties but which are
M = material cost per unit "organized for profit.
L labor cost per unit
V variable cost per unit 'e. Non-Profit Corporation - those formed for community
FC = fixed cost service and religious activities, but organized for non-profit.

108 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS

ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 109,
Four Classes of Persons Composing a Corporation:
Value:

1. ' Corporators are those whose compose 2 3 4 5 n

corporation. +----1,,--+--1
2. Incorporators . - those corporators originally (5 - 15)
forming and composing the corporation.
t t t t t t
Fr Fr
Fr Fr Fr Fr
3. Stockholders - owners of shares of stock. P
4.' Members corporators of corporation who has no} C
capital stock. ~
P = Fr[(I+i)"-I] + _C_
Stock - certificate of owners of corporation .: i(1+i)" (I+i)"
a. Common Stock residual owners of a',
corporation.' P = value of bond !l periods before maturity
b. Preferred Stock - which entitles the holder. F = face or par value of the bond
thereof 'to 'certain preferences over Fr = periodic dividend
holders of common stock. n = no. of periods
C = redeemable value (usually equal to F par)
= investment rate
BOND

Bond - certificate of indebtedness of a corporation usually' )BASIC INVESTMENT STUDIES

for a period of not less than 10 . years and
guaranteed by a mortgage on certain assets of the ,j,Basic investment studies are made: To determine whether
corporation or its subsidiaries. .' :aninvestment should be made or not, based on the following
~criteria:
Types of Bond: ,
1. Mortgage Bond type of bond in which the Rate of Return
security behind are the assets of the corporation. '" Net Profit
2. Collateral Bond - type of bond in which the I Rate of Return . =
security behind are the assets of a well knowrt: Total Investment
subsidiary.
3. Debenture Bond - a type of bond in which there Payout Period
is no security behind except a promise to pay.
•.Payout Period = length of time the investment can be
jrecovered.

= Total Investment-Salvage Value

: Payout Period
Net Annual Cash Flow
 110 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 111

SELECTION OF ALTERNATIVES Present Worth

Studies on selection of alternatives are made to determine if) ~ThiS is applicable when the alternatives involve future
what manner an investment should be undertaken, based on': :;~xpenses whose present value can be easily determined.
any of the following criteria:
Future Worth
1. Present Economy
.~This is applicable when the alternatives involve expenses
This involves selection of alternatives in which interest at ~whose future worth is more suitable basis of comparison.
time value of money is not a factor. Studies usually involve!
the selection between alternative designs, materials,
;;REPLACEMENT STUDIES
methods.
{This is an application of selection of alternatives in which the
2. Rate of Return
:;alternatives are: to replace the old equipment with a new
Net Profit ,one or to continue using the old equipment Two criteria
Rate of Return
I Total Investment tcommonly used are:

Rate of Return
The alternative which gives a higher rate of return
investment is then the favorable choice. Savings Incurred by Replacement
Additional Capital Required
3. Payout Period
Total Investment-Salvage Value
Payout Period =
i,i . Net Annual Cash Flow
j' The alternative which has a shorter payout period will then'
Cost = Depreciation + Interest on Capital
+ Operation and Maintenance + Other out-of-
r' be the choice.' pocket Expenses
"

4. Annual Cost computing depreciation and interest of the old equipment

either method, actual present realizable values and not
Annual Cost = Depreciation + Interest on Capital historical values should be used.
+ Operation and Maintenance + Other out-of-:
pocket Expenses

The alternative witli a lower annual cost is then the more',

economical alternative.

112 ENGINEERING ECONOMICS ENGINEERING ECONOMICS 113

BENEFIT·TO-COST RATIO IN PUBLIC PROJECTS ECONOMIC ORDER QUANTITY

Consider a public project which has the following: ;i Ec?nOmi? .O~der Quan.tity (E 0 Q) - the order quantity
~:whlch~IOlmlzes the Inventory cost per unit time. An
.~~ssumptlon of the basic (E 0 Q) with no shortages: "There
2 3 4 5 : ISno upper bound on the quantity ordered."

E OQ = ~2~k

FC
a= the constant depletion rate (items per unit time)
FC first cost k = the fixed cost per order, Pesos
SV salvage value at the end of life h = the inventory storage cost (Pesos per item
n useful life per unit time) .
OM = annual operation and maintenance cost
interest rate or worth of money
B = annual benefits, that is, the annual worth
of benefits incurred because of the existence of
the project.
C = annual equivalent of the cost
FC SV
C =
(I +i)n -I (I+i)n -I
i(l + i)n

BIC = benefit-to-cost ratio

B - OM
C
BIC should be greater than 1 for the project to be justifiable.
114 THERMODYNAMICS THERMODYNAMICS 115

THERMODYNAMICS Volume

Volume - the amount of space occupied by, or

DEFINITIONS: contained in a body and is measured by the no. of cubes a
body contains. Units of volume are in fe, Gallons, liters,
Thermodynamics - is the study of heat and work and thos" em', or m",
properties of substance that bear a relation to heat and work.~;
Pressure = force per unit area. Units of pressure are
Working Substance - a substance to which heat can be store,d measure in psi, kg/cm2, kN/m2 or kPa.
and from which heat can be extracted.
Gauge Pressure + Absolute Atm Press
a. Pure Substance - a working substance whose chemica
composition remains the same even if there is a change. kPaa = kPag + 101.325
in phase; Ex. Water, ammonia, Freon-12.t
Psi a = Psig + 14.7
b. Ideal Gas - a working substance which remains.
gaseous state during its operating cycle and whos
1 Atm Pressure = 0 kPag, 0 psig
equation of state is PV = mRT ; Ex. Air, O2, N2, CO2• = 101.325 kPa
= 1.033 kg/cm2
= 29.92 in Hg
PROPERTIES OF A WORKING SUBSTANCE = 760 mm Hg
= 14.7 psia
1. M,ass and Weight 1 bar = 100 kPa

Mass - a property of matter that constitutes one of th~ Pressure of Perfect Vacuum = -101.325 kPag'
fundamental physical measurements or the amount Q~ = absolute zero pressure
matter a body contains. Units of mass are in Ib"" slugs;
kgm, or in kg. ' t4. Temperature

Weight - the force acting on a body in a gravitationa

!Temperature - the degree of hotness or coldness of a
field, equal to the product of its mass and the gravitationa' (substance.
acceleration of the field. Units of weight are in Ibf, kgf, N o(
kN.
;Relations of Temperature Scales, ° C and ° F:

°C = % (oF - 32)

1-16
THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS 117
of = _9 0C + 32
5 Internal Energy, u, kJ/kg ,
Temp:rature at which molecule~ stop moving
- - 273oC = - 4600F Internal energy - heat ener

Absolute Temperatures:
molecules
temperature.
within the
su stance 6
9 due to the movement of the
brought about its
oK = °C + 273
oR = of + 460' Internal energy is zero if tel1lperatur;is constant.

Temperature Change or Temperature Difference' Flow Work, W, kJ/kg

5 .
dOC = _ ~oF AOK _
9 L1 - dOC Flow work, - work d
ue tOthe change in volume.
9
~oF = -5 AOC
L1 ~oR = ~oF W = F x L = PA x L = Pv
where: P = pressure, kPa
5. S 'f V v = specific volume, m3/kg
peci IC olume, Density, and Specific Weight
, Enthalpy, h, kJlkg
Density, p = Mass
Volume Enthalpy - sum of the i t
product of pressure and s~ee~~~,:o~~~~. of a body and the
Specific VOlume, v ~
=
Mass
= -pI 3
m /kg
Enthalpy = Internal Energy + Flow Work
Specific Weight, OJ
= Weight
kN/m3
VOlume
h=u+pv
Specific Gravity of a liqUid = Density of Liquid
(Relative Density) Entropy, s , kJ
Density of Water
k;OK
Density of water = 1000 kg/m3
9.81 KN/m3 = 62.4 Iblfe sutlSf<3lnc,e.- measure of randomness of the m~'ecules of a
Specific Gravity of a Gas = Density of a Gas
(Relative Density) - - measures the fraction of th t
Density of Air system that is not available So e .otal energy of a
ror dolOg work.
Density of air = 1.2 kg/m3 at 101- 325 kP
, . aand21.1°C.
 118 THERMODYNAMICS THERMODYNAMICS 119
WORK, HEAT AND POWER LAW OF THERMODYNAMIC')

Work = Force x distance, ft-Ib, kN-m or kJ I Energy Entering a System Total Energy Leavinq.a System

q
W=Fxl=Pv

Heat - form of energy due to temperature difference. ,~-o/W

_ units of heat are in Btu, cal, kcal, kJ

Q = mCt\T then C = Cp or C.

Specific Heat, C = the heat required to change H, + KE1 + PE,

temperature of 1 kg of a substance 1°C.
from which:
kJ
specific heat at constant pressure, --0- or
kg- C W = m(h1-h2l + Y, m(v/-V/l + m(zl-z2) - q
kJ
Cv = specific heat at constant volume, --0-' -
kg- C
or W = m(h1-h2l neglecting KE, PE and iq

Conversion units of heat: Ji

iSECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
1 Btu = 778 ft - Ib 1 kcal = 4.187 kJ
= 252 cal ( 0.252 kcal) 1N-m= 1J jKelvin Planck statement applied to the heat engine:
=1.055 kJ 1000J = 1 kJ ,t is impossible to construct a heat engine which operates in a
:tycte and receives a given amount of heat from a high
Work ilemperature body and does an equal amount of WOrk:
Power = time rate of doing work = -- hp, watts or kw
Time
!C1ausius statement applied to the heat pump:
Conversion units of power: .,·tt is impossible to construct a heat pump that operates without

1 MHp= 0.736 kw
jan input work."
1hp = 550 ft-Ib/sec
= 33,000 ft-/b/min 1.014 MHp = Hp
,,',Themost efficient operating cycle is the Carnot Cycle.
= 2545 Btuthr 1 Boiler Hp = 33, 480 Btulhr
= 42.4 Btu/min = 35,322 kJthr
'~THIRD LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
= 0.746 kw 1 watt = J/sec
'."The entropy of a substance of absolute zero temperature is
Izera"
'£-

120 THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS 121
ZEROTH's LAW

"If two bodies has the same temperature as a third body theY;
have the same temperature with each other." " = 28.97 kg air/mole of air k=1.4
ft-Ib kJ
= 0.287
Ib-oR kg-OK
IDEAL GASES
Btu kcal kJ
0.24 1.0
An ideal gas is a substance that has the equation of state: Ib-OF kg_DC kg-DC

PV = mRT Btu kcal

= 0.171 = 0.716 kJ
Ib-oF kg_DC kg_DC
where: P = absolute pressure, kPa
V = volume, m3 or m3/sec frocesses Involving Ideal Gases
m = mass, kg or kg/sec ,i;"

kJ
R = gas constant, ---
kg-OK
T = absolute temperature, oK
PI VI = P2V2 = mR
TI T2
Basic Properties of an Ideal Gas: U2 - U1 = mC.(T2-T,)
R = 8.3143 _k_J_
M kg-OK

R = 1545 ft-tb
M Ib-oR
Cp-Cv=R '~eversible Process: No friction .loss
.sL = k .,' iabatic Process: No heat loss, no heat gain, that is
, completely insulated system
Cv
diabatic Throttling Process: constant enthalpy or isentha/pic
, process, that is, h2 = h1 and t2 = t,
where: R = gas constant
.constant Pressure or Isobaric Process: P, = P2
M = molecular weight
•.constant Volume or IsovoJumic Process: V1 = V2
Cp = specific heat at constant pressure
,COnstantTemperature or Isothermal Process: T, = T2
C, = specific heat at constant volume
stant Entropy or Isentropic Process: adiabatic and
k = specific heat ratio
reversible, Sl S2 =
Polvtrooic Process: nnn_"rl;"h.,ti~ nr~~~ __
 122 THERMODYNAMICS THERMODYNAMICS 123
k
PROCESSES: Entropy PV = C, PN/ = PN2k

Constant Pressure

(Charles Law)
PI P2
~: = (~:f;1~: = (~~ r-I
Work Done = PIVI - P2V2
k-I
Heat Added = mCp(T2-TI}
Heat Added = 0
T
Entropy Change = mCp In -1...
TI Entropy Change = 0

Constant Volume VI = V2 Process PV" = C, PN1"

(Charles Law)
Work Dons = 0 ~: = (~: )":1 T2=(~)n-I TI V2

f<
Heat Added = mCv(T2-T1)
Work Done = PIVt -P2V2
Entropy Change = mCv In T2 n-I
Tt rnCy(n-k)(T2 -Tt)
HeatAdded =
n-I

Constant Temperature T1 = T2 PNI = PN2 Entropy Change = _rn_C..,:.y..:..(n_-_k..,:.)

In-
T2
(Boyle's Law) n-I TI

Work Done = PN11n '!..1..

IIXTIJRE:SINVOLVING IDEAL GASES
VI

Heat Added = mRT11n '!..1.. sider a mixture of three gases, a, b, and c, at a pressure P
VI a temperature T, and haVing a volume V.

Entropy Change = mRln V2 Mass or Gravimetric Analysis:

VI
fiT = rna+mb + fie
(,.
I=~+~+~
I fiT fiT mT

,124 THERMODYNAMICS THERMODYNAMICS 125

2. Volumetric or Molal Analysis:

SUBSTANCE
".
,'ure SUbstance - is a working substance that has a
omogenous and invariable chemical composition even though
ere is a change of phase. •
v, Vb Ve'
1=-+-+-
V'V V ,aturation Temperature c the temperature at which vaporization
'kes place at a given pressure, this pressure being called the
Va =volume that gas a would occupy at pressure P' a" !uration pressure for theqlven temperature.
Temperature T , /
Vb = volume that gas b would occupy at pressure P an ',uperheated Vapor - vapor whose temperature is higher than
Temperature T 'ie saturation temperature at the given pressure.
Vc = volume that gas c would occupy at pressure P a
Temperature T . . grees Superheat - difference between actual temperature
andsaturation temperature. ' •
3. Dalton's Law of Partial Pressure:
,. S.ubcooled Liquid - liquid whose temperature is lower than the
P = Pa + Pb + Pc Pa pa~ s~turation temperature at the given pressure.
pressure of gas a, that is, .,
pressure that gas a will exert if mpressed liquid - liquid whose pressure is higher than the
alone occupies the volu ~luration pressure at the given temperature.
occupied by the mixture, etc. ;. - if the temperature is held constant and the pressure
~ increased beyond the saturation pressure.
Va Vb Vc
Pa=-(P} Pb=-(P} Pe=-(P} pegrees Subcooling difference between saturation
V V V !emperature and actual temperature.

4. Specific Heat of the Mixture: : ritical Point - is the condition of pressure and temperature at
rna rnb me ~hich a liquid and its vapor are indistinguishable.
Cp -Cpa + -Cpb + -Cpe
rnT rnT rnT :Mixture- s~bstance made up of liquid and vapor portion.

Cv ~Cva + ~Cvb + ~Cvc

rnT mT rnT
 126 THERMODYNAMICS THERMODYNAMICS 127
Saturated Liquid and Saturated Vapor diagram of a Pure Substance

Examples of saturation temperature at various pressures

three common pure substances:
T! .
;
i
r--_+ Critical Point

Subcooled Liquid -4
Saturation Temperature Region !
Pressure. Water Ammonia Freon-12 'i,'Saturated Liquid Une : Saturated Vapor
50 kpa 81.33°C -46.73°C -45.19°C
i
101.325kpa 100°C -33.52°C -29.79°C i
500 kpa 151.86°C 4.08°C 15.59°C L._._.•. _._._..... _.•. _.•. _._. S

Properties of saturated liquid and saturated vapor at van...•

temperatures and pressures are found in tables (Ta?le 1 a, ~e Mollier Diagram (h-s) of steam is usually useful in
Table 2 for steam) with the following typical construction: the final enthalpy of steam after an isentropic

Specific Internal Enthalpy Entropy

Volume Energy rocesses Involving Pure Substances:
~:,
Temp Press Yr-.Y9 !.!I_Y!lI Y. bfbfgllil §t. 2!l1 §g

v,.
Isobaric or constant pressure process: P, = P2
Vg - Vf hfg = hg -hf

U" = u. - U, S" = s. - Sr Isothermal or constant temperature process: T, = T2

Evaporation and condensation processes occur at
Mixture
constant pressure and constant temperature.
x = quality or dryness factor
= ratio of mass of saturated vapor to the total mass of
mixture, expressed in decimal or percent. Isovolumic or constant volume process: V, = V2
Forconstant mass: v, = V2
1 - x = wetness If the final state is a mixture: v, = (v, + X Vlg)2

Properties of Mixture: V v, ..•. X Vfg h hf + Jsentropicor constant entropy process: s, = S2

U U, + xu,. s = S, + Isentropic process is reversible (no friction loss} and
adiabatic (no he<-' loss, that is, completely insulated
system).

Throttling or isenthalpic (constant enthalpy) process:

h, = h2

128 THERMODYNAMICS
THERMODYNAMICS 129
If the final state is a mixture: h, = (h, + x h'gh

If the initial state is a mixture, such as in

calorimeter:
(h, + x hlg), = h2

Heat Added or Rejected

.!i
Constant Pressure T1- T2 = T4- T3 and SI~ S4 = S2· S3
Hea.ting or Cooling of liquid
OA = T,(S, - S4)
For water: Cp = 4.187 kJ _
kg-OK OR = T2(S2-S3) = T2(SI- S4)
Evaporation or condensation
(P = C and T = C)
Q = m(h,.) = m(h •• h,)
h,. = latent heat W = OA - OR = T,(S,. S4) - T2(S,- S4)
Constant Volume (V = C )
Q=m(u,-u,)

Constant Entropy ( S = C ) T,(S, -S4)-T2(SI -S4)

Q = m(h, - h,)
(Isentropic) T,(SI -S4)

= TH-TL
Constant Enthalpy
(Throttling)
(h = c) Q = 0 or nr
TH

nr = Camot Cycle efficiency

THE CARNOT CYCLE
T, TH = highest absolute temperature
T T2 = TL = lowest absolute temperature

T,
T4 r::::::l 1 . asicWOrking cycles for various applications:

Application
T2=T3~2 _ Basic Working Cycle
Steam Power Plant
I i Rankine Cycle
Gasoline Engine
Otto Cycle
(Spark-Ignition)
'-------------'---S Diesel Engine
Diesel Cycle
(Combustion-Ignition)
Gas Turbine
Brayton Cycle
Refrigeration System
Refrigeration Cycle
 FUELS AND COMBUSTION FUELS AND COMBUSTION 131
130
FUELS AND COMBUSTION Classification by Grade
_ quality determined by size designation, calonfic
.

Value, ash, ash-softening temperature, and sulfur.

CLASSIFICATION OF FUELS:
Classification by Type or Variety
Solid Fuels (Principal component: Carbon, C) _ determined by the nature of the original plant
a. Coal, coke, wood, charcoal, bagasse, coconut shells material and subsequent alteration thereof.
husks, briquetted fuels) .
Jhreevarieties of coal in the high-volatile C bituminous group:
Liquid Fuels (Principal component: Hydrocarbon, CnHj)'Is
b. Gasoline, alcohol, kerosene, diesel, bunker, other fue 01, " 1. agglomerating and nonweathering
Gaseous Fuels (Principal component: HydrocarbOn,:C~n\; 2. agglomerating and weathering
c. Natural gas, producer gas, blast fumace gas, IqU, 3. nonagglomerating and nonweathering
petroleum gas (LPG), methane, ethane, acetylen(j
propane MoistBTW - refers to coal containing its natural bed moisture
butnot including visible water on the surface of the coal.

SOLID FUELS 'Burners for Pulverized Coal:

Vertical firing - although an early method, stili is used
Three methods of classifying coals (adopted in LIS since 1927 1 extensively, but with all the secondary air admitted around
the burner nozzle so that it mixes quickly with the coal
1. Classification by Rank - . .' ;' primarily air mixture from the burner nozzle.
_ degree of metamorphi~m, or progr~sslve alteration, ~
Impact firing - a form of vertical firing, co~sists o~burners
the natural series from lignite to anthracite th d ' located in an arch low in the furnace or In the side walls
_ probably the most universally applicable me .0 and directed toward the furnace door, with high velocities
classification, in which coals are arra~ged accordinq of both primary and secondary air. This type of firing is
fixed carbon content and calori~c value, 10 BTU, calculat . used extensively in wet-bottom or slagging-type furnace.
on the mineral-malter-free baSIS.
Horizontal firing - employs a turbulent burn~r. whi~h
consists of a circular nozzle within a housing provlded WIth
Classification of coals by rank:
adjustable valves, the unit being located in fr~nt or rear
1. Anthracite wall. This type of burner is suited to high capacity and dry
II. Bituminous bottom furnaces.
lII. Sub-bituminous Corner or Tangential firing - is characterized by burners
IV. Lignite located in each corner of the furnace and directed tangent

132 FUELS AND COMBUSTION FUELS AND COMBUSTION 133

to a horizontal, imaginary circle. in the middle of ... 'PQUID FUELS
furnace. This type of firing is suited to either wet or d~
bottom furnace operation and medium or 'llgh-vola" fuel Oils - any liquid or liquefiable petroleum products burned
coals, and it is capable of extremely high capacities. '.lor the generation of heat in a furnace firebox, or for, the
generationof power in an engine, exclusive of oils with a flash
Note: Wet-bottom construction generally is chosen for Point below 37.70C by the Tag closed tester. Fuel oils in
grade coals that have low fusion characteristics, whereas 'common use fall into into four classes: (1). Residuals oils,
bottom construction often is selected for high-fusion coals. Iwhich are topped crude petroleums or viscous residuums
:obtained in refinery operations; (2). Distillate fuel oils, which
Coke - is the solid. infusible. cellular residue left after fusib iare distillates derived directly or indirectly from crude
bituminous coals are heated, in the absence of air, abo 'petroleum; (3). Crude petroleums and weathered crude
temperatures at which active thermal decomposition of petroleumsof relatively low commercial value; and (4) blended

i coals occurs. High temperature ranges from 815 to 1093°

(average practice, 926 to 1037 0C). Low temperature coke'
formed at temperatures below 704°C. The residue, if ma
;ruels. which are mixture of two or more of the preceding
,'Classes.

from a noncooking coal, is known as char. ~, "Gasoline ', as a refined petroleum naptha which by its

I Wood Fuel - may come to lhe boiler plant in the form

cordwood, slabs, edging, bark, sawdust, or shavings. _ T
major variable in. wood is moisture content; air dried w .
'composition is suitable for use as a carburetant in internal
';combustion engines. Motor gasoline for automotive use, is
(mixture of hydrocarbons distilling in the range of 37.7°C to
;204.4°C by the standard method of test. The hydrocarbons

i
seldom contains less than 12% water, whereas kiln dri,. ;belong chemically to four principal classes: paraffins. oletins,
usually contains from 1 to 7%. There are three gene," ;.naphlenes, and aromatics. Gasoline ordinarily graded by'
methods in burning wood fuels (1.) in moving bed on <\ volatility and antiknock value, or octane number.
inclined grate, (2). In suspension, as in spreader stokers,
(3). in piles on fiat grates. . :Kerosene - a petroleum distillate having a flash point not

I Charcoal - the only carbon for steel making and other me

smelting from prehistoric times up to eighteenth centu
_Charcoal is produced by partial combustion of wood at ab .
" below22.8 °c as determined by the Abel tesler.

iAlcohol - the alcohol most frequently used considered as fuel

'for internal combustion engines is ethly alcohol, sometimes

I 400°C and with limited air. Hardwood charcoal weighs a ,

31 kgs. per m3 and softwood charcoal about 28 kgs. per oj
The maximum of 14% volatile and 2% moisture is customari
established. The heating value of charcoal ranges from 25,5~:
. called grain alcohol. Its modern chemical name is ethanol (
C2HsOH). Two other alcohols that have been used as fuel are
methanoland isopropanol, which are also called methly alcohol
andisoprohyl alcohol. -
to 32,495 kJlkg.
, Coal Tar and Tar Oil is a product of the destructive
Straw, Paper, and Miscellaneous Waste Fuels - also classifi';, ":distillationof bituminous coal carried out at high temperature.
as solid fuels.
134 FUELS AND COMBUSTION
FUELS AND COMBUSTION ,135
Liquefied Petroleum Gases (LPG) are mixtures of'
hydrocarbons liquefied under pressure for efficient" Heavy. duty ty~ - has oxidition stability, bearing
transportation, storage and use. corroslOn-preventrve properties, and detergent-dispersant
cha~~teristics for use under heavy-duty service'
conditions.
Diesel fuel oils - refiners grade fuels broadly according to'
methods of production: (1). Distillate fuels are produced by:~,
distillation of crudes, (2). Residual fuels, are those left aftertr
the distillation process, (3) blended fuels, are mixtures of; JrnIDP-lrti ••~~ of.Fuels and Lubricants:
straight distillate fuels with cracked fuel stacks. Analysis of composition:
Proximate analysis - analysis of the composition of fuel
GASEOUS FUELS which gives, on mass basis, the relative amounts of
- gaseous fuels commonly used in industry, whether'" moisture content, volatile matter, fixed carbon and ash.
distributed by public utilities or produced in isolated plants, ar~,:
composed of one or more simple gases in varying proportions. Ultimate (chemical) analysis - analysis of the
composition of fuel which gives, on mass basis, the
Diesel Lubricating Oils relative amounts of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen,
crude oils are frequently described as "paraffinic", sulfur, ash and moisture.
"naphthenic", or "mixed based".
Specific Gravity; Density
Two broad types of oils are in use:
1. Straight oils - are produced entirely from the crudes Density of Liquid
Specific Gravity
chosen through elimination of undesired constituents bye Density of Water
suitable refining processes.
Density of Oas
2. Additive oils - are produced by adding to straight mineral =
oils certain oil-soluble compounds that enhance the '" Density of Air
lubricating oil properties for use in a diesel engine.
,'Instruments used for measuring specific gravity:
SAE three types of lubricating oils; HYdrometer, pycnometer, \yestphal balance
1. Regular type suitable for moderate operatinq.j
conditions. ;API and Baume Gravity Units:
2. Premium type - having oxidation stability and bearing . °API = 141.5 -131.5 (for petroleum products)
corrosive-preventive properties making it generally SO at 15.60C
suitable for more severe service..than regular-duty type. 140
°Baume - 130 (for brine)
SO at 15.60C

136 FUELS AND COMBUSTION FUELS AND COMBUSTION 137

Specific gravity at temperature t, applying correction factor:
Viscosity of Lubricants
SG, = SG15.6•C [1 - 0.0007(t - 15.6))
Viscosity - resistance to flow or the property which resists
shearing of the lubricant.
3. Heating value or Calorific value, kJ/kg
a. Higher heating value (gross calorific value) _ Absolute viscosity - viscosity which is determined by direct
heating value obtained when the water in measurement of shear resistance
products of combustion is in the liquid state.
Kinematic Viscosity - absolute viscosity divided by the
b. Lower heating value (net caforofic value) - density
heating value obtained when the water in
products of combustion is in the vapor state.
Viscosity index the rate at which viscosity changes
with temperature
Instruments used in measuring the heating value of fuels:
a. Oxygen bomb calorimeter: for solid And liquid fuels Units of Viscosity
b. Gas calorimeter: for gaseous fuels
Absolute viscosity:
Calculating heating value by formulas: " 1r .; Ib-sec
=
a. DUlong's formula, used for solid fuels of known ultima
eyn= -.-2-
m
1 poise
~--=---
Dyne - sec
cm2
= 0.1 Pa-sec

analysis:
Kinematic Viscosity:
o, = 33,820 + 144,212(H - Q ) + 9,304 S
cm2
8 1 stoke = 1 -_ =
b. ASME formula, for petroleum products: sec

Qh = 41,130 + 139.6 (OAPI) kJ/kg Viscostmetar - an instrument , consisting of standard

orifice, used for measuring viscosity (in SSU and SSF)
C. Bureau of Standards Formula:
SSU. (Saybolt Second Universal) - number of seconds
Qh = 51,716 - 8,793.8 (SG)2 kJlkg
reqUired for 60 ml of oil (at 37.5°C) to pass through a
standard orifice
. Difference between higher and lower heating value:

~S~ (Saybolt Sec?nd Furol) - unit used for very viscous

liqUids uSIng a relatively larger orifice
1ceentistoke = 0.308(SSU - 26j
where: H2 = 26 - 15(SG), %
62 SSF =
660 SSU
 138 FUELS AND COMBUSTION FUELS AND COMBUSTION 139
)1eoretical air-fuel ratio - the exact theoretical amount as
5. Other properties of fuels and lubricants:
1letermined from the combustion reaction, of air needed to burn
unit amount of fuel, kg air per kg fuel.
Flash Point - the temperature at which oil gives off Yap ,
that burns temporarily when ignited
~!=tual air-fuel ratio = theoretical air-fuel ratio plus excess air
Fire Point - the temperature at which oil gives off va
that burns continuously when ignited
5 % excess air = Actual A IF - Theoretical A I F
Theoretical A IF
Pour point - the temperature at which oil will no long:'
pour freely or the temperature at which oil will solidify ,, jypical combustion reaction of a fuel with known chemical
-,formUla: .

Dropping Point - the temperature at which grease melts

Fuel + Air = Products of Combustion
Cloud Point - temperature at which the paraffin elemen
separate from oil CnHm + X O2 + x(3.76) N2 = Y CO2 + Z H20 + x (3.76) N2

Conradson number (carbon residue) - the percentage b where: x, y and z represents the number of moles
weight of the carbonaceous residue remaining aft~
destructive distillation ,"Molalanalysis is volumetric analysis. .-

Octane number - the ignition quality rating of gasolin~ t Jrby volume consists of 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen, thus
which is the percentage by volume of iso-octane in, '~1hereare 3.76 mols of N2 per mol of O2. '
'i;
mixture if iso-octane and heptane that matches the
gasoline in anti-knock quality. '02 is only 23.2% by mass of air.

Cetane number - the ignition quality rating of diesel, whi' ';.Molecular weight of air, M = 28.97 kg air per molof air.
is the percent of cetane in the standard fuel.
.;(Combustion of solid fuel with known ultimate analysis:

Q) + 4.3 S - kgair
COMBUSTION 8 kg fuel
;'Molecular Weights:
Combustion - chemical reaction, between fuel
C . = 12 N2 = 28
which is accompanied by heat and light.
H2 = 2 S = 32
O2 32 =

140
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
,.' INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 141
INTERNAL CPMBU~TIONENGINES fYcle Analysis of 4·Stroke Gasoline e' . .
",. ngme.

Basic Classification of common Internal Combustion Engines:

@]Power
IYPe of Engine Fuel Used Method of Ignition

Gasoline Engine Gasoline

Kerosene Engine Spa~ Otto
Kerosene 4
Gas Engine Spark Otto
Gaseous Fuel
Diesel Engine Spa~ Otto
Diesel
Heat of Compression Diesel
1
Oil-Diesel Engine Fuel Oils
Heat of compression Diesel V
Other Classifications
Numberof strokes per cycle:
Two-stroke
Method of starting: rHeat Added, QA = mC (T3-T2) V

Manual: crank, rope, kick

Four-stroke
Electric: battery Ji Heat Rejected, QR = mCV(T4-T1)
Compressed Air
Number of Cylinders:
Singfe-eylinder
Using other engine I Net Work, Woel = QA - QR
Two-eylinder
Application:
Three-cylinder, etc,
Automotive Cycle Efficiency = Woet = QA -QR = (T3-T2)-(T4 -TI)
Marine
Position of cylinders: QA QA
Industrial T3 -T2
Vertical
Horizontal'
Stationary Power ,;Cycle Efficiehcy = 1 _ I
Locomotive
Incline rk-I
Aircraft
~'Clearance Yolume, Yc
Arrangement of cylinders: Y3 = Y2
In-line ' Number of ~iston sides wo~ing:
Single-acting
'. Compression Ratio, rK = .2= I+c
Radial V2
Double-acting c
OppoSed cylinder
Opposed piston
V-tYPe Intake pressure:
Naturally aspirated
Methodof COoling: Supercharged
Air cooled Where: Yo = piston volume displacement
Water Cooled
 ..
142 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 143

Cycle AnalySis of Tw(' ~troke Gasoline Engine:

~1-':*"~1:]
--+-
Intake
Port
!1 '
"~

.'. Exhaust
.port
.~
V2
I+c
c

k = 1.4 for air, standard

Cycle Analysis of 4-5troke Diesel Engine (Diesel Cycle)

Injector 3
Fuel
Air Products of
Combustion
:Cycle Analysis of 2-Stroke Diesel Engine:

4. Exhaust

Heat Added, QA = mCp(T 3- T 2)

Heat Rejected, QR = mCv(T4-T,)

'Net work, Wnet = QA - QR

Cycle Efficiency =

"

"

144
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 145
PERFORMANCE OF DIESEL GENERATING SET:
Indicated Power .~ power developed inside the cylinder

",easuring instruments used: Engine indicator traces actual P_

,diagram; Planimeter - measures area of P-V diagram
}chometer - measures speed

= Pm1xVo kw

Pml indicated mean effective pressure, kPa

Cooling
WalerOul Area of Diagram
x spring scale
Lenght of Diagram
1. Heat Generated (Fuel) = m, x Qh kw
Vo = 'piston volume displacement, mJ/sec
where: 01,
fuel consumption, kg/sec
Brake Power - power developed by the engine
~" ;,eating value of fuel, kJ/kg

used: Dynamometer measures the

2. AlF = air-fuel ratio = ~ kgair
measures the speed
mf kgfuel
PYa Brake Power = 2ltTN, kw
rn, =
RT
Where: T = torque, kN-m
3. Vo piston displacement, m3/sec N = speed, rev/sec

2 ;'Calcufation of brake power using brake mean effective

= (~) D lNC pressure:

where: D = bore, 01
Brake Power = Pmb X Vo• kw
L = length of stroke, 01

N = speed, fev/sec (for 2-stroke) where: Pmb = brake mean effective pressure, kPa
speed _
N --, rev/sec (for 4-stroke) Friction Power = Indicated Power -, Brake Power
2
C = number of cylinders Brake Power = Indicated Power - Friction Power
4. Piston Speed = 2lN, m/sec
2L = distance traveled by piston in one revolution
 146 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 147

Brake Power rn, = brake spec. fuel consumption = mrx3600 ~

8. nm = mechanical efficiency - -----
BrakePower kw - hr
Ind Power
_'PmbVD _ Pmb me = combined or overall spec. fuel consumption
- PmiVD - Pmi mrx3600 ~
Brake Power = Ind Power x nm GenOutput kw - hr

. Generator Output
9 n = electrical or generator efficiency =
. e Brake Power
<-

Indicated Heat Rate

me (3600)Qh kJ

Generator Output = Brake Power x n, = Ind Power x nm x n, IndPower kw - hr

Engine Heat Rate = me (3600)Qh kJ
BrakePower kw - hr
10. Thermal efficiency
'·c. Engine-Generator Heat Rate = mr(3600)Qh kJ
Ind Power
a. l1ti = indicated thermal efficiency GenOutput kw - hr
meQh.
Generator Speed
Brake Power
b. nib = brake thermal efficiency =
mrQh I20f
N =
. Gen Outputj P
C. nte = combined or overall thermal efficiency = me Q h ;'
where: N =
speed, rpm
p = no. of poles (even)
11. Volumetric Efficiency (air only) f = frequency (usually 60 hz)
Actual Volume of Air Entering
Piston Displacement
. Typical Heat Balance of Diesel Engine:
maRT
Va = P • Useful Output (Brake Power)........................ 34%
, Cooling Loss :...... 30%
12. Specific Fuel Consumption Exhaust Loss........... 26%
= mrx3600 Friction, Radiation, Etc _........... 10%
a. rn, = indo spec. 'fuel consumption
IndPower
Heat Input by Fuel....... 100%

148 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES 149

f
Supercharging: ::Advantages of Diesel Engine over other l.e.E. engines:
S1. L~w fuel ~ost 5. Simple plant layout
Supercharging - admittance into the cylinder of an air charge: ;2. HIgh EffiCiency
with density higher than that of the surrounding air. -, :i3. Needs no large water supply
,4. No longer warm-up period
Reasons for supercharging: _
1. to reduce the weight-to-power ratio
2. to compensate for power loss due to high altitude Heat Recovery Boiler Utilizing Diesel Engine Exhaust:
Air
Types of superchargers:
1. Engine-driven compressor mg = m. + m,
2. Exhaust-driven compressor (turbo-charger) tl
3. Separately-driven compressor

Five Auxiliary Systems of Diesel Engine'

1. Fuel system:
Fuel storage tank, fuel filter, transfer pump, day tank, fuel, t,
pump Heat Balance in Boiler:

2. :::ooling system: mgCpg(tl - t2) = m,(h, - hr)

Cooling water pump, heat exchanger, surge tank, cooling
tower, raw water side ' where: Cpg = specific heat of exhaust gas

3. Lubrication System: Power Developed at an altitude:

Lub oil tank, lub oil pump, oil filter, oil cooler, lubricators
p
.
= P _B_
s 29.92
rr
V52i)

I
4. Intake and Exhaust System:
Air filter, intake pipe, exhaust pipe, silencer
where: P, = standard power or power. at sea level
··1i
5. Starting System: B = new pressure or actual barometric pressure, in Hg
ij' Air compressor, air storage tank (decrease in pressure, approx. 1 in Hg per 1000 ft)
T.= new temperature or actual absolute temperature, OR
f
L _
(decrease in temperature approx. 3.6°F per 1000 ft) -
29.92 in Hg = standard atmospheric pressure
0
520 R = temperature at sea level
~"-~'
~~~~~~~~---"""".
",.". ••••e e-r- Ir
150 STEAM POWER PLANT STEAM POWER PLANT 151
Pump Work h. - h3 kJ/kg
STEAM POWER PLANT m(h •• h3) kw
V3(P4-P3) kJlkg

STEAM CYCLES mV3(P4 -P3)

Pump Work = kw
np
1. RANKINE CYCLE • ideal steam power cycle.
where: n, = pump efficiency

Heat Added in Boiler h, • h, kJlkg

m(h1-h4) kw

Heat added in Boiler =

Pump Cycle Efficiency or Thermal Cycle Efficiency:

The T -5 Diagram Net Turbine Work

01
=
Heat Added

Tl (h 1 - h 2) - (h4 - h 3)
hi -h4
~
;
i CARNOT CYCLE applied to steam power.
;

L.............•........ _.... _.... s Carnot cycte - the most efficient thermodynamic cycle.

Turbine Work = h,· h2 kJ/kg

QA = heat added in boiler = T,(5,·54) _ _
::: m(h,·h2) kw QR = heat rejected in condenser = T2(82·83) - T2(8, 84)
III
Turbine Work = m(h,.h?) x n, kw W = work = QA· QR = T,(8,-84) • T2(~1-84) h
where: n, = turbine efficiency
nr = camot cycle efficiency
Heat Rejected in condenser h2 - h3 kJ/kg
m(h2·h3) kw

152 STEAM POWER PLANT

STEAM POWER PLANT 153
nr = QA-"-QR= TI-T2 = TH-TL
QA TI' TH f REGENERATIVE CYCLE - to improve the cycle efficiency,
'ecrease tUrbine power, decrease heat addition ..
I,. _ •

where: T, = T H = highest absolute temperature. 1

T2 = Tc = lowest absolute temperature '>

The T-5 Diagram:

Tl=T4-"1
Ti
,! 4
;
;
.. 0 .
1

T2 = T3-"+ 3 ' 2

. L-l··--·······+·······S
53 = 54 5, = 52

Heat Rejected in condenser = (m - ml)(h - h.)

3. REHEAT CYCLE • to increase turbine power, 3
efficiency.

Pump work 2 = m(h7 - he) = mVa(P7' Pa)

, Heat Added in bailer = m(h1- h-)

Heat Balance in regenerative heater:

Turbine Work = (h, - h2) + (h3• h.) kJlkg

Heat Added = (h1 - he) + (h3• h2) kJ/kg

Heat Rejected in condenser = h. - hs

Pump Work = ha • hs = vslP •• P,)

154 STEAM POWER PLANT STEAM POWER PLANT 155
Auxiliaries and Accessories:
5. REHEAT -REGENERATIVE CYCLE

. ker - combustion equipment for firing solid fuels (used in

er tube boilers)

er - combustion equipment for firing liquid and gaseou~

(used in fire-tube boilers)

, water pump - delivers water into the boiler

dwater heater - pre-heating ,

device which utilizes steam
ixed with the feedwater.

. nomizer - feedwater pre-heating device which utilizes the

at of the flue gases
.The four major components.o f a steam power plant:
1 Steam Generators (Boilers) " ssure Gauge - indicates the pressure . the
of the steam In
2:
Steam Turbines i1er
3. Steam Condensers
4. Feedwater Pumps afety Valve. - a safety device which automatically releases the
earn in case of over-pressure.

AM GENERATORS (BOILERS) rnperature Gauge - indicates the temperature of the steam in

STE ., ., e boiler.
Primary ctasstlf ca.tion of boilers (based on relative POSI.tiOn"
."
- heated water and hot gases). . . " lth a definite melting point through
Wi
sible Plug - a ~etal plug d . case of excessive temperature
ich the steam IS release In
oiler - type of boiler in whlch'lIi ich is usually caused by low water level.
1. Water Tube (Tubulous) ~'t the hot gases surround
water is inside the tubes Ie
tubes. " "II dl the furnace to protect the
Water Walls - water tubes ins~ e al~d also serve as extension
furnace against high tempera ure
- . ty e of boiler in which the h.
2 Fire Tube (TUbular) Boller· h'~ the water is outside tIJ of heat transfer area for the ~)ee.d~~~;~s the water level existing
g~ses pass inside the tubes w I e :,GageGlass (Water Column - In
tubes. 'in the boiler.

; . fl f the hot gases to effect efficient heat

~::~s~:r -b::~~~h~he ~:tOgases and the heated water.

156
STEAM POWER PLANT
STEAM POWER PLANT 157
Furnace - encloses the combustion equipment so that the heat: ~Oiler or Steam Generator - a closed vessel intended for use
generated will be utilized effectively. ""
""Q heating water or for application of heat to generate steam or
,',<>ther
vapor to be used externally to itself.
Soot Blower - device which uses steam or compressed air to:
remove the soot that has accumulated in the boiler tubes and ;Unfired Pressure Vessel - a vessel in which pressure in
drums.
' btained from an external source, or from an indirect
'~PPlication of heat.
'i"
Draft fans (forced draft and induced draft fans) - supply air
needed for combustion and create the draft required for the flo~ ·,fower BOiler - a closed vessel in which steam or other vapor
of gases in the boiler.
;{to be used externally to itself) is generated at a pressure of
"0

ore 2
)rn than 1.055 kg/cm gage by the direct application of heat.
Blowdo~ valve - valve through which the imPurities that setlJ~
in the mud drum are remove. Sometimes called blow off valve,.; J,Locomotive Boiler- a boiler mounted on a self-propelled track

Breeching - the duct that connects the boiler and the chimney. ton
{lOComotive
rails.
and used to furnish motivating power for travelling

Air Preheater - heat exchanger which utilizes the heat of jPortable Boiler - an internally fired boiler which is self-
flue gases to preheat the air needed for combustion icontained and primarily intended for temporary location and the
;;'c~Jnstruction and usage is obViously portable.
Definitions:

jMiniature Boiler - as used in this Code herein shall mean any

PSME Boiler Construction Code - shall mean the Boiler 'boiler which does not exceed any of the follOWing limits: 405
Construction Code of the PSME with amendments and "mrn inside diameter, 1065 mm overall length 0.1 outside to
interpretations thereto made and approved by the Council 0; ',outside of 2heads at center, 1.85 m2 of water heating surface,
the Society.
17.03 kg/cm maximum allowable working pressure.
New Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel Installations _ includ~
"low Pressure Heating Boiler - a boiler operated at pressure
"If I boilers and unfired pressure vessels constructed, installeq 2
placed inoperation or constructed for. 'I not exceeding 1.055 kg/cm gage steam, or water temperature
'not exceeding 1210C.

- any boiler or unfired pressure vessa. .Hot Water Supply Boiler - a boiler furnishing hot water to be
,llIlnalllea, placed in operation but SUbject toannua ijlJsed externally to itself.
i"

ijReinstaJled Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel _ a boiler or

',unfired pressure vessel removed from its original setting and re-
r
o 'Il ected at the same location or erected at a location without
r:¢hal)ge of ownership.
 158 STEAM POWER PLANT STEAM POWER PLANT 159

Second Hand Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel - as u~. -no smokestack should be closer than 305 mm from any
herein shall mean a boiler or unfired pressure vessel of whi. exposedwoodwork or framing.
both the location and ownership have been changed - smokestack should be sufficient to withstand a wind load
primary use. 160 kph and rise at least 5000 mm above the eaves of any
bUildingwithin a radius of 50 meters.
Condemned Boiler or Unfired Pressure Vessel - a boilery - when feeding hot water, feed pump should at least be
unfired pressure vessel that has been inspected and declar-. 1220 mm below hot well to prevent vapor lock.
unsafe to operate or disqualified stamped and marl< - two check valves should be provided between any feed
indicating its rejection by qualified inspecting authority.~. pump and boiler. .
- a steel catwalk or platform at least 455 mm wide and
Intemallnspection - an inspection made when a boiler]" provided with standard handrails and toe board on either
unfired pressure vessel is shut down and handholes, manhole side should be installed across the tops of adjacent
or other inspection openings are opened or removed boilers.
inspection of the interior. the lowest factor of safety permissible on .existing
.~~ installation shall be 4.5 excepting for horizontal return
External Inspection - an inspection made on the exterri tubular boilers having continuous lap seems more than
parts accessories and/or component even when a boiler ••.•
~ 3650.mm in length where the factor of safety shall be 9.
unfired pressure vessel is in operation. ., Reinstalled or secondhand boilers shall have a minimum
factor of safety of 6 when the longitudinal seams are of lap
Steam Generators riveted construction, and a minimum factor of safety of 5
_ situated not less than 3 m distance from buildings" when the longitUdinal seams are of butt and double strap
forming part of factory. < construction.
_ no part of the steam generator should be closer th~ the age limit of a horizontal return tubular, flue or
one from any wall. .' cylinder boiler having a longitudinal lap joint and operating
_ steam generators should be mounted over a sultab at a pressure in excess of 0.345 MPa or 3.45 Bar gage
foundation or concrete pad of not less than 305 mm thi shall be thirty years (30 years). A reasonable time for
and with sufficient area at base to be supported by . replacement shall be given at the discretion of the
bearing capacity of the soil with a factor of safety of ..' Inspection not to exceed one (1) year.
less than four (4). - the maximum allowable working pressure on a
water
_ when boilers are replaced or new boilers are installed. tube boiler shall not exceed 1.10 MPa or 11.0Bars. The
either existing or new buildings, a minimum height of, maximum allowable working pressure for any cast iron
least 2130 mm shall be provided between the top of . boiler except hot water boilers, shall be 1.0 Bar gage.
boiler proper and the ceiling except in single installation,
self-contained boilers where a minimum height of at lea
915 mm shall be provided betweerathe highest point
any valve steam or fitting and the ceiling.

•.. ",

160 STEAM POWER PLANT

STEAM POWER PLANT 161
PERFORMANCE OF BOILERS:
Steam, hs
Factor of Evaporation (FE) = hs - hf
mi>.kg/hr
2257

Boiler Thermal Efficiency

Feedwater, hI
Fuel IL_~~~~~
rnr k91h~ energy consumed by accessories
Q. kJl1<g

1. rn, = rate of evaporation of steam or mass flow rate of stea Actual Specific Evaporation
= kg/hr - ~
mr kgfuel
(Boiler Economy)
2
2. HS = heating surface, m .

= total surface area through which the heated wate' Equivalent Evaporation = m, x FE kg/hrfrom and at 1000C
and hot gases exchange heat.:

3. o, heat supplied or heat generated by fuel Equivalent Specific Evaporation = ~ x FE ~

mrQh mf kgfuel
from and at 1000C
HS
4. Rated Boiler Horsepower = (for water tube)
0.91
HS
(for fire tube)
1.1 .:'PERFORMANCEOF STEAM TURBINES:
5. Developed Boiler Horsepower = ms(hs -hr) Generat~output
35,322
(1 boiler hp = 35,322 kJ/hr)

6. Percent Rating DevelopedBoiler HP

Rated Boiler HP .
7. ASME Evaporation Units (rate at which heat is transformed)
= ms(hs- hI) kJ/hr ;
h"
 162 STEAM POWER PLANT STEAM POWER PLANT 163

1. Ideal Turbine work = m.(h1-h2) kw b. nee = combined or overall engine efficiency

where: hI = enthalpy of steam entering Generator Output

h2 = enthalpy after ideal (isentropic) expansi ms(hl -h2)

2. Actual Turbine work = m.(h1-h2a) = m.(h1-h2) nst

where: h2a = enthalpy after actual expansion line is a straight line which shows the relation between
nst = stage efficiency steam consumption (m., kglhr) 'and the load (L, kw) of a
turbine generator unit.
3. Turbine Power Output = m.(ht-h2) nr
m. I
kg/hri
where: nr =
turbine efficiency nst x nm =
nm = mechanical efficiency

4. n, = electrical or generator efficiency = Generator

Turbine
Output

Output
b~im,
! ;
= kx + b

~._._._._._._. ._. l L, KW
Generator Output = Turbine Output x n,
No load Full Load
= m.(h1-h2) n- n,

5. Thermal Efficiency
Turbine Output
STEAM CONDENSERS
a. flu> = brake thermal efficiency = ms(h\ -hf2)
'Functions of Steam Condensers:
b. nte = combined or overall thermal efficiency a. To create vacuum at turbine exhaustand to increase
= Generator Output the turbine power.
b. To convert steam to liquid so that it can be pumped
ms(h\ -bf2)
back to the boiler.
c. nR = Ideal Rankine thermal efficiency
Classifications of Steam Condensers:

6. Engine Efficiency of Turbine 1. Surface Condenser - type of condenser in which the steam
and cooling water do not mix; commonly used design is the
Brake Power
a. neb = brake engine efficiency = shell-and-tube.

164 STEAM POWER PLANT

STEAM .POWER PLANT 165

_____ - Cooling Waler In

I" I1\v

Cooling Waler OUI.

12

Pump Work =m(h2-ht) kw

= mVt(prP1) kw
Heat Balance in Condenser: = mgh watt

where: m = mass flow rate, kg/sec

VI = specific volume, m3/kg
P t = entrance pressure, kpa
Cp = 4.187 P2 = exit pressure, kPa
h = head, meters

E = heat extraction factor Pump Input Power (Brake Power of the Pump)
Pwnp Work
2. Contact (Jet) condensers - type of condenser in which the =
steam and cooling water are mixed. Pwnp Efficiency

';-;"c-TTi-'t.--- Cooling Water In (Steam Engines are double-acting and the process is isentropic.

Crosshead

I Condensate
011..11:7"==i ~~M~d =l(0~
Indicated
Power
Brake Power
 STEAM POWER PLANT 167
166 STEAM POWER PLANT
. Brake Power = 21tTN, kw
1. Ideal P-V Diagram
where: T = torque, kN-m
Pi N = speed. rev/s
i
;

.
~
i
?Ileulation
ssure:
of brake power using brake mean effective

;
!, Brake Power = PmbVD, kw
i
Pmb = brake mean effective pressure, kPa
L._._._.,._._._._._._._.- .-. -'-'-'-'-'-r'-'-" V
~ VD .-! Friction Power Indicated Power - Brake Power

2. Vo piston volume displacement

Brake Power
2 (~) D2LN, m3/s (piston rod neglected)
nm = mechanical efficiency =
Indicated Power

3
Brake Power = Indicated Power x nm
2
= (~) D2LN + (~) (D 4)LN, m /s
Thermal Efficiency
(piston rod considered)
Indicated Power
~'Oli = indicated thermal efficiency = "'S(h! - hf2)
3. Indicated Power
Brake· Power
Measuring instruments used: Engine Indicator traces ntb = brake thermal efficiency =
"'S(hl - h(2)
actual P-V diagram; Planimeter measures area of
diagram; Tachometer measures speed.
Engine Efficiency
Indicated power = Pmi Vo, kw Indicated. Power
noj = indicated engine efficiency
ms(hl - h2)
Pmi :::: indicated. mean effective pressure, kPa
Brake Power
Area Of Diagram X spring scale neb = brake engine efficiency = "'S(h! -h2)
Length Of Diagram

Efficiency of Equivalent Rankine cycle:

4. Brake Power
WT h) =h2
Measuring instruments used: Dynamometer measures th' QA 1'I-h£2
torque; Tachometer measures the speed.

168 GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT

Separated Steam or Single flash Geothermal Plant

GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT

Definitions:

Magma - molten metal within the earth which is basically nick~

iron in composition whose stored energy heats the surroundirl
water thereby producing steam or hot water. .
To Reinjection Wells

Well-bore product - the effluent coming out from the geothermci

well as produced after drilling. This can be purely steam or h'
Separated Steam/Hot-Water-FJash or Double Flash
water, or a mixture of both. .
Geothermal Plant

Steam-dominated geothermal field'- refers to a geotherm~'

plant with its well producing all steam as the well-bore product

Liquid-dominated geothermal field - the well-bore product f<1

this type of field is practically all hot water, pressurized. ..

Sources of geothermal energy:

a. hot spring b. Steam vent c. geyser
To Reinjection
Wells
Fumarole - a crack in the earth through which the geotherm~
substances passes.
Single Flash Plant with Pumped Well
Types of Geothermal Plants:

1. Dry or superheated Geothermal Power Plant

0Qwn·hole
pump in
production
To Reinjection
wells
Wells
Dry
To Reinjection Wells
Superheated
Steam

To Reinjection Wells
 170 GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT 171
5. Binary Geothermal Plant
mass flow rate of ground water
mass flow rate of steam entering turbine

Throttling process (1-2)

hI = h2 =(hI + x hIgh
Hot where: x =' quality after throttling
Water
flow rate of steam entering the turotna:
= x (mg)

TUrbine Output = m.(h3-h.)nr

where: nr = turbine efficiency
PERFORMANCE OF FLASHED-5TEAM GEOTHERMAL
PLANT
m .::. Generator Output =
m.(h3-h.)nr x n,
---'---"-"- I Generator Output
where: n, = generator efficiency

rleat Rejected in Condenser = m.(h.-hs)

1 2
OVerall Plant Efficiency = TutbineOutput
mghJ

The T -5 Diagram:

172 GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT, GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT 173

Expansion (Isentropic) Process 3-4:

GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
p~v/ = PN. k

k-J
Air Standard, Ideal (Brayton) Cycle:
~>(;~)-k-
Ti
..:!l.=(~)k-I
:2~:
1 1·
T4 V3

turbine work = mCp(T3-T.)

'-._ - _ -._."S
net turbine work
Open Cycle Gas Turbine Ideal T-S

Compression (Isentropic) Process (1-2):

SI = 52 PN/ PN/
k-l

~~=(;:)T Cycle Gas Turbine:

~~=[~~ r- 1

We =
where:
compressor
Cp = 1.0
work
kJ
--0-
= mCp(T r T 1)
for air
.
T:~~. 3
;
;
~2
4

kg~ C j 1
C'_'_'.'_'_'.'.'.',.'.'_'.'.'. S
Pressure Ratio ~
P4,

Heat Added in Combustor (process 2-3):

 174 GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT
GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT 175
PERFORMANCE OF ACTUAL CYCLE:
heat generated by fuel = (rna rt)Qh = rn, Qh

where: Qh :: heating value of fuel kJ/kg

= WT' - WN' - Wau,

WT' - WN' - Waw<
Generator
Qf
Exhaust
m~ + m, = m.{1 + r,)
ff := fuel-air ratio

The T-S Diagram: Qf

Heat Absorbed By Air

Heat Supplied By Fuel

Ilfeal Gas Turbine Cycle with Regenerator:

:,_7'
T: 3

We ideal compressor work = maCpa(T2-T1)

IdealCompressorWork ;~
We' = actual compressor work = CompressorEfficiency j 1
L._.__.. _._. .__.. _.. _. S
maCpa(T2 -TJl
= maCPa(T2'-T1) = :: heat added in combustor = mCp(TJ-Tx)
'lC
kJ :: mCp(T4-Ty)
where: CPa = specific heat of air = 1.0 kg _ 0 C
Balance in Regenerator:
T4-Ty
WT = ideal turbine work = (rna + mr)CPg(T3-T4)
:: ma(1 + rr)CPg(T3-T4) .. ::
Actual amount of heat transferred
WT' = actual turbine work = ideal turbine work x turbine ftffieleney
Amount of heat that could be
:: ma(1 + rr)Cpg(T3-T4) :: ma(1 + rr)CPg(T3-T4) x nT
transferred reversibly
where: rr = fuel-air ratio nT:: turbine efficiency-',
CPg :: specific heat of gas

176.
HYDRO·ELECTRIC POWER PLANT
HYDRO·ELECTRIC POWER PLANT 1 rr
HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT,( or closes the entrance of the water into the

)Arge chamber - a standpipe connected to the atmosphere and

Basic Parts of High-Head Hydro-Electric Plant: ltached to the penstock so that the water will be at
.}rnospheric pressure.

Penstock - the channel that leads the water from the reservoir
6 the turbine.
turbine - converts the energy of the water into mechanical
~nergy.
~~;.

t3enerator - converts the mechanical energy of the turbine into

~Iectrical energy output. .
,:{

praft TUbe - connects the turbine outlet to the tailwater so that

(!lie turbine can be set above the tai/water level.
';~

;Iailrace - a channel which leads the water from the turbine to

dhe tai/water.
Reservoir - stores the water coming from the upper river
water falls.
:Tailwater - the water that is discharged from the turbine.
i~. ~
Headwater - the water in the reservoir. ,j
.'3 ,Run-of-the-River (Low Head) Hydro-electric Power Plant:
Spillway - a weir in the reservoir which discharges excess wate
so that the head of the plant will be maintained. . Pondage
----
---------
- ---------
Dam - the concrete structure that encloses the reservoir.
----------
---------
----------
Silt Sluice - a chamber which collects ----------
- - -"- - - -.- -
which the mud is discharged. ----------_-_-_-_-.'--.l-",.. •• "'"
.-------------------'\:=~-
- - _.- - - - - - "

Trash Rack - a screen which prevents the leaves, branches an

other water contaminants to enter into the penstock.· .

:Pondage - the water behind the dam of a run-of-the-river hydro-

;':eleClricplant.
 178 HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER·PLANT 179
Pumped Storage Hydro-Electric Plant or Hydraulic , Reaction Turbine
Accumulator:
·,'Francis Turbine - low head and high efficiency.
Pumped storage plant - is a hydro-electric plant which involves~
the use of-off-peak energy to store water and to use the stored,,:
water to generate extra energy to cope with the peak load. .2£\-";'?'j' .I'.L~ Casing
Wicket Gate
UDDer Pool
Runner

I Propeller (Kaplan) Turbine - very low head and efficiency

than Francis.
is

I
I
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines:

I 1. Impulse (Pelton) Turbine - high head and low flow.'

,SellletiQn of Turbine

Net Head
Type based on head:

Type ofTurbine

Up to 70 ft Propeller Type
70 ft. to 110 ft Propeller Type or Francis
110 ft to 800 ft Francis Type
800 ft to 1300 ft Francis or Impulse
1300 ft and above Impulse

180 HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT 181

PERFORMANCE OF HYDRO·ELECTRIC PLANT: = Q S h (nt)

1. hg = gross head = difference between headwater and .;~.,'where: nt = turbine efficiency'

tailwater elevation '
J\Generator Output = Q S h nt ne
fLy2 , ,
2. hI = friction head loss = -'- (Darcy eq.), meters Where: n, = electrical or generator efficiency
2gD i

2fLy2 120f
= --,(Morse eq.), Generator Speed, N = -
.gO p
where: N = speed, rpm
where: f :: coefficient-of friction f . = frequency (usually 60 hz)
l = total length of pipe, in meters . p =number~ofpoles (even number)
V = velocity, m/sec
g = 9.81 m/sec2 = utilized head = h (nh)
o = inside diameter, meters
where: nh = hydraulic efficiency
(Friction head loss is usually expressed as a percentage Of,
the gross head). ' Head of Pelton (Impulse) TUrbi,ne:
p y2
3. h = net head or effective head h = -+-
fI 2g
where: V = velocity of jet
4, Penstock efficiency = ~ P = inlet gage pressure
hg
g = 9.81 mfsec2
5. General Flow equation: Q = AV
Head of Reaction (Francis and Kaplan) Turbine
where: Q = volume flow rate, m3/sec
2 y2 _y2
A = cross-sectional area, m
h=~+Z+~
V = velocity; m/sec fI 2g

6. Water Power = Q Il h kw
z
where: S = specific weight of water or density
= 9.81 kN/m3
= 1000 kg/m3 *-=~==""",b,
.~
.. , " .
,....
 .;:J' ~
182 HYDRO-ELECTRIC POWER PLANT NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 183

13. Peripheral coefficient,

(Relative Speed)

where:
e Peripheral Velocity

0 = diameter of runner, meters

N = speed of runner, rev/sec
VeiocityOfJet
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT

Nuclear Power Plant: ,

\

14.
g = 9.81 m/sec2
h = net head, meters

Specific speed of hydraulic turbine:

I
Ns = --NM
h5/4
rpm where: N ~ speed, rpm
I
I
h = head, feet

Coolant Steam
In Metric Units:
Pump Generator

I
O.2623N,Jk;
Ns = ---,-:...-rpm where: N = speed, rpm 235 238
h5/4 uel Core - radioactive material, U with U , which is the
h = head, meters .'ource of energy.

I
:Moderator - slows <fown the neutrons to thermal energy, made
',Ofcarbon and beryllium.
where: et total efficiency of turbine
'Controls Rods - Boron coated steel rods used to control the
eh = hydraulic efficiency
em = mechanical efficiecny ireactor.
e, = volumetric efficiency
;Reflector - made of lead or carbon which surrounds
i.boUnce back any leakage of neutrons.

}Thermal Shield - prevents escape of radiation

the core to

from reactor
I
)vessel. -

) Reactor Drum - encloses the fuel core and components.

184 NUCLEAR POWER PLANT NON-CONVENTIONAL POWER 185

\
Biological Shield - concrete or lead which absorbs any leakag~ Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)
of radiation and protects operators· from exposure tQ
radioactivity. . < This is the simplest form of nuclear reactor.
feedwater from the power turbine goes directly into the
The

Control cubicle - contains the meters that show theoper~tirig reactor and picks up the heat from the fuel core. Thus the
quantities in the reactor. ',' feedwater also serves as the coolant. The first
experimental reactor installed in diliman, Quezon City is of
Containment Vessel - prevents spread of radiation in case ofC! this type. It has a capacity of 1MW.
major explosion; made of concrete.
\ . Heavy Water Reactor (HWR)
Coolant - absorbs the heat from the fuel core and then release
the heat to the water in the steam generator. " This type of reactor uses heavy water or Deuterium, 020 as
coolant.
Coolant Pump - circulates the coolant.
Gas-cooled Power Reactor (GCPR)
Turbine-Generator - generates the electric power.
The gas coolant used in this type of reactor is carbon
Condenser - converts steam coming from the turbine into liquid.!, dioxide.
l:
i
Feedwater Pump - delivers the feedwater to the
generator. NON - CONVENTIONAL POWER SOURCES

Commercial Types of Nuclear Power Reactors:

Types of Solar collectors:
1. Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) i1. Flat Plate
'2. Concentrating
This type of reactor uses high pressure light or heavy wate( ,'3. Focusing
as both moderator and coolant. This is the type which is,
I,'
constructed In Morong, Bataan with capacity of 620 MW ! Photovoltaic Cell - a device which converts solar energy to
and intended to supply power to the Luzon area. In 1986 electrical energy.
the Philippine government decided to stop the completion'
of the plant because of the controversy regarding its safety "Solar Energy received at earth's surface = O, (1-i)A kcal/hr
and economic features.
= solar energy without atmospheric interference
= 1200 kcat/hr-m"
186 NON-CONVENTIONAL POWER NON-CONVENTIONAL POWER 187
,;, atmospheric interference, usually expressed iot ereby producing electricity, and exhaust to a jet condenser
percent , 2 '
ailltained at the saturation pressure of the subsurface water
A = surface area of solar collector, m 'mperature pumped from the sea bottom.

WIND POWER' :,AGNETO HYDRO DYNAMIC PLANT

Typical uses of wind power: 'fI, a magneohydrodynamic generator, combustion gases

1. to drive water pumps oduced in a combustion chamber at high pressure and
2. to drive rice and com mills ,',mperature and seeded with metal vapor to increase its
3. to charge batteries 'lectrical conductivity, is passed through an expansion tube
4. to generate power ned with a strong magnetic field. This induces an electric
, ,tagein the gas conductor and effects the flow of electrons
Types of windmills: rough the electrodes along the magnetic field, thereby
1. Turbine type ~nerating electricity.
2. Rotor type
3. Propeller type
4. Dutch sail type ERMOIONIC CONVERTER
5. Panemone type
~ermoionic converter is a device which converts heat energy
idirectlyto electrical energy.
TIDAL POWER

Tidal Power is basically hydro-electric power utilizing th"

difference in elevation between high and low tide to produ~' which converts chemical energy to
energy. A basin is required to catch the sea water during high
tide while the water drives a turbine.

LOW THERMAL HEAD PLANT

Low thermal head plant, otherwise known as Ocean Thermal.

Energy Conversion, makes use of the temperature difference'
between the ocean surface water and the water at the sea
bottom. Surface water which is at relatively high temperature is.,
pumped to an evaporator where the water evaporates i~to;
saturated steam. This steam drives a single stage turbme,

188
INSTRUMENTATION
INSTRUMENTATION 189
INSTRUMENTATION Engine Indicalor

PHYSICAL QUANTITY MEASURED ,INSTRUMENTS USED Dynamometer '

Ab,akbsorpuondynamomeler(prony brake water
Pressure ra e) . ,
Bourdon pressure gauge
Compound gauge B.'Iransmission dynamomeler(eleclric
Vacuum gauge dynamometer, electric cradle dynamometetj
Manometer
Draft gauge Orsat apparatus
Baromeler (Gas analYler)

Ternperature Mercurial thermometer Steam calorimeter

Bi-metallic thermometer thrOWing,separaling,
Thermocouple , conde. lsing barrel, electric
Radialion pyrometer ,bulb and Wet bulb temperalure
Optical pyrometer Psychromeler of air sling, aspiration
re Content (humidity) of air
Weight Platform balance Hygrometer
Spring balance
Humeler
Analytical balance
Beam balance
Pendulum scale Brinell Hardness tester
Rockwell hardness tester
Density; Specific Gravify Hydrometer, pycnometer, Vickers hardness tester
Westphal balance
Profilomeler
HeaUngvalue of fuel Bomb catOrimeter
Protractor
Gas calorimeter
Viscosity Viscosimeter RUle,deplh gauge, vernier
caliper, ll1ICrometer caliper
Area of Irreg~:~r plane (,\lures Planimeter
Dial indica lor
Rotational speed Tachometer
cenlrifugal, Vibration, electric , Feeler gauge
Stroboscope -

Vibration intensify and frequency Vlbromeler

Unear speed Speedometer

ccessible - a term I' d '
Distance lTavelledby a vehide Odometer sed b app Ie to a devtce of function that can be
'~lro~r ; seen by an operator for the purpose of performing -
VelOCityof flow Velometer
'ff actio~~Ions, set point changes, auto-manual transfer, or on-
',- .
Flow (rate) Rolameter, anemomeler
Flowmeter '
 i2£

190 INSTRUMENTATION INSTRUMENTATION 191

,
Alarm - a device of function that signals the existence of a }~tr~1 station - a manual loading station that also provides
abnormal condition by means of an audible or visible discret " tchinq between manual and automatic control modes of a
change, or both, intended to attract attention. 'X :, trolloop. (or called auto-manual station).
1<;.

Assignable a term applied to a feature permitting tn' ';ontrol valve - a device, other than a common, hand actuated
channelling (or direction) of a signal from one device to anoth¢ "N-OFF valve or self-actuated check valve, that directly
without the need for switching, patching, or changes in wiring.';. :"anipulates the flow of one or more fluid process streams.

Auto-Manual station - synonym for control station. inverter - a device that receives information in one form of
'hinstrument
r-· signal and transmits an output signal. in another
Balloon - synonym for bubble.

Behind the panel - a term applied to a location that is within a ;igital - a term applied to a signal or device that uses binary
>i;i9itsto represent continuous values or discrete states.
area that contains (1) the instrument panel, (2) its associate"
rack-mounted hardware, or (3) is enclosed with the panel. ~.

istributed Control System - a system which, while" being

Binary - a term applied to a signal or device that has only . nctionally integrated, consist of subsystems which may be
discrete positions or states. P.!lysically separate and remotely located from one another.

Board - synonym for panel. ;rinal control Element - the device that directly controls the
i lue of teh manipulated variable of a control loop.
Bubble - the circular symbol used to denote and identify th
purpose of an instrument or function. It may contain a tag ,unction - the purpose of, or an action performed by, a device.
number. \ "
.dentification - the sequence of letters of digits, or both, used
Computing device - a device or function that performs one , designate an individual instrument or loop.
more calculations or logic operations, or both, and transmits
one or' more resultant output signals. (or called computing nstrument - a device used directly or indirer:t1y to measure
relay). • "and/or control a variable.

Configurable a term applied to a device or system whos 'nstrumentation a collection of instruments or their
functional characteristics can be selected or rearranged throug~ ,application for the purpose of -observation , measurement,
programming or other methods. ' comrol, or any combination of these.

Controller - a device having an output that varies to regulate a local - the location of an instrument that is neither in nor on a
controlled variable in a specified manner. "panelor console, nor is it mounted in a control room.

-I,

192 INSTRUMENTATION INSTRUMENTATION' 193

Local Panel - a panel that is not a central or main panel. any variable property of a process.

l,pop - a combination of two or more instruments or confu /ogram - a repeated sequence of actions that defines the
functions arranged so that signals pass from one to another.f<' ~latus of outputs as a fixed relationships to a set of inputs.
the purpose of measurement and/or control of a proces
variable. . ~r~ram.mable Logic Controller - a controller, usually with
~ult,ple Inputs and outputs, that contains an alterable program.
J,
Manual Loading System a device or function having",
manually adjustable output that is used to actuate one or mot ~elay - a device whose functionis to pass an information in an
remote devices. !,unchanged form or in some modified form.

Measurement - the determination of the existence ~Scan - to sample, in a predetermined manner, each of a
magnitude of a variable. ~oumber of variables intermittently.

Monitor - a general term for an instrument or an instrume ensor - that part of the loop or instrument that first senses
system used to measure or sense the status or magnitude' ,the value of a process variable, and that assumes a
one or more variables for the purpose of deriving usetU Jorresponding, predetermined, and intelligible state or output.
information. ;;
(SetPoint - an input variable that sets the desired value of the
Monitor light - synonym for pilot light. ~controlled variable.

Panel - a structure that has a group of instruments mount &Shared Controller a controller, containing preprogrammed
on it, houses the operator-process interface, and is chosen 'f ~.algorithms that are usually accessible, configurable, and
have a unique designation. ( or called board). ,;assignable.
Panel-mounted - a term applied to an instrument
mounted on a panel or console and is accessible .Shared display - the operator interface device (usually a video
operators normal use. ;.:screen) used to display process control information from a
,:number of sources at the command of the operator.
Pilot light - a light that indicates which of a number of norm '.
conditions of a system or device exists. (or called rnonito (;SWitCh a device that connects,' disconnects, selects, or
light). ,'transfers one or more circuits, and is not designed -as a
; controller, a relay, or a control valve.
Primary element - synonym for sensor.
Fest Point - a process connection to which no instrument is
Process - any operation or sequence of operations involving ;.pe~mane~lIy connected, but which is intended for the temporary
chanoe of enerav . state. comoosition rlimAnsinn or nth~ 'or intermittent connection nf "n inct •• ,,,.,~n'
 q

VARIABLE LOAD 195

194 INSTRUMENTATION

Transducer a general term for a device that rec~iy~ VARIABLE LOAD

information in the form of one o~ more physical quantitiEi, over peak :: plant capacity - peak load
modifies the information andlor Its form, if required, a:~
kw - hrs energy
produces a resultant output signal. . Load ::
no. of hours
Transmitter - a device that senses a process variable throuQ. Average load
the medium of a sensor and has an output ,,:,hose steady-sta Load fa ctor ::
Peak Load
value varies only as a predetermined function of the proc~.,
variable. ActualEnergy Pr oduced
Capacity factor
Maximum possible Energy that

might have bee n produced during

the same period

Annual kw -'!hrs
Annual capacity factor ::
kw plant capacity x 8760

annual kw - hrs
Use factor
kw plant capacity x no. of hours operation

Actual max imum demand

Demand factor
Connected load

Sum of individual maximum demands

Diversity factor
Maximum simultaneous demand
Average Load
Plant factor ::
Rating of Equipment sup plying the Load

Maximum demand of System

Utilization factor
Rated Capacity of system

Duration of Actual Service

Operation factor
Total duration of the period of.

time considered

196 CHIMNEY
CHIMNEY, 197.
CHIMNEY
hw -:: draft pressure kPa
Functions of Chimney:
1. To dispose the exhaust gases at suitable height so that da :: density of air-
pollution will occur in the vicinity.
2. To produce the necessary draft required for thr flow of P
gases. dg :: density of flue gases ::
Rg T g
Stack- name given to steel chimney. I 2
T +T :: average temperature of flue gases
2
Calculation of Chimney Diameter and Height using basic,"
gas laws:
0

t (' Qg ::
Area x Vel

mgRgTg
volume flow of flue gases
:: ~ 02 Vel
4

:: mJ/s
Furnace t H p
Vel :: actual velocity of the flue gases mls

1
Fuel
rnr kg/s
Air
t V :: theoretical velocity of flue gas in chimney
m.kg/s
T,
Flue Gases
J2g hdw g
m,,=rnr+m•

o internal diameter of chimney, meters Actual velocity of flue gases in chimney is only 30%
to 50% of theoretical velocity, thus to get the actual
(for a tapering chimney, 0 is the internal diameter at the t
H :: height of chimney, meters velocity, multiply the theoretical velocity by a velocity
coefficient of 0.30 to 0.50.
T. :: temperature of air, o~
Tg:: average temperature of flue gases, OK
Ra :: gas constant of air Vel (actual) = (thea vel) x C,
Rg :: gas constant of flue gases
P barometric pressure, kPa
Cv :: velocity coefficient :: 0040 (usual assumption)
101.325 kPa
 198 MACHINE FOUNDATION MACHINE FOUNDATION 199
Knowing the weight of the machine, WM, determine the
MACHINE FOUNDATION uired weight of the foundation, WF, by any of the following
ods:

Functions of Machine Foundation:

a. WF = 3 to 5 times the W M (Sec. 2.4.1.2, PSME Code)
1. To support the weight of the machine, and to distribute
weight of the machine and its own over a safe sub-soil area. b. WF = e x We X ..fN
2. To absorb the vibrations produced by the machine. where: WF = weight of the foundation, kg
3. To maintain the alignment of the machine. We := weight of the engine, kg
N = engine speed, rpm
Monolithic Foundation - concrete foundation which !s formed b e = an empirical coefficient,
pouring the entire concrete mixture continuously at one ti .. [Table 2.4.2.3(4), PSME Code]
and allowing the structure to harden as a whole unit.
c. Volume of foundation can be computed based on HP
Grouting - process of filling a small clearance between machine of the
and foundation, after the machine is aligned and levelled, b engine, [Table 2.4.2.3(4), PSME Code]
using a special hardening mixture. .
d. Weight of foundation can be computed based on the
DESIGN PROCEDURE IN MACHINE FOUNDATION: HP of the engine, [Morse, Table 4-5, p. 108J

Manufacturer's manual supplies foundation drawings, but in l/i' Knowing the bearing capacity of,the soil, solve for the base
absence of such drawings, the following guide can be used. width "b". For machine foundation use only Y, of the given safe
Refer: PSME Code, pp 9-11; Morse, pp 108-113 !$oil bearing capacity. The safe bearing capacity is computed
using a factor of safety of 5.
W/J,

where: Sb = safe soil bearing capacity

L Note: If "b" will come out less than "a", then make b = a,
that is, the foundation has a rectangular cross-section.
1. Knowi'19 the bedplate dimensions of the machine, determine
the upper dimensions of the foundation "a" and HL". Allow,
clearance from the edge of about one foot or about 10% of th..
length (jf the bedplate.

200 MACHINE FOUNDATION

MACHINE FOUNDATION 201
4. Using a density of 2406 kg/m3 for concrete, determine the;'
.achine Foundation General Requirements:
volume of the foundation.

- all heavy machinery shall be supported on solid

".u~dations of sufficient mass and base area to prevent or
inimize the transmission of objectionable vibration to the
i!Uilding and occupied space and to maintain the supported
5. Compute the depth of the foundation "h": 'fnachine at its proper elevation and alignment.
:'.. - foundation mass should be from 3 to 5 times the
VF= (a;b)hL ':eight of the machinery it is supposed to support. If the
unbalanced inertial forces produced by the machine shall be
". Iculated, a mass of weight equal to 10 to 20 times the forces
6. Finalize the design; make adjustments in the dimensions if '~hould be used to dampen vibration. For stability, the total
necessary provided the required volume is maintained and, ..Combined engine, driven equipment, and foundation center of
without reducing the required base area. ,gravity must be kept below the foundation's top.
o - the weight of the machine plus the weighfof the
Other data and information: foundation should be distributed over a sufficient soil area
.,whichis large enough to cause a bearing stress within the safe
7. Use Class A (1 : 2 : 4) mixture, that is, 1 part cement, 2 ~bearingcapacity of the soil with a factorof safety of five (5).
parts sand and 4 parts stone. r . - foundation should be isolated from floor slabs or
,bUilding footings by at least 25 mm around its perimeter to
8. Determine the quantity of cement, sand and stone using the} :eliminate transmission of vibration. .
following data: >
", - foundations are preferably built of concrete in the
y,proportion of
To produce 1 cu yd of concrete using 1:2:4 mixture, the"
.j: 2 : 4. The machine should not be placed on the foundation
following are needed: 6 sacks cement, 0.44 cu yd sand;
,until seven (7) days have elapsed or operated until another
andiJ.88 cu yd stone. ' 'seven (7) days have passed.
concrete foundations should have steel bar
9. - Weight of steel bar reinforcements needed should be about
,reinforcements placed both vertically and horizontally, to avoid
y,% to 1% of the weight of the foundation. '
'.thermal cracking. Weight of reinforced steel should be from y,
i % to 1% of the weight of foundation.
10. Anchor bolts should be imbedded in the concrete at least'.
30 times the bolt diameter.
- foundation bolts of specified size should be used
,and surrounded by a pipe sleeve with an inside diameter of at
.least (3) times the diameter of the anchor bolt and a length 18
:times the diameter of the bolt. NO foundation bolts shall be
.'Iessthan 12 mrn diameter
 -
HEAT TRANSFER 203
202=-__ -=M:.:...A:::C:..:.:H:::~N.:.:E:....:..-Fo=-U=-N~D::...:A~T.:...:.IO..:...::..:.N-----i
Machine should be leveled by driving' wedg , HEAT TRANSFER
between the machine's base and concrete foundation and
the aid of a spirit level. Grout all spaces under the mac
bed with a thin mixture of one part cement and one part Co t Exchanger. any devig; which effects a transfer of heat
The level wedges should be removed after grout has thoroug pm one substance to afiother. Examples: condenser,
set and fill wedges holes with grout. . ',uperheater,evaporator, economizer, etc.

'odes of Heat Transfer:

".
~'

. Conduction - mode of heat transfer by molecular

~mmunication through solid materials or stagnant fluids.

: convecnoo - mode of heat transfer in which the heat is

.' rried from one point to another by actual movement of the
~ubstance.
", A. Free convection • the substance moves
because of the decrease in its density which is
caused by increase in temperature.
B. Forced convection ' the substance moves
because of the application of mechanical power
such as that of a fan.

• Radiatlon mode of heat transfer in which invisible

>

"'Iectromagneticwaves are passed from one body to another

clhrou9ha space.
~-l

,90nductic.n through a Plane Wall

~i
k
X

where: Q = heat transmitted, W

2
A = heat transfer area, m
t. = surface temperature on hot side, °C (oK)
4 = surface temperature on cold side, oC (OK)
k '= thermal conductivity, W/m-oC

204 HEAT TRANSFER HEAT TRANSFER 205

. k1 Q = hlA(t1'~)
.. k2 = h~(t.,-t2)
--;--I---'Q Q

t. tf" , -, t b
~
re: h1
h2
=
=
surface
surface
film conductance
film conductance
on the hot side. W/m2•oC
on the cold side, W/m2•oC

x
-.!..+.:L+:.I.+~+
PlaneWall hJ k, k2 k j

Composite Plane Wall J

LetU =
Conduction through Composite Plane Wall -I + XI
-- +
hi kl
Q = k1A(ta -tbl
- XI
UMT
where: k1 = thermal conductivity of first layer
k2 = 'thermal conductivity ofsecond layer U = overall conductance or overall coefficient of
A = heat transfer area which is common to both heat transfer, W/m2,oC
layers

k2A(tb - tel Conduction through Pipe

Q =
X2
A(ta -tel ;~
Q
~+!2.
kl k2
~~4
Conduction from Fluid to Fluid

+-Fluid 211kL(ta - tb) = 211kL(ta - tb)

--ff"+--=-t~-l---+---"'-'Q Q
In 2- InEl
t, h2 fJ D,

where: L = length of plps

 206 HEAT TRANSFER
HEAT TRANSFER 207
Conduction througtJ Composite Pipe
Q = hA(t,-ta)
= hA( te-tz)
2ltk1 L(ta - Ib}
Q =
In r2 hi = surface conductance on inside surtace
r. ho = surface conductance on outside surface
2ltk2L(tb - Ie} A; =
2ltr,L
Q=
In.2-
Aa =
2ltf3L

r2
Q
2ltL(ta - Ie)
Q =
In(r2/ rd + In(r3/ r2}
k1 k2
Simplified Equation:

where: k1 = thermal conductivity of inner pipe Q = U;A;lit

kz = thermal conductivity of outer pipe' = U0A.,8t
l = common length of the pipe
Uj = overall conductance based on inside area
Uo = overall conductance based on outside area
Conduction from Fluid to Fluid through Pipe

Mean Temperature Difference

a. Parallel Flow Heat Transfer

~tx
j -----..,1

208 HEAT TRANSFER HEAT TRANSFER 209

b. Counter Flow Heat Transfer hc =surface coefficient associated with
T!
I~
tt,
----'I L A '
'convection, J/sec-mz,oC
heat transfer area, mZ (A = ltDol for pipe)
t1 ---.. -----+ tz
ty]\ ~.. '. t, 8te t, = temperature of hot surface, °C
tz = temperature of fluid, °C
1~1 I t
: 84
, .;
'-._-----_.-
tz

tv '-''''''-'-'-'-''.

Length

1. Arithmetic Mean Temperature Difference r+ t =

Arith 8t =
~= absorptance = the fraction of radiant heat that is absorbed.
i = reflectance = the fraction of radiant heat that is reflected.
2. Logarithmic (True) Mean Temperature Difference ~'= transmittance = the fraction of radiant heat that is transmitted.

8tA -81B !'black body" - a body which absorbs (and emits) all the
Log 8t
iirrtpinging radiant heat
In MA
litB
'~gray body· - actual body that radiates less heat than a black
,t
~'" .
body.
.

Convection
·,Emittance (emissivity) = e = ratio of radiation from an
.; actual body to the radiation from a black
a. Convection heat transfer of a fluid with known specific
body.
heat:

Q = mCp(tz - t.) J/sec

where: m = mass flow, kgfsec

Cp = specific heat, J/kg_oC
where: Fe = emissivity factor
tz-t, = temperature change, °C
=
T1 absolute temperature of surface
radiating the heat, oK
b. Surface Convection:
T z = absolute temperature of surface
receiving the heat, oK
Oe = heA(t, - tz) Jfsec
 -
210 GAS COMPRESSORS GAS COMPRESSORS 211
:JcentrifugaJ Compressor (low pressure, high capacity)
GAS COMPRESSORS

Compressor - a machine which is used to increase

pressure of a gas by decreasing its volume.

Uses of compressed air: ,

1. to drive pneumatic tools such as pneumatic hammer alf
hoists, etc. ' .
2. sand blasting
3. industrial cleaning
4. spray painting .
Compressor (medium pressure, low capacity)
5. starting diesel engines
6. to supply air in mine tunnels a. Vane (sliding blade) Compressor
7. manufacture of plasticsand other industrial products

Classification of Air compressors: '

1. Reciprocating Compressor (high pressure, low capacity);

Free Air Unloader

b. Screw Compressor

212 GAS COMPRESSORS GAS COMPRESSORS 213

Performance of Single-stage, Single-acting Reciprocating Volumetric Efficiency;nv
Compressor
v'
_I
Vo

Conventional volumetric efficiency:

nv + c - c-
P2)){,
o
:::;·1
( PI
:::; clearance :::; ~
Vo

1. Compression Process (1 - 2 " Compressor Work (Power)

P,V," :::; P2V2"

.n-I :::;~[(.!2)ni~1PI _ I :::; nmRTI[(.!2)n~1 I]
n-I PI
2i=(.!l)-n
TI PI
n -I

where: P,:::; suction pressure, kPa

P2 :::; disch"Jrge pressure, kPa 0

where: n = polytropic exponent

k for isentropic process (k :::; power required to drive the compressor
n = 1 for isothermal process
Compressor. Power

2. Piston Displacement, Vo Compressor Efficiency

Compressor Power :::; Brake Power x Comp Efficiency
Vo = 2:. D2LN mJ/sec
4
Piston Speed > 2LN, m/sec
where: D:::; bore, m
L :::;stroke, m Adiabatic Compressor Efficiency
N :::; speed, rev/sec Isentropic Work'

Actual Fluid Work

3. Capacity of Compressor, V,'

v; :::;
volume flow at suction :9. -Ideal Indicated Power :::; PmNo

where: Pm;:::; indicated meaneffeclive pressure

 214 GAS COMPRESSORS GAS COMPRESSORS 215
Double acting, Single-stage Qeal(Optimum) Conditions:

:~'NO pressure drop in intercooler

p!j·Perfect intercooling

Pi
t
",;.
Work in t" stage = Work in 2nd stage

I \xl.
,
i..'-~-'-'7"'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-'-
IUnRTI[(~)":1
11-1 PI
-IJ . nmRTlf(P2)n:I_I]
n-I l' Px
V
2 22. or Px = JPIP2
PI Px

Piston Displacement

a. Piston rod neglected;

mpressorWork =. 2nPIVI'[(.!l) n:1 _
11-1 PI
I]
Vo = 2 (~)D2LN

solve for heat rejected in intercooler:

b. Piston rod considered:
Vo = 2: D2LN + 2: (D2-c12)LN Solve for mass flow: m = PI VJ '
4 4
RTI
11-1
Two-stage Reciprocating Compressor Solve for Tx: .:!L = (.!L)-n-
TI PJ 'I
P
t,
PT~'
Px;-
i .
= heat rejected in intercooler

, where: Cp for air = 1.0 kJ/kg_oK

P :······· ..·.·········.·· ..·V,

------'------------_.- GAS COMPRESSORS

216 GAS. COMPRESSORS

Three-stage, Reciprocating Compressor

Px = (p,'P2)"J w= '",'V''[[!L)'~'
n PI ,]
~
t'~~~r1r'
ifJi r fTIl ~l~
-I

V, +- Pv
Px~;--- .
;.
411PIVI' [ (-!2i'J'~-
n-j - I]

1 2 3
P, L.. _ oO ••• V
Px = (p,'P2)"' w=
11-1 PI

For ideal conditions, pressure ratios are equal:

S Px= (P,S"P2)"S w "',V,'

n-I
[[!L)'~'
PI ,]
Compressor Work =
-
--
3I1P\VI' Px n-l
n 1
11-1 [ (-)PI - I

;;~rformance of Centrifugal and Rotary Compressors

,
Heat rejected in intercoolers = 2 m Cp (Tx - T 1) . . . VI m3/s
.~ P

Summary of Multi-stage Reciprocating Compressor

No. 0' staqes Px = interslage pressure

after first stage
CompressorWork
(Power)
tr P
'

11-\ ] P
2 w= 211PIVI'(.!L)-n- I
n -1
[
PI
p'i ~
P,: 1
L... _... _._._... _._~ ... -V
• V,
 218 PUMPS PUMPS 219

PUMPS ,nometer - is a gauge in a form of a glass U-tube one leg of

.ch of open to the atmosphere, or a straight tube one end of
..ich is open to the atmosphere.
Pump - a machine which is used to add energy to a liqUid'
order to transfer the liquid from one point' to another point
;,1 Tube - is used to measure the pressure of water
,.Charging from a nozzle or flowing in a pipe by haVing its
higher energy level.
i n end in the water and the other end connected to a gauge
,manometer.
Definitions:

Hydraulics - or hydrodynamics, is the mechanics of water; 'ezometer' - is a device set in a pipe to enable a Bourdon
.:uge or a manometer attached to the piezometer.to show the
other liquid whether at rest, or in motion.
lor normal pressure.
Hydrostatics - is the science of water at rest.
:.pacity - is the rate of flow of liquid measure per unit of time,
pally gallons per minute (gpm) or liters per minute (Ipm).
Hydrokinetics - is a science of water in motion.

Hydrodynamics . - is a general term, and is genera ~.ctionlift - exist when the total suction is below atmospheric
associated With the science of the force exerted by water', ·~ssure. "
motion, such as driVing a turbine connected to an generator.' fiCtion head - exists when the total suction head is above
. . -~
-.ospheric pressure.
Atmospheric Pressure - is due to the Weight of the atmosph
on the earth. rlocity head - is figured from the average velocity obtained
.'dividing the discharge in cubic feet per second or cubic
Vacuum - a perfect vacuum is a space entirely devoid ot'g~ '~!er per second by the. actual area of the pipe cross section in
liquids, or solids. uare feet or square meter.

pial discharge head - is the reading of a pressure gage at the

Gauge Pressure -' is just the term implies the pressure 9h\'
,charge of the pump, converted to feet of liqUid and referred
gauge on open air, the gauge being connected to a closed pi.
',.datum, plus velocity head at the point of gage attachment
Absolute Pressure - is the sum of the atmospheric pressui
and the gauge pressure. !
11a1head - is the measure of the energy increase per pound
:parted to the liquid by the pump and is therefore the
Bourdon Gaulile - consists essentially of a curved tube, fix Igebraic difference between the total discharge head and the
at the open end, with the other (closed) end free and attach" 'lal suction lift exists.
to a-Iever which is geared to the indicator needle.
, t Positive Suction Head (NPSH) - is the total suction head
feet or in meter of liquid absolute determined at the suction

PUMPS 221
220 PUMPS
)
'OuiferPerformance Analysis - a test designed to determine
flange and referred to datum, less the vapor pressure OfW 'lJ)amount of underground water available in a given field and
liquid in feet or meter absolte. . ''per well spacing to avoid interference in that field.

Centrifugal Pump -; a pump in which the pressure is develope et Pit - a timber, concrete, or masonry endosure having a
principally bythe action of centrifugal force.; bn~ened inlet' to keep partially filled with water by an open
~ildyof water such as pond, lake or. streams. .
End Suction Pump - a single suction pump having its sucti round Water - that water which is available from a well,
nozzle on the opposite side of the casing from the stuffing b 'oven
.~
into water-bearing subsurface strata (aquifer),
and having the face of the suction nozzle perpendicular to
longitudinal axis of the shaft. "Iatic Water Level - the level with respect to the pump of the
" y of water from which it takes suction when the pump is not '
In Line Pump - a centrifugai pump whose drive unit: '.;operation.
supported by the pump having its suction and discharge f1ang;
on approximately the same center. 'omping Water Level - the level, with respect to the pump of
.•.•body of water from which it takes suction when the pup is in
Horizontal Pump a pump with the shaft normally
'eralion,
horizontal position,
raw-down - the vertical difference between the pumping
Vertical Shaft Turbine Pump - a centrifugal pump with one .. ')lter level and the static water revet,

1
'
\:,··.··
'.
more impellers discharging into one or more 'bowls- and"
vertical eductor or column pipe used to connect the bowls to th
discharge head on which the pump driver is mounted. ) ypical Pumping Installations: '

Horizontal Split-Case Pump - a centrifugal purn

Upper Reservoir
characterized by a housing which is split parallel to the shaft.

I Booster Pump - is a pump that takes suction from a publi:

service main or private use water system for the purpose q
increasing the effective water pressure. !.

I Submersible
and motor
underground,
Pump
closed
- a vertical turbine pump with the pu
coupled and designed to be install
as in the case of a deepwell pump.

I Aquifer - an underground formation that contains su.~ci_.

saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities
water.

t
 222 PUMPS PUMPS 223
Basic Classification of Pumps: (for pumping water with high suction lift; for
condensate)
1. Reciprocating Pump (low discharge, high head, low speed'
self-priming)

Piston

Pump (Injector)
(for pumping boiler feedwater; used as, accessory' of
centrifugal pump) .

2. Centrifugal Pump (high discharge, low head, high

not self-priming) -.I~t~
Jm--ftI ~I
IC PARTS OF CENTRIFUGAL PUMPS:
;f'
"peller imparts velocity to the liquid, resulting from
:,ntrifugalforce as the impeller is rotated.
3. Rotary Pump (low discharge, low head, used for pumpin~i
viscous liquids like oil) " ;~sing - gives direction to the flow from the impeller and
a. GearPump , nverts this velocity energy into pressure energy which is
b. Screw Pump ,uallywhich is usually measured in feet of head.
c. Vane Pump
,haft - transmit power from the driver to the impeller.

~tUffingbox - this is a means of throttling the leakage which

" uld otherwise occur at the point of entry of the shaft into the
sing.

224 PUMPS PUMPS 225 I

1. Packing - this is the most common' means~;, d and Power Calculations
throttling the leakage between the inside and outSt,..
of the casing. ,.
2. Gland to position and adjust the pack!..
pressure. .:,;
3. Seal Gage (also called water-seal of lantern nn
_ provides passage to distribute the sealing medi \
uniformly around the portion of the shaft that pass.:
through the stuffing box. ({F::::(I)}:s~i1J-·_·_·_· Pump Centerline

4. Mechanical Seal - provides a mechani

sealing arrangement that. takes the place of,
packing.

Shaft Sleeve - protects the shaft where it passes through t~

stuffing box. j
= volume flow rate of liquid handled by the pump
Wearing Rings keeps internal recirculation down (m3/sec or gal/min)
minimum.
= total energy developed by the pump, expressed in
height of
, '
the liquid (meters)
:! '

Frame - to mount unit rigidly and support bearings.

a= Area x Velocity Av

Coupling - connects the pump to the driver. or z = P/w

Specific Speed - is a type characteristic of centrifugal pum ,

and is defined as the speed in rpm at which a centrifugal pum
where: w = density
would run, if reduced proportionately in size, as to deliver, .[i; -/-/2g
rated capacity of 3.785 liters per minute against a total dynarm
or z =
head of 0.305 meter.
k= total head or total dynamic head (TDH)
 226 PUMPS
PUMPS 227
P P V2 V2 ulating the Friction Head:
H = (Zd -zs) + -1!..::-!. + (hfs +hfd) + ~
w 2g ttv2
Note: Zs is negative if source is below pump center 2gD (Darcy Equation)
Ps is negative if it is vacuum
2tty2
Water Power = Q w H, kw (Morse Equation)
gD

where: Q = discharge, m3/sec

w = density, kN/m
3
(9.81 kN/m3 for water)
where: hI = friction head loss, m
H = total head, m f = coefficient of friction (Should be taken
from Morse table if Morse equation is
used)
Brake 'Input) Power = Water Power QwH
L =, total length, m (inclUding equivalent
Pump Efficiency 'lp
lengths of the fittings)
v = .veloclty, m/sec
g = 9.81 m/sec"
Head, as Determined from Readings of Pressure Gauge~, o = inside diameter, m
".4

aracteristics of Reciprocating Pumps:

:1
tPiston Displacement
z
;, a. If piston rod neglected:

_Ill
----Center Line
- Vo = 2 (f) D2LN

b. If piston rod considered:

Vo = .!:. D2LN + '.!:. (D2 _ d2)LN

4 4',
Po -Ps y2 v2
-lL.2....
H = ----.;;;,.. + Z + where: d = diameter of piston' rod
w 2g
Q = actual discharge = Av
Note: Ps is negative if it is vacuum.
Slip = Vo - Q

% Slip = x 100

228 PUMPS PUMPS 229

= ..9... = N2),
r ,:~ r
~i Constant Speed (N1 variable impeller diameter
4. Volumetric Efficiency
Yo
:;'BL = ~~ :~ = (~~ = (~~
Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps:

1. SpecifiC Speed - the speed at ~ich a geometricai, :': cial Classification of Pumps Based on Suc~ion Lift:
similar impeller of a pump would run to dl:;<:harge1 gpm at;,
foot head. ' ;: Shallow Well Pump ( ordinary centrifugal pump, for suction
"up to 25 feet),
__ N./Q Ii Deepwell Pump, (centrifugal pump with injector, for suction
Ns --
H3/4 ,up to 120 ttl . .
; 'Turbine Pump (multi-stage pump, for suction lift up to 300 ft)
where: Ns = specific speed, rpm :i~Submersible Pump (multi-stage pump, driven by
N = speed, rpm )mersible motor)
Q = discharge, gpm
H = head, ft

2. Similar Pumps: ~vitation - the' formation of cavities of water vapor in the

tlction side of a pump due to low suction pressure.
Nl.[Q; =
a.
H13/4 , uses of cavitation:
'.' low suction pressure
,;, low atmospheric pressure
" high liqUid temperaturee
.. high velocity
where: D = impeller diameter '. rough surfaces and edges
~, sharp bends
"
3. Same Pump:
~~d Effects of Cavitation:
a. Constant impeller diameter (01 = D2), variable speed . drop in capacity and efficiency
noise and vibration
Pi. (NI )3 corrosion and pitting
P2 N2
PSH (Net Positive Suction Head) - difference between
'clual suction pressure and saturation vapor pressure of the
rquid.
 230 FANS AND BLOWERS FANS AND BLOWERS

FANS AND BLOWERS

Fan - a machine which is used to apply power to a gas in ore',

to cause movement of theqas. '.

Blower - a fan which is used to force air under pressure,tha(

the resistance to gas flow is imposed primarily upon,
discharge.

Exhauster - a fan which is used to withdraw' air un~er sucti '

that is, the resistance to gas flow is imposed primanly upon
inlet.

Common Uses of Fans: ,

. , Ventilation air conditioning, forced and indu
draft service forboil~rs, dust collection, drying and coo.lin~.
materials, cooling towers, heating, mine and tunnel ventilati
pneumatic conveying and other industrial process work.

Types of Fans :

, asic Assumptions:
~ ~' 1 constant temperature
. negligible inlet velocity (VS = 0)

I I iCapacity of Fan,
Propeller Tubeaxial
Fan Fan 'h. = volume 3
flow rate measured at outlet (m /s)
" = Area x velocity

232 FANS AND BLOWERS FANS AND BLOWERS 233

Static Pressure Head: ",;noullis Equation Applied to Fan:
hs = hwdw
da .ic Assumptions:
N'considering inlet and discharge static pressure
where: hs = static pressure head, meters air
",;considering inlet and discharge velocities
hw = manometer reading, meters v, .vater
; constant temperature
dw = density of water '
= 9.81 kN/m3 or 1000 kg/m3
d. = density of air, kN/m3 <~I head = static pressure head + velocity head

1.2 kg/m at
3
101.325 kPa arid 21.1°C J" h P2 -P( v22 -Vt2
= -- +
w 2g
Velocity Head:
v
_0_
2
hv
2g
where: hv velocity head, meters of air ','and hW1 is negative if below atmospheric pressure.
Vo = outlet velocity, m/s ,
g 9.81 m/s2 P, and hw, = inlet static pressure reading
P2 and hW2 = discharge pressure reading
Total head:
w = density of water (1000 kg/m3 or 9.81 kN/m3)
w. = density of air (1,2 kg/m3 at 101.325 kPa and 21, 11°C)
h=hs+hv V, = inlet velocity, mts
V2 = discharge velocity, m/s
Air Power = Q d. h, kw

where: Q = fan capacity, m3/s

d. = density of air, kN/m3 (constant fan size, constant density)
h = head, m

Brake (Input) Power = Air Power 3. =

h2
(~J2
N2
!.L
P2
= (~))
N2
Fan Efficiency
Standard Air:
Variable density (constant fan size, constant speed)

Pressure: 29.92;n Hg'(101.325 kPa) ~=~

Temperature: 70°F (21.11°C) - h2 d2
where: d = density
 -'""""'"

234
REFRIGERATION
REFRIGERA T'ON 235
REFRIGERATION echanical Refrigeration

Refrigeration - maintaining a space cooler than .'.::

surrounding.
':Compressor - compresses refrigerant vapor and causes
Methods of Refrigeration: ~to flow in the system.
1. Ice Refrigeration
. 2. Mechanical Refrigeration ,'~.' Condenser - the refrigerant condenses while rejecting
3. Absorption Refrigeration ~eat to the cooling medium which is either air or water.
.t,·
4. Steam Jet Refrigeration
5. Air Cycle Refrigeration ": Expansion Valve - reduces the pressure of the refrigerant
; 0 that low temperature will be attaine.J; regulates the flow
"f th~ refrigerant to the evaporator.
Ice. Refrigeration
Evaporator - the Iiquiu portion of the refrigerant
(iCEi-.Ct-Fi-.rl aporates while absorbing heat from the surrounding.

LJ
,
~ ~
°c
. I':"":'J °c
t 1M t
2 0c
Expansion 2 Superheated
Amount of cooling provided by the ice Valve Vapor
m[c,(t,-t,) + L + C2(t.lr)), kJ

where: m = mass of ice, kg

C, = specific heat of ice
=
2.093 kJ/kg_oC 0.5 Btullb.oF =
C2= specific heat of water
= 4.187 kJ/kg_oC = 1.0 Btu/lb-oF ,
L = latent heat of fusion
tM
335 kJlkg =
144 Btullb; =
=
melting temperature O°C 320F = = Compressor

236 '~REFRIGERAT'ON REFRIGERATION 237

The Vapor Compressioll Cycle '

x = quality or weight of flash gas per unit weight
of refrigerant
0'R m kg/s
P
efrigerating Effect, QA
, = h, - h. kJ/kg
=
m(h, - h4) kw
- m(hj-h4! Tons of Refrigeration
- ton 3.516,
-{1 .
of refngerallon - 3516
_ . kw = 200 Btu/min)
We
T ':boefficient of Performance (COP)

Refrigerating Effect _QA hI -:h4

Compressor Work 'We h2 -hI
Superheafhom

'Power Per Ton

Compressor Power , kw/ton

Tons of Refrigeration

Compressor Work (Power),1 We

;'Volume Flow at Suction, V,'
= h2 - h, kJlkg
'. = m v, m3/s
= m(h2• h,) kw
'~volume Flow Per Ton
Heat Rejected in Condenser, OR VI' m3/sec
= h2 - h3 kJ/kg --'-
ton
TOilS of Refrigeration Tons Ref
= m(h2 - h3) kw

To find the cooling water requirement of condenser, mw: ,"Standard Refrigeration Cycle: 50F (.15 C)
0
mwCpt1 T = m(h2 - h3) ,: Evaporation Temperature.. 860F (300)
Condensing Temperature.
Cp = specific heat of water = 4 ..187 kJ/kg-OC
where: t1T = temperature rise of the cooling water

Expansion Valve (Process)

h3 = h.
h3 = (h, + x h",>.
 REFRIGERATION 239
238 REFRIGERATION
h3 = h, at lJ
Reversed Carnot Cycle in Refrigeration h3 = h.
h, wil be obtained from the P-h chart at PI and t,
T

~:
\
R

11':>
~;frigerating System 'with Heat Exchanger

4'// /'
QA = refrigerating effect = T1(S,-S.) ~
'--------h
W net work = QR - QA = TZ(SI-S.) - T,(S,-S.)
kJ/kg
QA
COP :~at balance in the heat exchanger:
W
hi-he = h3-h.

where: T, = low absolute temperature, oK or 'OR :'eat Rejected in the condenser = hz-h3 kJlkg
Tz = high absolute temperature, oK or oR:'
Functions of the heat exchanger:
0,. To ensure that no liquid enters the compressor
Refrigeration Cy~le with SUbcooling and/or Superheating ;, To prevent bubbles of vapor of refrigerant to the
,xpansion valve.

Refrigeration Compressors

rl-
P, ;rypes of Compressors:
-t Reciprocating Compressor
.~.. Centrifugal Compressor
R.E.

240 , REFRIGERATION 241

REFRIGERATION
3. Rotary Compressor
a. Vanetype Vo piston displacement
b. Screw type

Classification of refrigeration compressors, based

where: 0 = bore, m
enclosure: L = stroke, m
N = speed, rev/so
C = number of cylinders
1. Open-type compressor - compressor whose cranksh~,
extends through the 'compressorhouslnq so that a motor ca
be externally coupled to the shaft. . = volume flow at suction = m VI

where: v, = specific volume at suction, m3/kg

2. Hermetically sealed Compressor • type in which til:
compressor and the motor are enctosed in the sa"
housing. nv = volumetric efficiency = ~
vD
'3. Semi-Hermetic Compressor hermetically seal"
compressor in ,which the cylinder head can be removed .~. Conventional (clearance) volumetric efficiency:
servicing of the valves and pistons.

Performance of Reciprocating Compressor

nv = 1 + c - ;(;~)1/11 = 1 + c - c(~~)

P c = clearance = Y.s....
3 2 vD
0 P:i
v, specific volume at suction, m /kg
3
3
Vz specific volume at discharge, m /kg

p,.: ~~, 1
;
4!I i
!
,Refrigerant Condensers
: I
, 1
r'
• • Vc Vo ~Types of condensers used in refrigeration:
• 1. Air-cooler
a. Bare tube
1. Compressor work (Power) b. Finned tube
hz - h, kJlkg Water-cooled -
= m(h2 - hi) kw a. Shell-and-tube
 REFRIGERATION 243
242 REFRIGERATION
:{Thermostatic Expansion Valve
Shell-and-tube (Vertical) Condenser ;Thermostatic Expansion Valve with-External Equalizer
\; Float Valve (used with flooded evaporator)
Cooling Water In
• mw kgls ~7~

_1 ~hl ~fri~7sn' Vapor i!(Halocarbon Refrigerants

, R-12 CCbF2 Dichlorodifluoromethane
R-22 CHCIFz Monochlorodifluoromethane
11111 .........-- Refrigerant Liquid R-40 CH3CI Methyl Chloride
t h
2
'l.'.:lnorganicRefrigrants
Cooling Water Out
l R-717 NH3 Ammonia
R-718 H20 Water
By heat balance: . R"729 Air
. R-744 COz Carbon Dioxide

JI. Hydroc-.arbonRefrigerants
, R-50 CH4 Methane
where: At = temperature rise of cooling water
R-170 C2H6 Ethane
E = heat extraction factor
R-290 C3H6 Propane
;t~~
Expansion Devices
Iv. Azeotropes
;;. -An azeotropes is a mixture of two substances in which
Functions of the Expansion Device:
1. to reduce the pressure of the liquid refrigerant fromth'l:! \' the components cannot be separated by distillation. (R-
j 502 is a mixture of 48.8% R-22 and 51.2% R-115).
condenser in order to attain low temperature'
",'.""\
2. to control the flow of the refrigerant to the evaporator
~sirable Properties of a Refrigerant:
Types of Expansion Devices: r;

1. Capillary Tube ThermodynamicProperties:

Inside diameter: 0.50 mm to 2 mm l. low freezing point
- Length: 1 m to 6 m !2; low condensing pressure
Capacity: up to 10 kw 'J.low evaporating pressure
'-4. low power per ton
'2. Expansion Valves :5. low volume flow per ton
"'6. high COP
a. Gate Valve i·1
b. Constant Pressure Expansion Valve

244 REFRIGERATION
- , REFRIGERATION 245'
Chemical Properties: m ,= mass Of the product, kg/s
7. non-toxic Cp = specific heat of the product, kJ/kg-OC
8. non-flammable 6t ,= temperature change, -oC
9. non-corrosive
10. not destructive to refrigerated products

Physical Properties: Cooling Load :: m[cl(t1-tt} + L + C2(t,..tZ)), kw

11. low viscosity
12. high thermal conductiVity where: m =. mass of the product, kg/s
13. easy leak detection C1= specific heat above freezing, kJ/kg-OC
14. miscible with oil L = .tatent heat of fusion, kJlkg
15. reasonable cost Cz :: specific heatbelov freezing, kJ/kg-OC
t1 :: initial temperature, °C
Leak Detection:
tr = freezing temperature, °C
.t2 :: final temperature, °C
R-12 and other systems using halocarbon refriqerants:
For Water:
Detection: loss of cooling capacity
C1 = 4.187 kJlkg-OC :: 1.0 Btullb-oF

Location: a. soap sud _ L ::335 kJlkg :: 144 Btullb

b. prestolite or alcohol torch cz :: 2.093 kJ/kg_oC :: 0.50 Btullb
c. electronic leak detector
Refrigeration Load = Cooling load from products +
_ Heat gain from external sources
Ammonia Systems:
(1 Ton of Refrigeration = 3.516 kw :: 12,000 Btulhr)
Detection: toxic odor

Location: a. soap sud Multi-llJre'SSlLJre

Re.frlgeration System
b. sulfur candle
c. litmus paper
Refrigeration System with Two-Stage Compressor
Px p
Calculating the Cooling load from Products t----*-~
Y -2
1-.' Without Freezmq:
"l x
Cooling Load = m Cp 6t, kw
.s: '----'---=----- h
~
~
",

,;l
 246
REFRIGERATION
REFRIGERATION 247
Compressor Work = (hx-hf) + (h2-hy)

2. Refrigeration System with One Compressor Serving

Two {or more) Evaporators

Temperature Refrigeration
p

)8( 4
7 .8
5

16
2

By heat balance at junction:

mfhe + (m-mi)ho = mh,

3. Refrigeration System with Flash Tank

h
p

By heat balance in Flash Tank:

rnh, = m,hs + (m-mf)h7

248 REFRIGERATION REFRIGERATION 249

Cascade Refrigeration System with Direct Contact Steam Jet Refrigeration:
Condenser:
Steam o;;";!!!liii~===:J:
p

Condenser

Evaporator

Air Cycle Refrigeration

P2 P3 = Ps Po pressure at the cascade condenser",

Compressor

By heat balance in the cascade condenser:

mf(h2-h3) = m2lhs-he)

Tolal Compressor Work (Power) ml(h2-h,) + m2(he-hs)

Other Methods of Refrigeration:

1.Absorption Refrigeration System (Ex. NH3-H20 System)

Heal
 250 AIR CONDITIONING
AIR CONDITIONING 251
AIR CONDITIONING

Air Conditioning - controlling the properties of air so that th~

air will be suitable for its intended use. .

Functions of Air Conditioning:

.1. control the temperature
2. control the humidity
3. control the purity, that is, removal of dust and
impurities
4. control of air movement or circulation

Psychrometry - study of the properties.of air and its wate~ bulb temperature (DB) -the actual temperature of the air
vapor content. .. j the temperature of air ae registered by an ordinary
rmometer,
Psychrometer - the instrument used in the. study of' the;
properties of air. ' tbulb temperature (WB) - temperature of air if it is
rated or temperature of air as registered in a welled wick
Saturated Air - air whose condition is such that any decrease'. orneter, '
in temperature will result in condensation of the water vapo~
into liqUid. i difference between wet bulb and dry

Moist air - is a binary mixture of dry air and water vapor.

tsychrometer -is an instrument consisting of two
Dry Air • non-condensing components of a mixture iermometers, one to measure the dry bulb and the other to
nitrogen and oxygen. Ipeasure the wet bulb temperature of the air.

Vapor- condensable components of the mixture. Pressure, kPaa

Unsaturated Air - air containing superheated vapor. P = Ps . + Pv (Dalton's Law)

or (P. = P - Pv)

P = total pressure of air-water vapor mixture

p. = partial pressure of dry air
Pv = partial pressure of water vapor

252 AIRCONOITIONING
AIR CONDITIONING 253
3. Specific Volume
;;'OewPoint - the temperature at which the water vapor in
From PV '= mRT ;'e .alr condenses when the air is cooled at constant
'ressure,
v = va = RaT RaT
m3/kg dry air "w Point ~ the temperature which the air becomes
m Pa P -Pa rated at constant pressure.
Denslty.p = v
'kg/m3 dry air
Percent Saturation, "/0·

Actual humidity ratio

=
kg waler vapor Humidity ratio of saturated air at the dry bulb temp
4. Humidity Ratio, W,
kg dry air W
Wsat
W = P
0.622...2. = ,
0.622-- Pv
Pa P - Pv
where: P =. total pressure,kPa '
Pv = partial pressure of water vapor, kPa HUmidityRatio
Saturationline
5. Enthalpy; h, kJ/kg dry air

h=CpttWhg
··",W

where: Cp = specific heat of dry air = 1:0 kJ/kg-OC

t =' temperature (dry bulb), DC .
W = humidity ratio, kg water vapor/kg dry air . WB DB Temperalure DC
hg = enthalpy of saturated water vapor at the air
temperature, kJ/kg

6. Relative Humidity, RH, 0/0 fJrlllCeissEls

in the Psychrometric Chart
Actual partial pressure of water vapor w
= Saturation pressure of pure water vapor at same temperature

2L
Psat
Pv = RH X psa•

(Ps•• - saturation pressure can be found at the steam table at

dry bulb temperature) T ----~
 254 AIR CONDITIONING AIRCONDITIONING 255
0-1 Cooling ':jliications of Psychrometry:
0-2 Heating (Dryer)
0-3 Humidifying (Isothermal Dryer)
0-4 Dehumidifying ,,'
0-5 Cooling and Dehumidifying (Air Conditioner'
0-'6 Heating and Humidifying (Cooling Tower) ,~
0-7 Cooling and Humidifying (Adiabatic Dryer):
0-8 Heating and Dehumidifying (Chemical '
Dehumidification)

Air Mixing

,";frigerating Capacity = m(h,-h2) kw

= ~ (h,-h2) kw
VI '
By heat balance:
of Moisture Removal = m(W,-W2) kg/s

= -VIv (W,-W2) kg/s

By moisture balance:
mass flow rate of air, kg/s
= specific volume at 1

By temperature balance (dry bulb):

256 AIR CONDITIONING AIR CONDITIONING 257

Water Requirement
,2. Cooling Tower
By mass balance:
Air Out

.Hot Water In
m, --.. ={=r===t==;Fir=i~I
3 t.

AnlOwlt of Make - Up Water

make-up water =
Mass of water flowing

where: ms = make-up water requirement

m, = mass flow of air entering
W, =
humidity ratio of air entering, kg/kg
W2 =
humidity ratio of air leaving, kg/kg
m, = mass flow of water entering
m, =
mass flow of water leaving

Range = ta - to

Approach = to - twb
Actual Range
Efficiency of Cooling Tower Heat absorbed by air = Heat rejected by water
Theoretical Range

=
where: rn- = mass flow rate of water flowing, kg/s
258 AIR. CONDITIONING 259
supplied in heater = m.(h2 - h1) kw
3. Dryer
Heat absOfbed by materials
Hygroscopic materials - substances which are particld~ Heat Supplied
variable in the moisture content. '
,
;:j
Bone-dry weight (Bdw) - final constant weight reached b
,r.Conditioning Calculations
hygroscopic substance a¥3r being dried out.
':fCOriditioning Equipment:
Weigth of moistUre
Moisturecontent =
Gross Weight .tCooling and dehumidifying coils of a refrigerating system
~Water chiller
kSpray Equipment
Gross Weight- = Bone-dryweight + ~?;

(Ventilation) Replaced Air

Recirculated Air

2
Fresh Air' 2
rn, 1 , Heated Air
kg/s Healer
Supply Air
...• ms 1
kg/s

Isothermal bryer(best, drier)

Adiabatic Dryer
Non-adilibaUdDryer(aetul!1drier)

Moisture removed from materials = Moisture absorbed by air

, = m.(W3 - W2) kg/s'
= m. - mskg/s
-1) - Cooling and dehumiditying
Bone dry weight of wet teed = bone dry weight of dried product ••
Bdy.l. = Bdws

260 AIR C9NDIT,IONING STRENGTH OF MATERIALS '261

Os Sensible Heat Load

mSCp(t2 - t.) kw
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

where: Cp= 1.0 kJ/kg-OC ,,,,,PLE, COMBINED AND VARIABLE STRESSES

t1, t2 = dry bulb temperatures, °C
,ength - the ability of a material to withstand load without
OL = Latent Heat Load dore. .
ms(W2 - W1) hv kw !;

tess - force or load per unit area, .lb (psi) . k; . k~(kPa)

where: hv = 2442 kJlkg '(average) .,'
'~
In 2 m m
'o,

Or = Total Heat Load = Os + OL )'Jtimate Stress (So) - stress that would cause failure
=
ms(hr h1)' kw f .
SHR = Sensible Heat Ratio (or Factor) = ~ '~Id Stress (Sy) maximum
~formation (Within elastic limit)
stress without causing
Os +QL -;.
ti
Ultimate Stress
If recirculated air and outside air are mixed before '"owable Stress ( or safe stress) =
Factor of Safety (FS)
conditioner:
( or Design Factor)

:\'sign Stress .(So) - stress used in the determining the size

Air Conditioner Capacity = ms(h4 - h.) kw a member ( allowable stress or less). ' ,

= ~ or Sy
If recirculated air and outside air separately FS FS
conditioner:
= stress actually occurring under
Air conditioner Capacity = mo(h3-h,)

Ventilation Load = mo(h3 - h.) kw "ndurance limit or F~tigue limit (S~, So)= .max;mue~
tress that will not cause failure when the force IS revers
.' definitely.
,'j

residual Stress _ intemal, inherent, trapped, lock~-uP

y stress that exists within a material as a ~esult qf ~hlngs
"ther than external loading such as cold working, ~eatlng or
,ooling, etching, repeated stressing and electroplatin'!..
 262 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 263
Definition of Terms:
Ius of.Elasticity, E • (also called Young's ModulUs) is
Strength of materials • deals with the relations between,,,: ratio of unit stress to unit strain within the Proportional
extemal forces applied to elastic bodies and the resul~ a
'of material in tension or compression:
deformations and stresses
} -., ulus of Elasticity in shear, G- is the ratio of unit stress
Stress • is force per unit area and is usually expresse4: it strain within proportional limit of a material in shear.
pounds per square inch. If the stress tends tostret~h,
lengthen the material, it is called tensile stress; If. n's ratio - is the ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal
compress or shorten the material, a compressive stress;~. 'for a given material subjected to uniform 10ngitudin~1
ses within the proportional limit. . .
if,to tear the material, a shearing stress.

Unit strain • is the amount by which a dimension of a

changes when the body is subjected to a load, divided by
original value of the dimension. '
2. Compressive Stress
Proportional limit - is the point on s~ress~strain c~rVe: a F
which it begins to deviate from the straight-line relations.,
between stress and strain. ':~
F F
Elastic limit -, is the maximum stress to which a r A A
specimen may be subjected and still return to its origi;
length upon release of the load. •

Yield Polnt - is the point on the stress-strain curve at wh1;

there is a sudden increase in strain without a correspond" 4. Bearing Stress
increase in stress.
'. - -"

Yield Strength-' is the maximum stress that ~n be ap~!i~

"I ~ F
without permanent deformation of the test specimen. ,ThiS:
the value of the stress at the elastic limit for matenals}
which there is an elastic limit Yield strength is usually 0.1~ F
0.2 Pl}rcent of the original dimension. A

Ultimate strength - (also called tensile strength) is

maximum stress value obtained on a stress-strain curve.
S8" = F
LD

264 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 265

5. Torsional Stres~ E = Modulus of Elasticity
(Young's Modulus)
= stress %
strain = ;;{

.!:!::. = S'!:'
AE E
or Ss 16T, (for circular shaft)
3
1ID
Y = elongation or shortening

where: T = torque
L =
iength
F = force applied
J = polar moment of inertia A =
cross-sectional area
c = distance of farthest fiber from neutral axis. S = stress
c = r or 0/2 for circular shaft
E = Modulus of Elasticity (Young's Modulus)
6. Bending ( Flexural) Stress
=
30,000,000 for steel (206,786 MPa)

Thermal Elongation; Stress

Y = kL (tr til

Me
Sf = J

where: M = moment where:

c = distance of farthest fiber from neutral axis (NA)
I moment of inertia about the neutral axis
Y =elongation due to temperature change, m
k = coefficient of thermal expansion, m/m·oC
bh3 t1 = initial temperature, °c -
= - for rectangular section
12 t2 =final temperature, °c
S = stress
7. Strain, Elongation Lor shortening)
L '
y
Strain ( unit elongation )
L
Stress = F
A
 266 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 267
Combined and Induced Stresses

1. Combined Axial and Flexural Stress

N = factor of ~afety
Sy = yield point
S ', A
F

±-'-~f Me Sn = endurance limit

Sm = mean stress .
Smax +Smin
2
2. Maximum
shearing loads
shear induced by external tension an4;
~
= variable component stress
;.g
= Srnax - Smin
Induced Stresses are those tensile, compressive, and:
2
shear stresses induced within a body by application o(
external forces and/or torques onto the body.
Sma, = maximum stress
Smln,= minimum stress
SSma, = 2-JSt2 + 4SS2
. 2

St = Me and S. = Te
I .

3. Maximum normal stress induced by external tension

J

P y= PL3

t
shearing loads 3EI
L R = P
S'ma><= §. + 2-JSt2 +4S.2 V = -P
2 2
·M=-PL
Relation between shearing and tensile stress based
theories of failure:
,

St max

SSma' =
= Stv
Sty
-
2
whe~e: Sty = yield stress in tension

a
Pl; y= Pa2(31)-a)
6EI

Variable Stress • L
I
N

·STRENGTHOFMATERIALS 269

Deflection at x:
y = Pb(L2 _ b2)3/2

9./3 ElL

JL2 _b2 ;
X =
3

WL3
y=-
15EI
5wL4
R=W=wl y= --
384EI
V= owl
M = WL
3
wL
V= ±-
2

wL2
M =
8
M~ ML2
y=

C L
I 2EI

y=
PL3
--
192EI
PL3 RA=Ra= P
y=
48EI 2
V = ±.!:.
I·
f .:
U2
Pl U2
R1= R2 =
P
-
2 2
j
P M = +.!:!.
=
I
V ±-
~
////,
~ 2-
A B
8
////~
PI at the center span
M = -4
(
270 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS STRENGTH OF MATERIALS 271
P = concentrated loads, N
R = reactions, N
. w = uniform load, N/m
W = total uniform load, N
L = length of beam, m
x = distance from support sat any section, m
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
(30,000,000 psi for ~teel)
I =
moment of inertia, m
V =
maximum vertical shear, N
M = maximum bending moment, N-m
y = maximum deflection, m

ament of Inertia, Section Modulus and Radius of

yration of Sections

y = Yza
c==-----:--J
EJI~" a4
B
1=
12

L] . a
z= :..=~
y 6

Deflection at x:
k = If = 0.289a

5wL4
y = 926EI
y=Yzd.
X = O.57L
3wL 5wL bd3
R 1 -- -8- and Rz = '8 I =
12
2 9wL2
MA -- wL
--8-
and Me = 128 Z=:"=~
y 6

b
K = fI =
. VA 0.289d

272
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
ENGINEERING MATERIALS 273

.-O~
d
Y =-
2 ENGINEERING MATERIALS
4
1= ~
·64
,()me Important Properties (Faires, pp. 42 _ 44)
~.t z = -
I
Y
=
ltd3
32 "rittleness - tendency to fracture without appreciable
.eformation.
K =
If= ~ Ductility - that property that permits permanent deformation
'efore fracture in tension .

.~iasticity - ability of a material to be deformed and to return

Jo
'I:
its original shape.

- resistance to indentation.

- relative ease with which a material can be

;~Malleability - susceptibility to extreme deformation in rolling

and hammering.

'p'asticity - ability of a metal to be deformed considerably

without rupture.

~Stiffness - ability to . es-st deformation.

ability to Withstand shock load without

{Heat Treatment'Practices (Faires, pp. 45 _ 46)

 274 ENGINEERING MATERIALS
ENGINEERING MATERIALS 275
Hardening -, heating above the transformation temperat\.f
and quenching usually in oil, for the purpose of increast' sents class of steel; second number indicates the
the hardness. ' roximate percentage of the principal alloying element;
'two numbers indicate 100 times the approximate
centage of carbon present in the metal.
Normalizing - heating to some 100°F above '"
transformation range with subsequent cooling to below !tl
range in still air at room temperature to produce un~ ,';
structure of the metal. "
, lain Carbon 10XX
Free Cutting 11XX
Stress Relieving - heating to a subcritical temperatu'
0 Manganese 13XX
about 1100 to 1300 F and holding at that temperature fcie
I Boron
suitable time for the purpose of reducing internal resid~ 14XX
stresses. ., ickel 2XXX
lckel-Chromtum 3XXX
Heat and corrosion resistant 303XX
Tempering . - reheating to a temperature below ~
olybqenum 4XXX
transformation range, followed by any desired rate of coolip
. Iybdenum-Chromium 41XX
to attain the desired properties of the metal. '
Iybdenum-chromium-nickel 43XX
}: lybdenum-nlckel 46XX
Case Hardening - process of hardening the surface or C;;I •
Iybdenum-chromium-nickel 47XX
of a metal to provide a hard, wear resistant surface whil
retaining toughness in the core. c;>lybdenum·nickel 48XX
.Chrornlum 5XXX
, Heat and corrosion 514XX
Metal Forming Processes
resistant -515XX
",Chromium-vanadium 6XXX
Rolling - process of forming metal parts by the use of die
,Nickel-chromium-molybdenum 8XXX
after the metal is heated to its plastic range.
Silicon-manganese 92XX
Forging - process of forming metal parts by the use ,
'Nickel-chromium-molybdenum ~)(XX
(except 92XX)
powerful pressure from a hammer or press to obtain th,
desired shape, after the metal has been heated to its plasti'
range.

A1SI and SAE Designation of Steel ( Faires p. 47 )

Metal Description Uses

AISI Y XXXX SAE XXXX Iron formed by hammering and Rivets. welded steam and
rolling operations water pipes

Y is a letter, used in AISl only, to indicate the methode>: Iron formed by casting Cylinder blocks. brake
manufacturing; first number ( or first two numbers drums. gears. machine
tool ways

276
ENGINEERING MATERIALS
ENGINEERING MATERIALS 277
Malleable Iron
Heat treat~d cast iron which is Gears
strong, ductile ~nd easily machined
- is a SUbstance with metallic properties
Nodutar Cast
Iron Cast iron added with magnesium CaSings. Crankshaffs. composed of two or more elements of Which at least
and cenum to become stronger hubs, rolls. forming
one IS a metal.
and more ductile
Alloying elements - in steel are usually considered to
Cast Sleel
Steel formed by casting bet,h~ metallic elements added for the purpose of
Gears, crankshaffs,
cylinder barrels modifying the properties. I
Wrought Steel
Steel formed by hammering, Ani~~t:opy . - is the characteristic of eXhibiting of
Bars, tubes
rolling or drawing
e~hlb~tlng different properties when tested in different
Stainless Steel dlrectl~ns (as tensile strength "with the grain" or "across
Steel obtained by addition of
chromium Steam turbine blades, . the grain"),
valves
Brass .Brittlen.ess , - is the tendency to fracture without
Alloy of copper and zinc
,Propeller shaffs. piston appreciable deformation . .
rods. screws, ele.
Bronze
Alloy of COpper, tin and Charpy test -is; one in which a specimen, sUpported at
Clutch disks. pump
phosphorous both .ends as a Simple beam, is broken by the impact of
shafts valve stems, etc. a falhng pendulum. " ,

Cold shortness - is brittleness of metals at ordinary or

low temperatures., _
Tabulated Properties of Materials
Cold working - is the process of deforming a metal
Tables. of diff~rent materials show the following importan plastically at a temperature below the recrystallization
properties: ultimate strength, yield stress, endurance Iimi' temperature and at a rate to produce strain hardening;
BHN', modUlus of elasticity, elongation, density. . Damping capacity._ is the ability of a material to
absorb. or d~mp Vibrations, which is a process of
Tables in Faires:
absorbmg kmetlC energy of vibration owing to
Tables AT 4 - AT 11, pp. 568 - 582 (Appendix). hysteresis.

Tables'in Vallance: Decarburization - is a loss of carbon from the surface

of st:el, occurring during hot rolling, forging, and heat
Table 2-4, p, 25, Table 2-5, p.27, Table 2-6, p. 30 treating, when the surrounding medium reacts with the
carbon (as oxygen and carbon combining).

Definitions: Ductility, - is that property that permits permanent-

deformatIon before fracture in tension. '
Elasticity - is the abUity of a material to be deformed
I. Age Hardening - is a change in a metal by which i \\ and to return to the original shape.
struc!~re recovers from an unstable or metastabl
Embrittlement - involves the loss of ductility because
cond.ltlon that has been prodyced by quenching or col'
working. of a physical or chemical change of the material.
278 ENGINEERING MATERIALS ENGINEERING MATERIALS 279

14. Free carbon • is that part of the carbon contel1: Poisson's ratio - is the ratio of the lateral strain to the.
steel or iron that is in the form of graphite or tern' longitudinal strain when the element is loaded with
carbon.' , longitudinal tensile force. .
15. Hard drewn > is a temper produced in a wire, rodi, Precipitation heat treatment brings about the
tube by cold drawing. .' precipitation of a constituent from a supersaturated
16. Homogenous materials - (have homogeneity) have solid solution by holding the body at an elevated
same structure at all points. temperature, also called artificial aging.
17. Isotropic - materials have the same properties in Proof stress - is mat' stress which causes a specified
directions.;\ permanent deformation of a material, usually 0.01 % or
less..
18. Izod test • is a test which a specimen, supporte',
Red shortness - is a brittleness in steel when it is red
one end as a cantilever beam, is broken by the imp
hot.
of a falling pendulum,'
19. Killed steel - is steel that has been deoxidized wi Relaxation - associated with creep, is the decreasing
strong deoxidizing agent, such as silicon or alumina stress at a constant strain; important for metals in high
in order to eliminate a reaction between the carbon' temperature service.
oxygen during solidification, 1 Residual stress - are those not due to applied loads
20. Machinability ·is a somewhat indefinite property <, or temperature gradients.
refers to the relative ease With which a material can'· Rimmed steel - is incompletely deoxidized steel.
cut. .', Solution heat treatment • is the process of holding an
21. Malleability - is a materials susceptibility to extre' alloy at a suitably high temperature long enough to-
deformation in rolling or hammering. ' permit one or more constituents to pass into solid
22. Mechanical properties - are those that have to do WI solution and then cooling fast enough to hold the
stress and strain. '. constituents as a supersaturated solution.
23. Percentage elongation • is the extension in the vicinj Stiffness - is the ability to resist deformation.
of the fracture of a tensile specimen, expressed as: Strain hardening - is increasing the hardness and
percentage of the original gage length. ' . strength by plastic deformation at temperatures lower
24. Percentage reduction area - is the smallest area cit than the recrystallization range.
point of rupture of a tensile specimen divided by Temper. is a condition produced in a non-ferrous
original area.. ,~ metal by mechanical or thermal treatment.
25. Physical properties - exclude mechanical properti: Toughness - is the capacity of a material to Withstand
and are other physical properties such as dens;' a shock load without breaking.
conductivity, coefficient of thermal , expansion. ..; Transverse strength •• refers to the results of a
26. Plasticity • is the ability of a metal to be defo transverse bend test, the specimen being mounted as a
considerably 'without rupture. simple beam; also called rupture modulus,
Work hardening - is the same as strain hardening.

280 ENGINEERING MATERIALS EN~INEERING MATERIALS 281

--~
41. Wrought steel - is steel that has been, hamme "angane~~ (Mn) - improves strength and increases
rolled, or drawn in the process of manufacture; it 11'( ardenability moderately, counteracts brittleness from sulfur.
be plain carbon or alloy steel. " oIybd~num (Mor • increases hardenability markedly and
.~no~lcally, tends to counteract temper brittleness,
Classification of Alloy Steels: !llprovl~gcreep strength and red hardness; it improves wear
,yformlng abrasion-resistant particles.
l, Low-alloy structwal steels were developed /ckel (Ni) - strengthens unquenched and annealed steels
structural uses where light weight is important. ,~ugh,ens steel (especially at low temperatures), and
.'rnphfies,~eat treatment by lessening distortion. It is the
2. Low-carbon alloy steels • (0.10· 0.25% C) us
ost element for reducing the brittleness of steel at very low
chiefly for carburizing. ,,~mperature. -
3. Medium-carbon alloy steels • (0.25· 0.50% C) usu f'hosphorous (~) - increases hardenabilitY,strengthens low
quenched and tempered to hardness between 250 a ?n steels, Improves machinability of free cutting steels,
400 Brinell. d Improves resistance to corrosion,
4. High-carbcn alloy steels - (0.50·0.70% C or mo tenium (Se) - improves machinability of stainless steel; -
ordinarily heat treated to hardnesses between 375 a' ,0 added to leaded resulfurized carbon steels for the
500 Brinell, for use as springs, wear resisting parts, e e purpose.
5. High-alloy steels - such as stainless steels. on (Si) - .strengthens low aUoy steels and improves
, ance to high temperature oxidation; it is a good
peneralpurpose deoxidizer and promotes fine grain.
Functions of Alloying Elements (chemical Tantalum (Ta) • is a stabilizer.
parenthesis ): ;Titaniu~ (Ti) . - is used for deoxidation and for stabilizing
.t!ustenrltcstainless steels; it increases the hardness and
Aluminum (AI) - is an efficientdeoxidizer , an alloy' ,strengthof low carbon steel and improves creep strength.
nitriding steels (nitralloys), and it promotes fine grain size:" Tungsten (W) - increases hardenability markedly in small
Boron (B) - in very small amounts (0.001% or less) is' mounts and improves hardness and strength at high
economical hardenablllty agent in low or medium ca temperature.
deoxydized steels. tVa~adium (V) - promotes fine grain structure, improves the
Chromium (Cr) improves hardenability economical( :.!'ltIOof endurance strength to ultimate strength of medium
resistance to corrosion (with other alloys), strength at hi 't?rbon steels, increases hardenability strongly when
temperatures, and wearing properties (high carbon). \dlss~lved,and results in retention of strength and hardness
Cobalt (Co) - improves red hardness. ,~t high temperature; it is the most effective element in
Columbium (Cb) - is often used to stabilize stainless steel ,retardingsoftening during tempering. -
Copper (Cu) • improves steels resistance to atmosphe
corrosion.
Lead (Pb) - improves machinability, 'but affects .differe
alloys differently.
282 ENGINEERING MATERIALS PRESSURE VESSELS 283
Uses of Alloy Steels: iJ"HIN-WALLPRESSURE VESSELS
AIS12330: bolts, studs, tubing subjected to torsio
stresses. 'nll,ition: A thin-wall pressure vessel is one. in which the
oaf the wall thickness to the inside diameter is less than
AIS12340: quenched and tempered shafti : '7.
connecting rods, very highly stressed bor
forgings.

AIS12350: high capacity gears, shafts, heavy

machine parts.

AIS13130: shafts, bolts, steering knuckles:

P = internal pressure
AIS13140: aircraft and truck engine crakshafts, oil Dj = inside diameter
tool joints, spline shafts, axles,ea. t ,= wall thickness
moving equipment. " SI = tangential (tensile) stress
r:
wear resisting parts in excavating and ~en there is a seam or joint, the joint efficiency E must be
AIS13150:
machinery, gears, forgings. idered:

AISI 3240: shafts, highly stressed pins and

gears.
AISI 3300 series: for heavy parts requmnq de'
penetration of the heat treatment and hi E = joint efficiency
fatigue strength per unit weight. '
AISf 4063: leaf and coil springs Sphere:
AISI4130,4140: automotive connecting rods and axle.
aircraft parts and tubing. ",
AIS/4340: crankshafts, axles, gears, landingge'
parts; perhaps the best general purpo
AISI steel.
AISI 4640: gears, splined shafts, hand toof
miscellaneaous heavy duty machine parts
POi
I\ISI 8630: connecting rods. bolts, shapes; air harden
4tE
after welding. .j

AISI 8640, 8740: gears, propellershafts, knuckles, shape

SHAFTS 285
THICK-WALL CYLINDERS
SHApTS
Definition: A thick-wall cylinder is one in which the ratio
/'
the wall thickness to the inside diameter is more than 0.07:::
? /
~ /
Lame's Equation ( Vallance p, 451), for internal pressure: haft - a rotating membl transmitting power.

" . e • a stationary mery(ber carrying rotating wheels, pulleys,

T = E.[ ~
2 St -Pi
_I] !ltc.

;,~pindle -; a short shaft or axle on machines.

where:
',Machine shaft - a shaft which is an integral part of the
t = wall thickness rJnachine.
D = inside diameter t~:~

SI = tanqential or tensile stress . ransmission shaft - shaft which is used to transmit power
Pi = internal pressure between the source and the machine absorbing the power.
(
When subject to internal and external pressure: 1tineshaft or mainshaft -, transmission shaft driven by the
iprime mover. .
Maximum tangential stress at the inside:
,:Countershaft, jackshaft, headshaft, shortshaft
p;(rJ + r/) - 2PorJ "transmission shaft intermediate between the lineshaft and
Su = :;the driven machine.
2 2
ro - rj

Maximum tangential stress at the outside:

2Pjr/ -Po(rJ +r(2)

SIO =
rJ - r2 I

where: Pi = internal pressure

Po = external pressure
rj = inside radius
ro = outside radius
 286 SHAFTS SHAFTS 287
Commercial Sizes of Shafts , Inches J polar moment of inertia
(Faires: p. 269; Vallance: p. 181) ~04 for solid circular shaft
32
3137 15 3 7 11
1
2 16
9 5
8
11
16 4 16 8 16
1-,1-,1-,
16 16 16
3~ ( o~- oi) for hollow circular shaft
D = diameter of shaft
L = length'of shaft .
2~ 2~, 2~. 3~, 4~, 4~,
16' 16 . 16 16 16 16 e = angular deformation in length L, radians
G = modulus of rigidity in shear
= 11,500,000 psi to 12,000,000 psi for steel
Materials for T'l'llnsmission Shafts: Do = outside diameter
forged carbon steel. . OJ = inside diameter

Relation of Power, Torque and Speed

in Solid Clrcular Shaft Subject to Torsion and
P = 21t TN and T = F x r

where: P = power transmitted (kw)

T= torque or torsional moment (kN-m)
N = speed (rev/sec)
F = transmitted load or tangential force
r = radius (m)
S5 max = maximum shear stress
Stresses in Shafts, Subject to Torsion Only S, max =. maximum tensile or compressive stress
S5 = Tc and a ~ TL radians M = bending moment
J JG T = torsional moment
S5 = ~ (for solid circular shaft)
. 7[03 of Shaft with ASsumed Allowable Stresses
CODE p. 18)
S5 = 16TDo (for hollow circular shaft)
{004_0;4) Main P00er Transmitting Shafts:

where: S5 :: torsional shear stress .'i

or D = ~
- T = torque or torsional moment·,
c = distance from neutral axis to the outermos
fiber
rc ";'IS (for solid circular shaft)
,.'

288 SHAFTS 289

for deflection of 1 deg per 200 length:

D = 0.1 (-.; or D = 4.0~

P = ,"
= shaft diameter, in inches
For Small, Short Shafts: T = torque, in-Ibs
03N .,f38P HP = horsepower ••
P = --
38
,or D = VN"' N = speed, rpm

For short, solid shafts subjected only to heavy

where: p = Power transmitted in HP
transverse shear:
o = Diameter of shaft in inches
N = Speed in rpm o = JI.7V
. 55
\"where: V = maximum transverseshearing load, Ibs
Diameter of Shaft (Machinery's Handbook): \ .. 55 = maximum torsional shearing stress, Iblin2
',~ o = shaft diameter, in inches
A. for allowable twist not exceeding 0.08 deg per ft length:...
~inear Deflection of Shafting:
o = 0.29 r; or O· = 4.6 ~
';fUneardeflection to a maximum 0.01 Inch per ft length."
where: 0 = shaft diameter, in inches
T = torque, in-Ibs
\;

'MaximumDistance'between bearings:
Ii
HP = horsepower
N = speed, rpm 'For shafting subject to no bending action except its own
:;Weighl:
S.1. Units (allowable twist not exceeding 0.26 deg L'= 8.95 (;2
- - meter length)
!'Forshafting subject to bending action of pulleys, etc.
0=2.26 r; or 0 125.7g • L = 5.2 (7;2
 290 KEYS KEYS 291
KEYS' ~ennedy keys .- .are ~pered square keys with the
diagonal dtrnension In a circumferential direction
Feather key - is one which has a tight fit into one
Definitions: member and a loose sliding fit in the other mating
member thus allowing the hub to move along the shaft
1. Key - a machine member employed at the , but prevents rotation on the shatt.
a pair of mating male and. female circular cr
sectional members to prevent relative angular mQ'
, between these mating members."

2. Keyway. - a groove in the shaft and mating membf;lr;

which the key fits. .:;
T
3. Splines - permanent keys made integral with thesU
and fitting into keyways broached into the mating hU:.
%
where: P = power transmitted
Types of Keys:
T = torque
r = radius
o = diameter
1. Square key - has a square cross-section with half, N = speed
its depth sunk in the shaft and half in the hub.
2. Flat key - has a rectangular cross-section with',. rushing (Compressive) Stress:
smaller dimension placed in the raclaldirecfion with ~ F '
sunk in the shaft and half in the hub and is used ""'hil Sc = --
~(L)
the weakening of the shaft by the keyway is serious.if 2
3. Round key - has a circular cross-section. ..';,
4. Barth key - is a square key with botto-n two corn
bevelled. .
5. Woodruff key - consists of one-halt of a circular ill
fitting into a rectangular keyway in the female melT"
and a' semi-circular .keywayin the male member. "" "enerally, when the key and shaft are of the same material:
6. Gib-head taper key - is a flat key with a specialgl w = "4D and L = 1.2 0
head to facilitate easy driving and removal of the key,:'
7. Saddle key -isa flatkey used without a keyway in' where: w = width of key
~~ .. h = thickness of key
L = length of.key

292 COUPLINGS .COUPLINGS 293 .

COUPLINGS Fb = force per bolt = F

no. of bolts

Ss = shear stress in bolts

Definition:

Coupling - a m'echanical device which is used to conn~' fb

lengths of shafting permanently.' compressive stress on flange =
td

Types of Couplings:

1. Rigid Couplings - couplings that do not allow angul~.

axial or rotational flexibility and used with coUine
shafts.
A. Flange Coupling - type of rigid couplin
which consists of two halves of flang~
connected to each other by bolts.,
B. Sleeve or Collar Coupling - rigid couplirf
which is a cylindrical collar pressed over tI),
ends of two collinear shafts. , . .
,
"'t
2. Flexible Couplings - - couplings which allow angulari .
to take care of misalignment of the shafts. .
where: 0 = diameter of the bolt circle
Oldham coupling, chain coupling, flexible dili,
Os = diameter of the shaft
coupling, flexible gear type coupling, hydrauli,.
t = thickness of the flange
coupling, universal joints, are examples of flexibl.
d = diameter of the bolt
couplings.

Stresses in Flange Coupling

P = 21tTN

F = total transmitted load on bolts

= Torque
%
 294 FLYWHEELS
FLYWHEELS 295
FLYWHEELS Energy of flywheel In terms of Moment of Inertia:

:: ~ 1(02

Definition:
)
,
:: mk2 2(oo 12 -00
2
2)
Flywheel a rotating energy reservoir which abso '. ',"
energy from a power source during a portion of the operaf ';Where: I :: moment of inertia :: mk2
cycle and delivers that stored energy as useful work du . m :: mass of flywheel
the other portion of the cyde. k :: r :: radius of gyration
(01 :: maximum angular velocity, rad/sec

Machines in which flywheels are used: punch presses a 012 :: minimum angular velocity, tad/sec
shears, internal combustion engines, compress .•..'

reciprocating pumps and steam engines. -;., ~:oefficient of Fluctuation of Flywheel:

Design Calculations:

Kinetic Energy :: ~ my2

KE :: ~(V2
2g I
_ v22 )
C, :: coefficient of fluctuation
where: KE :: kinetic enerqy.released by flywheel Y 1 :: maximum speed
W :: weight of flYWheel - Y 2 :: minimum speed
V, :: maximum (operating) speed
:: ltDN1 required to punch a metal:
Y2 :: minimum speed
:: ltDN2 :: ~ Ft :: ~ Ssux A x t
o :: mean diameter of flywheel
b :: width of flywheel rim E :: energy required to punch a metal
t :: thickness of flywheel rim F :: force required to punch a hole
:: Ssu A
W :: Wr + Wah Ssu :: ultimate shearing stress
A :: shear area
where: Wr :: weight of flywheel rim :: ltDbtp :: ltdt for circular hole
Wah :: weight of arms and hub t ::' thickness of metal plate
p :: density of flywheel material d :: diameter of hole
:: 7200 kg/m3 for iron

296 FLYWHEELS
Pressure or Force required to punch
(from Machineries Handbook):
a hole
BOLTS AND SCREWS
BOLTS AND SCREWS 297
-L
Pressure or Force :: d x t x 80 in tons

where: Pressure ::' force required to punch a hole,in tqn "and Screws - are threaded fasteners which are used
d :: diameter of hole, in inches '. 'd; together machine members which require easy
anUing.
t :: thickness of hole, in inches
I. I
';i;areprovided with nuts and Screws are without nuts.
FLYWHEEL:
L
only used types of bolts and screws:
1.1
ne bolt, stud bolt. eye bolt. Usbolt. ~'''''ve bolt. cap
1" ,
,setscrew
> of Threads: ' RW
.. l~"
~lfl, --'f='
.'. L.J't\I-1••...•.
------'tJ
/,
"
'
j

. stud Bolt Machine Bolt

NC (Umfied National Course) - for general use,
o ept where other types are recommended.
::UNF '(~nified National fine) - frequenUy used in
i,automotlve, compressor, pumps and aircraft work
'iwhere a fine adjustment is required.
~UNEF (Unified National Extra Fine) - used in
.;~erona.utical equipment and where very fine adjustment
"015 reoulred.

~?i
Sellers screw
thread
 298 BOLTS AND SCREWS BOLTS AND SCREWS 299

Definition of Terms: ~Ias from Villlance and Faires:

Pitch, P, is the axial distance between adjacent threads,(: VALLANCE FAIRES

P :: , inch
Sw = C(A,.)·
No. of . threads . per inch '\, s, S

Lead, L, is the axial distance a thread advancesin'o:

", :...L.(AS)I/2
6 .

revolution. ' where:

SyA 3/2
Sw = permissible Fe : s
working stress 6
Major diameter, Do, is the outside diameter of the thril~
and is the nominal diameter. " Fa = applied load where:
A,. = stress area Sd : design tensile
C = 5,000 for carbon stress
Minor diameter or root diameter, OJ, is the
steel Fe: tensile load
diameter of the threads.
=15,000 for alloy As : stress area
steel Sy : yield stress
Pitch diameter, Om, is tn~ mean diameter of the majorJ'
minor diarneters. ·r
Stress Area is the area of an imaginary circle wh' 1.5 0 in cast iron 1.5 0 in cast iron
diameter is the mean of the pitch and minor diameters. 1.25 0 in steel D in steel and
D : nominal diameter wrought iron
o : nominal
Stress Area
.
= ~(Dm + Dj)2
4 2
diameter

Tabulated data on threads: T : 0.2 Fa0 T : COF j

where: where:
.Tables of data on threads show the noniinal size, T : torque C :: 0.2 for as
per inch, minor diameter and s!ress area. Fa : initial tension received
o : nominal diameter = 0.15for
Table in Vallance: Table 6-1, p. 130 lubricated
Table in Faires: Table AT 14, p.588 D = nominal'
diameter
FI' = initial tension

300 B()LTS AND SCREWS BOLTS AND SCREWS ,301

Working Strength of Bolt (From Machineries Handbookl W = load

9 = .14.50 for acme (150 for trapezoidal)
2
W = SI (0.55d - 0.25d) in Ibs f. = coefficient of friction .
f = tan~ (~frictional angle) .
~ere: W : workign strength, in Ibs
SI: .allowable working stress, psi ';que required to overcome collar friction:
d = nominal diameter, in ~t~
'.
fcW{ro +lj)
2

fc e coefficient of friction of collar

Power Screws
ro': outside radius of collar
Power screws are used to move weights and machine pa
r, = inside radius of coaar
f;'
and uses square,. acme or buttress threads.. ''!cia/ torque required to operate the screw,TT = T + Tc
j
Pitch, P, the dlstancebetween adjacentthreads, inch 6,.ver= 2ltTTN

P = erque required to lower the load:

•10, of threads per inch '4 ... WDrn(tanx-f} ' .
~
.. " -:~ftanx»)
Lead, L = the distance the screw advances in oneturrit
= P (for single threaded screw) ..
= 2P (for double threaded screw)
:: Useful Work
Linear velocity = (rotational speed) (lead) or Work Input
Lead)
= tin x(l - f tan x) for square thread
x : lead angle
Om : mean diameter of threads
tan x + f +( f~:c )1-'- ftanx)
tan x = ~ : lanx(cos9 - fsin x)
nDrn
tan x coss « fCOSX+( f~:c fcosa..: fsin x)
Torq~e applied to turn the screw:
T = WDrn{tanx+f)
(for Acme Thread, where a = 14.5°)
2(1 _ f tan x) for square thread
where: Dc = Do + Dj
WDrn (cos9tanx+rl
T = -,- 2
~.. n , • I for acme thread
302 SPRINGS SPRINGS 303
SPRINGS Actual No.
of Coils
Solid
Length
Free Length

n (n + 1)d np +d
n nd np
Uses of Springs:
n+2 (n + 3)d np + 3d
1. to absorb energy or shock loads, as in automobile n+2 (n + 2)d
shock absorbers np + 2d

2. to maintain contact between machine members, as ilj where: n =

effective no. of coils
valves and clutches p =
pitch
3. to act as source of energy, as in clocks d = diameter of the wire
4. to serve as measuring device, as in spring scales
5S and Deflection of Coil Springs
Types of Springs:
Helical compression, tension and torsion, conical, spjral,
(Belleville), leaf spring ,

Materials for Springs:

Oil-tempered spring wire, music wire, hard-drawn spring
wire, carbon steel, chronie-vanadium steel,chrome-silicon
steel, stainless steel ' ,

Tabulated data on Springs:

Tables of spring give the following data: wire size, ultimate
stress, yield stress, modulus of elasticity and rigidity.

Tables in Vallance: Table 13-1, p. 316;, Table 13-2, p. 31?:,

where: S5 = torsional shear stress in the wire
Table in Faires: Table AT 17, p.590
F = axial load
Om = spring mean diameter
Types of ends of coil spring: = Do + OJ
2
00 = outside diameter of spring
OJ '= inside diameter of spring
d = wire diameter
y = deflection
Plain Ground, Sauared n = effective or active no. of coils
(a) (0) -(c) G = modulus of elasticity

304 SPRINGS BELTS 305

.. ~
Spring rate or Spring. scale
BELTS
Spring rate = F ,(usually Ib/in)
y
5 of transmission belts:
=' F2 -Fl
, Y2 ~YI ?;Flat belt' - used with flat pulleys and allows long distance
/between shafts.
Impact load on spriflg (Free fall) ,~y ~ Belt - used with sheaves or groove pulleYS and
"provides stronger grip at short distance between shafts.

W(h +y) = F (f) § Toothed belt - paired with toothed pulleys and used as
j;,timing belt where speed ratio mustbe maintained.

where: F = maximum force on ,spring

y = deflection of spring eriais for transmission belts:

Bodies with Velocity: ,k;tanned

'IZ';;
leather is the standard material for flat belts.

brame leather is used where very pliable material is desired.

wv2
2g when exposed to moisture, acids and

;~ric and canvas belts are used for light power transmission.

'"gth and Arc of Contact of Flat Belts:

f
,
t

I
-L
306 BELTS BELTS 307

L = 2C + 1.57{02 + 01}'+ (02 :~I)2 N1 = speed of smaller pulley (usually the driver)
N2 = speed of larger pulley (usually the driven)
01 =' diameter of smaller pulley
a = ~± zsin" R-r = x ± 02 -Ol rad
O2 = diameter of larger pulley
C C

+ sign for larger pulley

- sign for smaller pulley ;?~iCln in Belts:
1 $,
where: i L = length of belt "Iecting Centrifugal Tension (slow velocity)
01 = diameter of smaller pulley
~ = diameter of larger pulley .
R = radius of larger pullElY
r :: radius of smaller pulley
a = arc of contact; radians
C = center distance
F1 ::: tension in tight side (maximum tension)
F2 = tension in slack side (minimum tension)
Crosse~ Belt:
f= coefficient of friclion
a = arc of contact, rad
Sw = working stress = 300 psi for leather belts
b = belt width
t = belt thickness

Centrifugal Tension:
(02 + 01)2
L = 2C + 1.57(02 + 01) + 4C

a = x+2sin·1 R-l;f rad

C
2
. Fe = centrifugal tension 12pbtV Ibs
Speed ratio; Relation of speed and diameter g
p = density of belt, Iblin3
b = belt width, in
Speed ratio = ~
N2 t =' belt tliickness, in
V = belt veloc!~, ftlsec=.xON
g = 32.2 fUsec . .

308 BELTS 'BELTS 309

Net belt pull (tangential force on pulley)
F = F1 - F2

Power Transmitted: .
T = torque = F x r = (F1 - F2) r
P = power =2x TN

Power transmitted in terms of belt velocity:

HP = (FI -F2)Vs
or
550

where: F1 = tension in tight side, lb' or kN

BX ex ox
F2 = tension in slack side, Ib or kN
V. = bell velocity = xON, fUsec o~ m/s "B.elt Length and Center Distance;
~'
Arc of Contact: .

Power transmitted in terms of RPM

'L = 2C + 1.57(0+d) + (0_d)2
TN 4C
HP = 27tTN
kW =
63,000
or
60
C = B+ Jb2 - 32(0- d)2
16
where: T = torque = (F1 - F2) r • ft-Ibor kN-m ;;'
N = belt speed, RPM . {Arc o,f contact on small sheave:

a = 1800 _ (O-d)60
o
Tabulated data on horsepower rating of belts:
C
Vallance: Table 16-6, p. 387
Faires: Table 17.1, p. 450 L = pitch length of belt
C = center distance
o = pitch diameter of large sheave
V-Belts (PSME CODE) d = pitch diameter of small sheave
b = 4L - 6.28( 0 + d )
Construction of V-B~ts:
.'Standard Pitch Length and Designation of V-bells:
Rubberized Woven Jacket Table 3.3, p. 21 (PSME CODE)
Tensile layer ~
--.- loa~~~l')g ~ens;onmembers. fabric or cords
875 is Section 8 V-belt with length of 76.8 inches.
Reslherll cushion or compression member
~
310 BELTS BELTS 311
Horsepower Rating for V-Belts: Design (Faires)
Design HP
Belts =
Adj usted Rated HP
sign HP = (transmitted HP) X service factor
where: HP = recommended horsepower
X, Y, Z are constants (Table 3.6)
S = belt speed in thousands of feet per minute
= ltDN transmitted HP = is thenameplate rating HP
1000 ., Ko = correction factor for the arc of contact
de = equivalent diameter of small sheave which is equ~, Kl = correction factor of belt iength .
to pitch diameter multiplied by small diameter factor .
(Table 3.9) B+.JB2 -32(02 _01)2
C = center distance =
16
Design procedure in determining the number of V-Belts;:.
required: (PSME CODE) ..
Distance should be equal to:
Given: Size of Belt, sheave diameters, speed, power
transmitted or C
1. Find the length of the belt from Table 3.3.. .,
Solve for the center distance and the arc of contact whichever is larger.
2.
3. Find the values of X, Y, Z from Table 3.6.'"
4. Solve for the speed ratio and find the small diamet
factor from Table 3.9, then solve for de."
5. Compute the HP rating per belt.
6. Find the length correction factor from Table 3.7 aq
arc of contact correction factor from Table 3.8, th~,
solve for the corrected HP rating per belt. '.
7. Find the service factor from Table 3.5, then divid~:
the corrected power transmitted by the HP rating p',
belt.'

312 ROLLER CHAINS ROLLER CHAINS 313

C = centerdistance, mm
ROLLER CHAINS P = Pitch of chain, mm
L = length of chain, in pitches
Construction of Roller Chain: T = no. of teeth of large sprocket
t = no. of teeth of small sprocket

P = pitch of chain
.-.. P i
;,l\e center distance between sprockets, as a general rule,
)lould not be less than 1 1/2 times the diameter of the larger
"prockel and not less ·than 30 times (he pitch nor more than
= distance between centers of adjacent rollers bout50 times the pitch.
:¢ngthof Chain:

Designation of Chain Sizes: !i, L = 2C + T+i + (T_t)2

.
2 40C

Chain No. 25 35 40 50 60
Pitch, in 1/4 3/8 1/2 5/8 3/4 :;~eJe: L =
C .=
length of chain, in pitches
center distance in pitches (may contain decimal) -
•
Chain No. 100 120 140 160 T = no. of teeth of large sprocket n
Pitch, in 1 1/4 1 1/2 1:y. 2 t= no. of teeth of small sprocket

Tabulated Data on Roller Chains:

Tables of roller chains gave the following data: Chain No.,

of teeth of small sprocket, speed, horsepower rating per
strand, type of lubrication. Type I .- manual lubrication applied at least once every 8
!~oursof operanon
Table in PSME CODE: Table 3.11 pp. 25 - 28. . ype II - drip lubrication
~TyPe III - bath or disc lubrication
Table in Vallance: Table 17-2 pp. 406 - 408.
IV - oil stream lubrication i,
Center Distance Between Sprockets: il
II
I'
 314 ROLLER CHAINS WIRE ROPES 315
)",
Recommended SAE viscosities for various operating',¥
temperatures: WIRE ROPES
Temperature Viscosity
20 -40°F SAE20
40 -100°F SAE30 .-;:
100 - 120°F SAE40 tors, hoists, cranes, drilling, conveyors, tramways,
120 - 140°F SAE50 .:ulagedevices, suspension cables, guy wires

Design Procedure In determining the number of stran~

;i
Given: Size of chain, speed, no. of teeth on small sp': ': Steel (PS), Mild Plow Steel (MPS), Improved Plow Steel
power transmitted .•.. ~). wrought iron, cast steel, alloy steel, stainless steel,
1. Find the service. factor from Table 3.5, (or"T\ .' per, bronze
"~
17.7, Faires, pA60), then compute the d',:' a

power.
2. Find the horsepower rating per strand from)!'
3.11. ' , :'indiVidual wires are firs/twisted into strands, and then the
"nds are twisted around a hemp or steel center to form the
3. Divide the design horsepower by the hors~> ',; Often the central element is an independent wire rope
rating per strand to get the no. of strands. re(IWRC). .
',:Ii Regular Lay Rope , the wires and strands are twisted in
Positedirections while in a Lang Lay Rope, the wires and
"nds are twisted in the same direction. '

~. ,

Irst number is the number of strands. second number is the

'''rnOOr
of wires per strand. . .
(~,'

'qminaldiameter of rope (0,) is the diameter of the circle that

F~ endoses the rope, .

6x7

316 WIRE ,ROPES WIRE ROPES 317 ..

Example: of safety for wire, ropes, based on

6 x 7 IPS, 1" Diameter

Service Factor of Safety
', is a wire rope with 6 strands, 7 wires per strand, mad' Elevators 8 -12
improved plow steel material, having nominal diameter~ Mine hoists 2.5- 5
inch. .; Cranes, motor driven 4-6
Cranes, hand powered 3-5
Derricks 3-5
Various Rope Sizes and their applications:

6 x 7 - haulage. tramways, guy wires

6 x 19 -general purpose rope, hoists, cranes,
elevators
6 x 37 -high speed elevators, cranes, hoists
8 x 19 -extra flexible hoisting rope applications

Design Calculations:

Ft = tensile force due to the load (including

forces)
Fb equivalent bending load due to the curvature of}
sheave or drum!
StArn
Sb = EDw = equivalent bending stress
Ds

I where: A." = cross-section area of metal

Ow = wire diameter
Os = sheave or drum diameter
E = modulus of elasticity = 30 x 106 psi for steel

r Fu = breaking strength of rope

f
 318 GEARS
GEARS

Definition:
.'~

Gears - are machine elements that transmit motion by mea

of successively engaging teeth. '

SPUR GEARS

Spur Gears have toothed elements that are straight il

parallel to the shaft axis and they are used to transmit moq
and power without slippage between parallel shafts.

Gear Teeth Nomenclature:

helix angle - the angle, at the base cylinder if an

involute gear, that the tooth makes with the gear axis.

Base Pitch - in an involute gear it is the pitch on the

base circle or along the line of action.

G.EARS 321
320 GEARS
iClearance the amount by which the dedendum '
11. Normal Base Pitch - i;exceeds the addendum of the mating tooth. It is also the
plane. .::radial distance between the top of a tooth and the
'It>ottoms of the mating tooth space.
12. Axial Base Pitch IS the base pitch in the axial Plane~ , the dedendum minus the mating

13. Center Distance - the distance between the parallel '!. f~;" _
of spur gears and parallel helical gears. or between\ 'Central Diameter - the smallest diameter on a gear
crossed axes of helical gears and worm gears. Also;" ¥tooth with which the mating gear makes contact.
the distance between the centers ('If Ihe pitch circles, .".
j'Contact Ratio - the ratio of the arc of action to the
14. Central Plane in a worm gear this is the pl~ i"circular pitch. It is sometimes thought of as the average
perpendicular to the gear axis and contains the com~ :number of teeth in contact. For involute gears, the
perpendicular of the gear and the worm axes) !'contact ratio is obtain most directly as the ratio of the
~;Iength of action to the base pitch.
15. Chordal Addendum - the Ilelght from the top of the (,
to the chord subtending the circular-thickness arc, '",Cycloid - the curved formed by the path of a point on a
"circle as it rolls along. a straight line. When this circle rolls
16, Chordal Thickness - length of the chord subtendedj ': along the outer side of another circle, the curve is called
the circular thickness arc (the dimension obtained whe,. \an Epicycloid; When it rolls along the inner side of
gear tooth caliper is used to measure the thickness at,., Y'another circle it is called a Hypocycloid,
pitch circle.'
:: Dedendum - the depth of tooth space below the pitch
17. Circular Pitch length 01 the arc of the pitch cil circle or the radial dimension between the pitch circle and
,;J,
between the centers or other corresponding points! t. the bottoms of the tooth space.
adjacent teeth. ',
.Diametral Pitch - the ratio of the number of teeth toJhe
18. Normal Circular Pitch - number of millimeters of pitch diameter.
plane.
Normal Diametral Pitch is the diametral pitch as
19. CircularThickness - the length of the arc between .. calculated in' the normal plane and is equal to the
two sides of a gear tooth, on the pitch circles unle diametral pitch divirlprl hv the cosine of helix angle,
___ :£: ...•.4
 322 GEARS GEARS 323
occasionally one member of a pair of rJears mayh'
greater face width than the other. ". ntemal Gear - a gear with teeth on.the inner cylindrical
,s\lrface.

29. Efficiency - the actual torque ratio of a gear setrtr

by its gear ratio. -, . Involute - the curved formed by the path of a point on a
flltraight line, called the generatrix, as it rolls along a
"", convex base curve. This curve is generally used as the
30. External Gear a gear with teeth on the outer cyli,1) .profile of gear teeth. ,
surface. , -',.;'"j-:;
;1.'1::
'S'
Land - the top land is the top surface of the tooth, and
31. Face of Tooth - that surface of th~ tooth wti;. Bottom land is the surface of the gear between the fillets
between the pitch circle to the top of the tootl., ,ofadjacent teeth.
;'j.

32. Face Width - the length of the teeth in axial plane.\;; Lead - the distance a helical gear or worm would thread
:along its axis One revolution of it were, free to move
33. Fillet Curve • the concave portion ot"the tooth'> axially.
where it joins the 'bottom of the tooth space.>;;
approximate radius of this curve is called the fillet rao
.' " '.';;" Length of Action - the distance on an involute line of
.acfion through which the point of contact moves dUring
34. Flank of Tooth - that surface which is between theI, ; .theaction of the tooth profile.
circle and the bottom land. The flank includes the fill
Une of Action - the path of contact in involute gears. It
35. Helical Overlap - the effective face width of a. ij" is the straight line passign through the pitch point and the
\

gear divided by the gear axial pitch; also called the" tangent to the base circles.
Overlap. "
Lowest Point of Single Tooth Contact the smallest
36. Helix Angle the angle that a helical gear tooth diameter on a spur gear at which a single tooth of one
me gear axis. gear is in contactwith its mating gear.

37. Hi9rest Point of Single Tooth Contact - the ',,:,:,'Module- the ratio of pitch diameter in millimeter to the
diameter on a spur gear at which a single ,Jin~mber ~f t~eth. English module is the ratio of the,pitch
contact wi~hthe mating gear.' H"dlameter In Inches to. the number of teeth. '
~-..
38. Internal Diameter - the diameter of a circle
with the tops of the teeth on an internal gear.
g Normal Plane - a plane normal to the tooth surface at a
~tPoint
:r:""
of contact, and perpendicularto the pitch plane.
~. . -
.gY.outsideDiameter - the diameter of the outside circle,
:l::.~

GEARS 325
324 ,GEARS
',,'tangency of the generatrix from any point on the sam,e
49. Pitch -' the distance between similar, equally' sP: y'involute.
'tooth surfaces, in a given direction arid along a
curve or' llne, 1r Root Circle - a circle coinciding with or tangent to the
':'boltoms of the tooth spaces.
50. Pitch Circle' - a circle Theradius.of which is equal t. ;"..
'r":.' .
.
distance from the gear axis to the pitch point.. . ';';RootDiameter - diameter of the root circle.
t('.
51. Pitch Diameter - the diameter of the pitch circle. ~. Tangent Plane - a ~ne tangent to the tooth surfaces at
,1' a point or line of contact of material is removed near the
52. Pitch Plane - in a pair of gears it is the J:( ,0: tip of the gear tooth.
,perpendicular to the axial plane and tangent to the
surfaces. ,{ Tip Relief - an arbitrary modiftcation of a tooth profile
Ii whereby a small amount of matenal IS removed near the
53. Pitch Point - this is the point of tangency of two , "tip of the gear tooth.
circles and is on the line of center. '
the width of tooth measured along
54. Pitch Surface - the surface of the rolling cylinder tha
gear may be considered to replace.
. Tooth Space (Space Width) - the space between the
55. Plane Rotation - any plane perpendicular to a gear ,;- : teeth measured along the pitch circle.

56. Pressure Angle - the angle between the tooth profile Total Face Width - the actual width dimension of a gear
a radical line at its pitch point. In involute teeth, the a blank,
between the line of action and the line tangent to,th,:
circle. , t: Transverse Plane - a plane perpendicular to the axial
'i 1
!:' plane and to the pitch plane.
57. Principal Reference Planes - these a~e a pitc~ P,!
axial plane, and transverse plane, all intersectinq + '; Trochoid - the curve formed by the path of a poi~t on t~e
point and mutually perpendicular. =1 extensionof a circle as it rolls along the curve or line. It IS
f; also the curve formed by the path of a point on a
58. Ratio of Gearing
mating gears.
- ratio of the numbers of tee .: + perpendicular to a straight line as the straight line rolls
,{ along the convex side of a base curve.

59. Roll Angle - the angle subtended at thecenter of a...

circle from ten origin of an involute to the pal
 GEA~S 327
,l-~
326 GEARS )f,:\' ,:~
';,~
D2 = diameter of driven gear
69. True Involute Form Diameter - the smallest diamet" N2 =speed of driven
C = center distance
:'f\ ~
the tooth at which the involute exlts, Usually this'
point of tangency of the involute tooth profile and th~
curve. 1his usually referred to as the TIP diameter,:;..

70. Undercut - a condition in generated gear teeth whJ~;

part of the fillet curve lies inside a line drawn tang)'
teh working profile at its lowest point.
No. of Teeth
Pitch Diameter (in inches)
= T
0

Pc = Circumference of Pitch Circle (in inches)

E~ll
No. of Teeth
71. Whole Depth - the total depth of a tooth space, eq'
addendum pius dedendum, also equal to working'
plus clearance.
= pitch Diameter (in tmn)

No. of Teeth
, 11
72. Working Depth - the depth of engagement of two
that is, the sum of their addendums.

of Spur Gears
\11
II
Basic Equations Involving Mating Gears:
". r = 211 x Torque x Speed
Pinion - is the smaller of the two mating gears.
,-;transmitted load or tangential force
~. Torque = Power 'II
9 .
0/2 nON

"~ Normal Load =

i. .
F
_1_
. cosa
1 III
c = °1 +°2
2
? Separating Load = F, tan-a :.'.:
....•....
J
.'•.•••••
~,'.I
'\1
Speed Ratio =
D = pitch diameter

···
..
rl
Gear Ratio = N = speed'
a = pressure angle
where: T, = no. of teeth of the driver (pinion)
D, = diameter of driver (pinion) c,.'
.. j:..;, i

Nt = speed of driver (pinion) ;J~

T 2 = no. of teeth of the driven gear

328 GEARS GEARS 329

Modified Lewis Equations (Valiance): .,"- Fd = total equivale~t load applied at pitch line, Ib
.{ F, .. tangential load required. for power
F, = SwlY~ for ordinary industrial gears operatin' transrnisslon.fb
P 600+ V F, = increment load (variable load), Ib
at velocities up to 2000 feet per minut . C = a factor depending upon machining errors
(Table 11-5 and Table 11-6)

SwlY 1200:<
-P---- for accurately cut gears operating at:~
1200+ V -;'.
Helical Gears
velocities up to 4000 feet per minute';
. ":1
SwlY 78 for precision gears cut with a ..:
-P-78+.JV
~jl!Jllrgears.have tee~hwhich are cut in the form of a helix
degree of accuracy and operatin .ut an axis of rotation. They are used to connect parallel
velocities of 4000 feet per "non-parallel shafts, can ran at faster speeds, are quieter
over !can sustain greater tangential load than spur gears.
~:--' .
where: . Ft transmitted load or tangential force ~rnngbonegears consists of two helical gears in opposite
Power !!Ids, to balance the axial thrust and are used to connect
"ON J~lIelshafts. .

Sw = safe stress (Table 11 - 3)

f = face width
Y form factor (Table 11 - 2) "I
P diametral pitch
V pitch line velocity = "DN b
D pitch diameter
N speed
61

Dynamic Load on Gear Teeth (Vallance)

~ II:
Fd = Ft + F; = F, + 0.05V(Cf
0.05V -I- JCf
-I- Ftl
-I- Ft
.L~~@5;?'n
Tooth Elements
Pitch Surteee I
I
1 !
 330 GEARS GEARS 331

Pn = P
, COSI1
where: IjI = helix angle Worm Gears
P = diametral pitch , gears are used where high speed ratios (10:1 and
Pn = normal diametral pitch 'El) are desired, The mating members are called worm
tan c!ln = tan cjl tan IjI cjl = pressure angle , 'worm gear or worm wheel.
cjln =
normal pressure angle
~ '. "
Fa = Fi tan IjI F. = transmitted or tanlgenti,!1
Fa = axial load or end
N = actual no. of teeth

Nv =
virtual no. of teeth
no. of teeth measured
normal direction
f = face width

Strength of Helical Gears:

F = SwfY 78
t
-P-78+.JV
~'1orm
Gear
where: Y should be based upon the virtual nt t1T1h",r ()f

Dynamic Loads on Helical Gears:

c.

O,05V(CfcoS211+ Ft)cosl1
',~ lineal pitch =
distance between adjacent threads
"d = the distance from any point on one thread to the
O.05V+ (CfcOS211+ Ftl1/2 '~~sponding point on the next turn of the same thread.
, = pitch (in single threaded worm)
where: V = .pitch line velocity = ltDN ';~ =2 x pitch (in double threaded worm)
"dangle, 'x =
the angle between the tangent to the pitch
ixand the plane of rotation.
"'(pressure angle
~'normal pressure angle

~" .,."

332 GEARS,
, GEARS 333
No. of teeth on ,the gea(
Velocity Ratio = Bevel Gears
No. of 'lhfeads on the worm

~el Gears are used to connect intersecting shafts, usually

No. of threads on the worm is equal to 1for single 'not necessarily, at right angle. '
and g for double .threaded. ;,1,'" ' - _

~fgea(s are bevel gears of the same size connecting shafts

Tan x = Lead :ghtangle.
ltD

= T2N2
tan cjln = tan cjl (cos x)
:'
~':e:Tl' N1 = number of teeth and speed of smaller gear
t. T2, N2 = number of teeth and speed of larger gear
Strength of Worm Gears (Vallance)

The worm gear is weaker than the worm, therefore the

for strength is based 01) the worm gear.

Fl = S PfY~
w: 1200+ V

where: Fl = tangential pitch line load on the gear

Sw = safe stress. Table 12-2.
P := circular pitch
f =
face width
Y = form factor, Table 11-2
V = pitch line velocity of the gear

Efficiency of Worm and Gear:

= tan ,,(cos'n - flan ,,)

cos'n tan" + f

where: f = coefficient of friction

334 CLUTCH CLUTCH 335
and Torque Calculations:
CLUTCHES

Definition:

Clutch is a machine member which is used to connect~ T =torque transmitted'

so that the driven shaft Will rotaie with the driving shaft,;~
n =number of pairs of mating friction surfaces
disconnect them at will.
=1 for single disc clutch
f = .coefficient friction
Types of Clutches: F. = axial force
rr =mean friction radius
1. Jaw clutches - jaws or teeth in the two element ii1t~~
2. Friction clutches- the driving force is translT'itf~
friction; the major types are: plate or disc clutch,:;',. for uniform pressure disc clutch
. clutch, band clutch, block clutch and expanding]
clutch. .
(new unwom clutch)
3. Hydraulic clutches - the torque is transmitted ~•..
moving fluid. = TO +1)
for uniform wear clutch
2
4. Electromagnetic clutches -
(worn clutch)
means of a magnetic field.

p
.....•.
'.
Disc or Plate Clutches:

-T;:'
.._.l.-.~-~--~:-._-
.
~i:~:"-":"=~
..·.'•. ... = 21tTN

Single Disc Clutch t

-,
- 1

336 BRAKES BRAKES 337

BRAKES, I ,ere: T = brake torque
, r = radius of friction surface on the drum
N= speed of drum
Definition:
ating Force Required (by taking moment about the pivot
:ot):
Brake is a device which is used to regulate or stop the
of a body. . .'.:".' F. = -aF2
L

Types of Brakes:
aXimum Unit Pressure:
1. Mechanical Brakes - band, block, shoe,
; .!l
brake br

2. Hydrodynamic Brakes - utilize fluid friction

width of the band
3. Electrical Brakes utilize the strength of electromaqt
fields

Simple Band Brake:

== thickness of the band
Tensions in Band:

y taking a moment abou~t

~ L
• ~,epivot point: ~

where: Flo = force on high tension side

F2 = force on low tension side
f = coefficient of friction
e :: "angle of contact, rad
': =
•
F2(a)-F,(bj

L
r

Fl\!F~'
l ~ L
F.

Brake Torque and Power Developed: ·b

elf-locklng Differential Band Brake:

differential band brake is self-locking when F. is zero or
 .1\.i \
,j \
338 BRAKES BEARINGS 339 i[
Block Brake: L i!
a BEARINGS iI!i
T = fF,h II
\I:!
4fFrrsin(e/2) '\ !
T =
.~
". ~',', .
e+sine
)ring .- a machine member which supports, guide or control \i
"!notion of another. "

= Pmax wr (e + sin e ) :ricant ~ any substance that will form,a'film between the \1
2
,surfaces of a bearing. '
',bitt- a. tin or lead base alloy which is used as bearing
J
T = braking torque.
I
where:
lerial. '
F, = radial force between me drum and eachs',
f = coefficient of friction' ':"
h = effective moment arm Ofthe friction force? "gTypes of Bearing Elements:
r = radius of the friction surface of the drumoi;
e = angle of contact' .'" li 'Sliding element (sliding bearing) .. type of bearing where
Pmax = maximum normal pressure bl'ltween tna;, ;\:;;es,sentiaUy
sliding friction exists
and the drum " ~i}Roliing Element '
'w = axial width of the block a. Ball Bearing - type of rolling-element
bearing which uses spherical balls as rolling
Automotive Shoe Brake: elements
b. Roller, Bearing - type of rolling-element
Heat Dissipated in Brakes: bearing -which uses cylindrical rollers as
rolling elements
H = fF, V
,1il!ssification of bearings according to load applications:
where: H = heat dissipated
f = coefficient of friction
F, = radial force Radial Bearing (journal bearing) - supports radial
V = surface velocity load
2. Thrust Bearing -carries a load collinear to the axis
For Brake used in lowering of a weight: 3. Guide Bearing - primarily guides the motion of a
machine member without specific; regard tot the
H =Wh direction of load application.

where: W = weight lowered {cosl'ty " resistance to flow or the property which resists
h = total distance travelled ~fiIringof tlie lubricant. '

340 I'
BEARINGS
Absolute viscosity_· .,.. . ,' BEARINGS 341
measurement "/hscosltY,whlch IS,determined by!
Kinematic Vi . -o S earreslstance. ' =.E.
specific graVi~;oslty - absolute '{iscosity
P
u = viscosity in reyns
Units of Viscosity: n = speed in rps
P = unit loading, psi
1 reyn = Jib-sec
poise =
i;T 1
---;r
I dyne - sec lictional Torque in Bearings (Vallance)

Tb = FfbO
2
Sliding ~earings

,c> LUbricaoV
Tb = frictional torque
Cd = diametral clearance F = radial load

EB
= D-d ,
fb = coefficient of friction
C, = radial clearance "~T~r,.,
J1.' , ~_,·:~,.~,.:.""._.,
.••.•.
··.•...
.. '~;",).~ D = bearing diameter

e i,
Journal """::>. ,~etr()trsEquation for frictional torque (Fraires):
or shaft 1f i{;::·:t ", 2 3 '
,:J T, = 4ltll r Lns
Bearing 'j , Cr
T, = frictional torque in-Ib
P = unit loading or bearing pressure
= .!.. ' u = .viscosity, reyns (Fig. AF 16 P 595)
LO
r = rournat radius, in ' .
e = eccentricity - rad' I d' .••.•. l ~~xial length of bearing, in
n. - Journalspeed, rps
bearing and the disp~ced ~:nte':~~~~: j~~,t;:~ the cen~ C, = radial cl,earance,in
:c

e=S!. h HeatDissipatio i J
2 ,- 0 = C, - ho f., n n ournal Bearings (Vallance)
i H= ~
~'. 778
where:
o: ~iameter (bore) of the bearing ere: H = neat diSSipatedin Btu/min
d - diameter of the journal Ch = heat dissipation coefficient
Fl : axdi~llle,
ngth of the journal inside the bearin
- ar la oad '
ft-Ibs •

h '" film thickness ;;;:lubricants space

o min - in 2 of projected are.
l = length of bearino
 342 BEARINGS BEARINGS 343
Ball and Roller Bearings K1 = 550 fro unhardened steel
= 700 forhardened carbon steel
Ball and Roller Bearing Designation: = 1000 for hardened alloy steel on flat races
500
= 1500 for hardened carbon steel
400 , Series = 2000 for hardened alloy steel on groove races
Series K2 :; 7000 for hardened carbon steel
= 10,000 for hardened alloy steel

'j

Heavy
Extra
Heavy

Example of Bearing Designation:

SAE 314 is series 300, No. 14

Tabulated Data on Ball and Roller Bearings:

Faires: Table AT 12.4p. 342

Vallance: Table 9-2 p. 206

Bearing Capacity Based on Stresses (Vallance)

2
Fr = K}nD (for ball bearings)
5

nLD
Fr = K2 for roller bearings
5

where: Fr= total radial load, tbs

n = no. of balls or rollers
D = ball diameter or roller diameter, in
L = length of rollers, in

344 RIVETED JOINTS 345

iJ --I

Uses of Riveted JOln~~: Butt Joint

Single Riveted
To produce perman~nt' joint in tanks, pressure Double Strap
bridges and bUilding structures.

Materials for Rivets: Butt Joint

Single Riveted
Wrought Iron, soft steel, copper, aluminum Single Strap
Butt Joint
Size of Rivets
Double-Riveted
Double Strap
Before driving, the rivets have diameter approximately 1I16',i
smaller than the rivet holes. After driving, the rivet diamete~'
the same as that of the river holes. trength of Riveted Joint:
i\.,
Types of Riveted Joints: "analyzing a riveted joint, usually the free body diagram of a
.peating group is drawn and investigated for the following
"rces:
o
o Force that will cause shearing of rivets.
Force that will cause tearing(tension} of plate between
o rivets.
Force that will cause crushing (compression. bearing) of
plate.
Force that will cause shearing of plate in front of rivets.

Lap .Joint rrhe smallest force is the force that will produce that allowable
Lap .Joint tress in the joint.
Single-Riveted Double-Riveted
346 RIVETED JOINTS WELDED JOINTS' 341 l:i :\1
~~' '! I
. !
,,.'. j!I
Load that will produce the ' WE;LDEDJOINTS
Efficiency of Riveted Joint = allowable stress in the jo int ;:
II
Load that \viII produce the::
,! I
I,:1
elding -. process of joining metal by heating the metal
wtpUnehedplate
toa state of fusion pem:litting it to flow together into a
n
,I

~olidjoiflt.
Pitch = center distance of rivet holes \i
'Gas Welding c type of welding which utilizes the heat ,of II!\
the flame which is produced by the combustion of a gas. I
'The most commonly used are acetylene, hydrogen and I
hatural gas in combination: with oxygen, ' Acetylene
welding..iswid~1y used. in welding thin plates and in
Yieldinggas, steam and hydraulic
pipelines; ,
I
Electric Arc Welding -type of welding in whiCh heat is 'I
supplied bya conunuous tarc draWflbetween two
',~Iectrodes, the worldormsone electrOde~ndthe welding
,rOd'forms the' otaer.. Shielded arc welding uses coated iil
'{Welding rods to prevent oxidation of the metal. {
l' '"t

:,1.ThermitWelding -type of fusion welding in which the

iweld metal is essentially cast, steel fused, into the parts
'::"Welded. This process is principally used in repairing
':>heavy maChine parts and inblilldJng uodefective
r
i~ca.stings. ' , .
Of
~:,Atomic~Hydrogenand Helium Arc Welding -type of
;ii welding in which a jet of hydrogen or helium is forced
I',through thearc:dfawn between tow tUngsten electrodes
~'Jo prevent oxidation of the metal. ' .>:
~:~:.,
-. , .

~:.ElectricResistance Welding - ,type of weiding, requiring

"t~both heat and pressure, in whiCh the parts to,be welded
\'are ' brought into contact and a heavy .current at low

---- ------~- --~---

348
WELDED JOINTS"

:im:i: F = loa:+-i •.•----..;~~·

v: ' S; = tensile stress

Types of Welds and Welded Joints:
t = plate thickness
L . = length of weld
/FUII Fillet

'= 1\ Single'
~ngthof Fillet Welds:

~:'2 S5 ~ (b cos 45ot~C=:::;., ;::?:::::J~"_-"h-. F

Lap Joint Using =+J~ b
Fillet Welds
F = load
55' = shearing stress
L = 'length of weld

fiIb'let= weld
leg dimension of weld which is the size of the
.
8 tot8
Butt Welds
b cos 45 0
= throat thickness

T -Joint
"et Methods of Joining Metals:
/f"
'c!dering , - method of joining metal by using an alloy of lead
.•...
tin (called the solder) applied between the two pieces ill a
ten state.

'ng -, ~eth.od ~f joiliingmetal using a non-terous filler'

per alloy) which IS melted.and applied to the pieces being
ned.
Corner Joint
Edge Joint
1BJ1::;,i

-":::Ij

350 MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE MACHINE SHOP PRACTICE 351

or Drill Press - a machine tool which is used mainly to
Machine Shop Practice . uce holes in metal' parts by the use of a rotating drill bit
)ch acts on a securely held piece.
/F
Machine Tools and Machining Operations 'ri~ding Machine or Grinder - a machine tool which uses
. ling abrasive wheels to smoothen metal parts and to
Lathe ~arpenor shape tools." Other operations performed in a
:Mer are polishing, buffing and honlOg,
Lathe a machine tool in which the work revolves
horizontal axis and acted upon by a cutting tool. pring Machine - a machi~e tool purposely designed ,for
'!shing holes. Vertical bonng machine IS used to finish
Machining Operations that are performed in a lathe: ''rtical holes using a tool that moves up and down. In a
'h
s 'fizontal boring machine, the tool rev~lves in a.hori.zontalaxis I
1. Straight turning - the cutting tool is made to moveal ':d used for finishing holes in the ~onzonta~direction: Other
the horizontal axis to produce cylindrical shape rt!, 'achining operations performed 10 a bonng machine are,
parts. ','~' \ ~
'-~mingand'
2. Facing or Squaring - the cut is at right angle withl' :' ing. 1
axis of rotation to produce flat surfaces. "
3. Tapering - the cutting tool is made to move at an all. ;"IlingMachine - a machine tool which is used to.produ~ a ~
II '
with the axis of rotation. . ""; "riely of surfaces by using a circular type cutter With multiple
_. tho
4. Drilling and Boring - using a drill bit to produ~;
enlarge a hole. - f
A. Universal Milling Machine has a table which can be
5. Threading - the horizontal feed is made a(Jtomatic'~
swiveled at an angle.
set to produce the size of thread desired. '
B. Plain Milling Machine does not have the swivel table
Shaper - a machine tool in which the cutter moves"] construction.
reciprOcating motion to produce flat or partly curved su~' C. Vertical Spindle Milling Machine In which the axis of
on metal pieces which are held securely in vise.a '1 rotation of the -spindle is vertical, is, used for end
milling and face milling operations.
Planer - a machine tool Whichis used to produce flat surfa;' III]
on pieces which are too large or too heavy to be worked IT' '~ ,machining operations which are performed in a milling
~chine with the use of suitable milling cutters, are gear
)"
r
shaper. The work is securely fastened to the table -, J

moves in reciprocating motion while the tool head mov ';'tting,sprocket cutting, slotting, grooving and facing.
either direction inclUding down feed. Other opera(
performed in a planer are slotting and broaching. 'f ~nd Saw (for metal) - a machine tool which i.Sused to cut

•..__•._---~,~
.<' tal parts by the use of an endless band With saw teeth
''pvingaround two pulleys.
-

352 353
PIPING SYSTEM

'Power Hacksaw - a machine tool which is used to cutiri' PIPING SYSTEM

parts of light, medium and large sections using a recipro~
hacksaw. blade. .:~ ")pe and Tube. The fundamental difference between pipe and
'I 'l].Jbe
is the dimension standard to which each is manufactured.
Hydraulic Press - a machine tool which consists ofait' ~:pipe !s a tube ~th a round cross section conforming to the
wh~ch.is being actuated by the pressure of a hydraulic' ,Imenslonal requirements for nominal pipe size as tabulated in
whIch IS ~sed in ~arious operations such as bending, dra~' ,ble for pipe schedules.
.;'i., r

forcedJittlng, or disassembhnq of parts. ;~,

i} f.
tube is a hollow product of round or any other cross section
Mech~nical Press - a machine tool which is driven bY~ 'bavinga continuous periphery. -
electnc motor or mechanical power source and is use'
sheet metal work like punching, shearing, bendi :~II and Spigot Joint. The commonly used joint in cast iron
i ••
drawinq, and other sheet metal forming operations.:'f' . . Each piece is made with an enlarged diameter or bell at
,e end into which the plain or spigot end of another piece is
Turret Lathe - a type of lathe which consists of mu;~i serted when laying. The joint is then made,tight by cement,
station tool holders or, turrets allowing the ' akum,lead, or rubber calked into the bell around the spigot.
multiple cuts.
lack Pipe. Steel pipe that has not been galvanized.
••
)
onnet. Part of a valve used to guide and support the valve

A tee the branch of which is larger than the )

:,;ButtWeld Joint. A welded pipe joint made witn the ends of the
two pipes butting each other, the weld being around the
~'periphery.

),Carbon Steel Pipe. Steel pipe which owes- its properties

'-chieflyto the carbon which it contains.

;rCheckValve. A valve designed to allow a fluid to pass through

)' onedirection only.
 ,

~,) ,""
PIPING SYSTEM PIPING SYSTEM 355 ~j 11
sleeves so that they form a tight joint on ,the periphery Of t6' Length. Also known as random lengt!l. Run-of-mill pipe is
.~. ! t
tubing they connect.

Cross .Over. A small fittinl,j with a double offset, or shaped 'Ii~

. 0 mm to 6000 mm in length. Some pipe is made in double
~:gths of 9150 rom to 10675 mm.
i.
ii
i\
"

.alief Valve. One designed to open automatically to, relieve

the letter U with the ends turned out. It is only made ins'"
sizes and used to pass the flow of one pipe past another :cess pressure. ' II
the pipes are in the same plane. ' ill'

",In. A length ()f pipe made of more than one piece of pipe.
Ii
-if
Expansion Joint. A joint whose primary purpose is nottoj
pipe but to absorb longitudinal expansion in the pipe Iirie d ~ddle Flange. A flange curved to fit a boiler or tank and to be II
to heat. ttached to a threaded pipe. The flanged is riveted or welded
d the boiler tank. '
e:
!i
"
Expansion Loop. A large radius bend in a pipe line to abs ~,.",

longitudinal expansion in the line due to heat. crewed Flange. f::! flange screwed on the pipe which it is

Galvanized Pipe. Steel pipe coated with zinc

:'nnecting
:.;;-,"
to adjoinirig pipe.
- - .-
'I
corrosion. et Weld. Ajoint made by use of the socket weld fitting
ich has a prepared female end or socket for insertion of the,
Gate Valve. A valve employing a gate, often wedge-shape'. }e to which it is welded. ' . 1\
allowing fluid to flow when the gate is lifted from the sea,
Such valves have less resistance to flow than globes valves;L, Jandard Pressure. Formerly used to designate cast iron
\
2;'~t, anges, fittings, valves. etc.• suitable for a maximum working
Globe Valve. One with a somewhat globe shaped body with. team pressure of 862 kPa. '
manually raised or lowered disc which when closed rests riill -~~

seat so as to prevent passage of fluid. ' -. treet Elbow. Ari elbow with male thread on one end, and , I
:male thread on the other end. '
Header. A large pipe or drum into which each ofa group'~:
boilers is connected.·~ 'Jress Relieving. Uniform heating of a structure or portion
l ~ "ereof to a sufficient temperature,to relieve the rnalorportion.
Malleable Iron. Cast iron heat treated to reduce its brittlei1e~: Jthe residual streseea.followed by unifor'mcooling.

Manifold. A fitting with a number ot branches ,in Iron refined to a plastic -state in a puddling
connecting to smaller pipes.

Medium Pressure. When applied to valves andfittings.impli~ rought Pipe. Wrought in this sense means worked, as in the
they are suitable for a working· pressure of from 862 to 12'" :fo~ss of forming' furnace welded pipe from skelp, or
kPa. ~i 'pamless pipe from plates Or billets.

i:
PIPING SYSTEM 357 I
i
Identification Colors for Pipes
:eractice. the average fluid flow velqclties may be as follows: Ii
Water-----'-- .__~~_ Green 'f:~'. "

Stearn-, ------'--------- __ Silver-Grey

>Water, ,
!;HighPressureSaturatedSteam~--1500
',l1ighPressureSuperheatedSteam---3050
90 - 180meters/min
- 3050meters/min
- 4570 meters/mini
I
{,AtmosphericExhaustSteam---- 2450- 3660meter/min
Oil-Mineral vegetable animalot {Low PressureExhaustSteam---,-. - 6100- 7300meters/min '1
Flammable or Combustible----- Brown I
Gases in either gaseous or Iiquified -
form, vapours and pneumatically
conveyed fumes and I
I
m'aterials--------- " • Yellow Och-re

Acids and Alcalis--------- Violet

Air ---------------c---------------__ Light Blue

Other fluids, including drainage

pipes unless the drain is to a
particular service------------" Black

Fire fighting materials, inclUding

detection and suppression
systems------ Safety Red

Ha~rdous services (generally

Withother identification of
contents)------------------ Safety Yellow,

I Electricity--

Communications
.~________Light Orange

White

I
oJ
 358 ME LAWS ME LAWS

Republic of the Philippines

Congress of the Philippines SEC. 3. Definition of Terins. '- As used in thisAct:th~'
Metro Manila wing terms shall mean as follows: " " '

Tenth Congress Practice, of .Meehanical Engineering ~,A person

?),
be deemed.to be practicing mechanical engIneering .or
Third Regular Session , ,,ering, mechanical, service within the meaning and intent
tjttJis Act When he performs the following: .
Begun and held in Metro Manila, on Monday, the
eight day of July, nineteen hundred and ninety seven. Consultation, valuation, investigation" and
services requiring ,mechaniCal engineering
REPUBLIC ACT NO. 8495
y. ," (2) Engineering design, preparation ofplan~,
AN ACT REGULATING THE PRACTICE OF
'~cifications and projects, studies or estimates of
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING IN THE PHILIPPINES
,'hanical equipment, machinery, or processes of any
echanicalworks, projects or plants: ,
Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representative~~
of the Philippines in Congress assembled: i'
~.. (3) ,Management or supervision of the/erection,
nstallation, alteration, testing and commissioning of
'eehanioal equipment, machinery or processes •in
'eehanieal works; projects or plants;
ARTICLE I ~~:,'
---
,
TITLE, STATEMENT OF POLICY AND <, - (4) Management or supervision, operation, tending .~
DEFINITION OF TERMS ,",maintenance of any mechanical equipment, machinery, or d -,'

SEC, 1. Title. - This Act shall 'be known as

)pcesses in mechanical work, projects or plants;

(5) Management' . or superviston Of the

I,.,
I

"Philippine Mechanical Engineering Act of 1998."

anutacture, sale, supply 'or distribution of mechanical \~J
SEC 2. Statement of Poiicy. - the State recogniz :,. ~ipment, parts or components:
the importance of mechanical engineers in nation buildin'
and development. Their talents through sustainable numali }' (6) Teaching of mechanical engineering
development shall be promoted, Thus, the State sh~i 'rofessional sUbjects' in government recognized' and
develop, and nurture competent, virtuous, productive a'f.! !Wec!ited engineeri(lg schools; and
:\:,,-;
well-rounded mechanical engineers wnose standardC!
professional practice and service shall be excellen' ;", "',' '. (7) •Employment in, government as a, professional
qualitative, world class and globally, competitive throug"' :echa(licalengineer, registered mechanical engineer, or ~l
"rtified plant mechanic iJthe nature and' character ofhls ,~l
regulatory measures, programs and activities. ~••

-.'t.

360 ME LAWS 361

tlon or not, and without regard to the number of
cities of the mechanical' equipment, machinery or
, esses receiving power from or intended to be driven by 41
b) Mechanical '," Ileh primemovers.
prime movers sUCh Ii, '
combustion englo •
generato
,,
h ••.••
coohngtowers.kil~s·and .dryers,
d turbl . t .
nes, s e
rs SUc ,asLJ'() , ,fi.!rnaces; heat exchanger such a
coolers and heater$'
"
.J

I)
ARTICLE II
materials, handling ;equip~ent, such as pumps, cranes )\
,;:BOARD OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
co~veyors, hOl~ts" elevators, escalators, mechanized dum" -)

"~cllters~ ':'lovIng,: ~mps and walkways; heatin'

SEC.4, Creation and Composition of the Board of
alrCO~dltioru~g, 've~tilating and refrigerati~n equipment and
,echtmical Engineering - There IS hereby created a Board
machln~ry, Inclu~lng compressors and centrifugal fan~
mecha~I~1 ,pollution aba,tement and environmental contrd
1Mechanical Engineering, hereinafter called Board, to be
.'mposed of a Chairman and two (2) members to be
system,plplng system With a working pressure of not less
than !O kPa; fired and unfired pressure vessels' printing'
ppointed by the president of the Philippines, from list of
tree (3) recommendees for each position, chosen, ranked I)
machirte: ~echan~cal working machines for met~lIic and
,n,order of preference and submitted by the Professional
non-~etalhc matenals and other mechanical equipment and
R,egulation Commission,' ,'hereinafter referred as the
machinery Whether installed on land, underground or 'on'
board watercraft. ' , pommission, from a list of five (5) nominees submitted by
"

~'tl
,!he duly accredited association of mechanical engineers in
,e Philippines, The Board shall be organized not later than
c) Mechanical processes, works, projects or plants shall
include steam plants, geothermal plants, dendro-thermal'
"six (6) from the effectivity of this Act. '
plants, nuclear plants, ocean thermal energy conservation
(OTE~) plants, Internal combustion plants, hydraulic plants}! ~" SEC5. Qualifications of the Members of the Board - A
'member of the Board shall at the time of his appointment,
pumping plants" compress~d gas plants, all kinds of mills;'::
J assess the following qualifications:
shops, ,,~actones, shipyards drydocks, healin ';
alrcondltlonl~g, ventil,ating and refrigeration plants containin~i
any mechameat equipment, machinery or process deriving' (a) Natural bom citizen and resident of the Philippines;
~ower from steam, fossil fuels, wind, air, gas, water, solar0
t(b) Must be at least thirty-five (35) years of age;
eat, nuclear energy, ocean waves and tides or other;
energy Sources, ' ,,~
, (c) Holder of the degree of Bachelor of Science in
,'Mechanical Engineering or its equivalent, conferred by a
d,l ~ap~clty of process works, projects or Plant-rated:'
capacity In kilowatt of mechanical works projects or rants~ ,~school,academy, college or university in the Philippines or
for the purpose of this ~ct shall be the tO~1 kilowatt rati~gS of :abroad ffiat is accredited by the Commission on Higher
~11engines, mot?rs, boilers, turbines, or otherprimemovers.; :Education (CHED)
Installed for us: In such works, projects or plants, Whether in:'

_1)
 ]
362
'il
ME LAWS,
ME LAWS 363 f" II
'I
(d) A Professional Mechanical Engineer with a vau3 i.t
Each member of the Board shall take his oath of office
professional license and an-active practitioner as suchf" \1
the official performance of his duties,
not less than ten (10) years prior to his appointment; '. ,,' \\
·"i':.
ii
SEC. 7. Compensation and Allowanoes of the Board
(e) . ,Must n?t for a period of three (3) consecutiyl: '\1
bers _ The 'Chairman and members of the Board
years pnor appointment, be a member of faculty of af'l II
'<:eivescompensation and allowances eomparableto the
schools. academy. institution, college or university wher i'iI
':-pensation and allowances being received by, the
regular course ~n rn.echanicalengineering is being taugh . airman and members of existing regulatory boards with
nor have pecumary Interest in or administrative supervisi
over any such institution of learning;
~eCommission and may be provided for in 'the General
II
'propriations, .:
il
. (f) Must not, for a period of three. (3)consecuti .
, SEC. 8.
supervision of the Board. Custodian of its Ii
years prior to his appointment, be connected with a re
:~POrds,Secretariat and Supporl Servioes - The Board shall
center or with any group or association where . re
"",'underthe general supervision of the Commission. All
classes or lectures in preparation for' the 'licens
examination' are offered or conducted at the' time
pords afthe Board; including applications for examination.
,amination papers and results, minutes of deliberation,
II
appointment; and ' .
dmlntstrativecases" and other investigative cases involving
~profession shaiibekept by 'the Commission. The \
. (g) Has never been convicted of any offense involvi<
moral turpitude. . ..' .i", ,()jnmissionshall designate the secretary of the Board and.
. ":'I: ~llllprovide the Secretariat and other, support service to
l",plementthe provisions of thiS Act.
SEC. a.Term of Office - A member oflhe Board sh~i
hold office for a .term of three (3) years from the date of hi
appointment or until his successor shall.have been qualifie"
'i SEC. 9. Power and Duties of the Board - The Board
'}jallexercise the following specific functions. duties. and .~
and duly appointed. unless. however. that such incurnben
member has been reappointed for another Jhree(3) yeJ3t
term. No member of the Board shall serve for more thart
•...
sponsibliities:
:,:,' I· : . \
I
i
'," (a) To promulgate and adopttherules and regulations
two (2) regular terms.. Any vacancy occurring within th~'
':"cessary for carrying out the provision of this Act;
t~rm o~ th~. member due to resignation. conviction of ai:l~
kind, disability of death, shall be filled by appointment oUtl·
. (b) To supervise the registration, licensure and practice,
President of the' Philippines; and. such member appoint~'·
shall serve for the unexpired portion of the' term vacated "f mechanical engineers in .the philippines;
L·;
without prejudice. t? serve for a maximum of two (2)t4~i ; (c) To administer oaths . in connection. with the
terms. If the appointee comes from the incumbent Boatd
successful examinees entering the practice of Mechanical
he shall serve the remaining vacated termot the preViol.r
years .he had already serve and shall vquallfied' fq' . p",neering;
.~.".
reappointment: Provided, his aggregate numbers of' yea'
(d) To issue the certificate of registration to successful
shall not exceed two (2) regular full terms. . '.
. xaminees; ,
"

(eJ To issuesusPed '. .•.•.'. . ..f . . ,'.'

. p'ro~ess, certifiC<lt~s.of ire ~ .' a~c1.pIre.voke •..after '.' a en~ineerin!r .

suspend'professionaJlice gstrallon .andlssue,cancel a
the,mechanical eng;neerin~s~ or cancel sp~cial permits\
'. .' ..' , or cau~esp'rovldedby law",
-: e .
EC ,1 '.
h .1~. :nnual Reporl. :The Board shall. at the>cl~se
. .(f)'ToadoPtan offlciat<sealof the B ': . .'~ ca en ar yea~•. s~bmit an annual report to the
, '." . .', oard, at~n ~ the. ~h1/IPPI~~Sthrough the Professional', .').
(9)TO.lookinto the condT •.•.. ") d' ommesion, :gl1l1nga d~tailed account of itS: ,,~
mechanical' engineering lion .affe~ting the practice Ing and accomplishment durin th :'
cessary adopt such m pro.esslon and whene' menda~ionf~r the adpption of m2asu~e:~~~t ~~~I~~
, >:>,. the.e~hahcement andeas~resas may be.deemedpfQJ e.and Improved the condition affectin the .. '
.: '}rnd ethmcalstandards on~a~~~~:ii~~;Of hl~h profess;? oleal engineering in the Philippines, g practice of,

. (h) To prescribe and '.' ";, EC .

11
.
R" :
emov,al, of the -Board Member • The ' '-
PrO!essional Standards for t~dOPt a. COde.of Ethics.' ,ent upon recommendation' of the Commission rna .'
.englOeering profession;' .e practice of the mechanJ: t :fnJ mem~er of the Board on the follOWingground; '...
n of ~~ or~nfompetence, Violationor tolerance oflhe
(i) To. hear . and try d . . . ":1' e' . I~ c. or the Code of Ethics for ,Mechanical'
vi<?fations for this A t mlnlstrative cases involvi
i ~

Regulations. the Code ~'E It. Implementing. Rules

and for this purpose ~ . fhios for Mechanicai Engine' ,
',a :~d
'.'.·
nng, final ,Judgment,of crimes involving moral
after haVing,t~e member. an opportunity .to.be
..t. t' or defend himself in a proper administrative··
duces tecum to secur~ thO ISsue SUbpoena and subpo'· .lllga Ion. .
production of documents ~ appeara~ce ofwitnesSes and' .{'
In connectIOntherewith,'r
(j) Prescribe gUidelin' , '. ::~
Education (CPE) pr . e~ In the, Coptinuing Profes~:'
associatioA of mecha~~~~ 10. coordlOatlon with accredit ARTICLE'"
engineers;, ,.EXAMINATION, REGISTRATION AND
, (k) Prepare, adopt issu . ,;' L1CE~SE .
SUbjectsfor examioation~' e or amend the syllabi of',
~SE~.12. Examination. Required • All applj(;a~ts for
5') ApproVed. iss~e
';rnit
practice mechanical engineeri~~~~~~ketemporarylicensiJ.
,J Istrati?n for the practice .of mechantcst engineering shall
.r~qUl~ed to undergo and pass a written technical'
,:;m.I03tlonas provided for in this Act. .
(rn) Discharge such th .<'
be deemed necessary ()~ er duties_and function as rri' ',.'~EC.13, Categories - Certificates of registraiibn fOIthe
mechanical. engineering or, lh~ enhancement oftft ,i:~~:_?f.~e.~h~~~~~I_.e.r:~~:e;~~,~
..~hall be of three (3) "
ororessio» "nrl 'h~ ,,_.
 - --===-
- - - - ------- ---.-t',
\1 ~ -:
366 ME LAWS
~------'-----~
ME LAWS 367
I
f,
1\
I
\'
\
, ,~
(a) Professional Mechanical Engineer; (a) He is a citizen of the Philippines
~

~,.
(b) Mechanical Engineer; and (b) He must not have been convicted by a courtoflaw
:icrime Involving moral turpitude;' .
(c) Certified Plant Mechanic ;¥" '
'r (c) He holds a degree of Bachelor of Science in
SEC.14. Qualification of Applicants for Profession, :echanical Engineering from university; school, college,
Mechanical Engineer - Any applicants to the Professiona.t c:ademy, or institution duly constituted and recognized as
mechanical engineering examination must, at the time ' 'Uch by the government. .
filing of his application, establish satisfaction of that i.,.; . " " . V"~
that; jt' SEC. 16. ' Qualification of Applicants for Certified Plant
echanic- Any person applying for . examination for
(a) He is a citizen of thePhilippines "~rtificate of registration as Certified Plant Mech~nic shall
)itablish to the satisfaction of the Board:
(b) He most not have been convicted by a court of la,
of a crime involving moral turpitude; (a) .He must nothave convicted by a court of a law' of a
"me involVing moral turpitude;
(c) He has a valid certificate of registration and .he is
registered mechanical engineer and a holder of a vail' ,\~, (b) He has graduated from a vocational or trade school'
professional license;j ~uly recognize by government after completing an approved
.:$ 'f course not less than. two (2) years in stationary or power
(d) He has graduated from an engineering school 0' )antengineering or any mechanical plant operation; and
college of recognized standing, after completing a~'
approved course in mechanical engineering;' E (c)He has specific record of an additional one (1) year
~r more active practice in mechanic plant operation of such
(e) He has specific records of a total four (4) or more 0: 'aracter as indicated in an affidavit if a registered
active mechanical engineering practice, reckoned from tim '. "cofessional mechanic engineer and, likewise establish to
he is registered a mechanical engineering practice; and " ..e satisfaction of the Board, that the applicant ts competent
roundertake the operation, tending and maintenance of
(f) He is competent to practice, as attested to by a . echanic works, project, or project of not less than one
least two (2) professional mechanical engineers. ",' 'hundred (100) kilowatts.
:f' ,

SEC. 15. Qualification of Applicants for Mechanid~ ,,' SEC.17. Scope of ,Ex"aminatjon - T,he scope of
Engineering - Any person applying for examination and for: 'Xamination and the methods of procedure shall be
Certificate of Recognition as Mechanical Engineer shall priq "'rescribed by the Board with special reference to the
to the examination establish to the satisfaction of the Boaf ~pplicants ability to perform the type of engineering work
that: 'erlaining to the particular category.he is to be registered in;

'L.:..-~
__
,._'_,"
._~_._. _
.........~-.~_~_-__-.._----_.-.__=--_-_-_ 1r'1
~·.,ft
Jt f

368 ME LAWS 369 I '

I 1

(a) Professional Mecna .neer - The granti ~verage, and the system and procedure in the licensure ,'j
I I o
professional mechanic~~$Jif:i!:lerCertificate ·of Registr ~xaminations for the practice of mechanical engineering and
shall be testimonial'm 'nature which
4.'-".-,":>" _
shall
-'.,::,;t
include .~' \!l)e corresponding weight pursuant to implementing rules <1

submission of an enu(l1~rationof the report/technical pa, ,~nd regulations issued for this purposed.
pertinent to his Iifl~Qfexpertence attested by two (2)f i" 0
more professional "inechanical engineers in an affidaviU, ",' The said subject and their syllabi may be amended by
this purpose;" ;!he Board so as to conform to technological changes
\:
! tJ
, F~~i ,brought about by continuing trends in the profession.
(b) Mechanical Engineers - The applicants shall pas~:, \: a
written examination on a different subjects or grOl.i' " SEC. 18. Ratings - To pass the examination, a :I
prescribed by the Board, and with the syllabi prepared', 'candldate for a professional mechanical engineer, a
the Board with emphasis on plant and industrial pli( ';rnechanical engineer, a certified plant mechanic must obtain I
11
engineering, mathematics, engineering economi
economic analysis, laws, and ethics and machine design,·;-
,an average of seventy percent (70) on all subjects, with no
:rating below fifty percent (50) in any of the SUbjects.
I
r
The SUbjects in which the applicants for Mechanici ,'; SEC. 19. Report of Rating - The Board should submit t'
I t;
Engineers shall be examined are: ,:.tothe Commission, the ratings obtained by each candidate
{within fifteen (15) days after the examination,
;'.extended for just caused.
unless r
1. Machine Design, Material & Shop Practice

{" SEC. 20. Re-examination - An applicant who fails to l

2. Industrial & Power Plant Engineering
: pass the examination for the third time shall be allowed to
3. Mathematics Engineering Economics and ; take another examination only after the lapse of the year.
Engineering Science
~~
, SEC. 21. Oath - All successful candidates in the I
ri
(c) Certified Plant Mechanic· The examination for ttl Z;,examination shall be required to take an oath of profession fl
Certified Plant Mechanic may be written or oral on subje' 'before the Board or any government official authorized to
matters based in the following submitted stateme" ,(administer oat, prior to entering upon the practice of the
experience; , c):mechanical engineering.

1. Elements of Power Plant Machinery , SEC. 22. Issuance of Certificates of Registration and
::Professional License - Upon payment of the registration fee
2. Elements of Industrial Plant Machinery: and;, '; as the established by the Commission, the Board shall issue
; a certificate of registration to any of the applicant who has J •

3. Shop Machinery Practice . met all the requirements specified in the Act for the
:' 'particular category he is registering in.
-" u_ - -_~_~ •••....
I f
•.•. f.h", rArY'lrnic:c:inn thp.
 ME LAWS ME LAWS 371

All certificates of registration shall be indicate the fij' qf, professional mechanical engineers" mechanical,
name of the registrants, signed by all the members of ttl' eers, and, certified plant mechanics under, the custody
Board and .the Commission and affixed with the official se Board ot the Board of Commlsskm, or thosewhpmay
of the Commission. The issuance of a certificate ' ar be/included therein upon registra~on payment of
registration by the Board of registrant is evidence that tif' uired fees shall be automatically become memt>ersof"
person named 'therein is entitled to all the privileges of}' tegrated and accredited ,organization 'of mechanical
reqistered and ~icensed professional mechanical enginee' " g. Theinteg~ationofthe mechanical !'lngiQ~rinQ
mechanical engineer or certified plant mechanic, as the cas n .shall not be a bar to a formation of voluntary
may be, for as long as said certificate remains valid,:' ation otmechanlcal. engineers which' may ,coexist
e , integrated 'apd i accredited, organization 'of '.
A professional license bearing the registration numb? ical,engineers. : The Board subject to the. approval,
date of issuance, expiry date -and duly signed the chairm~; ommissionand afterconsultation with the existing
, of t~e Board, shall likewise issued to every registr~r.l ted organization of mechanical engineers al']dother,
provided :t~at professional .fees have been paid. Noperso organization of mechanical 'engineers' are;" if '
shall practice mechanical engineering in this country unles '¥thllubstantlal num~er, of :mechanical engin~e~s
such person shall secured a license to practice Mechani " !lon-organization members, shall provideQ'the,' ,
Engineering in the manner herein provided .. A license'd nes .and mechanism, for, the establishment ,and
entitled to practice the profession with the privileg" rii continued superVision of the integrated and
appurtenant thereto until the expiration of the validity oft ji~d'organization of rnechanicalengirieers.The'
license. ed, and iicenseengineers are, certified • plant.'
'nics shall', received, .,the benefits' ,and~'j:>riviIEige'
Subject to approval of the Commission certificates)' enan!. "to, the membershi(> in, duly' integra,te(1i3lid
Specialt~ shall .issued by the Board, t~ ProfessioQ: ited ' inechani~Lengineerin~ association' onlyypon'"
Mechanical Engtneering who have been screened an', entofthe required fees d,ues. " ,<i,: -.
recom.m~nded by accredited mechanical enginee-"
association. These are for specific fields in whichth ~:$EC.24, ' Seal ot'Professionals Mech~nicafEngfhee(~;
applicants have specialized knowledge, training a~ 't9!Elssional mechanical,enginee~ shall, uponregi~tr<i~9n,
;}oa seal, of SUch, design -prescrlbed ,byth¢'B<>f\td/
experience and. have documented their competence a";,
experti~e.. The Board, shall subject to the approval of'tt}, t!ng regis~ntsname. ',the ,certificate number13ndtll~ '
Commission, and after consultation with said associatioi ~(i'~·professionC1\( Mechanical Engineer::' DElsi9rl,pl,c!Os' '
concerned, prescribed and necessary guidelines for tl:1 .pifications," project" feasiQility " studies, app~isal~:
Issuance of these certificates. ,)i' ,)nrfiendatioos, " technical .rElport. proposal anQotl:)e.r
f~ssionalsdocuments involvin'g, mechqni,cal '.~CluiJ:lIllent,
SEC. 23. Integration and Accreditation of Mechanlda "~cts, or plans shall b~ stamped onevery she~tWiths~id'
Engineers - An integrated organization of mechani¢a J.;()fthe registrants when flIed with govemmel'lta\JthoriUes .,
engineers shall be created and accredited by the Board ;-" L, en submitted .or. used professionally; Provi\1ed 1t1)C1t"cit
Mecha~ical Engineering and Professional Regulation. an· i!l(be unlawfulfor anyone to stamp or seal any.docoment
'~f'
,~'-. -, '., c_ " '. .'~ '-

Cornmlsston: All persons whose names now appear in ttl

,:p

372

with the said seal afterthefertifit

ME LAWS 373
revoked or cancelled. . " . ca es
., ngineering ; Provided, however, That such action of the
oard shall subject to appeal without prejudice to the Jjghtof
Grou;;sC'_ 2.(he :on~ssuance -: Certificate 'of Certaii • e aggrieved party to apply with prosper Regional Trial
Court for appropriate relief. '
:e~istration to any ~::sons~~~vi~~~d Issue a. certificate'
JUrisdiction of any crime involVing m .~~ co~rt of co~peten
~; SEC. 28.' Reinstatement and Replacement of the
or dishonorable conduct ora urpltude, or Immorcil
declared b a court . or any pe~son of unsound min', ,Certificates..-'- The Board, upon application and for reasons
,f equity and justice, may reinstate the validity of a revoked
party conc~rned as ~~~~~~~~~e%JUrlSdiCtion" furnishing th'
;certificate of registration, and professional license, upon
for such action, which slat t ~nt co~tatntng the reascd
records of the Board. emen s all be rnco~orated in the payment of the required fees, at least two (2) years after
Jev~cation.A new certificate of registration to replace jilny
pertificate lost, destroyed or mutilated may be issued,
SEC, 26. Revocation and Su SUbject to the rules of the Board, and upon payment of the
The Board shall the spenslOn of Certificate
to Suspend to revokepower, an'
upon proper non
Ice an
d h
earing,
quired fee.
registrant for any cause Ip~~i1'f~~te t of reglstrahon of any
of for the use in what re rn he preceding secnoni 1',' SEC.' 29. Renewal of License. - The professional
bt . . ever way of any fraud d .. }Icense shall serve as evidence that the licensee can lawfully
o atnrng a certificate of regist l' or ecelt In
or incompetence or f ra ion, ?r for gross negligence 'ipractice his profession until the expiration of its validity.
conduct for violation Ofo~hunp~fesslonal or dishonorable (tlowever, renewal of license can only be done upon
Jpayment . of renewal fee corresponding to three (3)
engineers and certified Pla~t co ~ Of. et~lcs f<;>rrnecnantcat
;,;consecutive years.
action of the Board sh II :e a~lcs, Provided, That the,
Commission within fiftee~ 1~ SUbject to appeal to, thet
decision on the matter shall ~nal. days from notice, Whose'!
i'. SEC. 30. Vested Rights. - Automatic Registration of
';Practicing Mechanical Engineers. - All practicing
"Mechanical Engineers who are registered at the time this
SEC, 27. Grounds for Sus ' :'>
License, Cancellation penson an? Revocation of<{ :lct takes effect, shall_automatically be registered.
Board shall have the' of Temporaryl Special Permit - The.'
revoke or suspend t~o~er, upon due noti~e and hearing, to'; ::,' SEC. 31. Coverage of Temporaryl Special Permits. -
to cancel a tem ora rcense o~ mechanical engineers, o~:; :'The following shail be required to secure a
.specified in the rP ry / sp~clal. per~it for any cause.'r (Temporary/Special Permit from the Board subject to the
the Use of perper:u~~~~ln~ section, inclUding but not limitto\ ,.'approval by the Commission:
cer:ificate of registratio 0
for, ; batement
at y fraud or deceit in obtaining ~;:
of th~ o~lI~r ~~compe~ence, negligence, or"~ , a) Mechanical Engineers, installation, commission or
englO! ':!ring, violation of th g pra~hce of mechanlcal;f i,guarantee engineers from other countries called in for
implen ..~nting Rules and R e P~OVlslon of this Act, its;' :~.consultation or for a specific design or installation, project
Policie:; Qf the Board th
. e
~gUd'ation and lor Violations
0 e of EthiCS for Mechanical ';,
on : not requiring more than three (3) months residence in the
\ Philippines in a twelve (12) month period: Provided, That
'!lllr.h p.noinp.p.rs ::IrP.Ip'o::lllv aualified to practice mechanical
 ME LAWS 375
374 ME LAWS
ARTicLE.IV
PRACTICE OF THE PROFESSION

.SEC. 33. Field of Action Authorized for Each Category: .'

revision. - It shall be unlawful for any person,unless
..thorized under this Act:
~J
~.f
; a) to be in responsible eharqe .of the .pr~paration of
tans, designs, investigations, valuatio~, techmcal report~,
'ecificationS, projects studies or estlmat~s or t~ be. 10
rformance ofothef professionalmechamcal engme~nng
tivities unless he is a dUly' licensed ProfessIonal
chanical Engineer.

..•... b) to teach professional sUbj~cts in mecha~ical

gineering course unless heis.a duly!,censed Professional,
chanical Engineer, or a Ma~ter's: degree, or Doctorate
', ree'holder in mechanical engmeenllg·

••··c) to' be in' responsible Ch~lf9~ of the construction,

ection; installation; alteration, o~lfthepe~orma.~~;~
echanical . engineering .•service In .co!'nection WI .
nufacture; sale, supply or distribution of any mechamcal
rks projects or plant either for himself or ~or other: unless
.'i is ~ •duly registered Professional Mechamcal Engineer or
, .echanical Engineer.

~"'d) to o~erate, tend or maintain, or bein-ch~rge of the

b eration, tendIng, or rnaintenance of any mechamcal works,
/,P . c
·tSplant of 100 1<w;or more but not more than 300.1<W
,pr(t ..'he is a 'duly . licensed Professional Mecham.cal
~uE'
n e~s e Mechanical Engineer or Certified Plant Mechamc.
" ngme r,
,tj., e) to operate; tend 'or maintain, or be in-charge of ~he.
,,,".... . t d' or maintenance of any mechamcal
'operation, . en lng, . .' . I rk
'e'\iiment, machinery or process for any mechamca wo s,
Vpfbj~ct5 or plants of 300 kw or above but not more than 2000

376
ME LAWS 377
kw unless he is a dUIYU~ "
Engineer or Mechanical En-gL, ., ;personnel herein'. required at least one (1) professional ·1
,<1t·:;~:;':··:;:< . echanlcal engineer in-charge of each and every additional
}
f) to operatl:l,t~n(j,,t>trnaintain, or be in-charge of the 'it (shift. ,
operation, . tending,:.prmaintenance of any mechanical,
equipment,machin~ryocprocess for any mechanical works,.,' SEC. 35. Preparation of Plans and Supervision of :l
projects or pia~tS of over 2000 kwunless he is a dUly;~ onstruction by Licensed Engineers Required. - It shall be
licensed Professional Mechanical Engineer..:;. ,unlawful for any person to order or otherwise cause the j
.... ~ fabrication, construction, erection, installation or erection of
SEC. 34. PerSonnel Required in Mechanical Plant. -,;~. iariy mechanical equipment, machinery or process for any
Every mechanical work, project or plant in operation shall;.;' mechanical works, projects, or plants, unless the designs, L
have not less than the following complement of resident::~
licensed professional mechanical engineer, mechanicaC;&
;,plans, layouts or specifications have been prepared by or
}under the responsible charge of, and duly signed and sealed
r
engineer or certified plant mechanic: . ,py a·Professional Mechanical Engineer.
f-
a) 100 kw or over but not more than 300 kw: one (1) /;. Likewise, proposals and quotations for the supply and
certified plant mechanic, or one (1) mechanical engineer or.:{' "fabrication of mechanical equipment, works, projects, plants,
one \ 1) professional mechanical engineer: Provided, That:." ~mechanical pollution abatement systems, mechanical fire
every mechanical work, project or plant in this category.': .:protection systems,' pressurized pipes with a working
operating in more than one shift every twenty-four hours;", '-pressure of not less than 70 kPa, shall be duly signed and
shall have in addition to the minimum personnel herein .:"; ; sealed by a Professional Mechanical Engineer.
required, one (1) certified plant mechanics, or one (1).:
mechanical engineer, or one (1) professional rnechanical., y SEC 36. Practice Not Allowed for Firms and
engineer in-charge of each and every additional shift. . :iCorporalions. - The practice of mechanical engineering is a
:'professional service, admission to which shall be determined
b) 300 kw or over, but not more than 2000 kw: one (1)' ..upon the basis of an individual's personal qualifications.
mechanical engineer or one (1) professional mechanical ':~
'

engineer: Provided, That every mechanical work, project or No firm, company partnership, association or
plant in this category operating in more than one shift every : corporation may be registered or licensed as such for the
twenty-four (24) hours shall have, in addition to the minimum !practice of mechanical engineering: Provided, however: That
personnel herein required at least one (1) mechanical } persons properly registered and licensed as mechanical
engineer, or one (1) professional mechanical engineer in-. ,'engineers may form and obtain registration with Security and
charge of each and every additional shift. ':' Exchange Commission of a firm, partnership or association
i using the term "Mechanical Engineers", and or "Architect and
c) Over 2000 kw: one (1) professional mechanical ;; Mechanical Engineers" but no body shall be a member,
engineer: Provided, That every mechanical work, project or ;>partner or associate unless he is a duly registered and
plant in this category operating in more than one shift every" .,licensed mechanical engineer, and the members who are
twenty-four (24) hours Shall have, in addition to the minimum', " mechanical engineers shall only render work and services
, proper for mechanical engineers as defined in this Act.
 378
!V'ELAWS
ME LAWS 37:9
, SEC, 37. Posting of Cettitl. " " 'i'
manager, orbther', '. e tttcetes. ~ The own~
• It shall be the duty of all duly. constituted authorities
works rol person tn-charge of 'any mechanle
' P olects, or plants of one hundred (100) kw or mos ;,fOu9h the officers of the law of the national government,or
,0 f a firm, CO.partne rsh' '. w or mo 'ny provincial, city or municipal government or any political
asso,Giation s'haJI .'t ip, corporatlo,n or joint-sto","', 1.lbdivisionthereof, to enforce the provisions of this act and
' , posor cause to O b ",
-con~picuous place within such plant tb . e . posted .inJ Q1pi'bsecute.:any person violating the same. '
;;,,/:,.-.
certificate of registration ' . 0 uSlnes~,the ong" "!i:t- ' ,. .
the certified plant mecha~::: e~gtneero.r engll]eers and!, " SEC. 41. Qualification Requirements. ~ In 'a
frame protected by transpare t em I ploye~ m su.ch plant,ill J>vernment or private institution where a position requires a
n g ass or Its eqUIvalent.?
';)ster's degree holder, a 'holder of professional mechanical
. SEC 38.RosterofE ' . -,' ,"',.'i
,11gineer,licenseshall be eligible for the position. Likewise,
ShoWing tho, ,,0 , '. ngmeers and Mechanics; - Areos'
·.,~re .aposition . requires a professional mechanical
,all , regis:r:~mesp~;f~~~~~?f business :Of all bUSi~ess,f, .'Qineer's license, a holder of a master's or doctorate
mechanical engineers and '. mechanlqll .engtnel:l '~fl~e in mecl,1anical engineering, .With a ,registered
prepared by the Comm'jsSi:rti~~dhPlant mechanics, shaJl~' . nical engineer's license shall be considered in the
to any interested parties" ~ IC 'Sh~J1be made avail<!g ltion .'
" , , ," ,upon tormal written request. , ;,'
SEC. 39> Foreign Re' it,'
-~nginee~ 'or mechanic' c~~~ Ybe-Notoreign mechanio;
'" > "'t "

i
mechalllcal engineerin', ,.' all.awedto; Pra"
registration Of to be en~t1 ~r t to be "given, 'certificill~,
this 'Actunlessheca',
rules of Court orl>
e .o,any of~he privileges un
0 p~ove ,'0 ~h~ manner ProVided bX
ARTICLEV,·'
;PENAL AND CONCLUPINGPROVISIONS Ii
,I
that th ' ys~ecffic proVlsl.ons of law orreguli,lt SEC. 42. Penalties. - In addition to the administrative
of reCi~~~~;~~~~lc~Ii~~ISSUbjeC~ ?r,citizen,jn th~' ctions imposed under this Act any person who violates
mechanics 'to ra '. .tn? me~~alllcal engineers and of the provisions of this Acland its rulesand.requlauons
basis as thes'Ebiecc~6 ~tit~tn 'Itsterntorial, limits on the'S f • upon conviction be penalized by a fine. of not less than
" , " , r CI zens of such COuntry,or state. thousand pesos (P50,OOO.00) nor more than Two :1

Law. ~~~~~;o::o.rcementof t~e Actbytfle

enforcemeht ageri~o~:~ R~Uladtion Commission Sllall b'
Officers 0
dredthousand pesos (P200,OOO.OO),or imprisonment of
I~ssthan six (6) months normore th~IIl' three (3) years, or
,thfine andimpri~orimentat ~e discretion of the court. -
.
I
~
shall im Ie ,- ,e oar .• As such, the Comml
its 'imPI~in:et?t the~ncemedProvisionsof this Act .en SEC. 43: Implementing Rules arid Regulations.- The i
Board, con~u~i '~~::s:n::regulations"as a?Optedp rd. shall formulate and issue the implementing rules and
violations of the Code :~f ~nsd on, compJalnl$inc/ lations to carry out the provisions of tbis Act. .
prosecute When soWairanted.Ol] uct of the professior;
SEC. 44. Funding Provisions. ~Such sums may be
cessarytQ carry out provisions. of this Act 'shall be

380 MEI..AWs
ME LAWS 381
included in the General appropriations Act of the
:j~elteor a major'daily newspaper of general circulation in
following its enactment intofaw and thereafter. Philippines, whichever is earlier.
. ".' ,4
SEC. 45; Separability Clause. - If any section o~ pof'tionf,"
of this Act shall be declared unconstitutional or invalid,the,p
same shall not invalidate all other sections or portions noti
affected thereby., .

SEC. 46. Repealing Clause. - Commonwealth Act No,;' JOSE DE VENECtA, JR. NEPTALI A. GONZALES
294, as amended by Republic Act No. 5336, is herebY';$' Speaker of the House President of the Senate
repealed and all other laws, parts of law, orders, ordinances •.;' of Representatives
or regulations relative to the practice of mechanicam,
engineering Which are inconsistent with the provisions of thi~J This Act,which is a consolidation of Senate Bill No.
Act are hereby repealed or modified accordingly. and House Bill No. 9806 was finally passed by the
and the House of Representatives on February 3,
SEC. 47. Transitory Provisions, -a) Mechanical Plant: and January 28, 199B,respectively.
Engineers possessing valid certificates of registration issued;:
under Commonwealth Act No. 294 with BSME degree shalli",
after the approval of this Act, ",register and be issued;:"
certificates as professional mechanical engineers to replace'
their original certificate of registrationupori payment of thet ROBERTO P., NAZARENO HEZEL P. GACUTAN
required fees. - ":.\ Secretary General Secretary of the Senate
House of Representatives
b) Faculty Members currently teaching meChanical'~
engineering professional subjects in universities, colleges,''''
Approved: February 12,1998
institutes or schools shall not be allowed to continue 0'
teaching after five (5) years from the approval of this ACt,r,
unless they are or have' become Professional Mechanicala
Engineers or at.least Registered Mechanical Engineers with::!l'
a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering' from duly( FIDEL V. RAMOS
recognized and accredtted universities, colleges, institutes or'-~ President of the Philippines
schools. . ;i'

t .C) Th~ present Board shall ~ontinue to function in th~i~

ellm Until such time as the new Board shall constituted. t:,

EC. 48. EffectiVity Clause. - This Act shall lake effect'

(15) days following its pubtication in the Official·;