Veterinary Forensic Patlogy, Volume 1

Jason W.
Brooks
Editor
Veterinary
Forensic
Pathology
Volume 1
Veterinary Forensic Pathology, Volume 1
Jason W. Brooks
Editor
Veterinary Forensic
Pathology, Volume 1
Editor
Jason W. Brooks
Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences
The Pennsylvania State University
University Park
Pennsylvania
USA
ISBN 978-3-319-67170-3 ISBN 978-3-319-67172-7 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67172-7
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018930341
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

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For my Family, and for those who cannot speak for themselves
Speravit anima mea…exaudi vocem meam
Preface
What is truth? This fundamental concept has inspired me since childhood.

The quest for truth has been a continual motivation through a lifelong
journey in search of answers to questions that others would not ask. Truth,
at times, can be humbling, unwelcome, and disconcerting to the unprepared
mind. Truth can be foul and offensive, surprising and spectacular, dirty and
horrific, but it remains truth nonetheless. Both liberating and incriminating,
it cannot be defiled or adulterated. Truth is what is. This is its simple
elegant beauty.
Forensic pathology is, at its core, a quest for the discovery of truth. The
recognition and development of the subdiscipline of veterinary forensic
pathology within the broader field of veterinary pathology seemed almost an
impossibility only a decade ago. Yet today there is more interest and demand
than ever for such expertise, and requests for forensic necropsy are increasing
at an unprecedented rate. Yet, despite the apparent need and the interest of a
small passionate segment of veterinary pathologists, there is a paucity of
training courses and reference materials in the field. This textbook is an ear-
nest effort to not only fill the void in reference materials but also pioneer a
new era in veterinary medicine and pathology—an era in which the truth can
be brought to light through science, and the voices of the victims may finally
speak through those who understand.
I am proud to be breaking new ground with the publication of the first
textbook solely dedicated to veterinary forensic pathology. With expertise
ranging from animal fighting and hoarding to ballistics, toxicology, thanatol-
ogy, entomology, and a variety of traumatic injuries, this group of contribut-
ing authors represents a veritable force in the quest for truth through the
investigation of animal crimes. These contributors are among the most tal-
ented and seasoned experts in the discipline, and I am honored and humbled
to have each of them as a part of this team.
While no single resource alone can transform a professional into a compe-
tent veterinary forensic pathologist, this textbook will assist the properly
trained veterinary pathologist, forensic veterinarian, or other veterinary pro-
fessional as they attempt to interpret the tangled web of clues left among the
dead. It is my sincere hope that this textbook will serve as a useful and practi-
cal reference for the forensic necropsy of the many unfortunate animal
vii
viii Preface
v ictims and that within its pages will be found some wisdom that will aid in
the investigation and resolution of animal crimes.
The truth remains to be told to us if we are only wise enough to know how
to listen.
Quid est veritas?
University Park, PA, USA Jason W. Brooks

Contents
1 Medicolegal Investigation�� 1

Rachel Touroo, Jason W. Brooks, Randall Lockwood,
and Robert Reisman
2 Crime Scene Findings and the Identification, Collection,
and Preservation of Evidence�� 9
Rachel Touroo and Amanda Fitch
3 Performing the Forensic Necropsy �� 27
Rebecca Kagan and Jason W. Brooks
4 Postmortem Changes and Estimating the
Postmortem Interval�� 43
Jason W. Brooks and Lerah Sutton
5 Blunt Force Trauma�� 65
Robert Reisman
6 Sharp Force Trauma�� 95
Martha Smith-Blackmore and Nicholas Robinson
7 Firearm Injuries�� 107
N. Bradley-Siemens, A. I. Brower, and R. Kagan
8 Strangulation, Suffocation, and Asphyxia �� 129
Beverly J. McEwen
Index�� 149
ix
Medicolegal Investigation
1
Rachel Touroo, Jason W. Brooks,
Randall Lockwood, and Robert Reisman
1.1 Veterinary Forensic Medicine with “forensic pathology.” Forensic pathology,

however, is currently understood to refer to the
Veterinary forensic medicine and pathology are branch of forensic medicine that deals with death
rapidly evolving and flourishing fields of veteri- investigations. Veterinary forensic pathology is a
nary medicine, as evidenced by an increase in subdivision of forensic pathology, and while there
peer-reviewed publications, texts, graduate are well-defined criteria for the training and certi-
courses, international organizations, and inclu- fication of human forensic pathologists, there is
sion of the topic in many veterinary medical concurrently no formally recognized set of qualifica-
ferences. The term “forensic” simply implies that tions to identify a practitioner of veterinary foren-
information from a discipline or technique is sic pathology. Because no such accepted definition
being applied in a legal setting. The broad term exists, the term veterinary forensic pathologist is
“forensic medicine” is used to encompass all often avoided, although, in fact, the relevant work
aspects of forensic work of a medical nature. In is undertaken by a group of interested individuals
the past, this term was often used interchangeably ranging from practicing clinical veterinarians to
board-certified veterinary pathologists, with vary-
ing training and experience in forensic veterinary
medicine and pathology. Similarly, veterinary
R. Touroo, D.V.M. forensic medicine is a subdivision of forensic
Forensic Sciences and Anti-Cruelty Projects, medicine that also lacks formal recognition.
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty
Recently, the term “clinical forensic medicine”
to Animals, New York, NY, USA
has been applied to the branch of forensic medi-
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences,
cine involving the living.
College of Veterinary Medicine, Gainesville,
FL, USA The human medicolegal system in the United
e-mail: rachel.touroo@aspca.org States is comprised of two parallel systems: the
J.W. Brooks, V.M.D., Ph.D., D.A.C.V.P. (*) coroner system and the medical examiner system.
Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Each state utilizes only one of these systems. The
Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, The Pennsylvania coroner system is the older of the two and relies
State University, University Park, PA 16802, USA
upon an elected official who rules on the cause and
e-mail: jwb21@psu.edu
manner of death in cases involving either violent
R. Lockwood, Ph.D. • R. Reisman, D.V.M.
deaths, sudden and/or unexpected deaths, and sus-
Forensic Sciences and Anti-Cruelty Projects,
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty picious deaths or cases in which a physician is not
to Animals, New York, NY, USA in attendance at the time of death [1]. This indi-
© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

J.W. Brooks (ed.), Veterinary Forensic Pathology, Volume 1,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67172-7_1
2 R. Touroo et al.
vidual is typically not a physician nor is he/she writing, and courtroom testimony [3]. Despite
required to consult with a physician, although the similarities in duties and expectations, there
many coroners do rely heavily on the autopsy is no unified system to support these activities on
report provided by a medical pathologist [1]. In behalf of the veterinarian during the course of an
some areas of the country, the coroner must be a animal crime investigation. Within the coroner
physician but not necessarily a pathologist [1]. system or the ME system, a human forensic
The medical examiner system relies upon phy- pathologist typically operates within a well-
sicians experienced in the field of pathology, and defined network including law enforcement offi-
in some newer systems a forensic pathologist, to cers, emergency medical providers, hospital
determine the cause and manner of death in cases physicians, jurisdictional prosecutors and district
involving either violent deaths (accidents, sui- attorneys, etc.
cides, homicides); suspicious deaths; sudden,
unexpected deaths; or deaths occurring without
the attendance of a physician [1]. Additionally, 1.2 undamentals of Animal
F
deaths in jails and penal institutions may fall Abuse
under the medical examiners jurisdiction [1].
Though superficially the medical examiner During the recent evolution of veterinary medicine
(ME) system may be viewed as a foundation and pathology, there has been a concurrent evolu-
from which to build and develop the field of vet- tion of animal law. Animal crime is gaining recog-
erinary forensic pathology, it does not appear to nition by the criminal justice system (law
be that simple. First and foremost, there is a lack enforcement, prosecutors, and judges) as an
of veterinary pathologists to fill this need. This important area of the law. In the early 2000s, there
shortage also exists on the human side, conse- were only a handful of student chapters of the
quently leading to the continued used of the coro- Animal Legal Defense Fund in US law schools,
ner system. Additionally, the current training and whereas now there are hundreds of chapters.
education of veterinary pathologists do not Animal law as a distinct area of the law is being
appear to adequately prepare veterinary patholo- taught in law schools across the country; however,
gist for medicolegal casework [2]. Given the animal law is still less well known by those in the
interest across the field of veterinary medicine, criminal justice system than is necessary for suc-
the industry may be better served by developing a cessful investigation and prosecution of animal
formal educational program encompassing both crime. For crimes in which there are both human
clinical and pathological veterinary forensic and animal victims, the extent of the law enforce-
medicine. While advances have been made ment focus on the animal crime is variable. It has
toward the inclusion of veterinary forensic medi- been shown in New York City, where the New York
cine into the veterinary curriculum with regard to City Police Department (NYPD) has since 2014
electives, no such courses have been incorporated had the responsibility of investigating animal
into the core curriculum, which serves as a bar- crime as well as the human crime, that adding the
rier for recognizing the importance of animal animal crime component has enhanced law
abuse in society. Furthermore, fellowships have enforcement in specific instances. In some cases,
been and are being made available to fill this void the prosecution of the animal crime is successful
within the veterinary curriculum. in the absence of successful prosecution of the
The duties of a veterinarian during the course human crime, and in other cases, the penalty for
of a forensic necropsy are similar in some the animal crime has been greater than that for
respects to those of a human medical examiner human crime. Additionally, investigation of com-
and include reviewing a medical history, review- plaints of animal crime may reveal human crime
ing witness statements, conducting scene investi- that has not previously been reported (this is dis-
gation, scene and necropsy photography, cussed below).
necropsy of the deceased victim, necropsy report
1 Medicolegal Investigation 3
Many different offenses are subsumed under the early 1990s when only 5 states had such
state animal cruelty laws [4]. In 2016 the Federal provisions. Now that many animal cruelty
Bureau of Investigation (FBI) initiated changes cases are no longer simple misdemeanors,
to incorporate tracking of animal cruelty inci- increasing public, law enforcement, criminal
dents into the National Incident-Based Reporting justice, and veterinary resources are being
System (NIBRS). Since the system is intended to brought to bear on the investigation and prose-
gather data from all states, the FBI developed a cution of cases. Veterinarians in general—and
working definition of “animal cruelty” that veterinary pathologists in particular—are
included elements common to all state laws. The being called upon regularly to offer expert tes-
FBI definition is: timony and diagnostic, clinical, and histopath-
ological forensic evidence [11, 12].
Intentionally, knowingly, or recklessly taking an
action that mistreats or kills any animal without just
cause, such as torturing, tormenting, mutilation,
maiming, poisoning, or abandonment. Included are 1.3 he Role of the Veterinarian
T
instances of duty to provide care, e.g., shelter, food,
water, care if sick or injured; transporting or confin-
in Animal Cruelty
ing an animal in a manner likely to cause injury or Investigations
death; causing an animal to fight with another;
inflicting excessive or repeated unnecessary pain or There may be considerable overlap in the scope
suffering, e.g., uses objects to beat or injure an ani-
of duties of the forensic veterinarian and the vet-
mal. This definition does not include proper main-
tenance of animals for show or sport; use of animals erinary pathologist, as such their roles are often
for food, lawful hunting, fishing or trapping. unclear when collaborating on an investigation.
While it may be inferred that the forensic veteri-
For the purpose of inclusion of these incidents narian examines live patients and the veterinary
into NIBRS, the FBI breaks this definition down pathologist examines deceased victims, it is typi-
into four categories (NCOVAA, 2017): cally not this simple.
A → simple/gross neglect: the failure of a person The primary role of the forensic veterinar-
to provide for the needs of an animal (lack of ian or pathologist is to conduct a separate, par-
food, water, shelter, grooming, or veterinary
care)
allel, and independent investigation of a
I → intentional abuse and torture: the intentional suspected animal cruelty. Working in conjunc-
act of harming an animal tion, the forensic veterinarian and pathologist
F → organized abuse: dog fighting and are a capable team, as many aspects of an
cockfighting
S → animal sexual abuse
investigation may land at the interface of clini-
cal forensic medicine and forensic pathology.
A major factor in initiating this process has For example, injury patterns observed in live
been renewed interest in considering animal clinical patients are often very similar to those
abuse not only as a crime against animals’ wel- observed in dead animals at necropsy; thus,
fare but also as a bellwether and a gateway to material presented in this volume is equally
possible acts of interpersonal violence. Extensive applicable to both forensic veterinarians and
research has identified acts of animal cruelty, veterinary forensic pathologists.
abuse, and neglect as crimes that may be indica- When law enforcement has at their disposal
tors and/or predictors of crimes of interpersonal both a forensic veterinarian and a veterinary
violence and public health problems [5–10]. pathologist, these roles can be more clearly dis-
This has coincided with societal demand for tinguished. Often, however, only one of these
increased prosecution and punishment of cruel experts is available, necessitating one individual
acts against animals. All 50 states now have to assume both roles. In this case, it is not unusual
enacted statutes declaring the more aggravated for veterinary pathologists to be asked to conduct
forms of animal cruelty to be felony-level scene investigations or for forensic veterinarians
crimes, a process that accelerated rapidly since to perform necropsies.
4 R. Touroo et al.
1.4 Conducting the Investigation tographer, they should actively direct the photog-
rapher in order to obtain the necessary images.
1.4.1 Initial Investigation: As with any investigation, it is best to follow the
Reviewing the Medical same routine for all forensic photographic inves-
History, Witness Statements, tigations. For example, regardless of whether
and Scene Investigation there are abnormal findings visible, for all foren-
sic necropsies, photographs should be created of
A postmortem exam should not be conducted the complete external surface of the animal’s
until the circumstances of the death are known [1, body as well as the subcutaneous space and body
13]. Although there is an opinion that providing cavities. Additionally, as bleeding from cut blood
key information concerning the deceased, includ- vessels is impossible to avoid during a necropsy,
ing crime scene information, may bias the inter- all blood that is present in the visual field as a
pretation of postmortem findings, this is result of the necropsy procedure should be
preferable as such information may be necessary cleaned before photography as not to introduce
for the veterinarian to accurately interpret the this confusing artifact. Stray instruments should
evidence at hand [14–16]. also not be included in the visual field.
Often times with animal victims, a medical
history is unavailable. However, all available
medical records as well as any owner or witness 1.4.3 Forensic Necropsy
statements and law enforcement reports, photos,
and videos should be reviewed prior to the nec- The objective of a forensic necropsy, akin to a
ropsy [1]. Ideally the forensic veterinarian or human medicolegal death investigation, is not
pathologist is present on scene in order to observe only to establish the cause and manner of death
and document findings, for just as in human death but also to recognize, identify, collect, preserve,
investigations, the scene is pertinent in every case and examine physical evidence associated with
[17]. It is important to note that if the deceased the death [19]. Physical evidence encompasses
animal is owned, it is necessary for the owner to any tangible object that can establish whether or
give permission for the necropsy. If that permis- not a crime has been committed or can provide or
sion is not forthcoming, law enforcement must disprove a link between a crime and its victim or
get a search warrant in order for the necropsy to a crime and a suspect. Physical evidence may be
take place. located at the crime scene or on a body.
The collection of evidence proceeds over the
course of the necropsy and may include diagnos-
1.4.2 Forensic Photography tic imaging such as radiography, examination of
packaging materials in which the body was found
Forensic photography is a fundamental compo- or submitted, examination of both the external
nent of any necropsy and crime scene investiga- aspects of the body and the internal tissues,
tion. Oftentimes in the case of a forensic microscopic evaluation of major body organs and
veterinarian or pathologist, the veterinarian must lesions, and possibly ancillary diagnostic testing
also function as the photographer. The opinion of such as parasitology, microbiology, or toxicol-
the forensic veterinarian or pathologist should ogy. In some cases, the forensic veterinarian or
remain unbiased; therefore, it is important that pathologist may be required to collaborate with
the photographs be a clear and accurate represen- experts from other forensic disciplines such as
tation of what was observed [18]. For this reason those traditionally offered in crime labs such as
it is important to understand the basics of foren- ballistics or DNA analysis.
sic photography and how to properly utilize the All evidence collected during a forensic nec-
camera available, ideally a digital single-lens ropsy must be maintained in a manner that
reflex (DSLR). If the veterinarian is not the pho- ensures its integrity. Chain of custody refers to
the chronological documentation of every per- The responsibility to “prove” or “disprove” a

son who has had contact with the item from the case does not lie on the forensic veterinarian or
time it was seized or collected until it is dis- pathologist. The case investigation is a multidis-
posed of. This includes how the item was pack- ciplinary approach, and the veterinary evidence
aged, the persons involved, dates, times, and is only part of the case. Ultimately, it is the pros-
purposes of all transfers. In pursuance of the ecutor’s duty to prove the case and the judge or
maintenance of chain of custody, evidence must juror’s duty to decide guilt or innocence. The
be preserved from the time it is collected until a forensic veterinarian or pathologist should sim-
conviction is final, which does not occur until ply present the facts and their interpretation or
the conviction is affirmed on appeal or the case conclusions drawn from these facts [21].
is otherwise dismissed. In order to demonstrate
that evidence has remained intact, the forensic
veterinarian or pathologist may be asked in 1.6 Expert Witness Testimony
court if the evidence presented was what they
collected or received, the time and date that evi- If unfamiliar, the courtroom and legal procedures
dence was received or transferred, and/or verify can be intimidating. A basic understanding of
that the evidence was not tampered with while courtroom procedures will help to prepare the
in their custody. forensic veterinarian or pathologist for their role
in court. In most cases the veterinarian will be
asked to testify voluntarily either by the state or
1.5 Report Writing the defense. However, a veterinarian may also
become involuntarily involved as a witness and
The forensic pathology report is critical to cases subpoenaed to appear before the court if they
involving deceased animals. The purpose of the have assisted with or have firsthand knowledge of
forensic pathology report is to educate the inves- the individual animal or the incidence.
tigator, prosecutor, defense attorney, judge, and In general there are two types of witnesses: a
jury. Accordingly it must be easily understood by factual witness and an expert witness. A factual
this lay audience for which it is intended. Medical witness can testify only to what they have seen,
terms should be defined. Reports should be clear, heard, felt, smelt, tasted, or did in association
thorough, reasonable, and objective [20]. The with the event in question. An expert witness,
forensic veterinarian or pathologist should dis- however, can render an opinion on evidence that
cuss with the submitting agency the relevant falls within their area of expertise. A forensic vet-
questions at hand, specific to their area of exper- erinarian or pathologist will often testify as both
tise, in order to adequately address these areas a fact witness and an expert witness as they will
within their report. Such questions will likely be have direct and firsthand knowledge based on
determined by the applicable laws. The opinion personal examination and observations and are
of the forensic veterinarian or pathologist should typically qualified as an expert based on their
be based on the facts of the case. Such facts will education and experience [20].
come from any available history, medical exami- Preparation for court should begin as soon as
nation findings, crime scene findings, diagnostic the veterinarian becomes involved in a case.
and forensic test results, as well as potentially Since one cannot anticipate which cases will end
other sources [21]. The forensic veterinarian or up in the courtroom, every case should be docu-
pathologist must remain impartial and only draw mented, from the time of initial involvement, as
conclusions based on what the evidence shows though you will be going to court.
[21]. Additionally, they must understand the gaps Prior to appearing in court, it is vital that the
in veterinary science and not extend beyond what veterinarian meet with the attorney retaining their
the current science allows for them to state. services. This allows for the veterinarian to explain
their testimony, practice direct examination,
6 R. Touroo et al.
become familiar with exhibits that will be intro- can be properly applied to the facts of the issue
duced through their testimony, prepare for antici- [22]. In order to make this determination, the
pated areas of cross-examination, and become judge will consider whether the hypothesis can
acquainted with the likely sequence of events [20]. be tested, if the methodology has been subject to
The expert witness and the attorney have far peer review and publication, rate of error, exis-
different roles. It is the attorneys’ duty to advo- tence and maintenance of standards and controls,
cate the position of their client. The expert wit- and general acceptance by the relevant scientific
nesses’ duty is to the court, acting as a teacher, community [23]. Therefore, testimony must be
not an advocate [22]. The expert must be unbi- based on sufficient facts and data as well as reli-
ased and objective. According to the Federal able principles and methods, not speculation or
Rules of Evidence (Rule 702), the role of the theories that cannot be tested. While some states
expert witness is to assist the trier of fact in do not adhere to either the Frye or Daubert test,
understanding the evidence or to determine fact they will nonetheless weigh similar consideration
in an issue. Therefore, the expert witness assists with respect to reliability.
either the judge or the jury in reaching a verdict Criminal proceedings are either heard before a
by rendering an opinion on a fact in contention. judge or a jury at the defense’s request. A jury
trial is heard in front of a judge and a jury, where
the jury decides guilt or innocence and makes
1.7 Criminal Proceedings recommendations concerning sentencing but ulti-
mately the judge decides the punishment. A
There are a variety of criminal proceedings that bench trial is heard and decided solely by a judge.
the forensic veterinarian or pathologist may be There is a formal process to criminal proceed-
involved with, including a grand jury or prelimi- ings, and the trial will progress in the following
nary hearing, a Frye or Daubert hearing, jury order. Initially there will be jury selection, if the
trial, bench trial, sentencing hearing, or post- trial is by jury. Then typically the witnesses are
conviction proceeding. Additionally, a veterinar- sworn in and excluded, meaning they are seques-
ian may also become involved in a civil tered from the courtroom and unable to hear the
disposition hearing. testimony of others. The trial begins with open-
A grand jury is a process by which the prose- ing statements by both parties; then the prosecu-
cution presents evidence to a jury in order to tion presents their evidence. Each individual
determine if there is probable cause to proceed to providing testimony will go through the follow-
a trial. The purpose of a grand jury is not to deter- ing process. Initially, if the individual is testify-
mine guilt or innocence, and it does not resemble ing as an expert witness, they must be qualified
a trial. The prosecutor runs the proceedings, and by the court. The lawyer retaining the individual
a judge is not present. A preliminary hearing has must convince the judge regarding what medical
the same purpose but is heard and decided by a opinions can be admitted into evidence. This is
judge rather than a jury. done through a series of questions regarding edu-
In some cases, the admissibility of testimony cation, training, and experience, referred to as
based on novel application of forensic techniques “voir dire,” in order to establish expertise within
to veterinary medicine or pathology may be sub- a given area. If qualified, the prosecution will
ject to the court’s review. This could include a proceed with direct examination, followed by
Frye, Daubert, or other hearing depending on the cross-examination by the defense. The prosecu-
state. The Frye test determines whether the tion will then have an opportunity to question the
expert’s methods are generally accepted as reli- expert again; this is referred to as “redirect.”
able by the relevant scientific community. In con- Finally, the defense will have the opportunity to
trast, during a Daubert test, the judge must decide recross-examine the expert. Once the prosecution
whether the underlying reasoning of the opinion rests, the defense will present their evidence in
in question is scientifically valid and whether it the same fashion. Once the defense rests, the
prosecution can then call rebuttal witnesses who In order to advance the discipline, it will
are again subject to cross-examination by the become necessary to substantially enhance the
defense. This is followed by closing remarks by training opportunities for interested candidates.
both sides. Following the trial the judge or jury Currently no board certification, formal resi-
will deliberate and then rule. Sentencing will dency training programs, or inclusion in the
typically occur at a later date. core veterinary curriculum are offered in veteri-
A sentencing hearing is conducted to deter- nary clinical forensic medicine or pathology,
mine punishment. In order to effectively make and only a small handful of graduate programs
such a determination the judge should be informed or certificate programs are offered in the field of
about the nature of the crime committed and how veterinary forensic sciences. Enhanced educa-
the crime affected not only the victim(s) but oth- tional opportunities may be coupled with the
ers as well [24]. Testimony of the veterinarian formal recognition of the discipline of veterinary
may be solicited to assist the judge in understand- forensic medicine, perhaps with eventual board
ing the impact of the crime on the victim. certification for qualified practitioners.
However, following sentencing there is the possi-
bility of a retrial or post-conviction proceeding, at
which time expert witness testimony and physical References
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2012;57:1231–3. guidelines for the application of pathology to crime
13. Di Maio VJM, Dana SE. Handbook of forensic
investigation. 4th ed. Springfield: Charles C Thomas
pathology. Austin: Landes Bioscience; 1998. Publisher Ltd.; 2006.
14. Newbery SG, Cooke SW, Martineau HM. A perspec- 20. Frederickson R. Demystifying the courtroom everything
tive on veterinary forensic pathology and medicine in the veterinary pathologist needs to know about testifying
the United Kingdom. Vet Pathol. 2016;53(5):894–7. in an animal cruelty case. Vet Pathol. 2016;53:888–93.
15. Siqueira A, Cuevas SEC, Salvagni FA, et al. Forensic 21. Touroo R, Eller N. The equine veterinarian’s role in
veterinary pathology. Vet Pathol. 2016;53(5):979–87. potential cases of animal abuse. New York: American
16. Munro HM, Munro R. Animal abuse and unlaw-
Association of Equine Practioners; 2016.
ful killing: forensic veterinary pathology. London: 22. Babitsky S, Mangraviti JJ. How to excel during

Elsevier Health Sciences; 2008. cross-examination: techniques for experts that work.
17. Dolinak D, Evan M, Lew EO. Forensic pathology: prin- Falmouth, MA: SEAK, Inc.; 1997.
ciples and practice. Burlington: Academic Press; 2005. 23. Saferstein R. Criminalistics: an introduction to foren-
18. Touroo R, Fitch A. Identification, collection, and
sic science. 5th ed. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-
preservation of veterinary forensic evidence: on scene Hall; 1995.
and during the postmortem examination. Vet Pathol. 24. Rabe GA, Champion DJ. Criminal courts: structure,
2016;53:880–7. process, and issues. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
19. Miller Coyle H, Ladd C, Lee HC. Biological evidence Hall; 2002.
on the human body. In: Spitz WU, Spitz DJ, editors.
Crime Scene Findings
and the Identification, Collection,
2
and Preservation of Evidence
Rachel Touroo and Amanda Fitch
Though it may seem logical, a forensic necropsy and osteologists. One of the most important con-
does not commence on the necropsy table; rather cepts of forensic science work has nothing to do
it begins at the crime scene [1–4]. Unfortunately, with actual science—it is knowing one’s own
veterinarians conducting forensic necropsies are limitations and recognizing when to utilize the
frequently unable to be present during the investi- expertise of other forensic professionals [3].
gation of the scene [5–7]. However, whether they
are able to visit the crime scene location or not, it
is important for them to recognize the significance 2.1 Evidence
of the crime scene findings and how they may be
useful in rendering an opinion [3, 5, 8]. Evidence, generally speaking, is defined as any-
In addition to comprehending the value of thing that can prove or disprove a fact in conten-
crime scene findings, the forensic veterinarian tion [9]. Such facts may be anticipated based on
and pathologist must also have a thorough under- the applicable laws as well as prior experiences.
standing of how to identify, collect, and preserve More specifically, evidence is used to prove guilt
veterinary forensic evidence [3]. This is not to say or innocence, identify victims, and identify sus-
the veterinarian should be an expert in multiple pects. The body presented for a forensic necropsy
forensic disciplines as is portrayed in fictitious is evidence, as is anything removed from the
television shows and movies. In actuality, most body. Additionally, evidence may be present on
veterinary forensic cases will require a multidisci- the scene(s) as well as on the perpetrator(s). The
plinary approach—including assistance from other evidence linkage diagram is used to illustrate
specialists such as toxicologists, entomologists, how each piece of evidence is a means of linking
the scene, physical evidence, the victim, and the
R. Touroo, D.V.M. (*) • A. Fitch, M.S., C.C.S.A. suspect (Fig. 2.1) [9, 10].
Forensic Sciences and Anti-Cruelty Projects, It should be understood that the desire to col-
American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty lect an item does not equate to permission to col-
to Animals (RT, AF), New York, NY, USA lect the item. For an item to be considered legally
Department of Small Animal Clinical Sciences, obtainable as a piece of evidence, it must be
College of Veterinary Medicine, included in the search warrant obtained by law
Gainesville, FL, USA
enforcement. This is often another area in which
William R. Maples Center for Forensic Medicine, forensic veterinarians can be of assistance to the
Pathology, Immunology and Laboratory Medicine,
Gainesville, FL, USA lead agency. For example, there have been many
e-mail: rachel.touroo@aspca.org cases in which bodies excavated from the ground

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67172-7_2
10 R. Touroo and A. Fitch
Linkage Diagram tion that must be maintained to record all who

have come into contact with the item [3].
All evidence, from the crime scene or nec-
CRIME
VICTIM
ropsy, can be divided into two basic categories:
SCENE testimonial and physical. Testimonial evidence is
based on the statements made by witnesses and
suspects. Because it is provided by humans, who
are open to error, testimonial evidence cannot
PHYSICAL
SUSPECT always be trusted. Stories can be altered through
EVIDENCE
intentional deceit or forgetfulness, and people
Fig. 2.1 Evidence linkage diagram [3] often interpret the same information differently.
Testimonial evidence should not be ignored, but
it should be supported by tangible facts rather
were determined to be inadmissible in court than left to stand on its own [9]. It is not uncom-
because the search warrant did not include areas mon for information collected from a postmor-
“below ground.” In these situations, any evidence tem examination to be used in proving or
gleaned from the body would also be considered disproving testimonial evidence, rather than the
inadmissible as the result of a legal doctrine testimonial evidence being used in proving or
called “fruit of the poisonous tree.” This doctrine disproving other facts.
holds that evidence gathered from ille- Physical evidence encompasses any object, or
gally obtained information will also be excluded observation of an object, that can be used to
from trial [3]. establish whether or not a crime has been
In addition to legal collection, items must also committed or can provide or disprove a link

fall within other criteria in order to be accepted as between a crime and its victim or a crime and a
evidence into a court of law. In 1975, the US suspect. Physical evidence can be found in many
Congress created the Federal Rules of Evidence. forms, some of which are tangible and capable of
The use of these rules is only mandatory for fed- being collected and others which are not collect-
eral courts; however, many states have also ible, but rather need to be documented photo-
adopted them in an effort to establish consistency graphically. For example, if paint flecks are found
with the federal courts. There are two basic crite- adhering to fur near a patterned contusion on the
ria the forensic veterinarian and pathologist exposed skin, then both the fur and contusion are
should be aware of: first, an item must be relevant of evidentiary value. It is possible to physically
to the case (Rule 402). This is generally covered collect the paint flecks and a sample of the con-
by the search warrant as a judge will not typically tused tissue, but the pattern of the contusion can
sign a warrant including irrelevant items. Second, only be “collected” through documentation.
an item must meet conditions of authentication There are two characteristics of physical evi-
(Rule 901) to be accepted as evidence in a court dence that should be understood by the forensic
of law. This simply means that some form of veterinarian and pathologist: transience and
proof must be given to show that the item in ques- transference. When present, these characteristics
tion is in fact what it is claimed to be. This is typi- can be very important in the analysis of physical
cally obtained through testimony of a witness evidence. Transient evidence includes elements
with knowledge. Therefore anyone who comes of the scene or findings on the body that are tem-
into contact with an item of evidence, whether it porary and can change. The wetness of a blood-
is a body submitted for a forensic necropsy or a stain, odors, condensation on a glass, and
fecal sample collected from said body, may be temperature are all examples of transient scene
called to testify regarding their knowledge of and evidence. Rigor mortis, algor mortis, and a wet
interaction with the evidence. A chain of custody hair coat are likewise all examples of transient
(discussed later in more detail) is the documenta- evidence on the body. Transient evidence will
2 Crime Scene Findings and the Identification, Collection, and Preservation of Evidence 11
offer situational information particular to the Circumstantial evidence (also known as indirect
moment in time at which the scene or body is first evidence) is that which requires inference to
encountered, but such evidence will change with prove a fact [11]. In contrast, direct evidence
time. Transient evidence, because of this charac- “clearly and directly relates the proof of an exis-
teristic, must be documented expeditiously. tence of a fact” without any inference or pre-
Documentation should, ideally, occur as soon as sumption required [12]. If a suspect has had no
possible following arrival on scene or after the known contact with an animal, yet fibers from his
acceptance of the body into your custody. Failure carpet are found on the animal, this could be con-
to promptly document transient evidence may sidered direct evidence. In contrast, consider the
result in its loss. This type of evidence will likely case in which the owner of an animal is suspected
never solve a crime; however, it may help to clar- of its injuries and the owner’s hair is found on the
ify details. For example, consider the case in animal. This would be considered circumstantial
which an individual calls law enforcement evidence because the fact that the owner’s hair is
because he found his dog deceased in the house on the animal could be a result of having caused
with its throat incised. The owner states he was the injury or by normal contact with the animal.
only gone from the home for 30 min and found For both situations, at the time of collection, the
the dog upon his return, but the dog is in full rigor forensic veterinarian or pathologist would not
mortis. Documenting the stage of rigor mortis as know from whom the questioned hair originated.
well as the ambient temperature of the house is Therefore, it would be necessary to collect the
very important. Waiting to document the stage of hair, regardless of its later usability by the court.
rigor mortis until the body is ready for necropsy Despite all of the information that can be
could result in the rigor passing and a misinter- gleaned from evidence, the best characteristic of
pretation of the timeline. This information is physical evidence is that it cannot lie [9]. It may
important not necessarily to prove the owner be misinterpreted or the analyst may be dishonest
guilty, but to indicate that the evidence does not about test results, but the physical evidence will
match his story. always tell the truth. Physical evidence can be
Transfer evidence is produced when physical large or minute and may require processing at the
contact between two objects results in the scene or packaging for processing later at a labo-
exchange of matter. This concept is based on the ratory. Depending on the type of physical evi-
Locard exchange principle which, when stated dence, it may not always be necessary to collect
simply, equates to “every contact leaves a trace.” an item. In some situations documentation with
[9] Transfer evidence is typically thought of as photographs and sketches may be sufficient [3, 9].
being small in size (e.g., hair or fibers) or “trace Most items of evidence will have characteris-
evidence” which is discussed later. However, it is tics that will define their class or individualiza-
entirely possible sometimes that transfer evi- tion. Class characteristics are properties that can
dence is large enough to be clearly seen with the only be associated with a group and never a single
naked eye. If a suspect suffered a dog bite wound source. While it may not be possible to individu-
and then grabbed the dog’s collar before killing alize the item of evidence, class characteristics
it, any blood deposited on the collar would be can be helpful in eliminating possible suspects.
considered transfer evidence. For an item to be compared to and identified to a
Evidence can also be labeled in terms of how specific source, individual characteristics are nec-
reliable it is in proof of fact. The terms circum- essary. These characteristics are ones that can be
stantial evidence and direct evidence are com- attributed to a common source with an extremely
monly used in the court of law. However, whether high degree of certainty. One of the most familiar
an item of evidence is considered circumstantial types of evidence with both class and individual
or direct should be of no concern to the person characteristics would be blood. While the blood
collecting it, and in fact, this categorization will type is the class characteristic that could eliminate
most likely be unknown at the time of collection. potential donors, the DNA would be the i ndividual
characteristic that allows the blood to be identi- the cause and manner of death in situations where
fied to a specific individual. Although it is not the autopsy only rules out possible alternate
always possible for an item of evidence to be causes, but does not lead to a firm determination.
identified as having come from a single source, In these situations, the crime scene findings are
this does not diminish the importance of the infor- just as important as the autopsy [8]. If a forensic
mation it can offer. It is important to recognize the veterinarian or pathologist is not present on
needs of the case and how the information that is scene, they should work closely with those who
available can be utilized [3]. were, ideally another veterinarian, to ensure that
they are provided with all pertinent information
regarding the case. The provided information
2.2 I mportance of the Crime should focus particularly on how, when, and
Scene Investigation where the body was found, by whom, and under
what circumstances (Table 2.1) [3].
A forensic necropsy begins at the crime scene
[1–4]. Knowledge of the scene may be crucial to
Table 2.1 Information that should be obtained prior to
interpreting findings at necropsy and determining submission for a forensic necropsy [3]
the cause of death, making it preferred for a
• Submitting agency and case lead, contact names and
forensic veterinarian or pathologist to examine numbers
the scene for every case in which they assist [8]. • Submitting agencies case number
In many cases, however, this may not be possible. • Unique animal identification number
They may not be available or the investigating • Reason for submission and specific questions
agency may not be aware that they should be pertinent to the case
present or is willing to travel to the crime scene. • Date and time animal was last seen alive and by
Although reviewing crime scene photographs whom
and law enforcement reports is beneficial, the • Date and time animal was found to be deceased and
by whom
information that can be gleaned from examining
• Location of the body at time of discovery
the scene in person is irreplaceable [1, 2, 13]. • Position of the body at the time of discovery
Examining the body at the scene is analogous to • Description of immediate environment in which the
taking a medical history, thereby requiring prac- body was found including: temperature, access to
tice and skill [8]. Many law enforcement officers food, water, and shelter, presence of bodily fluids,
do not possess the specialized training required and other evidence associated with the remains
• Date, time, and location from which the animal was
to investigate an animal abuse scene, making it
recovered
possible for information to not be noted or simply • Presence and location of livor mortis: visible, well
overlooked. The same issues can occur at the developed, or fixed
scene of a human death. This is why, in many • Temperature of the body (i.e., does it feel warm or
localities, the medical examiner (or coroner) or cold)
their investigators are routinely present on scene • Presence and location of rigor mortis: beginning,
with the sole responsibility of examining the complete, or passing
• Insect activity and whether there was collection of
body and the conditions that may be related to the
entomology samples in the field
death. Unfortunately, due to lack of personnel or • Medical history
funding, the forensic pathologists will often only • Medications present on scene
examine the scenes of deaths that appear to be • Number of animals present on scene and overall
complicated or unusual. Not examining the body conditions
at a death scene has been regarded as one of the • How the body was handled, packaged, transported,
classical mistakes in forensic pathology [1–3]. and stored prior to receipt
It is not uncommon for a forensic pathologist • Crime scene photos and video
to rely on evidence from the scene to determine • Crime scene reports
There are some obvious differences between 2.3 Processing of a Crime Scene
a typical human crime scene and an animal crime
scene investigation. On the human side, there are Once entry has been made onto the crime scene
often specialized forensic professionals avail- property, law enforcement officers will be in
able to assist on scene, usually one or few vic- charge of taking the necessary steps to ensure the
tims involved, the cases involve a single species, safety and security of all people and evidence
and law enforcement has access to local and present. This typically occurs prior to the foren-
state labs for the analysis of collected evidence. sic veterinarian’s arrival. Although there is
However, on the animal side, there are often no always concern for the victims, the initial con-
supporting forensic specialists available to assist cern on a crime scene should always be the safety
on scene, the crime scenes can involve few to of the responding officers and all other subse-
numerous victims of varying species, and law quent responders. Once the area has been secured,
enforcement typically has to try to enlist the documentation should begin. It is recommended
assistance of veterinary schools, private labs, or that documentation of the scene occurs in phases.
other forensic professionals to assist with the The initial phase should consist of documenting
analysis of evidence [3]. the condition in which the scene was found upon
Regardless of the species of victim or type of arrival. This will include overall photographs and
crime, the objectives of any crime scene investi- possibly video of the exterior and interior por-
gation are to identify, collect, preserve, interpret, tions of all areas of the property covered under
and reconstruct all relevant physical evidence at a the search warrant [3].
crime scene [10]. Everyone involved with the The next phase consists of documenting all
process of collecting and processing evidence animals and their environments. The first step
needs to have a solid understanding of what of this phase is to identify animals in critical
exactly their role will be, the specific evidence condition. This may be referred to as “critical
they will be responsible for, how it should be triage.” Triage on scene is a rapid visual sort-
documented, and how to best collect and preserve ing of animals for examination and treatment
it. The role of the forensic veterinarian or pathol- priority based on their medical condition. If an
ogist on scene is to assist law enforcement in animal is found to be in critical condition, it
identifying, collecting, and preserving evidence should immediately be given a unique animal
related to the animal specific crime(s) [3]. identification number, documented in situ, and
A crime scene may unfold in a variety of ways. removed in an expeditious manner in order to
Although law enforcement agencies are accus- provide timely medical treatment and further
tomed to working a variety of crime types, animal documentation of the animal’s condition.
cases are often new and unique. In addition to a Documentation should include photographs as
possible lack of knowledge about the crime type, well as written notes. It is important to remem-
there may also be a lack of personnel and resources ber that each animal is an individual item of
because the agency is too overtasked with the evidence, and if there are multiple animals
day-to-day dealings with human cases. It is also present, each animal should be assigned a
not uncommon for individuals involved with ani- unique identification number. The animal iden-
mal crime scenes to become wrapped up in the tification numbers should not repeat any item
rescue of the animals and to forget that the situa- numbers that are used to identify pieces of
tion is a criminal event. Crime scenes are chaotic non-animal physical evidence. Clinical foren-
by nature. When hundreds of animals, dozens of sic exams typically do not occur in the field
responders, potentially disruptive owners, and the given the uncontrolled environment and lack of
media are added to the situation, it can quickly access to necessary equipment. However, cur-
become disastrous if it is not approached in a calm sory or brief examinations may be conducted
and controlled manner [3]. in the field in order to provide necessary treat-
ments prior to transport, as well as to docu- dence, such as rigor mortis, and to identify and
ment transitory evidence, such as mild possibly collect any obvious trace or entomo-
dehydration [3]. logical evidence. Law enforcement should
It is imperative that the living conditions of question any potential owners, witnesses, or
each animal not be altered in any way until they suspects concerning when the animal was last
have been observed by a veterinarian, docu- seen alive and found to be deceased and by
mented, and photographed.‑ Once critical animals whom. Any available medical history or records
have been identified, documented, and are receiv- should also be obtained [3].
ing medical care, non-critical animals should be Following the removal of each animal, a more
more closely assessed and their environment doc- thorough documentation of the living space can
umented. This may be referred to as “intake tri- be completed. Although some documentation
age” as it corresponds with the animal intake will have occurred during the intake process, it is
procedure of assigning a unique animal identifica- often difficult to capture all elements of the living
tion number, taking identifying photographs, and space when the animal is still in situ. For this rea-
preparing the animal for transport. During this son, it is recommended that midrange and close-
assessment, the identification of animals needing up photos of the living space be taken following
a more thorough examination, application of animal removal. These photographs should
treatments required before transport or documen- include but are not limited to any food or water
tation of transitory evidence, and possible collec- containers, the presence or lack of food and
tion of trace evidence may occur. The living water, shelter construction and possible hazards,
environment will hold information that will con- feces, urine, vomitus, wire flooring, and addi-
tradict or agree with the animal’s physical exami- tional photos as requested by the forensic veteri-
nation findings; therefore, it is important to be narian. It may also be necessary to record the
able to accurately illustrate the living conditions dimensions of living enclosures. These can also
from which each animal came and demonstrate be documented on the sketch showing the loca-
how the environment directly affected the animal. tion of each animal [3].
All animals should be photographed in situ and In addition to recognizing and documenting
their locations on scene documented by sketch or animal evidence, the forensic veterinarian or
other mapping technique [3]. pathologist can assist law enforcement with the
Deceased animals are considered non-criti- identification of non-animal medical and non-
cal and are often given a unique non-animal medical evidence. This could include items such
physical evidence item number, rather than an as medications, supplements, surgical supplies,
animal identification number, when seized in and fighting paraphernalia. Some items of evi-
conjunction with live animals. Numbering dence may be overlooked by law enforcement
deceased animals differently from live animals officers who are not familiar with the particular
helps to eliminate confusion. Deceased ani- crime type. For example, the metal tubs pictured
mals, as with live animals, should be photo- in the photo (Fig. 2.2) were overlooked by law
graphed in situ prior to being altered in any way enforcement with respect to a dogfighting inves-
and their location documented on the scene tigation. Tubs such as these are utilized to wash
sketch or otherwise mapped. Written notes the dogs just prior to a fight and were consistent
should also be taken to document how the body with the opinion that the dogs at the scene were
was found and the immediate environment. A most likely being utilized for the purposes of
forensic necropsy, similar to clinical forensic fighting. However, without knowledge of dog-
exams, typically does not occur in the field due fighting paraphernalia, items such as these are
to the uncontrolled environment and lack of easily overlooked [3].
access to necessary equipment. However, a cur- Similarly, a forensic veterinarian or pathologist
sory external examination may be conducted in can assist law enforcement with the potential evi-
the field in order to document transitory evidentiary value of an item. Although officers may
manner that will preserve it until the examina-

tion can be conducted. The forensic veterinarian
or pathologist can provide guidance in how to
collect, package, and store the body prior to sub-
mitting it for necropsy. The veterinarian or
pathologist can also advise of possible zoonotic
hazards and of the proper personal protection
equipment (PPE) that should be utilized [3].
In some cases, it may be necessary for the
forensic veterinarian or pathologist to collect trace
evidence that is loosely adhered to the body and
Fig. 2.2 Metal washtubs found on the scene of a dog- will likely be lost in transit. The phrase “trace evi-
fighting investigation [3] dence” is used to describe any evidence that is
very small, possibly even microscopic, and
recognize an item as evidence, they may not be includes items such as foreign hair, fibers, and
aware of its full evidentiary value. An example paint flecks. If trace evidence is visible on a body
could be anabolic steroids recovered from a dog- with just the naked eye, it is recommended that it
fighting crime scene. If the investigator is unaware be collected prior to the body being packaged. The
of forensic testing available to detect the presence visible evidence should be gently collected with
of anabolic steroids in the body, then the fact that tweezers or forceps and sealed in a small container
steroids were found on scene will likely not be such as a glassine envelope or paper bindle. Items
passed on to the forensic veterinarian or patholo- collected from distinctly different regions of the
gist, and possible evidence of the drug in an ani- body should be packaged separately. If trace evi-
mal’s system will be lost. However, if present on dence is suspected, but not clearly visible, the
scene, the forensic veterinarian will be knowledge- body should be packaged in such a way that any
able of additional diagnostics and/or forensic test- evidence that becomes dislodged during transit
ing that could be performed and can therefore pass will be contained in the packaging [3]. To ensure
along this information about the steroids in order to this, the following steps should be taken:
ensure the appropriate testing is performed [3].
Law enforcement may also need the assis- 1 . Handle the body as little as possible.
tance of the forensic veterinarian or pathologist 2. Place paper bags on the feet or head on scene
to ensure the proper packaging and preservation and secure them in place with rubber bands.
of deceased victims. On a human death scene, 3. Wrap the body in a clean sheet prior to placing
the process of collecting remains is handled by it in a heavy plastic bag [3, 4, 14].
the medical examiner or coroner’s office, mak-
ing the handling of deceased remains relatively
uncommon for law enforcement officers and 2.4 Evidence Authentication
crime scene analysts. Again, deceased animals
should not be altered in any way until the veteri- The forensic veterinarian and pathologist must
narian has had an opportunity to assess the ani- be competent in not only the identification of
mal and its immediate environment. Once evidence from the body but also in its collection
cleared by the veterinarian, the body may be and preservation. Evidence is commonly lost
properly packaged and removed. Forensic nec- either because an individual is not aware of its
ropsies ideally should not occur in the field, as presence and potential value or they fail to prop-
doing so may lead to loss or contamination of erly collect and preserve the item [15]. The body
evidence [4]. Therefore, it is most likely that a is an item of evidence and everything collected
body will have to be packaged prior to leaving from the body is evidence. In order for evidence
the scene. The body should be packaged in a to be authenticated in court, it must be accounted
for at all times. This is done to prove that the imperative that all bodies be submitted by law
item was not tampered with and is in fact the enforcement with the original evidence receipt.
item that was removed from the crime scene or A body should not be accepted without signing
animal. In addition to witness testimony, a chain and dating an evidence receipt, which serves as
of custody and the evidence packaging are used the chain of custody. The original evidence
to prove authentication. A chain of custody is the receipt should be maintained with the item of
chronological documentation of every person evidence (i.e., the body) and copies retained by
who has had contact with the item from the time anyone who has signed the receipt [3].
it was seized until it is disposed of. This includes The second means of authentication is the
how the item was packaged, the persons involved, proper and complete sealing of the container in
dates, times and purposes of all transfers. An which the evidence is packaged. Evidence should
evidence receipt (Fig. 2.3) is the common means be sealed with friable evidence tape, which is
for documenting all of this information. It is signed with the packager’s initials and the date.
Fig. 2.3 Sample
evidence receipt used to
track the chain of
custody
2.5 Evidence Documentation
It is important to understand that simply having

an item of evidence is not enough for that item to
be useful to the investigation. Having only the
item of evidence with no information regarding
its context and its relation to the crime scene or
body and other items has been equated to having
only pieces of a puzzle. Contextual information
is necessary to put the pieces together into an
overall picture [9]. That said, there is an opinion
that providing the forensic veterinarian or
pathologist key information concerning the
deceased, including crime scene information,
Fig. 2.4 Evidence container secured with packing tape may bias the interpretation of postmortem find-
and token evidence seal [3]
ing. Known as “cognitive biases,” these are con-
sidered to be unintentional errors in reasoning.
These markings should cross over the evidence There are several types of cognitive bias to con-
tape and carry onto the package. This is done as sider; however, there are two which are most
an additional indicator of tampering because it is likely to be encountered by a forensic veterinar-
unlikely that the tape could be replaced in the ian or pathologist looking at forensic cases.
exact same position should it be moved. If the “Contextual bias” occurs when irrelevant infor-
container is bulky, like a large bag or cooler, it is mation, or the way in which information is pre-
acceptable to initially seal the container with sented, influences an opinion [16]. An example
clear, 2-in. packing tape for added strength and of this would be an investigator bringing a
security. Pieces of marked evidence tape can then deceased animal for necropsy and stating that
be used as token seals across the packing tape the animal must have been mutilated by a human
(Fig. 2.4). Additional protocols should be in because there were no predators seen in the area.
place to ensure that evidence remains secure and Depending on the types of wounds, this may be
unaltered. Items should be signed in and out of an easy scenario to accept if a thorough exami-
storage, and access to the storage areas should be nation is not conducted.
restricted and monitored [3]. The second type of bias is “confirmation
Before opening a sealed container, written and bias.” This can occur when information is inter-
possibly photographic documentation should be preted or new evidence is sought out, to confirm
made of how the body was packaged upon receipt. pre-existing assumptions because “people tend
Photographing the outer packaging is not manda- to more easily see and give more weight to infor-
tory, but is recommended under certain circum- mation which is consistent with what they
stances, for example, if the packaging does not already believe….” [16] An example would be
match what is documented on the evidence multiple bodies submitted by the same owner, of
receipt, if the package has passed through undoc- which are examined and found to have died from
umented hands (i.e., a courier or delivery service), gunshot wounds. Due to conformational bias,
and/or if there is apparent damage to the packag- additional bodies may not be fully examined
ing. Upon opening and removing the packaging because an assumption is made that they, like the
materials, all bags, wrappings, or other items others, died as a result of gunshot wounds.
accompanying the body should be maintained as There is no doubt that biases can, and do,
they may prove to contain valuable evidence [3]. occur. There have been several suggestions as to
how to prevent this potential issue, including giv- the case file be retained. If original documenta-
ing examiners no information about the case or tion is illegible or become contaminated, it is
only giving them enough of the essential facts acceptable to recopy or type notes, but the origi-
necessary to complete the analysis. The debate nals should be maintained (in a sealed plastic
on cognitive bias and its solution is far from set- bag in the case of contamination). It is likely
tled. However, if analysis is based on science and that finalized notes will include more informa-
fact, rather than speculation and the attempt to tion than is needed for a final report. It is not
match findings to the provided information, the necessary to include all of the information from
provision of such information should not be an the notes in the final report. However, all infor-
issue as it may be necessary to correctly interpret mation that will end up in a final report should
findings at necropsy. be documented in the notes [3].
As previously stated, the body is evidence Photographs are another fundamental compo-
and needs to be documented before being altered nent of a forensic necropsy [3]. Forensic photog-
in any way. Before any internal or external raphy in this capacity is utilized for several
examination begins, the body should be thor- purposes:
oughly documented—to include photographs,
written notes, diagrams, and radiographs if 1 . Identify the victim.
applicable. Notes should be all inclusive, begin- 2. Demonstrate the condition of the evidence at
ning with the date and time of case notification the time of discovery.
and ending with the date and time it is closed. 3. Record and document evidence that cannot be
While “all-inclusive” may seem very broad, it is preserved or left unaltered.
the best way to ensure that all pertinent informa- 4. Allow for later review of the evidence.
tion is documented accurately. In addition to 5. Illustrate and supplement a written report.
information related to a postmortem examina- 6. Demonstrate the absence or presence of

tion, information such as the law enforcement alleged findings.
case number, contact information for the inves- 7. Present in a court of law, the items of evidence
tigators and forensic veterinarian involved, and as they were found, thereby validating the tes-
a brief narrative of the information obtained timony being presented [3, 15].
regarding the crime scene findings should be
included. Notes should be written in chronolog- Because the opinion of the forensic veteri-
ical order as events occur—not be written from narian and pathologist should be based in sci-
memory after the fact. If a detail is left out, it ence and remain unbiased, it is important that
can be added to the notes later on and dated as the photographs be a clear and accurate repre-
such. Corrections made to notes are also per- sentation of what was observed. Photographs
fectly acceptable. However it is recommended should include both expected and unexpected
that corrected information have a single line conditions, as well as those which support and
drawn through it rather than being completely contradict theories. One way to verify accuracy
scratched out. The correct information is then is to utilize an L-shaped forensic scale or ruler.
written adjacent and initialed. This ensures that The forensic ruler should be placed flat and on
no information is lost, should the corrected the same plane as the item being photographed—
information turn out to be needed. Case docu- this will prevent size distortion between the
mentation should never be discarded until it has scale and the area being photographed. Whether
been confirmed that the case has been adjudi- or not the scale is uneven can be determined by
cated and all appeals processes finalized. Even looking at the circle with cross hairs. If the ruler
then, if storage permits, it is recommended that is not level, the circle will appear elongated,
rather than round. The ruler can also be used to folders or given to law enforcement or attor-
verify proper color and exposure, as it clearly neys. How the original digital media card is
identifies black, white, and 18% gray. Finally, handled once the images are downloaded and
the ruler provides measurement as well as dem- securely saved will be at the discretion of agency
onstrates that the photo is in focus, as the ruler or institution in charge. A review of procedures
can be clearly read [3]. followed by law enforcement agencies shows
All photographs from the crime scene and that both the practices of retaining original digi-
necropsy are also considered evidence and must tal media cards and reformatting the cards for
be maintained in a manner that ensures their reuse are followed. If the original card is
integrity. Digital media cards should be cleared retained, this should be documented in the case
and formatted prior to beginning a new case, notes and the card appropriately packaged and
and only one case should be captured at one stored as an item of evidence. Retaining the
time on a card. If possible, it is recommended original card allows the original images to be
that images be taken using a RAW file format. available should the downloaded and saved
RAW images are uncompressed and unpro- images ever be destroyed. The downside, how-
cessed sensor data. However, because RAW ever, is the continual expense of purchasing new
images are data files, they must be processed by cards. If the original card is to be reused, it is
a RAW image file converter which is typically recommended that the reformatting procedure
included in the camera software [17]. RAW files not occur until it has been confirmed that the
are also read only and incapable of being altered images have been fully downloaded and a copy
without first being saved as a JPG or other image of them produced. This requires visually check-
format. While this may seem cumbersome, having each image saved to ensure that all images
ing RAW formatted images ensures that are accounted for [3].
unchanged originals will be available for pre- Just as on a crime scene, all items of evi-
sentation in a courtroom. Photographs should dence located during a forensic necropsy must
never be deleted. If images are of poor quality or be documented in situ prior to collection or
taken by mistake, they should be retained and alteration. In addition to photographs, it is
kept in the sequence in which they were taken. also recommended that evidence is dia-
Deleting images can create a gap in the meta- grammed. Knowing the exact location evi-
data of the media card which could be called dence was recovered from is crucial
into questioned. Once the media card is full, or information, making diagramming a central
no further photographs are needed, all of the step in the recovery of evidence. The location
images should be downloaded to a “Master” file of evidence (including collectible items and
located on a secure digital storage device. If a lesions) should be measured and sketched
RAW format was used to take the images, they onto a body diagram (Fig. 2.5). This informa-
must be retained in this format, as well as be tion can later be utilized to reconstruct the
converted to a readable format such as JPEG or lesions on the body, just as evidence can be
TIFF. The converted images should be stored in reconstructed at the crime scene. Additionally,
a “Copy” file and will be the photographs that diagrams will ultimately complement the
are not only viewable by standard image pro- report by combining key information from
grams but will also be capable of being photographs and notes and, thereby, allowing
enhanced. Reproductions of the “Master” and readers to understand the interrelationship
“Copy” files can then be placed on a CD or other between the evidence and the body without
external storage device to be placed into case difficulty [3, 9, 18].
Fig. 2.5 Sample canine

body diagram [3]
identify the victim or place the victim in a particu-

2.6 Evidence Present lar location (i.e., the trunk of a suspect’s vehicle).
on the Body Of particular use is DNA evidence, which can be
obtained from a variety of biological samples.
In order to determine what may be important evi- Buccal swabs are commonly utilized and can eas-
dence to collect, the forensic necropsy should be ily be used by DNA analysts to compare the vic-
approached within the context of potential crimi- tim’s DNA to unknown biological substances
nal prosecution. Questions must be considered found at the scene, like blood on the walls of a
and answers sought within this context. These fighting pit. Buccal swabs can be obtained by uti-
questions will likely be determined by the appli- lizing a sterile cotton or sponge swab or cytology
cable laws. Therefore, the forensic veterinarian brush. With newly gloved hands, the swab or brush
or pathologist should discuss the relevant ques- is placed, one at a time, against the buccal mucosa
tions at hand with the submitting agency. of the cheek and swirled for 10 seconds. It is rec-
The types of evidence most commonly associ- ommended to collect at least two samples [3].
ated with a body include biological, toxicologi- Toxicological evidence, such as the stomach
cal, entomological, trace, and firearm evidence. contents, liver, and kidney, may also be collected
Biological evidence, such as tissue, blood, and during a forensic necropsy. Specimens such as
urine, are commonly collected during a forensic these can be utilized to detect the presence of
necropsy. Biological evidence can be utilized to drugs in the animals system. Unfortunately, there
is no fully comprehensive toxicological screen only be handled with a gloved hand or plastic
available. However, in cases where there is a sus- instruments. Metal instruments should never
picion of the specific or type of substance uti- come into contact with these items as they may
lized, these can be tested for individually. Such damage the microscopic evidence (rifling) which
substances may be present on the crime scene or can be used to relate the projectile back to a spe-
at the suspect’s disposal. There also may be a his- cific firearm. Firearm evidence should be gently
tory or characteristic lesions observed which may cleaned with water, allowed to air dry, and then
assist in determining the type or specific sub- placed in an appropriate sized paper box or other
stance to test for. The forensic veterinarian or rigid container. This evidence should be turned
pathologist should work closely with a toxicolo- back over to law enforcement for further analysis
gist in order to determine the most appropriate if warranted [3].
samples to obtain and testing to pursue [3]. No matter how decomposed, damaged, or
Entomological evidence, such as puparia, mutilated the body, it is always advantageous to
insect larvae, and eggs, may be present on a body. conduct a necropsy [2]. In situations of advanced
Entomological evidence can provide valuable decomposition and/or in the presence of trauma,
information concerning the postmortem interval it is recommended that the body be macerated
and may need to be collected. Because there is a and the skeletal remains examined, following
variety of collection and preservation methods examination of the available tissues. It is possible
used which are dependent on the type of evidence that minor injuries, such as cut marks, may not be
being collected, it is recommended that the foren- visualized on radiographs. It is also possible, due
sic veterinarian or pathologist work with a foren- to extensive tissue trauma or injury, that individ-
sic entomologist to determine what information ual defects and sequence of injuries cannot be
the samples may provide, as well as proper col- determined with the tissue still on the body. In
lection, sample storage, and submission [3]. such cases, it is recommended that the forensic
Trace evidence, such as foreign hair, fibers, veterinarian or pathologist work with an osteolo-
and paint flecks, are minute and commonly over- gist or forensic anthropologist. Although forensic
looked or lost. Visible items should be carefully anthropologists are frequently concerned with
collected either tweezers and placed in an appro- determining the identity of a human individual,
priately sized, clean paper or glassine envelope. they are also extensively trained and experienced
If trace evidence is not readily visible, but is sus- in the identification and analysis of skeletal
pected, tape can applied to the body, allowing trauma [3].
particles to adhere to it when it is removed. The In addition to the typical items and tools asso-
tape should then be placed adhesive side down on ciated with a necropsy, there are several others
a clear backing such as a plastic transparency that are recommended to have on hand to assist in
sheet. Multiple strips of tape can be secured on the collection and preservation of evidence
the same backing as long as they are properly (Table 2.2). The use of an alternative light source
labeled as the areas from which they were col- (ALS) may also help to identify physical e vidence
lected. This evidence should be submitted to law present on the body. An ALS consists of a light
enforcement or a private laboratory for further source (such as a laser or incandescent bulb) and
analysis if warranted. It may be necessary to a combination of filters that allow selected wave-
request trace and biological analysis if there are lengths of light to be emitted. Certain substances,
hairs collected which still retain follicular tissue such as biological fluids or fibers, will fluoresce
containing DNA [3]. at a given wavelength, allowing these items to be
Firearm evidence, such as projectiles, projec- more readily located and collected [3].
tile fragments, jacket, or wadding, may be pres- In addition to in situ documentation, described
ent in the body. Radiographs should be utilized to above, the item of evidence itself should also be
assist in locating these items which should be measured and described, and close-up photo-
collected if present. Firearm evidence should graphs taken following removal from the body.
Table 2.2 Suggested items to have on hand for evidence that a reference manual for evidence packaging,
collection and packaging in addition to typical necropsy
such as Crime Scene Investigation: A Guide for
supplies [3]
Law Enforcement, published by the National
• Tyvek tags
Forensic Science Technology Center, is con-
• Paper evidence bags of various sizes
sulted for general and unique packaging guide-
• Paper envelopes of various sizes
lines [3, 19].
• Glassine envelopes
Each item of evidence collected should also
• Paper boxes of various sizes
• Evidence tape
be properly identified, labeled, and secured. The
• Packing tape container label should include:
• Permanent marker
• Plastic jars of various sizes 1 . The case number
• Uncoated paint cans 2. The item number
• Glass jars or vials 3. The investigating agency
• Sterile cotton or sponge tipped applicators 4. Location of collection
• Sterile saline or sterile water 5. Description of the item
• Fecal containers 6. Name of the individual who collected the item
• Plastic bags of various sizes 7. The date and time the item was collected
• Camera
• Forensic rulers or scales of various sizes To prevent loss, contamination, and access by
• Plastic tweezers unauthorized individuals, evidence must also be
• Identification board or card
securely and properly sealed with evidence tape
• Evidence receipts
as described above. As previously mentioned
• Body diagrams of the species which you commonly
encounter items of evidence also need to be housed in a
monitored and secure area. The storage area(s)
should have limited access which is monitored by
To prevent cross contamination, each item col- some design of documentation when the area is
lected from the body should be packaged sepa- entered and exited [3].
rately in a new unused container. However, Storage areas will need to consist of three dif-
similar items collected from the same body ferent environments—dry room temperature,
region may be packaged together—for example, refrigerated, and freezer—and can consist of
two buccal swabs collected from the same ani- entire secured rooms or individual cabinets with
mal. A plastic bag should not be utilized to pack- locking capabilities. The type of storage environ-
age evidence that is wet or of a biological nature, ment utilized will be dependent on the individual
unless the item will be immediately refrigerated types of evidence encountered, with the primary
or frozen. Plastic traps moisture leading to the concern being to prevent, or at least delay, the
formation of mold, mildew, and other processes degradation of the evidence. Generally speaking,
that can deteriorate the specimen, often times items that are normally found in a dry and room
rendering it useless. Moist items, such as a DNA temperature environment should be stored in the
sample in the form of a buccal swab, should be same. This would include items such as projec-
collected and then allowed to air dry before being tiles, most trace evidence, entomology, and per-
placed into a paper container, such as a swab box sonal items such as collars. Prior to storing in a
or envelope. Some items, such as those contain- room temperature environment, it may be neces-
ing accelerants, are unique and will require atypi- sary to air dry some items first. Storing wet items
cal packaging materials. Accelerants are volatile cannot only lead to mold growth inside plastic
substances and may dissipate if not properly packages but also leakage in paper packaging.
stored. Therefore, these items need to be stored in Most specimens collected for toxicological anal-
a special container designed for arson evidence, a ysis are wet biologicals and should therefore be
glass jar or uncoated paint can. It is recommended either refrigerated or frozen. Insects that are to be
used for toxicological analysis should also be specimens based on the type of evidence and
frozen, if this can be accomplished quickly. whether the storage is temporary or long term
Otherwise, they should be preserved in 80% ethyl (Fig. 2.6). It should be noted that freezing of
alcohol. The storage of biological specimens will insects is specifically for DNA recovery and toxi-
vary, basically depending on whether the sample cological purposes and should not be done to
is wet or dry. It is commonly believed that all bio- insects being used for analysis of postmortem
logicals should all be stored in refrigerated tem- interval [3].
peratures. However, a guide titled The Biological It should always be remembered that even
Evidence Preservation Handbook: Best Practices though evidence may be in the custody of the
for Evidence Handlers was published in 2013 by forensic veterinarian or pathologist, it is not
the Technical Working Group on Biological theirs to do with at will. The forensic veterinarian
Evidence Preservation that clarifies this miscon- or pathologist is providing a contract service for
ception. The guide includes a matrix of the best the submitting agency, on evidence that belongs
and acceptable storage conditions for biological to that agency. None of the evidence, including
Short-Term Storage Conditions
Temperature Room
Type of Evidence Frozen Refrigerated
Controlled Temperature
Never Less than 24

Liquid Blood Best
hours
Best Less than

Urine
24 hours
Dry Biological
Best Acceptable
Stained Item
Wet Bloody Items Best Less than 24

(if cannot be dried) Acceptable
hours
Bones Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable
Hair Best Acceptable
Swabs with
Best (wet) Best (dried)
Biological Material
Vaginal Smears Best
Feces Best
Less than 24
Buccal Swabs Best
hours
Fig. 2.6 Long- and short-term storage matrices (public domain images—reproduced with permissions from the
National Institute of Technology) [20]
Long-Term Storage Conditions
Temperature Room
Type of Evidence Frozen Refrigerated
Controlled Temperature
Liquid Blood Never Best
Urine Best
Dry Biological
Best
Stained Item
Best
Bones Best
Hair Best Acceptable
Swabs with
Best (dried)
Biological Material
Vaginal Smears Best
Feces Best
Buccal Swabs Best
Best Acceptable Acceptable

DNA Extracts
(liquid) (liquid) (dried)
Fig. 2.6 (continued)
the body, should be disposed of until written con- mences at the crime scene [1–4]. The forensic
sent has been obtained from the submitting veterinarian or pathologist must recognize the
agency. Depending on the details of the needs of significance of the crime scene findings and
the case, desires of the submitting agency, and how they may be used in rendering an analyti-
the laws of the jurisdiction, obtaining consent for cal opinion [3, 5, 8]. If the forensic veterinar-
disposal could occur quickly or take an extended ian or pathologist is not present on scene, they
amount of time. Once permission is obtained, should discuss the findings with someone who
disposal of all evidence should be documented on was(ideally another veterinarian) and request
the original evidence receipt and retained in the copies of crime scene documentation and
case file. reports [3]. In doing so, this will ensure that
the forensic veterinarian or pathologist
Conclusion receives all of the available information which
A forensic necropsy must withstand scrutiny can be used to interpret findings at necropsy
in the courtroom and therefore should be and determine the cause of death [3, 5, 8]. In
approached within the context of potential addition to the crime scene findings, the foren-
criminal prosecution. For this purpose, it sic veterinarian or pathologist must also
should be recognized that a forensic necropsy understand the appropriate methods and tech-
does not begin on the table. Rather, it com- niques of identifying, collecting, and preserv-
ing veterinary forensic evidence [3]. Aside 9. Gardner RM. Practical crime scene processing and
from the postmortem examination, proper evi- investigation. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2011.
10. Miller M. Crime scene investigation. 3rd ed. Boca
dence handling is paramount to a successful Raton: CRC Press; 2009.
forensic analysis. 11. Stewart WJ. Collins Dictionary of Law. http://legal-dic-
tionary.thefreedictionary.com/circumstantial+evidence,
2006; Circumstantial evidence.
12. Stewart WJ. Collins Law Dictionary. http://legal-dic-
References tionary.thefreedictionary.com/direct+evidence, 2006;
Direct evidence.
1. Dolinak D, Evan M, Lew EO. Forensic pathology: 13. Wright R. The role of the forensic pathologist. In:
principles and practice. Burlington: Academic Press; James S, Nordby J, editors. Forensic science: an intro-
2005. duction to scientific and investigative techniques. 3rd
2. Moritz AR. Classical mistakes in forensic pathol- ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2009.
ogy: Alan R. Moritz (American Journal of Clinical 14. Di Maio VJM, Dana SE. Handbook of forensic

Pathology, 1956). Am J Forensic Med Pathol. pathology. Austin: Landes Bioscience; 1998.
1981;2:299–308. 15. Sharma B. Clinical forensic medicine-management
3. Touroo R, Fitch A. Identification, collection, and of crime victims from trauma to trial. J Clin Forensic
preservation of veterinary forensic evidence: on scene Med. 2003;10:267–73.
and during the postmortem examination. Vet Pathol. 16. Bunn S, Stammers S. Unintentional bias in forensic
2016;53:880–7. investigation. In: Technology POoSa, ed. POSTbriefs
4. Di Maio VJM, Di Maio DJ. Forensic pathology. 2nd POST-PB-0015, 2015.
ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2001. 17. Robinson E. Crime scene photography. 2nd ed.

5. Munro HM, Munro R. Animal abuse and unlawful Burlington: Elsevier; 2010.
killing: forensic veterinary pathology. Elsevier Health 18. Fisher BAJ. Techniques of crime scene investigation.
Sciences: London; 2008. 6th ed. Boca Raton: CRC Press; 2000.
6. de Siqueira A, Cuevas SE, Salvagni FA, et al. Forensic 19. National, (U.S) FSTC. Crime Scene Investigation:
veterinary pathology: sharp injuries in animals. Vet a Guide for Law Enforcement. Washington, D.C:
Pathol. 2016;53:979–87. Bureau of Justice Assistance, U.S. Department of
7. McEwen BJ. Nondrowning asphyxia in veterinary Justice, National Institute of Justice, NIST, NFSTC,
forensic pathology: suffocation, strangulation, and 2013.
mechanical asphyxia. Vet Pathol. 2016;53:1037–48. 20. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
8. Gerdin JA, McDonough SP. Forensic pathology of at USoA. Biological Evidence Preservation Handbook:
companion animal abuse and neglect. Vet Pathol. Best Practices for Evidence Handlers, 2013.
2013;50:994–1006.
Performing the Forensic Necropsy
3
Rebecca Kagan and Jason W. Brooks
3.1 The Forensic Necropsy 3.1.1 I nitial Evaluation and External

Examination
The forensic necropsy is a careful examination
and documentation of the body, the purpose of The goals of the external examination in a foren-
which is to discover the cause and manner of sic case are essentially to establish or confirm
death for the court. While this procedure is simi- identity (breed, species, and/or individual), docu-
lar in some ways to the investigation of natural ment the nutritional condition and hygienic status
death as occurs daily in diagnostic or clinical of the body, document postmortem preservation,
cases, there are critical distinct differences in the document external lesions, and collect trace evi-
approach, training of the examiner, techniques, dence. Prior to starting the external exam, nota-
and documentation that must be very strongly tion should be made regarding the manner and
considered by all parties involved with any such condition in which the carcass was received.
investigation. The basis of any necropsy is a Document the packaging, labeling, and any seals
thorough examination using sound technique.
that may be present. If possible, radiographs of
While the focus and documentation practices the carcass should be taken prior to removal from
may differ between forensic necropsies and diag- the packaging to avoid loss of radiographically
nostic necropsies, the examination procedure is visible evidence (such as metal) that might be
fundamentally the same and should follow estab- only loosely attached to the body or contained
lished veterinary necropsy guidelines [1]. within packaging materials (Fig. 3.1). All pack-
aging, including any seals, should be saved and
resealed with the carcass remains. At a minimum,
packaging should be described in the report and
R. Kagan, DVM, DACVP (*) photographed (Fig. 3.2).
USFWS National Forensics Laboratory, Once removed from the packaging, all sur-
Ashland, OR 97520, USA faces of the body should be photographed with a
e-mail: rebecca_kagan@fws.gov label and scale. Any potentially sensitive evi-
J.W. Brooks, VMD, PhD, DACVP dence (such as trace fibers or fingerprints) should
Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, be retrieved prior to further manipulation of the
Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, The Pennsylvania
State University, Wiley Lane, University Park, carcass. Following initial establishing photogra-
PA, USA phy, examination via alternate light source is
e-mail: jwb21@psu.edu recommended if this imaging modality is avail-

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67172-7_3
28 R. Kagan and J.W. Brooks
Fig. 3.1 Radiograph of

a dog upon presentation.
Dog was radiographed
within the original bags
in which it was
submitted. Metallic bag
closures are visible and
patient positioning is not
optimal within the bag,
but sufficient to identify
radiopaque items
contained within the
packaging material
Fig. 3.2 Initial photos

should be taken of the
carcass as received
within any packaging
materials, including any
seals and tags. All
photographs should
include a label with the
case number (identifying
information was cropped
out of this photo for
publication)
able (see Sect. 3.2.4). Document species, breed, Consider collecting samples for DNA analysis,
and sex, estimate age if possible, and measure including hair with intact roots and/or swabs
body weight and body length (crown to rump containing mucosal epithelial cells (see Sect.
and/or total length). Be aware of species-specific 3.4.2.3). If the body was heavily soiled or
features that may be relevant (e.g., the presence requires rinsing for further evaluation, this may
or absence of a tail kink in a Florida panther). be done after initial examination and evidence
Search for and document identifiers such as tat- collection as previously described. Establishing
toos, microchips, radio collars, or leg bands, and photographs of the body may be retaken follow-
photograph and retain any identification devices. ing washing of the body.
3 Performing the Forensic Necropsy 29
Observation should be made as to the condi- viously described, radiographs may have already
tion of the hair coat, skin, nails, teeth, and exter- been taken with the body still contained inside of
nal orifices. In birds be sure to document areas of any packaging materials. At this stage, radiogra-
feather breakage, loss, or other abnormalities. phy outside of any packaging materials is advised
The nutritional condition of the carcass should be to allow for optimal positioning and avoid any
described, preferably by assigning a body condi- artefactual interference created by packaging. If
tion score if such a system exists for the species radiography is delayed until after internal
being examined. It is advised to specify the scor- examination, significant artifacts from tissue

ing system used, as multiple scoring systems manipulation may result, causing difficulty in
exist for some species (Fig. 3.3). The Purina interpretation.
Body Condition System and the Tufts Animal Following radiography, the hair coat or feath-
Care and Condition (TACC) scale are commonly ers should be either removed to permit visualiza-
used in dogs. The body should be examined for tion of the skin or the skin should be reflected to
any postmortem changes including livor mortis, permit visualization of the subcutis. Areas of
rigor mortis, decomposition, or insect develop- bruising or small penetrating wounds obscured
ment. Core body temperature may be measured by fur or feathers will be more easily found
and recorded if the time of death is suspected to (Fig. 3.4). If wound tracts are present, the place-
be less than 48 h or if the body temperature has ment of probes in through-and-through wound
not yet equilibrated to ambient temperature after tracts as visual aids should be done with caution
death. If external wounds are present, they should or not at all. Aggressive probing can result in iat-
be photographed both with and without a scale. rogenic damage that may be hard to differentiate
Fur or feathers may be removed to allow for bet- from the actual wound path. It is preferable to
ter visualization. If multiple external wounds are delay probe placement until after the body has
present, it may be helpful to designate a num- been opened and the wound path identified
ber to each for descriptive and photographic (Fig. 3.5). See Chap. 7 for additional details.
purposes. The body should be palpated for

bone fractures or deformities that are not
grossly evident. 3.1.2 Internal Examination
Prior to proceeding with the necropsy, the car-
cass should be radiographed to assist with the A complete internal examination, including
detection and location of bone fractures, metallic removal of and dissection of all internal organs,
projectiles, or other medical conditions. As pre- should be performed as for a comprehensive rou-
Fig. 3.3 An emaciated

dog with external
evidence of medical
intervention. The carcass
should be evaluated for
body condition, hygienic
status, and identifying
features as well as any
evidence of medical or
surgical intervention
Fig. 3.4 (a) Reflected

skin of the head showing a
focal subcutaneous
hemorrhage surrounding
a gunshot wound
between the eyes of a
dog. (b) Reflected skin
of the abdomen and
chest showing focally
extensive subcutaneous
hemorrhage surrounding
a gunshot wound to the
chest of a dog
tine diagnostic necropsy. Special attention should

be given to areas in which wounds, medical or
surgical intervention, or other abnormalities are
located. Note what is normal as well as abnormal.
The content of each organ should be examined,
measured, described, collected, and preserved.
The bone marrow may be removed from long
bones such as the femur for bone marrow fat
analysis. Tissues should be collected for ancillary
testing and, when appropriate, any evidence
should be collected and preserved.
Additional evidentiary items from within the
body should be collected if encountered. Most
commonly, projectiles or fragments may be pres-
Fig. 3.5 A probe (a blue dowel) has been placed to dem- ent within body tissues or cavities. These may be
onstrate the path of a bullet wound in a golden eagle. In
readily retrieved or may require the assistance of
this case the probe was inserted after the body cavity was
opened and the wound tract examined radiographs or a handheld metal detector for
location. Metallic projectiles and fragments tissues as sealed evidence, either frozen or pre-
should be handled only with blunt, nonmetallic served in formalin.
instruments or by hand to prevent the creation of
artifactual tool marks.
3.2 Special Techniques
3.1.3 Histopathology 3.2.1 Decomposed Remains
The National Association of Medical Poor postmortem preservation does not neces-
Examiners recommends that histologic exami- sarily preclude a complete and successful nec-
nation be performed in any non-skeletonized ropsy. For example, bullet fragments or certain
case for which the cause of death is not evident toxins may be detected long after death (Fig. 3.6).
on gross examination [2]. Microscopic exami- Trauma involving bones could still be apparent.
nation of tissues can be used to establish a As in any non-hospital death, the state of post-
timeline for injury, exclude other possible mortem preservation is not always ideal in cases
causes of death, identify extenuating circum- submitted for necropsy. In forensic cases espe-
stances, and assess overall health at the time of cially, bodies may not be submitted until long
death [3, 4]. Particularly in wild or exotic spe- after death. Attempts might have been made to
cies, histopathology may also be valuable for conceal the death or, often in wildlife cases, the
the monitoring of population health. Whether animal may have died in a remote location and/
or not to pursue histopathology in a forensic or have been exposed to harsh environmental
case is generally left to the discretion of the conditions. In some cases, owners or law
pathologist. If the pathologist decides not to do enforcement officers are uncertain about request-
a histological examination, she or he should be ing a necropsy and may cause delay; sometimes
prepared to explain this decision in court. bodies are frozen or buried before a decision is
As with other diagnostic tests, the examiner made regarding whether or not to request a nec-
should keep in mind that the opposing council ropsy. Birds and other small animals tend to
may ask that their expert witness also be allowed decompose quickly, necessitating more rapid
to examine the case. Slides, formalin-fixed tis- discovery and recovery than may be possible.
sues, or blocks may need to be made available The examiner will be expected to interpret
upon request. To this end, samples prepared for lesions and postmortem changes in bodies that
histopathology should be good quality, represen- are desiccated, have been frozen and thawed,
tative samples. Consider also saving additional macerated, or scavenged.
Fig. 3.6 Example of a

markedly decomposed,
largely skeletonized,
Mexican gray wolf
(Canis lupus baileyi).
Despite the poor carcass
preservation, metal
fragments were
identified in association
with acute fractures
allowing for a diagnosis
of gunshot injury
3.2.2 Desiccated Carcasses marks are among the features that may be
revealed (Fig. 3.7).
In human remains, the tissue desiccation may Methods of skeletonization vary. Ideally,
begin as early as 3 days after exposure [5]. cleaning will be rapid and minimally destructive
Exposure to a hot, dry environment can quickly to bone and use readily available materials. If
leave the examiner with a stiff mummified animal skeletal preparation is a frequent necessity, a der-
to necropsy. Radiographic imaging, including mestid beetle colony may be a valuable addition
computed tomography (CT), is an extremely use- to the forensic laboratory (Fig. 3.8). Dermestid
ful tool for examining and documenting trauma beetles (Coleoptera, Dermestidae) are often used
in these types of carcasses. For a more thorough by museums and taxidermists to prepare skele-
examination of the skeleton and remaining inter- tons. Both the larvae and adults eat soft tissue. A
nal structures, soaking the body in water over- healthy colony can skeletonize a small bird in as
night or longer can rehydrate soft tissue enough little as 24 hours, while large specimens may take
to allow for manipulation and internal several days to weeks. The beetles do not cause
examination. Regardless of the condition of the any damage to the bones, though they may start
body, the pathologist should strive to perform as to eat hair and other keratinized structures if the
complete an exam as possible and collect any carcass is not removed in time. Beetle-assisted
trace evidence prior to immersion. preparation has the added advantage of preserv-
ing DNA [6]. Dermestid beetles can be purchased
from scientific supply companies. Colonies
3.2.3 Skeletal Preparation require appropriate humidity, light and dark
exposure, and substrate, and they may require
Examination of cleaned bones can allow for a additional food if casework is not sufficient.
better characterization and documentation of Ample online resources exist to instruct in the
skeletal trauma, particularly in areas such as establishment of a colony.
the spine and skull where intimate attachments Other skeletonization techniques involve
to muscle and other soft tissues obscure the variations of maceration to remove soft tissues.
bone. When cleaned and reconstructed, bullet Immersion in warm or cool water requires little
holes, blunt force trauma impact sites, and tool specialized equipment or materials but is time
Fig. 3.7 Reconstruction
of a Florida panther
(Puma concolor coryi)
skull. A non-exiting
(penetrating) bullet
wound from a high
velocity rifle shattered
the skull. Tissues were
skeletonized using a
dermestid beetle colony
and the bullet entry hole
was reconstructed using
hot glue
Fig. 3.8 A dermestid

beetle colony in action.
The beetles live on a
bedding of loose batting.
The colony is housed in
a locked room with
limited access
consuming and often malodorous. Simmering 3.2.4 Alternate Light Source Exam
is more rapid but must be monitored to avoid
overcooking, which can soften and warp the Alternate light sources are used in crime scene
bone. The addition of detergent and bak- investigation and fingerprint examination but
ing soda (20 mL of each per 2 L of water) can also be useful during the necropsy
reduces odor and speeds the process. A sec- (Fig. 3.10). Though high-end alternate light
ond round of simmering in diluted liquid source equipment may be too costly for many
ammonia (150 mL per 2 L of water) acts as a labs, cheaper portable models are available. For
degreaser [7]. In the author’s experience, using the pathologist routinely involved in forensic
this method on a skinned and partially de- necropsies, this equipment can be a worthwhile
fleshed small mammal or bird skeleton can investment.
result in a cleaned skeleton in 6–8 hours. Other Examination of the body with light of differ-
maceration techniques use protease and lipase ent wavelengths utilizes both the principles of
enzymes or household bleach [8]. Since macera- photoluminescence (objects absorbing light of
tion techniques involving heat treatment may one color and emitting light of a different color)
destroy DNA, samples should be retrieved ahead and absorption. Blood, for example, appears
of time for storage in the event that genetic analy- black when viewed under light at approximately
sis is requested at a future date [9]. 415 nm [10]. Conversely, the author (RAK) has
If bleach is to be used as a finishing tech- observed that areas in the subcutis and muscle
nique, it should be done with caution. Bleach that appear blanched in visible light suggestive of
readily degrades calcium, resulting in chalky constriction become highlighted under 415 nm
surface residue. A gentler method of whitening light conditions due to lack of blood. Saliva,
can be achieved by soaking the bones in over- semen, and urine will photoluminesce in the
the-counter hydrogen peroxide solution 400–500 nm range depending on the filter used
(Fig. 3.9). Following this with exposure to direct and the substrate (Fig. 3.11) [11, 12]. Other
sunlight will whiten bones even further. Keep in applications include detection of trace fiber on
mind when using any of these techniques that feathers and hair coats and detection of burned
evidence security needs to remain a priority. keratin in electrocution and flame burn cases
Samples should not be accessible to outside par- [13]. Ultraviolet light detects markers in anti-
ties, should ideally kept in a locked cabinet or freeze and M-44 cyanide bait [14].
secure room, and should only be handled by per- Photographing items being examined in this
sons within the chain of custody. way requires that the filter be placed between the
Fig. 3.9 Black bear

(Ursus americanus)
bones before and after
(inset) treatment with
hydrogen peroxide.
Though whitening is not
necessary, if desired,
hydrogen peroxide is a
good alternative to
harsher bleach
treatments
Fig. 3.10 A portable

alternate light source
and accompanying red,
yellow and orange filters
Fig. 3.11 Human
semen on cow hide
demonstrating
luminescence under blue
light with and orange
bypass filter
lens and the light source. Colored filters that attach method for scale bar use involves keeping the
directly to the lens can be purchased for different scale in the same plane as the area of interest and
camera types. A tripod is also useful given the low not covering any part of the subject. If a marker
light conditions requiring slower shutter speeds. or scale is used and overlaps any portion of the
body, a photo should be taken with and without
the marker [15]. Tabletop markers to identify
3.3 Imaging right, left, dorsal, ventral, etc. may also be help-
ful. A copy stand with dedicated lighting is rec-
3.3.1 Photography ommended for photography of individual
samples, or a tripod may be used for items unable
As a necropsy necessarily results in disturbance to be accommodated by the copy stand (Fig. 3.12).
and deconstruction of the evidence, photographic If using digital photography, unintentional,
and radiographic images are what remain as out of focus, or otherwise flawed images should
visual documentation of the body as received, the be kept and not deleted so there are no gaps in the
necropsy process, and in situ findings. As numbering to give cause for questions. Instead,
opposed to the traditional necropsy, where photos errors should be noted in writing by the examiner
may only be taken to document particular find- or technician. Images should be archived in a
ings of interest, photography for a forensic nec- database or on CD/DVD, but should not be kept
ropsy should be as comprehensive as possible. stored on the camera. A written photo log should
A basic approach to forensic necropsy pho- be kept to record case number, date, time, num-
tography involves first taking images of the body ber of photos taken, and storage method.
as received (ideally in the sealed packaging),
followed by whole-body images. All images

should be labeled with the case identification and 3.3.2 Radiography
date. When there is a specific injury or other area
of interest, the larger area should be photo- Radiography has a long history of use in forensic
graphed followed by close-up shots. Distracting cases, dating back almost to the year that Röntgen
unnecessary elements such as gloves or instru- developed the technique [16]. The pathologist
ments should be kept out of the frame. Scales who does not already take radiographs as a rou-
should be used when appropriate. The proper tine part of the exam should seriously consider
Fig. 3.12 Copy stand

with dedicated lighting
and digital camera
mounted to allow for
photography of
individual items
doing so. The pathologist is in the rather unique or bullet fragments (Fig. 3.13). Gunshot wounds
position of being able to open the body to iden- are not always straightforward. Grossly, they may
tify or confirm findings rather than having to rely resemble blunt force trauma or sharp force injury.
heavily on radiographs as in a living victim. Bullets can end up lodging in sites distant to the
Despite this, radiographs can be of use. entry wound depending on what internal structures
Radiographs not only aid in diagnosis and trace they have encountered. When bullets shatter, the
metal retrieval but also result in an image that can resulting “lead snowstorm” can help to trace the
be used in court to explain the findings. trajectory. In cases of shotgun injury, where pellets
Radiographs of gunshot wounds in particular can are too numerous to retrieve, numbers can be more
make a powerful impact on a jury, tend to be eas- easily assessed with radiographs. Drawing conclu-
ier for the layperson to understand, and are gen- sions regarding bullet caliber, shotgun range of fire,
erally less disturbing than necropsy photos [17]. and shot pellet size based on radiographic images is
The pathologist should take care to speak only not recommended [16].
within her or his scope of training. For cases in As previously stated, radiographs should be
which the conclusions rest solely or heavily on taken of the body in the packaging and then again
the radiographic findings, consultation with a of the body after having been removed from
radiology specialist should be considered. packaging and properly positioned. Having an
The use of radiography as a means to identify image of the body as received allows the patholo-
the body is less often necessary in nonhuman gist to find any trace metal that may have fallen
casework, but can be helpful, particularly if the off into the packaging and account for any iatro-
presence or absence of microchips, old fractures, genic fractures that may occur during manipula-
or metal implants can be ascertained. Growth tion. Once the body is removed and photographed,
plate closure and other age-related changes to full body radiographs with standard orthogonal
bone may also help in determining signalment positioning will follow. All images should be
and identity. In cases of abuse, radiographs are labeled with the case identification and date and
used to determine the scope of the injuries and tabletop markers used. It is advisable to make
help in aging fractures [18]. notes as to machine settings, the number of
In cases of gunshot injury, radiography is used images taken, and individuals in attendance in
to determine the presence and location of the bullet case this information is requested in court.
Fig. 3.13 Radiograph
of a dog in left lateral
recumbency with two
metallic projectiles (.25
caliber bullets) located
within the soft tissues of
the ventral neck
Regarding metadata and long-term storage, rec- fluids will shift [20]. CT allows for more accu-
ommendations for radiographic images follow rate measurement of projectile fragments and
those of photographs. can even be used to distinguish between types
of materials [17].
3.3.3 Computed Tomography

and Magnetic Resonance 3.4 Evidence Handling
Imaging
3.4.1 The Chain of Custody
It is the fortunate pathologist who also has
access to CT, MRI, and other advanced imaging The chain of custody is a written or electronic
modalities. Though still not well explored in record that documents the movement of a piece
the field of veterinary forensic pathology, there of evidence. At its simplest, the chain of custody
is much possibility. Multi-slice computed is a written document with point-to-point signa-
tomography examination can help to recon- tures, dates, and times. High-volume forensic
struct projectile injuries and shows promise as labs may use a bar code or radio-frequency iden-
aids in the diagnosis of fluid inhalation and gas tification system [22]. Ideally, a chain of custody
emboli [19–21]. A project known as the will be unbroken from the time the evidence is
“Virtopsy® Project” has studied the combined collected to the time that it is archived or dis-
use of CT and MRI as a supplement to the tra- posed of. If a body or other piece of evidence
ditional autopsy [17]. One of the main advan- enters a facility without a chain of custody, one
tages of cross-sectional imaging is the ability to should be started upon arrival (Appendix A). The
visualize things like complex fractures or fluid chain of custody answers the question of “who”
distribution in situ. This is a decided advantage and “where” at any given time, documenting how
as once a body is opened during an autopsy, long and when the evidence was in any one per-
bone fragments will be disturbed and gases and son’s charge. If additional evidence is generated
(such as stomach contents taken from a dog), a of the container should be closed with tape and
separate chain of custody should be established the collector’s initials and date written over the
for that separated item. tape (Fig. 3.14). If the package has multiple
openings, all will need to be sealed.
3.4.2 Trace Evidence Collection 3.4.2.1 Ballistic Evidence

Bullets, other projectiles, and projectile fragments
Ideally, you will already be in contact with a lab should be collected gently to avoid marring rifling
to analyze trace evidence. In that case, collection and other identifying markings. Do not use metal
and submission should meet their specifications. forceps; plastic forceps can be purchased for this
In the event that evidence is being collected for purpose but gloved fingers also suffice (Fig. 3.15).
potential future use or an unknown third party, Cleaning of projectile evidence, if deemed neces-
below are some general suggestions for best sary, should be done gently and the evidence air-
results. Please also refer to the respective chap- dried before packaging. Package in breathable
ters in this book. material. Gunshot residue can be collected on a
Trace evidence in this context refers to any- tape lift, by shaving the area in question or submit-
thing separated from the body for additional ting the entire section of the skin. Depending on the
analysis. That includes tissue samples, swabs, crime laboratory, gunshot residue collection kits
ballistic evidence, etc. The pathologist should may be available. Additional methods for gunshot
photograph the trace evidence and note the details residue collection and analysis are currently being
of collection, including location of the body. All developed for use on haired skin (see Chap. 7) [23].
trace evidence should be then be appropriately
labeled and sealed and a chain of custody initi- 3.4.2.2 Fingerprints
ated for each piece. Labeling, at a minimum, If evidence is to be collected for fingerprint anal-
needs to include the case and item number. If the ysis, that should be done early on in the necropsy,
item is bagged in multiple layers, identifying preferably right after external photo documenta-
information should be included on the innermost tion. The item in question should be handled as
bag. To appropriately seal evidence, the opening little as possible and only with gloved hands. It
Fig. 3.14 Properly
sealed, internally
generated trace evidence
has the opening taped,
initialed and dated
(sealed) as well as item
identification on the
innermost packaging
and an attached evidence
tag with the internal
chain of custody
Fig. 3.15 A .45 caliber

bullet being removed
from the liver by the use
of plastic forceps. Use
only manual recovery or
plastic or rubber tipped
instruments to recover
projectiles to avoid
creating artifacts that
may interfere with
ballistic analyses
should be packaged in such a way that the item comitant necropsies, dirty instruments, etc.) and
has minimal contact with the packaging material strive to eliminate or mitigate them. Tissue sam-
(Fig. 3.16). Packaging should be breathable. ples taken during the necropsy should be kept
frozen. Soft tissues are excellent sources of DNA;
3.4.2.3 DNA Analysis however, bone, antler, horn, and hair (if the folli-
Sampling of tissues for DNA analysis may be cle is attached) also work well. Teeth, hair shafts,
done for individual matching, species determina- and mature feather shafts have only small con-
tion, or identification of fluid or other trace evi- centrations of DNA. Dry tissues should be kept
dence. The pathologist should be aware of dry. Wet tissues should be frozen. Swabs can be
potential sources of contamination (self, con- dried and stored in envelopes or bags or they can
Fig. 3.16 Fingerprint evidence should be collected and with zip ties. Cardboard collars around the ends of the
packaged to minimize surface contact. In these sample arrow and cardboard “cushions” between the zip ties and
cases, the soda can was picked up by placing a pencil in the packaging reduce contact. Further packaging would
the opening and securing it to a cardboard sleeve. The tape be in a sealed, breathable container (such as a cardboard
does not touch the can and the cardboard only contacts the box)
top and bottom rims. The arrow is secured to cardboard
be placed in empty vials and frozen, but do con- with the forensic entomologist ahead of time to
sult with the receiving lab for preferred medium confirm whether or not any of the maggots should
and any other submission requirements. be submitted alive.
Information the forensic entomologist will
3.4.2.4 Toxicology Samples need to know to make the time of colonization
In general, samples for toxicology analysis determination minimally includes location where
should be packaged in glass, hard plastic vials, or the body was found (preferably GPS coordi-
aluminum foil and kept chilled or frozen. At least nates), the date the body was found, the date the
half of the sample should be saved back, particu- insects were collected, and the conditions the
larly if the test is consumptive. Consultation with body was kept in between collection and nec-
the toxicology lab ahead of time will ensure best ropsy. Storage temperatures will affect maggot
results. growth, so refrigeration conditions should be
noted.
3.4.2.5 Forensic Entomology The results you will get from the entomolo-
Collection for forensic entomology is best done gist will reflect time of colonization but not nec-
in the field, but that does not preclude sampling essarily the time of death. This is an important
during the necropsy. Take a representative sam- distinction to keep in mind. If insects did not
pling of maggots. Typically 50–100 are collected. immediately have access to the body, the time of
Be sure to include the largest and/or eldest iden- colonization and the time of death may not be
tifiable individuals and remember that the oldest the same. For a more in-depth discussion of the
developing insects may be pupae. If the body has role of forensic entomology in the veterinary
been submitted frozen, the maggots may be necropsy and techniques for the pathologist,
refrozen. If the body has been submitted fresh, refer to Chap. 4 or other reference books on the
maggots can be killed by immersing them in hot subject [24–26].
(not boiling) water and then placed in ethanol for
submission. Collection and submission of an 3.4.2.6 Miscellaneous Trace Evidence
additional sample of live maggots may be helpful As a general rule, if something is dry, save it dry.
as species identification is made easier when Samples degrade more rapidly when they are kept
adults are available. At a minimum, containers in a damp environment. Fabric with trace evidence
and a food source can be kept at the ready. Chat on it can be submitted whole. Trace fibers can be
folded into a paper envelope or picked up on a tape 5. Galloway A. The process of decomposition: a model
lift that is then secured to a piece of clear plastic. If from the Arizona-Sonoran desert. In: Haglund WD,
Sorg MH, editors. Forensic taphonomy: the postmor-
evidence such as bone or rope is cut by the pathol- tem fate of human remains. 1st ed. Boca Raton: CRC
ogist, the cut end should be made apparent by Press; 2006. p. 139.
marking it with tape. These are guidelines for 6. Charabidze D, Colard T, Becart A, Hedouin V. Use of
some of the more commonly encountered pieces larder beetles (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) to deflesh
human jaws. Forensic Sci Int. 2014;234:162–4.
of trace evidence. As stated earlier, establishing a 7. Fenton TW, Birkby WH, Cornelison J. A fast and safe
relationship with a crime lab ahead of time is the non-bleaching method for forensic skeletal prepara-
best way to ensure good collection technique. tion. J Forensic Sci. 2003;48:274–6.
8. Mann RW, Berryman HE. A method for defleshing
human remains using household bleach. J Forensic
Sci. 2012;57:440–2.
3.4.3 D
isposition of the Carcass, 9. Simonsen KP, Rasmussen AR, Mathisen P, Petersen
Samples, and Evidence H, Borup F. A fast preparation of skeletal mate-
rials using enzyme maceration. J Forensic Sci.
2011;56:480–4.
The carcass is evidence and needs to be treated as 10. Breeding K. The basic theory behind alternate light
such through all stages of the investigation. When sources. Evidence Technol Mag. 2008: 30–33.
the necropsy is complete, all tissues should be 11. Sterzik V, Panzer S, Apfelbacher M, Bohnert

repackaged, sealed, and appropriately stored. M. Searching for biological traces on different mate-
rials using a forensic light source and infrared photog-
Ideally, storage both before and after the nec- raphy. Int J Legal Med. 2016;130:599–605.
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freezer with minimal allowed access. It is best sic pathology of animal sexual abuse. Vet Pathol.
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13. Viner TC, Kagan RA, Johnson JL. Using an alter-
closed and permission to dispose is given by the nate light source to detect electrically singed f eathers
submitter. Premature disposal could be viewed and hair in a forensic setting. Forensic Sci Int.
with suspicion by the opposing council. It may 2014;234:e25–9.
also be considered obstructive; experts from the 14. Burns RJ, Connolly GE, Savarie PJ. Day-Glo fluores-
cent particles as a marker for use in M-44 cyanide cap-
opposing council should also have the opportu- sules. In: Proceeding of 14th Vertebr Pest Conference,
nity to analyze the evidence. Document the dis- pp 281–284; 1990.
posal on the chain of custody record and keep all 15. Besant-Matthews PE. Gunshot-wound photography.
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16. Brogdon B. Forensic radiology. Boca Raton: CRC
Press; 1998.
Legal Note The findings and conclusions in this 17. Bolliger SA, Thali MJ. Imaging and virtual autopsy:
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sarily represent the views of the US Fish and B Biol Sci. 2015;370:1674. https://doi.org/10.1098/
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Postmortem Changes
and Estimating the Postmortem
4
Interval
Jason W. Brooks and Lerah Sutton
4.1 Introduction known as time since death, is highly dependent

upon knowledge of these postmortem processes.
Death is defined as the cessation of the physio- Estimating the postmortem interval is impor-
logical processes that maintain cellular integrity tant in many investigations of human deaths, and
and function. Almost immediately following it is similarly important in some animal forensic
death, an unavoidable, irreversible, and progres- investigations. An estimation of the PMI may
sive sequence of physical and chemical changes permit the investigator to include or exclude indi-
begins in the body. While these changes occur in viduals from a pool of suspects and may corrobo-
a predictable order of progression, the rate at rate witness testimony or other evidence while
which they develop is subject to great variability providing a more complete timeframe for the
due to many circumstantial and environmental events that occurred during an alleged crime [1].
factors. A knowledge of the expected progression While much research on PMI in human and ani-
of postmortem changes is essential for the proper mal subjects has been conducted using controlled
interpretation of gross and microscopic pathol- studies, limited data on PMI in animals are avail-
ogy at necropsy. A thorough understanding of able from case-based studies. Furthermore, the
such processes by a well-trained pathologist will interpretation of the data generated by many ani-
minimize the risk of misinterpreting postmortem mal studies is difficult due to the great variation
artifacts as lesions and will reduce the misidenti- in methodology and species studied, inhibiting
fication of actual lesions that may be obscured or the formation of general conclusions about the
distorted by postmortem changes. In addition, the relatedness of the findings of multiple studies. As
estimation of the postmortem interval (PMI), also a result, veterinary pathologists may attempt to
extrapolate from the human data when attempt-
ing to estimate time since death in animal cases.
J.W. Brooks, VMD, PhD, DACVP (*) It is essential to consider that many of these
Department of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, methods have not been validated in most animal
Animal Diagnostic Laboratory, The Pennsylvania species, and this lack of validation presents a sig-
State University, University Park, PA, USA nificant barrier to the use of these techniques in
e-mail: jwb21@psu.edu
court for cases involving animal crimes.
L. Sutton, MS Conversely, some of the methods used and con-
William R. Maples Center for Forensic Medicine,
College of Medicine, University of Florida, clusions drawn from human studies may, in fact,
Gainesville, FL, USA be applicable to animal subjects, although some
e-mail: lerahsutton@ufl.edu form of verification may be warranted.

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67172-7_4
44 J.W. Brooks and L. Sutton
The accuracy of PMI estimations is notori- postmortem interval, although ideally it should
ously poor, and it has not significantly improved not be used alone to estimate the time of death.
over many decades of research. Perhaps most As a generality, the postmortem period can be
importantly, no single method can be reliably subdivided into the early and late postmortem
used alone to accurately estimate the time since periods, defined as the periods prior to which and
death [1–3]. Any such estimate is highly depen- after which the body has nearly equilibrated to
dent on multiple factors, and is subject to increas- ambient temperature, respectively [5, 8, 9].
ing error with increasing time since death, Using algor mortis to estimate PMI is based
necessitating great caution when formulating any on the concept that the body begins to cool after
estimate of PMI [4]. death due to the cessation of homeostatic cellular
It is essential for the pathologist to understand activities that generate heat and maintain body
the expected progression of postmortem changes temperature. Following death, because no addi-
in order to properly interpret the presence or tional heat is created by physiologic processes,
absence of lesions at necropsy and to estimate the the body begins to lose heat to the environment,
time since death. The pathologist should be aware and the core temperature begins to decrease. In
that the changes described in this chapter, some cases, however, there is a delay in the inter-
although addressed individually in the text, in nal cooling of the body. Such a delay is not
nature will occur simultaneously and at different entirely understood and has been observed both
rates. It is of critical importance to note that these in human bodies and inanimate objects. The
processes are subject to the effects of environ- delay has been variably attributed to the estab-
mental conditions such as temperature, oxygen lishment of a temperature gradient to permit heat
tension, insect and scavenger activity, and other transfer or to postmortem aerobic or anaerobic
factors [1]. metabolism or intestinal bacterial metabolic pro-
cesses [10]. When observed, the resultant cooling
delay is known as a lag phase or temperature pla-
4.2 Postmortem Changes teau effect (TPE) and has caused much difficulty
in the modeling of postmortem temperature
4.2.1 Algor Mortis decay [11]. The TPE varies widely between stud-
ies and appears to be dependent upon such fac-
The cooling of the body after death is known as tors as animal species, cause of death, body
algor mortis. According to the principles of phys- region, body size, surface insulation, and envi-
ics, the body may be approximated as a cylindri- ronmental conditions [11, 12]. A number of
cal mass of water subject to thermodynamic laws mathematical models have been developed to
that influence its rate of cooling [5]. There is dis- predict body cooling, many of which have incor-
agreement, however, regarding the applicability porated the TPE. Early simplistic models used
of certain thermodynamic principles to biological very basic formulae for linear decay known as
organisms, resulting in the proposal of alternative “rules of thumb.” One such simple model states
models of postmortem cooling of the body [6, 7]. that the body cools at a rate of 1.5 °F per hour.
Further complicating the identification of an This was later revised to account for more sig-
ideal cooling model, it has been observed that moidal decay by estimating body cooling at 1.5–
many intrinsic and extrinsic variables heavily 2.0 °F (0.83–1.11 °C) per hours for the first 12 h
influence the rate of body cooling. Despite and 1 °F (0.55 °C) per hour thereafter [2, 13].
decades of research on the topic, an ideal tem- Another simple “rule of thumb” model states that
perature decay model has not been identified for the body cools at a rate of 1 °C (1.8 °F) per hour
any species and, if such a model existed, would after death with an additional factor of 3 h to
be expected to vary across species. Some general account for the TPE [14]. A two-exponential
conclusions have been drawn, however, and algor model eventually defined the sigmoid cooling
mortis may be used to aid in the estimation of the curve mathematically and became the basis upon
4 Postmortem Changes and Estimating the Postmortem Interval 45
which the commonly used nomogram was devel- human bodies, and methods for estimating PMI
oped [7, 15]. While numerous other formulae based on temperature may not be applicable
were developed, a comparison of the error associ- across species.
ated with eight different methods showed the
most consistent estimates with the smallest error
in human bodies were produced by the use of the 4.2.2 Livor Mortis
two previously stated “rule of thumb” models
and the original two-exponential model [16]. The purple-red discoloration of the soft tissues
The applicability of these cooling models for due to postmortem gravity-dependent pooling of
use in veterinary cases remains uncertain, blood is livor mortis. Livor mortis may be
although some studies suggest that cooling dif- observed on the external body surfaces such as
fers across species and that the application of the skin and mucous membranes or on the inter-
such models may be inappropriate. In various nal body surfaces such as the abdominal or tho-
animal studies, the TPE was not consistently racic viscera. Although readily visible on human
observed in animal carcasses, resulting in a rate skin, lividity is often not prominent in the skin of
and pattern of cooling that differs from that many animals even after shaving the hair, though
observed in studies of human bodies. Studies of it may be visible on the skin of pigs, the pinnae of
dogs and deer failed to produce any TPE, and dogs, and in the lungs of most animal species
studies of pigs produced only minimal TPE in (Fig. 4.1) [18]. Livor mortis commonly develops
few animals [6, 17–21]. Furthermore, one study within 30 min to 2 h after death in humans,
in dogs demonstrated an average rate of cooling although its onset in animals is not well estab-
of 0.5 °C (0.9 °F) per hour; this differs signifi- lished [13]. In early stage livor mortis, the discol-
cantly from the 0.83 to 1.11 °C (1.5–2.0 °F) oration of the tissue is the result of simple pooling
hour rate of cooling predicted for human bodies of blood within the vessels at gravity-dependent
[17]. Overall, animal studies suggest that the locations. At this stage of development, digital
cooling of animal carcasses differs from that of pressure or repositioning of the body will force
Fig. 4.1 Lividity in the

left lung of a dog
blood away from the compressed area, resulting the skeletal and cardiac muscle fibers. The
in focal blanching until the displaced blood is molecular source of energy for muscular contrac-
again permitted to flow back into the gravity- tion, adenosine triphosphate (ATP), continues to
dependent areas. This early stage is referred to as be consumed by the muscle cells after death,
non-fixed livor mortis. In addition to digital pres- resulting in cross-bridge formation between
sure, blood will also be forced away from areas in myosin and actin fibers. When the limited supply
firm contact with the ground or other objects, and of ATP is exhausted, however, the regeneration of
such materials may create patterns of blanching new ATP is no longer possible after death.
in the skin that match the contour of the affecting Because ATP is required for the decoupling of
object [22]. Later in its development, at approxi- actin and myosin fibers and the resultant relax-
mately 8–12 h in humans, hemolysis and decom- ation of the muscle, relaxation can no longer
position of vessel walls result in the leaking of occur after ATP is depleted. This results in the
blood into surrounding tissues. Thus, at this later muscle fibers remaining in a state of permanent
stage, lividity will no longer blanch in response contraction, unable to relax due to the lack of
to digital pressure [13]. At this stage, it is referred additional ATP [23]. As this process develops
to as fixed livor mortis. This may be an important following death, the muscles of the body will
consideration for cases in which the position of become increasingly rigid until all ATP is
the body at the crime scene may be relevant to the depleted, and they will remain in this state until
outcome of the case [1]. If the pattern of lividity the rigidity is either disrupted by force or early
observed at the time of discovery is not consistent decomposition, thereby disrupting the integrity
with the position of the body with respect to grav- of the myosin and actin filaments [13].
ity, then the pathologist should consider whether The progression of rigor mortis is variable;
the body may have been moved after lividity however, there are well-established intervals for
became fixed [22]. the expected onset and resolution of postmortem
rigidity in humans. Rigor mortis typically begins
at approximately 2–6 h after death and persists
4.2.3 Rigor Mortis for roughly 36 h until it begins to slowly resolve.
This progression, however, is dependent upon
The state of postmortem muscle rigidity is known ambient temperature and patient factors such as
as rigor mortis (Fig. 4.2). Following death, a antemortem activity and cause of death which
series of biochemical reactions begins to occur in may affect muscle metabolism and core body
Fig. 4.2 Rigor mortis in

a cat. The limbs are
rigid and resist flexion
temperature at the time of death [13, 23]. In

humans, rigor mortis affects all muscles in the
body uniformly and simultaneously, although the
Temperature
contraction is often most easily visible in the
small muscle groups of the body. The jaw often Rigor
appears to be affected first, later progressing to
the larger muscles of the upper extremities and
then to the lower extremities, with resolution fol-
lowing in a similar pattern [13]. Bodies with
greater muscle mass tend to display more promi-
nent rigor mortis. Therefore, healthy adult males
Time
may be expected to display more pronounced
rigor mortis while little or no rigor may be Fig. 4.4 Graphic depiction of the progression of rigor
observed in juvenile or aged patients with little mortis and body temperature change
muscle mass [24]. The time course and pattern of
development of rigor mortis in animals is not of color or texture. Desiccation begins upon
well established. One study in dogs reported the death and may progress rapidly in mucous mem-
diffuse onset of rigor mortis at less than 1 day branes which, in life, are moist and sensitive to
after death, with persistence in the hind limbs and drying. This drying effect is often most promi-
jaw until 7 days after death [18]. nent in the eye in humans, resulting in a horizon-
While the rate of onset and resolution of rigor tal band of red to brown-black discoloration of
mortis is variable and dependent on multiple fac- the sclera, known as tache noir, where the eyelids
tors, the following rule of thumb has been fail to close (Fig. 4.5) [22]. This manifestation is
observed for human bodies based on the associa- often not prominent in animals due to a relatively
tion between rigor mortis and algor mortis larger cornea and smaller exposed sclera. The
(Fig. 4.3) [23]. This rule of thumb was not based development of desiccation in skin is typically
on animal studies; however, the general progres- slower, as skin surfaces are not normally moist
sion of body cooling during the onset and resolu- and are more resilient to drying. The skin sur-
tion of rigor mortis is well documented and faces most often affected are thin, delicate areas
practical for field interpretation (Fig. 4.4). The such as the lips and genitalia. The gross appear-
interval assigned to each of these four stages is, ance of desiccated surfaces is dark red to black
however, expected to vary across species. with an irregular surface. Desiccation of skin and
mucous membranes appears to be a less promi-
nent feature in most animal bodies as compared
4.2.4 Desiccation to human bodies.
The postmortem drying of mucous membranes

and delicate skin surfaces may result in changes 4.2.5 Decomposition
The decomposition of the soft tissues of the
Progression of Rigidity and Body Cooling body is the most distinctive postmortem
change. Decomposition is the result of two
• Body warm and flaccid
• Body warm and rigid parallel and often simultaneous processes,

• Body cold and rigid autolysis and putrefaction. The process of
• Body cold and flaccid decomposition begins on a molecular level
almost immediately after death due to the fail-
Fig. 4.3 Association between rigor mortis and algor ure to maintain the integrity of cellular mem-
mortis branes. As cells degrade and eventually
Fig. 4.5 Desiccation of

the cornea of a steer
resembling tache noir
rupture, they spill proteolytic enzymes that fur- • Fresh stage—death until bloating begins
ther degrade exposed cell surfaces and connec- (4–36 days)
tive tissue fibers. The resultant chain reaction • Bloated stage—onset of bloating until resolu-
of degradative effects due to the digestion of tion of bloating (3–19 additional days)
tissues by intrinsic enzymes is autolysis. At • Decay stage—resolution of bloating until dry-
approximately the same time, a second path- ing of carcass (6–183 additional days)
way of decomposition may begin due to bacte- • Dry stage—drying of carcass until no evi-
rial proliferation and consumption referred to dence of carrion insects (13–27 additional
as putrefaction. Autolysis often precedes bac- days)
terial putrefaction, with the intrinsic degrada-
tion of cellular and interstitial components These stages, however, have been problematic
creating ideal conditions for bacterial prolifer- for investigators due to the lack of clearly defined
ation. While decomposition has been exten- starting and ending points; therefore, Vass sum-
sively studied in animals and humans, its marized the data in the literature and presented a
progression is known to be affected by many table based on these four stages using degree of
variables. decomposition [27]. Prior to the summary by
Despite the notable variations in rate of Vass, other investigators developed modifications
decomposition, there is a somewhat predict- of Reed’s four-stage scale, initially using a five-
able sequence of stages through which most stage scale and later a six-stage scale [28–30].
bodies progress after death if unimpeded by The six-stage scale of Wilson considers the fol-
artificial means of preservation. It is of critical lowing stages: fresh, primary bloat, secondary
importance to note that many of these changes bloat, active decay, advanced decay, and
and processes are occurring simultaneously, skeletonization. Both the five- and six-stage

and the development of one change may affect scales contain numerous grossly descriptive start-
the progression or the appearance of other ing and ending points for each stage. The six-
changes. stage scale may be more appropriate for buried
Classically, the phases of decomposition have carcasses or those with a shorter PMI, while the
been categorized as fresh, bloat, decay, and dry [25]. five-
stage scale may be better suited to
These stages have been defined as follows [25, 26]: exposed carcasses or those with a longer
PMI. The five-stage scale is summarized as fol- sure of less than half of the skeleton, mummifi-
lows (Fig. 4.6) [28]: cation (3 days–18 months)
• Skeletonization—bones with some body flu-
• Fresh—no discoloration or insect activity ids present or tissue covering less than half of
(0–5 days postmortem) the skeleton, dry bones (13 days–3 years)
• Early decomposition—gray to green discolor- • Extreme decomposition—skeletonization with
ation, bloating, post-bloating rupture, skin bleaching or exfoliation or metaphyseal loss or
slippage, hair loss (1–21 days postmortem) cancellous exposure (2 months–3 years)
• Advanced decomposition—moist decomposi-
tion of tissues, sagging of flesh, caving in of In an attempt to explain the variation inherent
abdomen, extensive insect activity, bone expo- in the rate of decomposition, Megyesi developed a
a d
b
e
Fig. 4.6 Pig (a) Fresh—no discoloration or insect activ- bone exposure of less than half of the skeleton; (d)
ity; (b) Early decomposition—gray to green discolor- Skeletonization—bones with some body fluids present or
ation, bloating, post-bloating rupture; (c) Advanced tissue covering less than half of the skeleton; (e) Extreme
decomposition—moist decomposition of tissues, sagging decomposition—skeletonization with bleaching
of flesh, caving in of abdomen, extensive insect activity,
method based on accumulated degree days (ADD) ADD method shows that smaller pigs decompose
by scoring decomposition and accounting for time faster than larger pigs [35]. The TBS method is
and temperatures to which human remains were beneficial because it allows for a quantitative
exposed [29]. This study showed that ADD was approach to a traditionally qualitative method of
responsible for 80% of the variation with which PMI estimation; however, the method is not yet
the bodies decomposed, supporting the conclusion refined enough for field application. It assessed
that accumulated temperature over time was more three anatomical regions of the body indepen-
critical than time alone. Vass also supported the dently: the head and neck, trunk/torso, and limbs/
ADD theory and proposed a universal formula for extremities. In many cases, due largely to the
the estimation of PMI that was not dependent on influence of insects colonizing the remains, one
geographic or climate- related factors [27]. area of the body will exhibit a more advanced
However, Cockle demonstrated that the two uni- stage of decomposition than others (i.e., the head
versal formulae presented by Vass were not reli- may be skeletonized, while the torso may still
able and suggested that no universal formula could exhibit bloat). In such cases, using only an over-
be expected to reliably estimate PMI [31]. One all four-, five-, or six-stage model assessment of
study emphasized the importance of climate in the degree of decomposition would certainly be con-
accuracy of the ADD method, citing the low cor- flicting and inaccurate. The independent scoring
relation between ADD and observed decomposi- of each major area of the body allows for a more
tion score in a study using ten human bodies in a accurate and precise measurement of degree of
semiarid subtropical climate [32]. Moffatt has decomposition [35]. New and ongoing research
recently suggested adjustments to the model used by this author at the University of Florida shows
by Megyesi for improving the calculation of ADD that even when specimens are of similar size and
from total body score (TBS) for an improved esti- are placed in the same location to decompose,
mation of PMI, and Nawrocka recommended seasonal environmental changes and amount of
refinements to the TBS scoring system [33, 34]. precipitation lead to dramatic differences in the
The utility of TBS provides a unique perspec- time it takes for remains to fully skeletonize. In
tive in which a four-stage model—fresh, early the summer with consistent afternoon precipita-
decomposition, advanced decomposition, and tion, remains can be fully skeletonized within
skeletonization—is broken down into more spe- 2 weeks. In colder winter and early spring months
cific and descriptive units of measure. Rather in the absence of precipitation, it can take up to
than measuring the entire body as a whole, new 4 months for the remains to skeletonize. Likewise,
methods for postmortem interval estimation, in the same temperature conditions, precipitation
such as those developed by Megyesi, utilize TBS alone can alter the rate of decomposition due to
and ADD in conjunction to better associate tem- the onset of mummification of the remains in hot
perature units with degree of decomposition [29]. and dry conditions (Sutton, 2016).
Field research using this method indicates that The rate at which decomposition occurs
PMI is more accurately estimated when decom- appears to be affected by multiple variables, of
position is associated with environmental condi- which, temperature and moisture are the most
tions. Traditionally, estimation and evaluation of completely understood. Additional variables
degree of decomposition has been a qualitative that may affect decomposition rate include
process; that is, a visual evaluation of the body is cause of death, disposition of the body (e.g.,
conducted and the stage of decomposition is buried, submerged in water, enclosed in bag,
therein assessed. However, this lends itself to encased in concrete), external covering and
numerous problems as decomposition is grossly insulation by clothing or hair coat, insect activ-
affected by external variables, particularly tem- ity, scavenger activity, trauma, and other factors
perature and environmental changes. The body [31, 36]. These variables are too numerous to be
size also plays a role in the rate of decomposition. fully discussed here, but a few key findings are
A study conducted by Sutherland using the TBS/ summarized. Although it has been well docu-
mented that locations of bodily trauma provide ment of the carcass, reduction in carcass size,
alternate sites for insect colonization and may and an altered succession of insects [42].
therefore affect the pattern of decomposition, it Accelerated decomposition of human bodies
has been determined that the presence of trauma was reported under a variety of conditions
from gunshot wounds in pigs does not signifi- including high ambient temperatures (as a result
cantly affect the overall rate of decomposition of natural weather conditions, fire, indoor heat-
[37, 38]. Additionally, the presence of clothing ing, bath/sauna), high body temperature (as a
on pig carcasses slightly but significantly slowed result of fever or drug use), sepsis, diabetes mel-
the rate of decomposition, although by provid- litus, and obesity [43].
ing more oviposition sites, the clothing may
have changed the pattern of decomposition [39].
Exposure to insects and the heat generated by 4.2.6 Mummification
insect masses has been demonstrated to be a key
factor in decomposition rate. A study using rab- Under dry ambient conditions, regardless of
bits showed that rabbits continuously exposed temperature, in which there is low humidity and
to insects decomposed more rapidly than those sufficient ventilation with limited insect activ-
exposed to insects and later buried [40]. Both of ity, the body may become generally desiccated
these groups decomposed more rapidly than rather than progressing through the typical
rabbits that were never exposed to insects, both stages of decomposition [22]. In this case, the
above ground and buried. Exposed surface skin often becomes tight, yellow-brown to
remains have generally been estimated to black, and may have a leathery or parchment
decompose two times faster than submerged paper consistency [2]. As a result of exposure to
remains and eight times faster than buried such dry conditions, the processes of autolysis
remains [4]. A TBS system has recently been and putrefaction are inhibited, and the tissues
developed for use in submerged human bodies become dehydrated. This drying results in visi-
although none has been specifically developed ble changes to the body including contraction or
for use in buried remains [41]. Scavenger dam- wrinkling of skin, retraction of the nailbeds and
age to carcasses has also been showed to signifi- finger tips, and contraction of the erector pili
cantly affect decomposition and the estimation muscles (Fig. 4.7) [22]. The time required for
of PMI. One study showed that wolf damage to mummification to occur is variable, although it
deer carcasses resulted in an increased rate of may generally be considered to require at least
decomposition with consumption and move- several weeks [23].
Fig. 4.7 Mummification
of a dog resulting in
black leathery skin. This
dog was recently
removed from the
environment in which it
mummified and was
thrown into a dumpster
which allowed for
colonization by blow flies
4.3 stimating the Postmortem

E of bone. The purple-red gravity-dependent livor
Interval mortis that develops in the first few hours is due to
postmortem settling of blood within the vascula-
A small number of techniques are likely to be of ture. Liver mortis may be visible within 30 min
practical use for estimating the postmortem inter- postmortem and typically becomes fully developed
val in veterinary cases. Methods used by the at approximately 10–12 h after death in humans;
pathologist to estimate PMI will vary according however, lividity is not a prominent feature in most
to the actual postmortem interval (Fig. 4.8). animal carcasses [1, 22]. Following its full devel-
opment, livor mortis becomes fixed and can no lon-
ger be blanched with pressure. The time required
4.3.1 Gross Changes for fixation to occur is variable and may range from
12 h to 3 days in humans [23]. Rigor mortis typi-
The body begins to decompose almost immedi- cally begins at roughly 2–6 h postmortem, becomes
ately after death, first through autolysis and later fully developed by 6–12 h, and then begins to
through bacterial putrefaction. Although decom- resolve at approximately 36 h in humans [23].
position requires at least several hours before Rigor mortis may be interpreted in conjunction
becoming grossly evident, other more visible with body temperature to yield a postmortem win-
changes may occur earlier such as rigor mortis dow, although the timing of such windows may be
and livor mortis. While these processes are species specific.
greatly affected by numerous variables as previ- With increasing time postmortem, the effects of
ously discussed, a typical progression of gross autolysis and putrefaction become increasingly
changes over time can be anticipated (Fig. 4.9). evident. Color changes to the skin and soft tissues
During the course of course of decomposition, often become visible at approximately 24–30 h,
the body undergoes a somewhat predictable often first observed as green discoloration of the
sequence of alterations including changes in color, abdominal skin as a result of the denaturation of
temporary muscle rigidity, distention with free gas, hemoglobin to biliverdin and its reaction with
production of purge fluid, slippage of epidermis, hydrogen cyanide, a prominent putrefactive gas
destruction of soft tissues, and e ventual destruction [2]. It has been reported that this green abdominal
No Signs of gross Yes

decomposition
• Gross changes
No Body Yes – decomposition
cool to • Insect evidence
touch
>36 hours PMI
No Muscle Yes No Muscle Yes

rigidity rigidity
• Gross changes • Gross changes • Gross changes • Gross changes

– lividity – rigidity – decomposition – rigidity
• Core temperature – lividity • Insect evidence – decomposition
• Core temperature • Core temperature
• Insect evidence • Insect evidence
<3 – 6 hours PMI 2 – 24 hours PMI >36 hours PMI 8 – 36 hours PMI
Fig. 4.8 Methods used to estimate postmortem interval according to actual time since death
Fig. 4.9 Gross
postmortem changes Lividity Fixed Lividity
expected over time
Full Passing
Early Rigor
Rigor Rigor
Bloat and Skin/hair

Green discoloration
purge slough
0 12 24 36 48 60 72
Time (hours)
discoloration may fail to develop in malnourished eral days to weeks postmortem [18]. Over the
dogs and cats [44]. In addition to color changes, successive weeks, the continued degradation of
body cavities and internal organs often become dis- the soft tissues by bacterial putrefaction, insect
tended by gases as a result of bacterial putrefaction. activity, and scavenger damage is almost certain
These gases may include methane, carbon dioxide, but highly variable. These processes will lead to
hydrogen, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, and mer- exposure of bone by several days to months after
captans and are largely responsible for the odor death, resulting in skeletonized remains.
produced by the decomposing body [2]. Gaseous Temperature is known to have a significant
distention in most animal carcasses is most notable effect on autolysis and putrefaction, and either high
in the abdomen and may result in bulging or pro- or low ambient temperatures may affect the rate or
lapse of the rectum. A variety of soft tissues may be pattern of decomposition. In general, increasing
affected by gaseous distention which often devel- environmental temperatures result in an increase in
ops at roughly 60–72 h postmortem in humans; the overall rate of decomposition. Freezing of the
however, this may occur significantly faster or carcass, however, may both decrease the rate of
slower depending on animal species and environ- decomposition as well as alter the pattern in which
mental conditions. In ruminants, for example, decomposition occurs [45]. Frozen carcasses have
abdominal distention may occur remarkably early, demonstrated a slower overall rate of decomposi-
especially during high ambient temperatures [44]. tion, less internal putrefaction, and more external
Alternatively, small monogastric animals main- desiccation and oviposition by blowflies when
tained at low ambient temperatures may develop compared to fresh carcasses [45].
no appreciable abdominal distention. More recently developed strategies have
As decomposition progresses, the integrity of attempted to quantify the process of decomposi-
the skin becomes compromised and may result in tion and standardize the time it takes to reach dif-
slippage of the epidermis or sloughing of body ferent stages of decomposition using thermal
hair. In humans, cutaneous vesicles filled with units rather than calendar days. These studies use
fluid or gas may form, although this feature is not total body score (TBS), which quantifies stages
commonly observed in animal carcasses. Red- of decomposition independently in three-
brown fluid produced by autolysis and decompo- body regions (head, torso, limbs/extremities).
sition, known as purge fluid, often exudes from Accumulated degree days (ADD)—a method
the mouth and nose and later may exude from the most commonly used by entomologists to predict
anus or other orifices [22]. In dogs, pink and determine age and development of arthro-
discoloration of the teeth may be observed sev- pods—is used in this study to associate TBS with
the time it takes to reach each stage of decompo- understand the implications of species differences
sition in thermal units within a 24-h period of as they relate to animal scavenger preference.
time. In order to calculate ADD, one simply adds
the sum of the average daily temperature of all
days during the period of interest, including only 4.3.2 Temperature Changes
days on which the average temperature was
above 0 °C, the threshold at which decomposi- The use of a postmortem temperature decay model
tion can occur. In this way, a sum of thermal units is a common method for estimating PMI in human
accumulated over time is calculated. According bodies; however, any such estimation should be
to this theory, a body exposed for 2 days at 15 °C considered in the context of the species in question
(ADD = 30) receives exposure to the same num- rather than through simple extrapolation from data
ber of thermal units as a body exposed for a sin- derived from human studies [46]. The ideal
gle day at 30 °C (ADD = 30). It is expected that approach for the veterinary investigator is to
ongoing research will further refine the applica- obtain data from controlled studies and case-based
tion of TBS/ADD methods, but they are currently data collected from the species in question.
of little practical use in the field. These methods Unfortunately, only a small number of such stud-
do, however, show great potential to become the ies currently exist, and the data generated are of
standard of practice in the near future. limited utility for practical application. Therefore,
Although temperature and other environmen- the veterinary investigator may consider the fol-
tal conditions are important factors in estimating lowing practical methods for interpreting core
degree of decomposition, new research suggests temperatures in the field for the estimation of
that the species itself may play a larger role in rate PMI. The first three methods were developed
of decomposition which could alter the way future based on studies of human bodies, while the fourth
decomposition research is conducted. It has gen- method was developed based on data collected
erally been accepted that pigs represent a suitable from dogs. Prudence should be used in the appli-
substitute for humans in decomposition research cation of these methods. It is generally advised
due in part to their size, distribution of hair, and that the investigator considers the range of esti-
insect preference toward them as compared to mates produced by several of these methods:
human carcasses. However, this type of research
does not typically take into account the preference 1. The “rule of thumb” which states that the

of animal scavengers and the ways in which scav- body cools at a rate of 1 °C per hour after
enging affects rate of decomposition. A study death, plus a factor of 3 h to account for the
conducted at the University of Tennessee com- TPE [14]. This can be expressed as:
pared the rates of decomposition of rabbits, pigs,
and humans and, uniquely, included animal scav- PMI (in hours ) = 37° C − rectal
enging as a factor. It suggested that, as consis- temperature° C + 3 (4.1)
tently documented in literature, blowfly
colonization was more prevalent in warmer
months and that animal scavenging was a more 2. The reported average rate of cooling of

significant factor in the winter when insect activ- 1.5–2.0 °F (0.83–1.11 °C) for the first 12 h
ity was slower. It also suggested that the pattern of after death, followed by 1 °F (0.55 °C) per
animal scavenging differed between species. Pigs hour thereafter [2, 13]. This can be
tended to experience animal scavenging in the expressed as:
torso/trunk region, whereas humans were often [Approximated as PMI (in hours) =
scavenged at the limbs (AAFS proceedings, (37 °C–rectal temperature °C)/0.83] (4.2)
2016). In a forensic investigation, taphonomic
changes including the evidence of animal scav-
PMI ( in hours )
enging of the remains will certainly be addressed.
= ( 98.6° F − rectal temperature° F ) / 1.5
As a result, more research is needed to fully
3. A two-exponential model refined by Henssge to calculate the estimated PMI with a decreased
and presented in the form of an easily used margin of error as compared to the nomogram
nomogram instead of a calculation [5]. The method [49]. Ear temperature measurements in
nomogram is available for use on many web- human bodies by a probe inserted into the ear
sites and is widely published in many text- canal have been well correlated to PMI when
books. Its use requires only a single rectal environmental temperature was above 15 °C,
temperature, ambient temperature, and body showing no plateau effect, and are s uperior to the
weight and allows for correction due to cloth- nomogram method or other traditional “rule of
ing and environmental conditions. thumb” formulae for estimating PMI [50, 51].
4. Rectal temperature decreased 0.5 °C per hour Eye and orbit soft tissue temperatures in humans
in dogs. Body weight and body volume were measured by a pin probe inserted into the globe
inversely proportional to the rate of cooling, through the sclera show a faster postmortem tem-
although sex, body mass density, and hair coat perature decrease compared to rectal tempera-
density were found to have no effect [17]. tures, no plateau effect, and no effect due to body
mass and reduced error compared to rectal tem-
For application in animals whose core body perature [52]. Similarly, ocular temperature was
temperature differs from that of humans, these most accurate in estimating PMI in pigs during
formulas should be adjusted by replacing the the first 13 h after death [6]. Thus, research con-
37 °C (98.6 °F) with the expected core tempera- tinues, and models for PMI estimation based on
ture for the species in question. ear or ocular temperatures or multiple rectal tem-
The veterinary investigator must consider that peratures are likely to be refined in the near future.
there is a degree of error inherent to each of the
methods even when applied to the species for
which they were developed. In general, there is at 4.3.3 Entomology
least a 2-h margin of error in the first 6 h post-
mortem, at least a 3-h margin of error in the sub- The careful evaluation of a body and its immedi-
sequent 14 h, and at least a 4.5-h margin of error ate environment and proper sampling of appro-
in the following 10 h [47]. The nomogram priate insect life stages may provide valuable
method specifically results in an error of 2.8–7 h information for the estimation of PMI. Insect evi-
in human bodies, and no studies have evaluated dence may, in some cases, provide the best esti-
its validity in animal carcasses [15, 19, 23]. After mate of the time of death or time of tissue
approximately 24 h, when the body temperature colonization such as may occur antemortem with
equilibrates to the environmental temperature, an untreated wound; however, one must carefully
these methods are no longer useful. Thus, the consider that the life processes of the relevant
investigator should consider the limitations and insects are highly susceptible to variations in
inherent error of such methods and ideally con- environmental conditions and temperature [38].
sider other methods concurrently, particularly The identification and further evaluation of
when used in court as evidence for estimating insects falls beyond the scope of practice of most
time of death [11, 48]. veterinary pathologists and is covered elsewhere
Models continue to be improved and new and therefore is not discussed here [53]. Proper
temperature- based methods have been more collection and preservation of insects from the
recently developed; however, none is yet practical body and/or the scene, however, is a skill that
for field application. While many methods have should be mastered by the pathologist for use in
been investigated, perhaps the most promising are cases in which entomological evidence is
methods based upon recording of multiple rectal expected to be of critical importance. While there
temperatures or temperature measurements from are many guidelines regarding proper collection
the eye or ear. One recently developed method is and preservation of entomological samples in the
based on recording at least three rectal tempera- current literature, a basic overview is detailed
tures and using a nonlinear least squares method here for use by a veterinary pathologist.
Adult insects should be collected on the scene specimens with the exception of blanching in
if possible as they will quickly dissipate when water, which is not necessary for pupae. Eggs
human interaction with the remains begins. may be present on the body but may be difficult
Adults can be collected using an insect net with a to collect. They are typically off-white in color
“figure 8” sweeping motion. Once collected, they and are present in clumps in the hair on the head
should be preserved through placement into a of the body, often near the eyes, ears, nose, or
screw top vial filled with either KAA (a solution mouth. These should be documented photo-
of kerosene, acetic acid, and alcohol) or EtOH. A graphically if collection is not possible. As with
live collection of adults is not necessary. Larval pupae, they should be collected the same as lar-
specimens (i.e., maggots) should be collected val specimens.
both alive and deceased and can often be col- From a practical perspective, basic forensic
lected from the laboratory if an on-scene collec- entomological findings may be interpreted by the
tion was not conducted. Ensure that collection of pathologist according to the following guidelines.
soft bodied insects such as maggots is done with Typically, the first insects to arrive upon the dead
featherweight forceps to prevent damage to the carcass in a terrestrial environment are the blow-
larvae. Blanching the maggots before preserva- flies [54]. The delay between death and the initial
tion is recommended to prevent the maggots arrival of blowflies is highly variable and depen-
themselves from decomposing which may make dent upon many factors but may occur within sec-
a species identification difficult. Place the mag- onds to minutes [2]. This is a critical feature in the
gots into very hot water for 15 s, and then remove interpretation of entomological evidence and its
and place into KAA or EtOH. If possible, 50–60 utility in estimating the minimum time since death
individuals should be collected and preserved for [23, 38]. Adult female blowflies will deposit eggs
the deceased larvae collection. If a sufficient on the body in predictable locations, including the
number of larvae are present, a live collection orifices of the head (eyes, nose, mouth, ears) and
should be made as well. Collect the maggots with the anogenital region; any deviation in this pattern
featherweight forceps and place them into a plas- is suggestive of trauma, as insects will also colo-
tic container. Within the plastic container, a soil nize other body areas containing injured skin or
substitute should be placed on the bottom; soil exposed body fluids [38, 55]. The rate of develop-
itself can be used or a soil substitute such as ver- ment of the subsequent life stages is highly depen-
miculite is also acceptable. A food source such as dent upon environmental conditions and is most
beef liver or even cat food should be placed in a precisely interpreted in terms of accumulated
small amount of tinfoil and placed on top of the degree hours or days [2, 38]. As a very general
soil substitute. Place the live maggots directly model, Saukko’s estimates of life-stage times are
onto the food source inside the tinfoil, and gently presented, although these must be used with great
close up the foil, making a pouch to shelter the caution [23]. Eggs hatch into the first-stage mag-
maggots for transport. Do not close up the foil so gots, or first instar, typically within approximately
tightly that the maggots will not receive airflow. 8–14 h of oviposition. First instar then molt to
Place a lid on the plastic container that is holding second instar after an additional 8–14 h. Second
the soil, tinfoil, food, and maggots, and punch instar feed for 2–3 days before molting to third
small holes to allow airflow but not so large that instar, after which time they feed for approxi-
the maggots will be able to escape. Label all con- mately 6 days before leaving the host to pupate.
tainers with case number, collector’s name, time, Pupae emerge as adult flies after roughly 12 days.
date, and location of collection. An entomologist Thus, the entire life cycle of the blowfly from egg
will need all this information to properly write to adult is approximately 18–24 days, depending
their report. If a collection can be made on scene, on conditions. Following the colonization of the
pupae should be collected as well. They are small body by blowflies, additional insect species typi-
and dark in color with a rigid outer casing. These cally arrive, including other species of flies and
should be collected the same way as the larval beetles. As previously stated, proper collection
and preservation is critical for the analysis of 4.4.2 Postmortem Chemistry

entomological evidence, and proper insect identi-
fication and appropriate environmental data are The chemical analysis of body fluids for the
essential for the estimation of minimum time estimation of PMI has been attempted for
since death. many decades; however, an ideal method has
yet to be identified. Decades of research on
various bodily fluids have generated data are
4.4 Ancillary Methods imprecise, unreliable, and impractical for
use in the field [60]. These methods, there-
4.4.1 Botany fore, are not commonly used in modern
investigations. While early studies focused
The ubiquitous nature of plants in the environ- on analysis of serum, more recent studies
ment makes botanical evidence potentially useful have observed that vitreous humor is less
for establishing a geographic association between subject to autolysis [60]. Decreases in vitre-
a victim and a suspect or the scene of a crime and ous humor glucose and increases in potas-
can even be useful in locating burial sites and sium and hypoxanthine have been well
assisting in the estimation of the PMI [56, 57]. documented [61–63]. However, a more
Plant evidence may be found on or inside of the recent resurgence of interest in vitreous
deceased body, in the area surrounding the chemistry using newer analytical techniques
deceased body, or on the suspect’s body and may has narrowed the focus to vitreous potas-
range from entire plants or leaves, to small plant sium, sodium, and glucose as potential indi-
fragments or microscopic pollen or algae [58]. A cators of PMI [64–67]. One investigator has
competent forensic botanist, if provided with recently developed a web-based application
appropriate samples, may be able to identify for performing the calculations to interpret
plant species based on taxonomy or DNA vitreous potassium for the estimation of the
sequencing which may indicate the area from PMI [64]. It is expected that these methods
which the plant fragment originated based on will become more refined and their precision
known geographic distributions of plant species. improved, thus rendering them a useful
The life stage of the plant specimen may also adjunct to PMI estimation.
assist in determining the time of year in which
the plant structure was likely to have existed in
nature. This may assist in the estimation of PMI 4.4.3 Ocular Tonometry
or in the validation of witness testimony.
Additionally, plant evidence may contribute in An array of ocular changes have been correlated
rough approximation of the PMI by estimating with PMI, including changes in corneal opacity,
the minimum amount of time required for a plant pupillary diameter, retinal vessel striation, retinal
to grow to the observed stage within the body or color, and intraocular pressure [68, 69]. Of these,
on the grave of a buried body. In order to properly corneal opacity and intraocular pressure are the
interpret botanical evidence, it is essential that most strongly associated with PMI. Corneal
appropriate collection techniques are used and opacity was found to increase significantly at
that samples are evaluated by a forensic botanist. greater than 8 h after death; however, the opacity
Proper collection of plant evidence are reviewed of the cornea is difficult to objectively assess and
elsewhere [58, 59]. In general, appropriate sam- quantitate [69]. Intraocular pressure, however, is
ples include such materials as reference plant easily quantitated by a handheld tonometer and
samples from the crime scene; trace evidence has been shown to decrease significantly over the
samples including whole plants or plant portions first 12 h after death. Additional research is
such as seeds, flowers, leaves, or plant fragments; needed before this technique can be applied in
and pollen, spores, or algae from soil or water. the field.
4.4.4 Molecular Methods referred to as the microbiome. Analyses of

organismal microbiomes, particularly the gas-
Techniques to detect changes in nucleic acids and trointestinal tract microbiome, have shown dra-
proteins have been investigated for their utility in matic changes in bacterial populations at various
estimating time since death. The degradation of postmortem intervals and at different locations
either DNA or RNA through quantitative amplifi- within the body [81–83]. Furthermore, the com-
cation of target genes or by assessment of nucleic position of bacterial communities within the
acid integrity has been evaluated. Both DNA and soil underneath decomposing human remains
RNA have demonstrated time-dependent has been found to change at various stages of
decreases in integrity; however, these decreases decomposition [84]. These findings may lead to
differ between tissues and environmental condi- the development of methods for the estimation
tions such as temperature [70, 71]. The rate of of PMI based on the composition of bacterial
DNA or RNA degradation is generally lower at populations either within or on the body or the
lower temperatures and occurs at different rates surrounding environment; however, they are
in different tissues [71–74]. Overall, methods of currently not of practical use.
PMI estimation based on the assessment of DNA
or RNA integrity show great promise, but such
methods are not currently practical for field 4.4.6 Microscopic Changes
application.
Beyond nucleic acids, changes in protein pro- Although not often attempted for the estimation of
files or levels of other organic compounds in tis- the PMI, predictable changes in microanatomy or
sues during the postmortem period may aid in ultrastructural architecture at various stages post-
estimation of the PMI. Such compounds may be mortem have been reported. The pathologist must
measured by western blotting, matrix-assisted be aware of the critical importance of effective
laser desorption ionization mass spectroscopy fixation and variation between different fixatives
(MALDI-MS), 1H magnetic resonance spectros- to allow for proper interpretation of histopatho-
copy, and other methods. A number of specific logic findings [85]. Within 1–3 days after death,
proteins have been observed to decrease in rela- gas bubbles, saprophytic bacteria, loss of cellular
tive amounts with increasing time postmortem, stain uptake, and loss of tissue architecture are
including various intermediate filaments such as observed [86]. Because of the great variability in
desmin and troponin, calpain, calcineurin A, pro- the onset of autolysis and decomposition, no time-
tein phosphatase 2A, and N-acetylaspartate, frame has been produced for such changes in most
while some compounds were found to increase as tissues. Therefore, histology currently has limited
decomposition progressed, such as butyrate and utility in the estimation of PMI. One study in dogs,
acetate [60, 75–80]. Although these methods however, presented histologic changes observed at
may contribute to the understanding of decompo- various intervals postmortem, while another
sition and postmortem chemistry, they do not study in rats correlated microscopic changes in
currently provide any practical value to the esti- the testes with postmortem interval [18, 85].
mation of PMI. Immunohistochemical staining patterns were used
in canine B and T lymphocytes and in human pan-
creatic and thyroid cells for insulin, glucagon, thy-
4.4.5 Microbial Assay roglobulin, and calcitonin; however, these methods
lacked precision [18, 87–90]. Ultrastructural
Current DNA sequencing technologies permit changes in dog myocardial cells examined by
wide-scale analysis of entire communities of transmission electron microscopy during the first
bacteria and their genes within ecosystems. 4 h after death were correlated with PMI due to
Such a collection of bacterial genes from organ- changes in mitochondrial structure that occurred
isms residing in a specific ecological niche is within 15–45 min postmortem [91]. Although
these microscopic tissue changes alone are not late post mortem period will be based upon ento-
likely to yield a reasonable estimation of PMI, mology and gross changes including the quality
these methods may be used to provide supporting of rigor mortis and the stage of decomposition
evidence in some cases. (Table 4.1).
Table 4.1 Summary of commonly observed changes in

4.4.7 Radionuclide-Based Methods the early and late postmortem periods for use in estimat-
ing the postmortem interval
For cases involving skeletonized remains, special Early postmortem period (Approximately
techniques for aging bone have been attempted. <24–36 h PM)
Such methods have included analysis of radionu- Core temperature decrease
A decrease of approximately 0.5–1.5 °C per hour
clides such as 210Pb and 210Po, radiocarbon 14C
may be expected
dating, citrate content, nitrogen content, and sev- Gross changes
eral other methods [92–94]. Application of these Livor mortis
techniques is typically beyond the scope of the • Onset (30 min–2 h)
pathologist. • Fixed and persistent (beginning at 8–72 h)
Rigor mortis
• Onset (2–6 h PM)
4.5 Summary • Fully developed (6–36 h PM)
• Resolving (>36 h PM)
Time of death estimation remains a central topic Decomposition
in forensic medical research, and it is evident that • No discoloration or insect activity (0–5 days PM)
an ongoing study is needed. Techniques capable • Bloating (as soon as 1 day)
of improving accuracy in the estimation of the • Discoloration: grey–green (as soon as 1 day)
postmortem interval will undoubtedly assist in • Skin/hair sloughing (as soon as 1 day)
Entomological evidence
veterinary forensic investigations and would
Blowfly Life Stages (reported as time since
likely be investigated for their applicability to oviposition)
human forensic investigations. Investigators are • Eggs (highly variable—may be deposited at any
advised to consider that the methods discussed in time after death)
this chapter remain imprecise and that no single • 1st instar (8–14 h)
method, or even a combination of methods, can • 2nd instar (16–28 h)
be used to reliably estimate PMI with great accu- Late postmortem period (Approximately >24–36 h
racy. Caution must be exercised when attempting PM)
to extrapolate the data and formulas based on Core temperature decrease
Equilibrates to environment in approximately
human studies for use in animal cases.
24–48 h PM
In practice, the pathologist will likely find
Gross changes
only a small set of these findings to be of use for Livor mortis
application in veterinary cases. Although nearly • Fixed and persistent (beginning at 8–72 h)
all animal cases submitted to the pathologist are Rigor mortis
likely to arrive during the late postmortem period, • Fully developed (6–36 h PM)
the pathologist should be familiar with tech- • Resolving (>36 h PM)
niques applicable to both the early and late post- Decomposition
mortem period. In most cases, it is likely that • Bloating (onset at 48–72 h, resolution by 7–13
PMI estimation in the early postmortem period days)
will be based upon gross changes including qual- • Discoloration: grey–green (onset at 24–30 h)
ity of rigor mortis and early decomposition, rec- • Skin/hair sloughing (onset 1–5 days)
• Purge fluid (onset at 48–72 h)
tal temperature decrease, and perhaps early insect
evidence. It is likely that PMI estimation in the (continued)
Table 4.1 (continued) 9. Al-Alousi LM, Anderson RA, Worster DM, Land

DV. Multiple-probe thermography for estimating
• Soft tissue destruction (3 days–3 years)
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• Skeletonization (13 weeks–3 years) the triple-exponential formulae (TEF) for estimat-
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Blunt Force Trauma
5
Robert Reisman
5.1 Introduction Health Assembly in Geneva, Switzerland, mem-

ber states were urged to “assess the problem of
Blunt force trauma is a common cause of accidental violence in their own territory and to communi-
injury in animals and is the most common cause of cate to WHO their information about this prob-
non-accidental injury in animals. Common causes lem and their approach to it” [3].
of accidental blunt force trauma injuries are moving Interpersonal violence (violence between two
vehicle accidents, falls including high-rise falls in humans) is defined as “the intentional use of
urban environments, and athletic activity. One of the physical force or power, threatened or actual,
goals of a forensic necropsy of a blunt force trauma against another person or against a group or com-
case would be to draw a conclusion as to whether the munity that results in, or has a high likelihood of
reported explanation of accidental injury makes resulting in injury, death, psychological harm,
sense or, if the pattern and type of injuries are more maldevelopment, or deprivation” [4]. In the last
consistent with a non-accidental cause. 25 years, the “Link” [5] between interpersonal
In all cases of non-accidental injury, a violent violence and animal abuse has been well docu-
person is the perpetrator. Violence is a major mented by social science research [6]. The “Link”
public health problem. It is a problem that can be is a perfect example of the One Health Initiative.
addressed by veterinarians. In 2006, the One Family violence refers to the situation in
Health Initiative presented a worldwide strategy which there is interpersonal violence in a family.
for expanding interdisciplinary collaborations There can be one or multiple perpetrators and one
and communications in all aspects of health care or more victims. Victims can be animals, chil-
for humans, animals, and the environment [1]. dren, intimate partners (domestic violence), and
“Together, the three make up the One Health the elderly and/or disabled individuals. Violent
triad, and the health of each is inextricably con- perpetrators can be adult men and women, ado-
nected to the others in the triad” [2]. Generally, lescents, and children. There is a societal need for
infectious disease is considered to be the central forensic veterinarians and veterinary pathologists
focus of this type of interdisciplinary effort; how- to investigate cases of non-accidental injury of an
ever, violence is also a “leading worldwide public animal because the animal cruelty prosecution
health problem” [3]. In 1996 at the 49th World enhances the prosecution of violent offenders. In
January of 2014, NYPD became the primary
R. Reisman, D.V.M. responder for complaints of animal cruelty in
ASPCA, New York, NY, USA New York City. Since then, there have been more
e-mail: robert.reisman@aspca.org than 80 cases in which an animal has been injured,

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67172-7_5
66 R. Reisman
and there has been concurrent human violence. ation) is crime scene investigation. The veterinar-
Several of these were domestic violence cases, ian should take advantage of opportunities to
and in some of these cases, there was a successful participate in crime scene investigation. If the
animal cruelty prosecution but no concurrent animal(s) is brought to the veterinarian by law
assault prosecution for interpersonal violence (the enforcement, there should be a discussion of the
abused woman refused to testify against her crime scene. Photographs at the crime scene are
abuser—not an uncommon situation). important because they document and give con-
In a study of 53 New Jersey pet-owning house- text to the traumatic event (if indeed, the location
holds in which there was child abuse and neglect, of where the animal was found is the location
there was animal abuse in 60% of the households. where the crime took place).
Children, who are abused, may abuse their pets. Key points in the medical history may help the
This was true in 26% of the households. Animal veterinarian understand the circumstances that
abuse occurred in 88% of the households where resulted in the animal’s injuries. This history
there was physical child abuse (21 families) [7]. includes reviewing any previous medical records
The inclusion of an animal cruelty prosecution, for the injured animals. Veterinarians should make
separate from the need to protect animals, fre- concerted and determined efforts to review an ani-
quently benefits human victims as well. mal’s previous medical records and the medical
Violence toward animals is common. The records for other animals from the same household.
most common type of violence toward animals is A pattern of repeated traumatic events may come to
blunt force trauma. The forensic veterinary eval- light. This would be powerful e vidence that an ani-
uation of an animal with blunt force trauma inju- mal is the victim of non-accidental injury (NAI).
ries should identify the type, severity, and pattern Litigation of criminal cases can last for years,
of injuries. In the case of a deceased animal, the the endpoint being a trial, and evidence may be dis-
forensic necropsy should determine cause of covered at any time during this period. Law
death, and finally, the injuries should be consid- enforcement and the district attorney should inform
ered in the context of cause; is the type, severity, the veterinarian of the discovery of any evidence
and pattern of injuries consistent with an accident that is informative about the actual traumatic event.
or a non-accidental event? It is not often that a veterinarian gets to witness
the traumatic event that caused an animal’s injuries.
Video surveillance recordings and the ubiquitous
5.2 Forensic Evaluation smartphone have changed that, and the veterinarian
of an Animal: Goals now has the occasional opportunity to witness the
traumatic event that caused the animal’s injuries.
A forensic evaluation is performed when there is This is educational. If a veterinarian sees a video
the suspicion that a crime has been committed. recording of an animal being thrown to the ground,
As animal cruelty is a legal determination, the the veterinarian will have the opportunity to wit-
purpose of the veterinary forensic evaluation is to ness the type of impact that can cause, for example,
collect information about the animal’s health that a fractured femoral diaphysis (true case).
will assist in making the legal determination. The
forensic veterinary medical investigation is a par-
allel and independent investigation from the law 5.3 on-accidental Injury (NAI)
N
enforcement investigation. The veterinary foren- and Accidental Injury (AI)
sic investigation is an impartial search for the
truth. The veterinarian’s responsibility is to make Traumatic injuries can be classified as accidental
an unbiased assessment of the animal’s health. injuries (AI) or non-accidental injuries (NAI). In
Like any veterinary examination, the first step some instances, the traumatic event is witnessed;
in a forensic evaluation is the medical history. A a dog is hit by a car, a kitten is thrown against the
unique aspect of the medical history in a forensic wall. The cause of the animal’s injuries is known.
evaluation (as compared to a non-forensic evalu- An explanation by an individual of the cause of a
5 Blunt Force Trauma 67
traumatic event(s) that resulted in an animal’s one individual, or multiple people give differ-
injuries may be true or false. The explanation ent explanations as to cause of the animal’s
may be given to law enforcement (when they injury/injuries.
respond to an allegation of animal cruelty) or to • The behavior of the person with the animal
the staff at an animal facility (animal hospital or arouses suspicion.
animal shelter) when an animal is brought for • The person is reluctant to explain the animal’s
care. When the explanation is given to law injuries.
enforcement, the veterinarian’s role is to identify • The person becomes defensive or angry when
the type and severity of the animal’s injuries. If questioned.
possible the veterinarian should draw a conclu- • The person has a lack of concern for the
sion as to whether the pattern, type, and severity animal.
of the injuries is explained by the reported event • The animal is caught in the larger problem of
(i.e., accidental or non-accidental). In cases family violence.
where the event is non-accidental, the veterinar-
ian is conducting a forensic veterinary examina-
tion and functioning as a forensic veterinarian or 5.4.2 C
linical Picture Is Inconsistent
veterinary pathologist. They are collecting infor- with the Explanation Given
mation that may one day be presented in court.
Veterinary evaluations may or may not support a • The animal does not go outdoors and is not
finding of animal abuse. Law enforcement and exposed to unknown causes of trauma.
the prosecutor’s office rely on the veterinarian to • This is no history of accidental trauma (e.g.,
make an accurate determination. moving vehicle accident).
For cases in which the explanation of an animal’s • Review of medical records (standard medical
injuries is an accidental traumatic event and the type practice) may uncover a history of trauma
and severity of the injuries are not consistent with the (one animal, multiple animals).
reported event, there may be a suspicion of abuse. A –– One animal presents multiple times for
legal case may be initiated by the veterinarian or traumatic injuries. This is likely a “battered
other staff as complainant. A veterinarian who reports animal” who has experienced repetitive
suspected animal abuse will be making a “good injuries. Repetitive injuries can be deter-
faith” report of suspected animal cruelty or “recog- mined two ways:
nizing and reporting” suspected animal cruelty. Medical records (from one or more ani-
mal hospitals) show that an animal has
presented repeatedly for traumatic
5.4 easons to Suspect Non-
R injuries.
accidental Injury When A veterinary evaluation determines that
an Animal Is Injured [8] an animal has traumatic injuries of dif-
ferent ages.
Why would there be a suspicion of abuse if the –– Multiple animals in the same household
events described assert that the injuries were have experienced traumatic injuries. What
caused accidentally? is the nature of the injuries? What is the age
of the animals that have been injured? If all
the animals are young, it should be consid-
5.4.1 P
erson(S) Behavior and/or ered that in addition to any live injured ani-
Statements Raise Suspicions mals, other animals may have been killed.
• The account of the traumatic event does not
• The person presenting the animal confesses or explain the observed injury/injuries:
implicates another person. –– The severity of the injury/injuries is greater
• The history is discrepant—more than one than would occur by the force of the impact
explanation for the injury/injuries is given by of the described traumatic event.
68 R. Reisman
–– The number of injuries could not occur the veterinarian to determine the human circum-
because of the described event. Accidents stances of the event. That responsibility belongs
tend to have one major impact and possibly to the police.
a minor secondary impact. The psychologist discovered that the woman,
–– The pattern or distribution of injuries in NAI who had moved to New York from a Midwestern
differs from pattern of injuries typically seen state a few years earlier, had fallen on tough times
in cases of accidental trauma. Blunt force and unfortunately turned to prostitution. A sad
trauma due to falls to the ground or similar tale of young life in the big city. It was one of the
“benign” circumstances should be distributed young woman’s “clients” who had kicked the cat
over bony prominences of the body and have and fractured its leg. Because of this intervention,
a pattern of injuries along one plane of impact the woman got back in touch with her family,
of the body as the result of a single major from whom she had become estranged. Her fam-
impact. Injuries to recessed or protected parts ily, happy to be reconnected, paid for the cat’s
of the body are suspicious for assault [9]. care, and the woman moved back home. Two
–– There are injuries of different ages (repeti- lives saved, because a veterinarian recognized a
tive injuries). problem with the woman’s lack of interest in the
• The injury type may vary with each episode, cause of her cat’s injuries.
but fractures feature prominently; head trauma
(+/− skull fractures), rib fractures, and/or
femur fractures are present [10, 11]. 5.6 he Case of the Boyfriend
T
Who Was a Serial Animal
Killer
5.5 he Case of the Midwestern
T
Twenty Something Who A man calls his girlfriend at 7 pm on Sunday
Didn’t Seem Interested night to let her know that the Dachshund puppy
in the Circumstances That she recently gave him for his birthday (think of
Resulted in Her Cat’s the significance of bringing a live being into their
Broken Leg new “family”) was not acting normally. The
woman asked him to take the puppy to the veteri-
It was a bitter cold, wintry evening in New York nary hospital. Hours later, she called to find out
City when a young woman with an injured cat the results of the doctor visit. To her dismay, she
showed up at the animal hospital. The examining found out that he had not taken the puppy in for
veterinarian had a sense that the woman’s lack of medical care. Voices were raised and he agreed to
interest in how her cat broke its leg was impor- take the puppy to the hospital.
tant. After all, the cat lived exclusively in a NYC When he arrived at the veterinary hospital, he
studio apartment and never went outdoors. The explained that the puppy had fallen while being
veterinarian did not suspect that the young bathed. The puppy had six rib fractures (Fig. 5.1), a
woman had hurt her cat; however, she felt like hemothorax and a hemoabdomen, injuries that were
there was more to the story and that this may not inconsistent with the reported event. A fall from a
have been a benign event. How does an indoor few feet could not have resulted in an impact with
cat in a small Manhattan apartment break its leg? adequate force to cause the observed injuries. The
The veterinarian contacted a mental health pro- puppy died 20 h later, despite intensive medical care.
fessional who was available to interview the During the investigation, it was determined
woman. The veterinarian could also have con- that the woman had given her boyfriend
tacted the police. Although questions asked another Dachshund puppy months earlier that
during medical history taking may provide use- had also died. Exhumation of the puppy’s
ful information about the event that caused the body by law enforcement allowed an exam
animal’s injuries, it is not the responsibility of that identified a skull fracture (Fig. 5.2), with
Fig. 5.1 Two groups of

rib fractures representing
at least two impacts in
the puppy that was
reported to have fallen
while being given a bath
Fig. 5.2 The skull

fracture of the exhumed
puppy. Adobe Photoshop
Elements is a good
software program for
labeling photographs
and doing basic
exposure enhancement.
For the benefit of
non-medically trained
people working on the
case, medical terms
should be defined and
images labeled
70 R. Reisman
an assumed associated traumatic brain injury. 5. What is the blunt force mechanism of injury?
The individual was found guilty of felony Energy transfer, acceleration/deceleration,
(puppy that was said to have fallen during the or physical disruption of tissue (crushing
bath) and misdemeanor (exhumed puppy with injury)? See discussion of Mechanism of
fractured skull) animal cruelty. Injury, Sect. 5.17.
5.7 Differentiating Accidental 5.8 Tissue Injury

from Non-accidental Injury
Tissue injury can be defined as damage to the
There are different ways a veterinarian can differ- body tissue that results in tissue dysfunction.
entiate AI from NAI. Biomechanics, the physics of Injury causes pain, distraction, and incapacity
forces and their effect on living tissues, can answer [12]. What are the consequences of injury? Does
questions about the type of force that would be nec- pain and distraction due to injury cause reduced
essary to cause observed injuries. It is a biome- appetite and resulting weight loss? The “severity
chanical assessment on the part of the veterinarian of an injury” is a characterization that may assist
that is the basis for concluding that a 6-month-old in creating a treatment plan or understanding
puppy’s six rib fractures, hemothorax, and hemoab- cause of death. No classification scheme is per-
domen were not caused by a fall in the bathtub fect; however, a systematic approach to assessing
(Sect. 5.6). The force of an impact from falling 3 ft. injured tissues is superior to a haphazard assess-
could not have caused the identified injuries. ment. Classification schemes may vary based on
The types of questions that should be attempted the tissue involved and whether the animal is
to be answered by physical examination (live ani- alive or deceased. The basic elements of a clas-
mal examination and/or necropsy) to differentiate sification scheme (see Table 5.1) for injury sever-
accidental injury from non-accidental injury are: ity should include.
(1) structural involvement/disruption, (2)
1 . What injuries are present? physical signs (including pain) in live animals,
2. What is the nature of the injuries? Blunt force and (3) level of dysfunction [13]. This type of
trauma, sharp force trauma, or animal attack? classification can guide description of injured
3. What is the distribution of the injuries on the tissue in live and deceased animals. For exam-
body (specific areas or anatomic parts)? ple, when there is musculoskeletal injury, if
4. Are the identified injuries the same age, or significant swelling and inflammation of asso-
is there evidence that they occurred at dif- ciated soft tissue is not present, then a low-
ferent times? energy impact is likely.
Table 5.1 Classification of human ligament injury severity [13] as seen in Whiting 2008 [12]
Performance deficit
Grade Severity Structural involvement Exam tissue dysfunction
1 Mild Negligible No visible injury, mild Minimal to a few days
local inflammation and
paina, joint stable
2 Moderate Partial Visible swelling, marked Up to 6 weeks (may
pain, +/− stability be modified protective
support)
3 Severe Complete Gross swelling, marked Indefinite. Minimum
pain, antalgic postureb, of 6–8 weeks
unstable
Pain has been substituted for the terms tender or tenderness used in Whiting 2008 [14]
a
Antalgic posture—a posture or gait assumed to lessen pain

b
5.9 Blunt Force Trauma tissues, and physical properties of tissues in terms
of stresses, strains, and strength.
Blunt force trauma injuries (soft tissue and bone) Biomechanics is used to understand the effect
are produced by the impact of an animal’s body of forces on living tissue. Veterinarians are not
against a blunt surface or by the impact of an physicists with expertise in biomechanics; how-
object with a blunt surface against an animal’s ever, a basic understanding of the biomechanics
body. Blunt force trauma injuries occur during of injury will help them draw conclusions about
accidental and non-accidental events. Common the type of forces that were applied to soft tissue
causes of accidental blunt force trauma injuries and bone consistent with observed injuries.
are moving vehicle accidents, falls including Ideally, a discipline focused on the biomechanics
high-rise falls in urban environments, and ath- of animal injury will develop.
letic activity. Specific types and patterns of inju-
ries characterize each type of event. Pelvic
fractures, for instance, are the most common 5.11 B
iomechanics of Blunt Force
bone fractures in motor vehicle accidents, occur- Trauma
ring about 20% of the time [11, 15]. Friction
abrasions of the skin and focal full-thickness skin Classical mechanics [12] is the branch of physi-
defects are also commonly observed motor vehi- cal science that focuses on forces and energy and
cle accident injuries (Fig. 5.16–5.20). Blunt force their effect on inorganic and organic objects.
impacts are the most common cause of non- Some basic terms to define are motion, speed,
accidental injury of animals. An area of recent velocity, and acceleration. Motion occurs when
and current research is the type and nature of an object changes its position relative to a refer-
injuries associated with various accidental and ence point during a certain time interval. Speed is
non-accidental events [10, 11, 16]. the term used to describe change in position
In physical abuse cases, the animal’s injuries (units of distance) during a specified time interval
may result from a single event in time or numer- (units of time). For example, a car is traveling at
ous separate events over time. “Battered pets” 50 miles/h. Velocity adds the additional factor of
[10, 17] experience repeated traumatic events direction to speed. The car is traveling west at
(repetitive injuries) [8]. The term battered pets 50 miles/h. (velocity). Acceleration is the rate of
was taken from the term “battered-child syn- change of velocity during a specific time interval,
drome” introduced in the historic 1962 paper on observed as speeding up or slowing down.
physicians’ responses to non-accidental injuries In classical mechanics, for a body with con-
in children [18]. stant mass, the acceleration of the body is directly
proportional to the force acting on the body
(Newton’s second law of motion). Force is any
5.10 U
nderstanding Blunt Force influence causing a free body to accelerate.
Tissue Injury Change in acceleration is one of the mechanisms
of injury caused by the application of a blunt
Veterinarians are trained to diagnose injury and force to living tissue.
disease. They are the most qualified individuals F = m*a
to understand the correlation between activity, F = force (units = Newtons)
age, and injury in animals. Biomechanical engi- m = mass (units = kg)
neers are trained to perform calculations that cor- a = acceleration (units = change in velocity/
relate tissue injury to the forces that produce unit time)
injury [19]. This requires knowledge of the All objects (including biological tissues) have
mechanical laws of physics (Newton’s laws) and material and structural properties that influence
material science (body tissues have specific the effect of forces applied to these objects.
material properties), dimensions of the affected Mechanical engineering principles describe the
72 R. Reisman
effect of dynamic forces acting on an object (with To break a bone, the applied force must exceed the
specific material and structural properties) and yield point to cause a fracture to begin to propagate.
resultant changes in the structure’s form and
direction of motion.
Biomechanics [12] is the application of classi- 5.13 Injury and Force
cal mechanics to biologic systems. Biomechanics
is used to describe the effects of intrinsic and Forces applied to a body or tissue are the most
extrinsic physiological and nonphysiologic forces significant element to be considered when there
on living tissue (with specific material and struc- is physical injury due to a blunt force impact. As
tural properties). previously stated, forces that must be considered
The force applied to tissue is also called the when there is injury are (1) the forces muscle,
load. Body tissues continuously experience loads tendon, and ligament exert on attached bones, (2)
during normal activity with no obvious injury. gravity, (3) normal compressive forces when an
Internal and external forces are applied to tissue extremity strikes the ground (walking, running),
during normal movement. These loads are within and (4) the force(s) applied to tissue at the blunt
a physiologic range. The probability of injury force impact site. It is rare that a single force acts
increases when loads exceed the physiological on an animal’s body. Most injury cases involved
range (overload). A single overload can exceed a multiple forces.
tissue’s maximum tolerance to manage the over- When a force is applied to an animal’s body,
load. Internal forces are the effect of muscles, the animal’s body moves. There are two basic
tendons, and ligaments on bone. External forces forms of movement when the force is applied:
include gravity and the impact of an animal’s (1) translational or linear motion, a body moves
paw as it strikes the ground. Kinematics is the along a straight line (rectilinear motion) or a
terms used for the description of movement with- curved line (curvilinear motion), and (2) angu-
out regard to forces involved, and kinetics is the lar or rotational motion, the body rotates about
description of movement in the context of forces an axis of rotation. Consider, for example, a
involved. blunt force impact near a joint. Rotational
movement will ensue. Movement of living
organisms can be a combination of these two
5.12 B
iomechanics of Animal basic forms of movement. If a force great
Tissue Injury enough to cause injury is applied to an ani-
mal’s body, the type of injury sustained is in
Testing of the biomechanical properties of all human part due to the movement generated in the ani-
tissue is incomplete. This has been supplemented by mal’s body [20].
testing of biological materials of other animal spe- Specifically, for a blunt force impact, the inju-
cies, and the result of these tests has then been corre- ries that result are determined by:
lated to human tissue properties. A statistical analysis
of human vs. animal tissue reveals the similarity in 1. The force of the impact (see different qualita-
the strength of the materials [19]. Consequently, there tive aspects of force below)
is already scientific information to support a disci- 2. The characteristics of the body area that sus-
pline focused on the biomechanics of animal tissue tains the impact
injury (see Sect. 5.20). Biomechanical properties of 3. The characteristics of the object contacting
tissue (e.g., bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilages, and the body
organs) are determined by testing tissues under ten-
sion, compression, bending, impact bending, impact
snapping, torsion, tearing, cleavage, shearing, crush- 5.14 Qualitative Aspects of Forces
ing, as well as expansion, bursting, and extraction.
Certain limits must be exceeded to create injury. To When an injury occurs, there are specific
injure a ligament, its elastic limit must be exceeded. aspects of the force that affect the type of injury,
the tissues injured, and the severity of the injury Compressive: A force that pushes on tis-
[12]: sue, for example, when a blunt object impacts
tissue or tissue impacts the ground because of
1. Magnitude of the force applied. A blunt force a fall or being thrown to the ground. The angle
trauma impact of greater force causes more of impact influences the effect of the compres-
severe tissue disruption/injury than a blunt sive force.
force impact with a smaller force. Bending force: Applied to a specific focal
2. The location on the body where the force is point on the bone perpendicular to the long axis
applied will affect the injuries sustained. If, of the bone and result in transverse or short
for example, there is an object-tissue impact oblique fractures of the diaphysis.
near a joint, there will be angular or rota- Torsion: When the force applied causes tissue
tional motion of the impacted tissues. It is rotation.
important to keep in mind that there can be Shearing: The applied force causes tissue
injuries remote from the impact site because planes to slide past one another.
of the different mechanisms of injury (see Additional types of forces: tearing, cleavage,
Sect. 5.17). crushing, expansion, bursting, and extraction.
3. Direction of the force or the angle of impact.
Is the impact perpendicular to the impacted
tissue (creating a compressive force) or tan- 5.16 W
hat Happens to a Three-
gential (creating a torsional compressive Dimensional Object When
force)? a Force Is Applied? [20]
4. How often is the force applied? Repeated

force application with insufficient time for 5.16.1 Strain, Shear, Stress,
recovery (cumulative trauma injuries) may and Deformation
result in chronic injuries. Repeated force
applications can weaken tissue and may result When a force (F) is applied to a three-dimensional
in what appears as an acute injury. object, the object’s shape changes or is deformed
5. Variability of the magnitude of the force (con- in two possible ways:
stant or variable during application).
6. The length of time of the impact or the rate 1. The dimensions of the object (length, width,
of the application of the force. If a force is depth) change along the x, y, or z axes that
applied slowly, the tissue can displace at a define the shape of the object.
rate low enough to absorb and dissipate the 2. The shape of the object may be distorted,

force over a large area minimizing tissue meaning there are changes in the angles
disruption. Conversely, if a force is applied between the lines that define the shape.
rapidly, the tissue cannot displace at a low
rate and over a large area. The result is a
shock or compression wave that forms and 5.16.2 Terms Used to Describe
passes through the tissue resulting in tissue the Effect of Forces on Objects
injury.
5.16.2.1 Strain
Strain occurs in an object (normal) when the
5.15 T
ypes of Forces That Can dimensions of the object change because of the
Impact Tissue [20, 21] application of force. Tensile or compressive
forces that stretch or compress an object cause
Tensile: A force that pulls on tissue, for example, strain. The object responds to the applied force
the force generated when there is motion or an by becoming longer and thinner (tension pulling
impact and tendons and/or ligaments pull on a the object apart) or shorter and wider (compres-
bone. sion pushing on the object).
74 R. Reisman
5.16.2.2 Shear these structures are subject to excessive load-

Shear refers to the effect of a force applied to an ing, they are subject to failure. This failure
object that results in a change in angles between may take the form of stress, strain, rupture, or
lines that define the object’s shape. This results in catastrophic failure as occurs with a complete
distortion of the shape of an object. fracture [19].
5.16.2.3 Stress
Stress is equivalent to the force generated inter- 5.17 M
echanisms of Injury
nally in bone as a load is applied (force/unit of from a Blunt Force Impact
cross-sectional area of material; Newton/m2).
For a blunt force impact to occur, there must be
5.16.2.4 Deformation motion of the blunt object or the animal or both.
This is a change in dimensions or shape of an Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
object (change in angles between sides) due to There are three mechanisms by which tissue
the application of force. The types of forces (soft tissue and bone) injury occurs when there is
that cause object deformation are tension (pull- a blunt force impact. Blunt force trauma injuries
ing on the object) which creates normal strain result from the effects on tissue of:
causing the object to become longer and thin-
ner, compression (pushing on an object) which 1 . Energy transfer, absorption, and dissipation
creates normal strain causing the object to 2. Rapid transition from positive acceleration to
become shorter and wider, torsion which negative acceleration (also called decelera-
causes shear strain changing the shape of the tion)
object by changing the angles between the 3. Direct physical disruption of tissue (also

sides, and bending which causes deformation called “crushing” injuries)
that is a mix of the strains caused by the other
three forces. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. At
With the application of sufficient force, the time of blunt force impact, there is a transfer
bones undergo elastic and plastic deformation. of energy from the blunt object to tissue. Energy
A load-deformation curve maps bone defor- cannot be created or destroyed; it can only
mation (change in shape) as the bone is loaded change form (conservation of energy—first law
(application of force). During the initial applica- of thermodynamics). All the kinetic energy
tion of force, elastic deformation (reversible) delivered to tissue is absorbed and changed. The
occurs. With the continued application of force, amount of energy transferred and absorbed
a yield point is reached and plastic deforma- affects the degree of injury. The delivery of
tion (irreversible deformation) occurs. In the energy more than what is tolerable by tissues
plastic region, the degree of bone deformation results in inadequate dissipation of transferred
increases with continued application of force energy and tissue injury. Organ disruption such
until catastrophic deformation (bone fracture) as liver lacerations and lung contusions are the
occurs when the ultimate strength of the bone is types of organ injury that result from over-
exceeded. whelming energy absorption and inadequate
Forces, accelerations, stresses, and strains energy dissipation.
all behave according to the laws of physics In all instances when a blunt force impacts an
regarding bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, animal’s body, the body (all organs and tissues)
and organs. The potential for injury increases accelerates in space. Deceleration (a change in
with increasing age. Increasing age of an indi- acceleration) occurs when the animal’s body
vidual results in decreased strength of joints, and internal organs come to rest. Deceleration
muscles, bones, tendons, and ligaments. When frequently happens suddenly, for example, when
a dog’s body strikes the ground after being hit tion), it could have occurred when the woman
by a moving vehicle. A certain velocity is left the room to keep her daughter from com-
reached by the animal’s body when it is struck ing in the room. A right-sided impact cannot
by the car. The animal’s body then experiences a be confirmed; however, it is the best explana-
rapid deceleration to a velocity of zero when its tion for the right-sided injuries (i.e., right eye
body hits the ground. Internal organs are differ- traumatic injuries and gingival laceration). In
ent sizes and weights and accelerate at different this case, as in many, the crime scene photo
rates after the blunt force impact. The relative provided significant information about the
acceleration and deceleration rates of the differ- traumatic event. It answered the question as to
ent internal organs create a condition that results whether the single left-sided impact that
in injury. With rapid change from acceleration occurred when the dog was thrown to the
to deceleration, organs can be avulsed from ground was adequate to cause the fatal injury.
fixed attachment points, and blood vessels can The answer is yes. The perpetrator was found
be torn. Organ disruption (liver lacerations and guilty of felony animal cruelty.
lung contusions) also occurs. High-rise falls
have the additional force of gravity affecting the
impact. 5.18.1 Injuries Identified at Forensic
At the time of blunt force impact, there may Necropsy (Figs. 5.3 and 5.4, 5.5
be a direct physical disruption of tissue. This and 5.6, and 5.7–5.9)
is a crushing or crushing deformation injury.
This is the mechanism of injury that many Gingival laceration (Fig. 5.6) associated with
people assume is the primary mechanism of the upper right canine. Laceration is a disruption
injury, because it is the injury that occurs at of tissue caused by a blunt force impact (see
the site of impact. Section.
Injuries from excessive energy transfer and Right eye (Fig. 5.5)—Hemorrhage present in
sudden acceleration followed by rapid decelera- anterior chamber. Ciliary body torn. The poste-
tion may result in the most serious blunt force rior aspect of the orbit is not intact, and within the
injuries (internal organ damage), and these inju- vitreous body, there is abundant hemorrhage
ries may be at some distance from the site of admixed with fragments of the retina, sclera, and
impact. lens material (fragmentation of sclera, lens, and
retina).
Skull (Fig. 5.9)—There are three free pieces
5.18 C
ase of a Left-Sided Impact of bone from the right and left caudal skull. The
and a Possible Additional right lateral parietal area is fractured into seven
Right-Sided Impact smaller pieces. These injuries are due to rapid
excessive energy transfer.
During a verbal argument between a man and Brain (Fig. 5.9)—Hemorrhage is present in
woman, the man took the woman’s dog from the meninges and the brain parenchyma on
the woman’s hands and threw the dog to the both sides of the brain. There are no macro-
ground. The dog was a 1.3 kg, 3-year-old, phages present indicating the injuries are
female Chihuahua. There was a single impact acute.
to the left side of the body (Fig. 5.3 and 5.4). Lungs—Moderate to severe pulmonary con-
The dog died 15 min later from a traumatic tusions. More severe on left than right. This is an
brain injury. There was no other known physi- acceleration/deceleration injury.
cal event. If there was an impact to the right Head, chest, and hind end injuries are com-
side of the head (causing the observed right mon findings when small animals (i.e., dogs and
ocular trauma and right canine gingival lacera- cats) are thrown to the ground.
76 R. Reisman
Fig. 5.3 and 5.4 Photo

taken by owner soon
after the dog was thrown
to the ground. The pool
of blood indicates that
this single left-sided
impact caused the fatal
injuries to the soft
tissues of the head,
skull, and brain. There
was no other witnessed
traumatic impact
Fig. 5.5 and 5.6 If there was a second impact to

the right side of the head (causing right ocular
trauma and right canine gingival laceration), it
could have occurred when the owner left the room
to keep her daughter from coming in the room
Fig. 5.7–5.9 The left-sided impact that caused the fatal were fractured into three large pieces. The section of the
traumatic brain injury occurred when the dog’s body caudal right parietal bone broke into seven pieces
struck the ground. The occipital bone and parietal bone
5.19 C
haracteristics of the Blunt 5.20 Tissue Characteristics That
Object Influence Type and Severity
of Injury [12]
The characteristics of the blunt object that
impact tissue influence the resulting injury. The characteristics of the body area that receives
With the force of impact being equal, the smaller a blunt force impact influence the resulting tissue
the surface area of the blunt object contacting injury. Material science can used to understand
the body, the smaller the area of the body to the effect forces have on tissues [19, 22]. Yamada
which the force is transferred. A force delivered (1970) provides extensive information on the
to a smaller tissue area results in the energy of effect of forces on tissues. Human and animal
impact being less efficiently absorbed and dis- results come from postmortem tissues. The tis-
sipated by tissue than is the case with the impact sues can be prepared in different ways. “Wet
of a blunt object with a larger surface area. The compact bone” is the test material that most
result is more severe tissue disruption and closely represents the effect that occurs with
injury. bone in a living person). Below is an example of
The impact from a blunt object that has a the type of information that is used in biome-
wider surface area, results in a force being dis- chanical calculations for dogs and cats (see
tributed over a larger area of the body. The energy Tables 5.2 and 5.3) [22]. Table 5.4 shows human
of the impact is more efficiently absorbed and relative bone strengths:
dissipated by tissue, and the resulting injury is
less severe.
Rib fractures are more common in physical Table 5.2 Elastic modulus of wet long bones in antero-
posterior bending [22]
abuse cases than motor vehicle accidents and high-
rise falls. This is explained by a focused (e.g., blunt Species Femur Tibia Humerus Radius Ulna
object, foot, thrown against blunt object) rather than Dog 1170 1250 860 1010 1820
a broad application of force during impact. Cat 1300 1490 1220 1510 1320
78 R. Reisman
Table 5.3 Ultimate bending Species Direction Femur Tibia Humerus Radius Ulna
strength (kg/mm2) of wet long
Dog CrCd 16.8 ± 0.6 17 ± 0.7 16.9 ± 0.8 17.8 ± 0.8 17.8 ±0.7
bones in the craniocaudal
direction (CrCd) and the LM 16.6 ± 0.9 17.4 ± 0.9 16.3 ± 0.7 17.7 ± 0.7 17.3 ± 0.8
lateromedial (LM) directions [22] Cat CrCd 14.5 ± 0.7 17.0 ± 0.6 15.9 ± 0.9 16.9 ± 0.7 17.3 ± 0.8
LM 14.6 ± 0.7 16.6 ± 0.6 15.2 ± 0.7 17.3 ± 0.6 17.1 ± 0.7
Table 5.4 Force required to fracture bones of the skull (force). When a substance reaches its elastic
(human) [19, 22] derived from testing limit, further application of force results in
Fracture force in Pounds permanent deformation (plastic part of the
Bone Range Mean stress strain curve).
Maxilla 140–445 258 In decreasing order of stiffness in the dog:
Frontal 470–2650 1000–1710 ulna, tibia, femur, radius, and humerus.
Temporoparietal 140–3360 702–1910 5. Compressive strength (humans) in the order of
Zygoma 138–780 283–516 greatest to least: femur, tibia, humerus and
Occipital 1150–2150 1440
fibula, ulna, and radius. Large bones generally
Mandible 184–925 431–697
have a greater ultimate compressive strength
than the small ones.
1. Animal age affects the strength of tissues. For 6 . The bending strength is greatest in the radius,
example, the ultimate tensile strength of wet ulna, and fibula and next greatest in the tibia
femoral compact bone is greatest in bone from and humerus and least in the femur. Generally,
people 20–29 years of age and least in people the ultimate bending strength of compact bone
60–79 years of age (70% of the strength of the is greater in small bones than larger bones.
younger group). Significantly, a bone will bend differently in
2. The ultimate tensile strength of wet compact the craniocaudal direction than the laterome-
bone from the middle of the femoral shaft is a dial direction.
little greater than that of bone from the upper
or lower part of the shaft. The properties of a The strength and the physical characteristics of
specific bone are not uniform over the entire the tissues involved influence the kind and the
bone. degree of injury produced. The volume of the tis-
3. Ultimate percentage elongation when a ten- sue impacted influences the degree of tissue injury.
sile force is applied to wet femoral compact The smaller the area of tissue impacted, the less
bone is greatest in persons 10–19 years and easily the energy of the force applied is dissipated
least in persons 60–79 years old (85%). and the greater the chance of tissue injury.
Specimens from small bones generally had a Tissue strength is related to collagen, elastin,
greater ultimate percentage elongation (i.e., and water content. The combination of water
they stretch more when a tensile force is (viscous) and fibers (elasticity) imparts what are
applied) than specimens from large ones. called viscoelastic properties to tissues. The vis-
4. Elastic modulus represents the stiffness or coelastic nature of tissue influences the relation-
elasticity of a tissue/substance which is a dif- ship between the velocity with which a force is
ferent property than strength. A higher elastic applied, the dissipation of transferred energy, the
modulus indicates that tissue/substance is degree of compression or displacement imparted
more stiff and less flexible with less deforma- to tissue, and the degree of tissue injury. Tissues
tion during the elastic portion (part of the with little water and large amounts of collagen
curve where deformation is reversible) of the (tendon) are strong compared with a large amount
stress/strain (deformation/force) curve when of water and little collagen (liver). The capsule of
strain (deformation) is graphed against stress an organ, which usually has a significant fibrous
component, is important in protecting the organ 5.22 T

ypes of Soft Tissue Blunt
from disruption. Force Trauma Injuries
The bone is a stiff material made principally
of fibrous protein collagen and impregnated More than one type of tissue injury is caused by
with a mineral closely resembling calcium blunt force impacts. Soft tissue injuries are con-
phosphate. The bone also contains water, which tusions, abrasions, and lacerations. Contusions
is important mechanically. Most bone is cov- (Figs. 5.10 and 5.11, and 5.12) of the skin occur
ered by cells and has living cells and blood ves- when blunt force ruptures small blood vessels in
sels within it. The bone being hard cannot sell the dermis and underlying soft tissue, resulting
or shrink; all changes in shape must take place in red blood cells moving from the injured blood
at surfaces [23]. vessel into the surrounding tissue (extravasa-
tion). Pulmonary contusions occur when there is
disruption of the vasculature of the lung
5.21 T
issue Response to Blunt parenchyma.
Force Impact The dog skin is like the human skin and
that of other mammals in its composition, but
Tissues may absorb energy and deform rather not in its structure [24]. The average thickness
than be disrupted. Deformation results in areas of of the skin (epidermis plus dermis) of dogs is
stress within the tissue. Whether a tissue is strong 0.5–5 mm [24]; the human skin epidermis is
enough to absorb and dissipate the applied energy on average 0.05–0.1 mm and the dermis
depends not only on how the force is applied but
also on the stress condition of the tissue at the
time the force is applied. Stress within the tissue
is concentrated and intensified at sites where the
characteristics of the tissue change, for example,
at points where parenchymatous organs are
attached by suspensory ligaments. The resistance
of tissue to changing shape is a function of its
internal friction, its viscosity, its elasticity, and
the tendency for the tissue to resume its prestress
configuration.
Tissue planes near the front of the transmit-
ted energy wave accelerate relative to adjacent
planes and may be torn apart, resulting in dis-
ruption of the tissue. Injuries occurring at low
velocities are caused primarily by the extent of
displacement between tissue planes. If displace-
ment is great enough, shearing between planes
results in disruption. The bones although stiffer
than other tissues are also viscoelastic and fol-
low the same rules under slow or rapid loading.
During slow loading to failure, fractures propa-
gate as a single crack and generally have only
two major fragments. Fractures from rapid load-
Fig. 5.10 and 5.11 This is a patterned contusion of the
ing have comminutions that are caused by wave
skin caused by the owner beating the dog with his collar
fronts propagating across numerous planes in a buckle. Shaving the hair coat is necessary to identify and
small area. document the lesions
80 R. Reisman
Fig. 5.12 and 5.13 An

adult, female, domestic
short hair cat with a
single skin contusion of
the caudal ventral
abdomen. The blunt
force impact was
forceful enough to
fracture the left
acetabulum
0.5–5 mm [25]. Hair follicles in the dog skin ded into the abraded surface, such as gravel
are more numerous and different in composi- from a road surface.
tion, and the subcutaneous layer has a differ- Lacerations represent a catastrophic disruption
ent structure and vascularization than the of tissue integrity. This tissue disruption results in
human skin [25]. The dog skin is generally an irregular splitting of tissue, frequently sur-
more “movable” than the human skin, and its rounded by a margin of contused tissue and possi-
biomechanical properties should, in conse- bly some tissue bridging across the split tissue.
quence, differ from those of other mammals Lacerations can occur to the skin, subcuta-
[26]. For example, dog’s skin bruises less eas- neous tissue, gingival (Fig. 5.6) and internal
ily than the human skin, and skin lacerations organs, and most notably the liver. Lacerations
are less common in dogs and cats than must be differentiated from incised tissue
people. caused by sharp force trauma. An incised
Abrasions (Figs. 5.14 and 5.15, and 5.16– wound compared to a laceration is generally
5.20) occur when blunt force causes the more regular in appearance, bleeds more, does
superficial (epithelial) layer of skin to be not have tissue bridging across the wound, and
scraped away, typically in an irregular fash- does not have a contused margin. Lacerations,
ion. Sometimes the pattern of the abrasion can other than gingival lacerations, in the author’s
indicate what kind of surface impacted the experience, are uncommon in blunt force
skin. Sometimes foreign material is embed- trauma of dogs and cats.
Fig. 5.14 and

5.15 This is an
abrasion in a young
adult, King Charles
Spaniel, who was beaten
to death
Fig. 5.16–5.20 Series of photos showing motor vehicle ness skin defects are common in motor vehicle accidents.
accidents skin lesions. Friction abrasion—top right pho- Location of focal skin defects—yellow arrows; Close-ups
tograph. Focal abrasions/lacerations; partial or full-thick- of the three focal skin defects—bottom row
82 R. Reisman
Fig. 5.16–5.20 (continued)
5.23 C
ase Study of the Dog (less stiff, more flexible). Larger bones, such as
with a Single Abdominal the femur, have both types, where the outer lay-
Contusion (Fig. 5.21–5.23) ers are cortical/compact and the inner portions
cancellous. The vertebra is mostly composed of
A deceased, young adult, female pit bull dog was cancellous bone due to its function. The spinal
brought to the animal hospital for a necropsy. column not only acts as a support mechanism
There is a single skin contusion consistent with for the upper structure of the human body but
the reported kick to this dog’s abdomen. Necropsy also performs a function as much as a shock
revealed a bladder rupture and uroperitoneum as absorber does in an automobile. It is movable in
the cause of death. all three axes and capable of supporting great
weight by distributing the stresses over the
entire column.
5.24 Fractures [20, 21] What can a veterinarian say about the force
that caused a bone fracture? Some language
Bones and teeth can experience catastrophic used is a powerful force that was applied to the
disruption of tissue integrity (fracture) from a bone to cause the fracture, or a significant force
blunt force impact. There are two basic types of was applied to the bone to cause the fracture.
bone in an adult, the compact or cortical bone Non-accidental bone fractures can be compared
and cancellous (trabecular of spongy) bone. At to accidental traumatic events such as motor
the macroscopic level, the distinction between vehicle accidents and high-rise falls to commu-
the two types is structural. The skeleton is gen- nicate that magnitude of the force necessary to
erally made up of compact bone (80% of human break a bone.
skeleton). The compact bone (all long bones) Fractures fall into one of three categories
provides strength and support. It has a higher based on the amount of energy that causes the
elastic
modulus (stiff, less deformable) than structural failure: low-energy, high-energy, and
cancellous. The cancellous or spongy bone (e.g., very high-energy fractures. When evaluating a
vertebrae) is between 30 and 90% porous, is fracture, it is important to look at the degree of
more elastic, and is generally diffused with bone associated soft tissue injury (i.e., swelling and
marrow. It has a much lower elastic modulus contusions). The greater the energy of blunt force
mal soft tissue trauma. A high-energy or very

high-energy force will result in bone comminu-
tion and soft tissue trauma.
Different traumatic events result in different
head/skull injuries. The dog (Sect. 5.18) thrown
to the ground had an occipital bone injury. The
occipital bone is a strong bone, and a powerful
force is required to cause an occipital bone frac-
ture. Occipital bone injuries are common in
NAI/blunt force trauma cases as is the circum-
stance of a small animal being thrown to the
ground or against a hard object. At the ASPCA
in New York City between 2014 and 2016, there
were 10 deceased dogs and cat less than 15 lb.
with skull fractures. Five of these animals were
witnessed being thrown to the ground or against
a wall. One of the 10 animals fell from a height,
and the traumatic event was not witnessed in
four of the animals. High-rise falls commonly
cause head trauma but typically no skull frac-
tures other than fractures of the mandible and
hard palate [27, 28]. The zygomatic bone is a
weaker skull bone and should be radiographed
and evaluated at necropsy in all blunt force
trauma cases. The maxilla is not as strong as
many other skull bones but is also not frequently
fractured which is probably a result of the nature
of the traumatic event.
5.25 Fracture Healing [29]
The rate of fracture healing depends on the rela-

tive position of the fracture fragments, blood sup-
ply, the presence of infection, and fracture
fragment motion. A bone fracture that does not
heal is called a nonunion.
There are two classes of fracture healing: pri-
mary (direct) and secondary (indirect). Primary
fracture healing requires medical intervention to
reduce the gap between fracture fragments to
Fig. 5.21–5.23 Single blunt force impact to the caudal
ventral abdomen caused the contusion, bladder rupture, less than 0.5 mm and to immobilize the fracture
and fatal uroperitoneum site. If the fracture fragment gap is less than
0.01 mm, there is contact healing, and a new
impact, the greater the degree of soft tissue injury lamellar bone is formed across the fracture line
that results. A dog jumping from a low height parallel to the long axis of the bone. If the frac-
may sustain a low-energy fracture such as a distal ture fragment gap is greater than 0.01 mm but
diaphyseal transverse radial fracture with mini- less than 0.5 mm than gap, healing occurs where
84 R. Reisman
the lamellar bone is deposited perpendicular to The total blood volume of the cat is 5–6% of
the long axis of the bone. body weight (kg).
Secondary fracture healing occurs when there
is inadequate fracture fragment reduction and
fracture fragments are not immobilized, and/or 5.27 Differentiating Accidental
the fractures are comminuted and the bony col- from Non-accidental Injury:
umn cannot be reconstructed. Secondary fracture Patterns and Types
healing can occur with medical intervention that of Injuries (See Table 5.6)
does not resolve the fracture fragment gap or ade-
quately immobilize the fracture fragments. It also Distinct patterns of injuries are known for acciden-
happens when there is no medical intervention. tal trauma that can break bones: motor vehicle
The hallmark of secondary fracture healing is cal- accidents (MVA) and high-rise falls. Retrospective
lous formation. The more motion, the larger the studies of motor vehicle accident cases at the
callous. University of Pennsylvania Veterinary School and
Tufts Veterinary School looked in detail at types of
injuries sustained [15]. Other studies have detailed
5.26 Blood Loss (Hemorrhage) high-rise fall injuries. Two recent studies have
looked at the pattern of injury in NAI [10, 11].
Large volume blood loss should be quantitated In a study of traumatic skeletal injuries of chim-
if possible (see Table 5.5). The total blood vol- panzees, gorillas, and orangutans [33], the pattern of
ume of the dog is 8–9% of body weight (kg). injuries was analyzed in the context of the lifestyle
of these different primate species. Orangutans are
arboreal with a solitary lifestyle and have a statisti-
Table 5.5 Loss of blood in human beings: Physiologic
effects of blood loss as a percentage of circulating blood cally significant low frequency of head wounds
volume compared to chimpanzees. Chimpanzees and goril-
Class 1 Loss of up to 15% (approximately 10–12 mL/ las who have social lifestyles sustain more head
kg)a of the circulating blood volume. Clinical wounds because of inter- and intragroup conflicts.
symptom: mild tachycardia. Blood pressure, Falls from heights explain the predominance of
pulse pressure, and respiratory rate are normal extremity injuries in orangutans. The head is a target
Class 2 Loss of 15–30% (approximately 12–25 mL/
in chimpanzee and gorilla intraspecies aggression as
kg)a of the circulating blood volume. Clinical
signs: Tachycardia, tachypnea, and a decrease it is in human aggression, human on animal aggres-
in pulse pressure sion, and dog on dog aggression (dog fighting).
Class 3 Loss of 30–40% (approximately 25–32 mL/
kg)a of the circulating blood volume. Clinical
signs: Pale mucous membranes, prolonged
capillary refill time, tachycardia, tachypnea,
5.28 C
ase Study: A 10-Year-Old
depressed attitude, and decrease in arterial Pomeranian: Cause of Death
blood pressure Unknown (Figs. 5.24 and 5.25,
Class 4 Loss of greater than 40% of the circulating 5.26 and 5.27, and 5.28
blood volume. Life-threatening event. Clinical and 5.29)
signs: Very pale or white mucous membranes,
prolonged capillary refill time, cold
extremities, tachycardia, tachypnea, rapid It was reported that a 10-year-old Pomeranian
thready pulse, marked decrease in arterial was found dead in the home. No traumatic event
blood pressure, delirium, and depressed was witnessed. The external signs of trauma, as is
attitude
frequently the case, do not indicate the severity of
From Advanced Trauma Life Support Student Manual,
Chicago, American College of Surgeons, 1995 [30]
internal injury. What appear to be contusions
a
Assumes a total blood volume of 80 mL/kg (i.e., 8% of caused by the dog being grasped around the neck
BW) are visible subcutaneous.
Table 5.6 Accidental injury and non-accidental injury

MVA
Whitney Aiken
Kolata Boysen Streeter [27] [28]
[15] [31] [32] high-rise high- Munro Intarapanich Intarapanich
Anatomic area MVA MVA MVA cat rise cat [10] NAI NAI cats/dogs AI cats/dogs
Skull 5% 10%a 5%a 16.4% 32% 3.1%
Scleral hemorrhage 28% 8%
Maxillofacial 56% 56%
traumab
Vertebrae 6.5% 5% 10% 3.5%
Pelvis 20% 20% 20% 8% 8% 22.5%
Ribs 3% 0% 4% 15.6% 28% 8.9%
Femur 10% 28%c 20%
Extremity fractures 39%
Pulmonary injury 30% 90% 90% 43.7
Pulmonary 24% 43.7%
contusions
Pneumothorax 6% 28.6%
Skin abrasions 10% 72.8%
Older fractures 22% 0.2%
a
Head trauma
b
No skull fractures identified
c
14 of 15 cats were <1 year, 9 of the 14 fractures were distal Salter II fractures, and 2 were capital physeal fractures
Fig. 5.24 and

5.25 Externally there is
no obvious trauma to the
skin. There was extensive
hemorrhage of the
cervical muscles as you
might find if the dog was
picked up by his neck
Fig. 5.26 and 5.27 The

skin of the neck is
reflected, and there are
four discrete
subcutaneous
hemorrhages (the third
from the left appears as
two because it was
incised with a scalpel)
consistent with
contusions from fingers
grabbing the dog by its
neck
86 R. Reisman

occipital bone is
shattered with fracture
lines extending into the
parietal bone. There is a
countercoup lesion on
the right rostral aspect of
the brain. The impact at
the left caudolateral part
of the skull causes a
contrecoup impact of the
brain rostrally
5.29 Rib Fractures were identified. Because of the location and

appearance of the different rib fractures, it was
Rib fractures are a common injury in NAI/blunt concluded that the fractures were caused by
force trauma cases (Table 5.3). The explanation multiple impacts at different traumatic events
for the disparity in the occurrence of rib frac- in time. The right rib callouses are larger than
tures in NAI vs. AI (MVA and high-rise falls) is most of the rib callouses on the left side of the
that in NAI, the blunt force trauma impact is dog’s chest indicating that they occurred at an
more focused (animal is hit with an object, earlier traumatic event than the event that
kicked, or thrown against an object) than the caused the left-side fractures.
broad impact that occurs with an MVA and high-
rise falls [11].
The more information that is known about a 5.30 Repetitive Injuries, “Battered
specific injury for a specific event, the more Animals”: Injuries at
defined the difference between NAI and AI Different States of Healing
becomes. In one study [11] comparing NAI to AI,
of the 38 MVA cases (8.9% of total 426 MVA An animal that has been physically injured at dif-
cases) with rib fractures, only three dogs had rib ferent times is considered to have “repetitive
fractures on both sides of the body (3/426; less injuries” [8, 17]. There are three reasons for a
than 1% of total MVA cases). In contrast, of the veterinarian to conclude that an animal has been
14 NAI cases with rib fractures (14/50 = 28%), 5 injured at different times:
(5/14 = 36%) of the cases had rib fractures bilat-
erally (statistically significant). 1. The person bringing the animal for veterinary
evaluation may say that the animal has sus-
tained physical injuries at different times.
5.29.1 The Case of the “Battered” 2. The animal presents at an animal health

16-Year-Old Chihuahua facility or multiple animal facilities more
(Figs. 5.30, 5.31 and 5.32) than once with physical injuries. This
requires a review of the animal’s complete
A deceased 16-year-old Chihuahua was medical record.
reported to have been beaten to death by a 3. Injuries of different ages are identified during
woman’s spouse. At necropsy, 18 rib fractures the forensic examination.
Fig. 5.30 Computed
tomography scan left
ribs: A 16-year-old
Chihuahua with multiple
rib fractures indicating
multiple impacts at
different traumatic events
in time. Fractures are
present in left ribs: 2, 4,
5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12
Fig. 5.31 Computed
tomography scan right
ribs: Fractures are
present in right ribs:
2–10 and possibly 11
(right rib 11 has an
abnormal contour that is
consistent with an
injury, but possibly not a
complete fracture)
Fig. 5.32 Lines have

drawn through adjacent
ribs where the fracture
position lines up giving
a sense of the minimum
number of impacts
necessary to cause the
injuries
88 R. Reisman
5.31 Number of Impacts eased tissue. Review of previous medical

records will provide information about previ-
In blunt force trauma, the pattern of injuries ously evaluated injuries and the approximate
should be assessed. Depending on the location of dates when they occurred.
the individual blunt force impact injuries, the
number of impacts that could reasonably cause
those injuries should be estimated. This should 5.33 T
he Case of the Battered
be communicated as the minimum number of 5-Month-Old Puppy
blunt force impacts that occurred (as not every
blunt force impact will cause an identifiable On October 25, 2010, a puppy showed up at a
injury). Generally, accidental traumatic events city shelter, this time with a distal right metaphy-
cause injuries distributed in one plane of the seal bone fracture (Fig. 5.33). No explanation
body, as there typically is only one impact; con- was given. The puppy was taken for care to a
sider, for example, a fall. The exception is motor local animal hospital that works with the city
vehicle accidents where there is a primary impact shelter. In preparation for surgery, radiographs of
when the car hits the animal and a secondary the injured leg and chest were taken. What was
impact when the animal’s body hits the ground seen was unexpected. The radiographs showed
(when the deceleration injuries occur). The pat- bilateral femoral head osteotomies and two
tern of injuries should be consistent with what healed rib fractures (Figs. 5.34 and 5.35). A law
would be expected from the reported event, or a enforcement was contacted because of the exten-
different explanation is necessary. sive trauma this puppy had experienced.
Investigation uncovered that before the October
25, 2010 visit to the city shelter, the puppy had
5.32 Age of Injuries made two visits to a local animal hospital for
traumatic injuries.
In a forensic case, questions about time are of On September 18, 2010, a 5-month-old
importance, time of occurrence of an injury or terrier-type puppy was brought to a NYC animal
injuries, and duration of a medical problem. hospital with a left hind lameness. The owner
As an example, when an animal presents with reported that pots and pans fell on the dog the
a fractured femoral neck, the age of the frac- previous evening. Radiographs were declined
ture is important. The older the wound, the and the puppy went home with an NSAID pre-
more significant the neglect and the stronger scription. On October 8, 2010, the puppy pre-
the legal case. There may be injuries of differ- sented at the same animal hospital. This time the
ent ages in a forensic case providing evidence puppy was unable to use either hind leg.
that the animal has been hurt during more than Radiographs (Fig. 5.35) showed bilateral femo-
one traumatic event (repetitive injuries) [8]. A ral neck fractures of two different ages. The left
timeline should be created showing time of femoral neck fracture showed evidence of heal-
occurrence of the injuries. This timeline can ing. The bone fracture ends were indistinct and
be consulted by law enforcement to compare there was bone sclerosis. The right femoral neck
to the results of their investigation determin- fracture had bone ends that were well defined
ing the person or persons who had access to with no bony sclerosis. Additionally, the left
the animal at different times. Gross exam in thigh muscles as compared to the right thigh
combination with histopathology and radiog- muscles were atrophied. The left hind femoral
raphy is routinely used to age injured or dis- neck fracture occurred on September 18, 2010,

right distal femoral
fracture occurred on
October 25, 2016 when
the dog was a
relinquished to the city
shelter. Chest
radiographs showed
healing rib fractures that
could have come from a
single impact at the time
when either of the back
legs were fractured
90 R. Reisman
Fig. 5.35 Radiograph
on October 7, 2010.
Bilateral femoral neck
fractures at different
stages of healing (left
older than right—see
text) and left hind
muscle atrophy
and the right femoral neck fracture occurred on mal’s injuries are accidental, can it be shown that
October 8, 2010. A call was made to law there was a failure to provide veterinary medical
enforcement, but the case hit a dead end. The care for the injured animal? As mentioned previ-
puppy would surface again on October 25, 2016, ously, determining the duration of an injury can be
at the city shelter. forensically important. In the case of a badly
Timeline: This puppy had bone fractures dur- injured animal, there is value in the determination
ing at least three separate traumatic events: of the age of the injury/injuries. Some state laws
September 18, 2010, October 07, 2010, and mandate veterinary care for medically compro-
October 25, 2010. A law enforcement investiga- mised animals. In some states although the words
tion occurred, and it was determined that the per- “veterinary care,” or a similar phrase, is not pres-
petrator was an Iraq war veteran suffering from ent in the animal cruelty statute, however, interpre-
PTSD. There was no arrest and the individual tation and application of the law at trial (case law)
responsible got the therapy she needed. over many years has led to the conclusion that an
injured or diseased animal should be provided
with veterinary care, and the failure to do so may
5.34 “Failure to Treat” be considered a crime. State anti-cruelty laws and
other laws pertaining to animals can be found at
Not providing an injured animal with medical care the Michigan State University Law School,
is sometimes called a “failure to treat” which can Animal Legal and Historical Center [34], and the
be the basis for a criminal prosecution. If the ani- website of the Animal Legal Defense Fund [35].
5.35 Pain 5.37 T

he Case of Delilah, a Dog
Who Was Reported
The forensic evaluation should determine if to Be Injured by a Cordless
the animal is in pain. Pain assessment as part Drill that Fell from the Top
of the forensic examination of a live animal is of a Five Foot Refrigerator
mandatory. In a noncriminal case, it would not (Fig. 5.36 and 5.37)
be unusual for medical notes to have record of
analgesic use with very little information in An injured pit bull dog was brought to the animal
the exam notes describing the behavior an ani- hospital. The dog named Delilah presented with a
mal exhibited that has been interpreted as fractured left front humerus (Fig. 5.37). The
pain. In a deceased animal, a statement about owner reported that a 6-lb.-cordless drill fell from
the pain an animal experienced during life, as the top of a refrigerator, struck the dog, and frac-
a result of its injuries or disease processes, can tured the left humerus.
be provided in a statement of findings or in a Delilah is a 4-year-old, 56-lb.-brindle-coated,
comments section of the necropsy findings. female pit bull dog. She has a severe fracture of the
This is important. It will be asked at trial and left humerus. The fracture is located approximately
will be of significant value during a plea nego- one-third of the way from the shoulder joint to the
tiation. Pain has been described as mild, mod- elbow joint. This is a transverse, comminuted,
erate, and severe [36]. This classification is compound fracture of the left humerus. Radiographs
most appropriate in a live animal in which show that there are fracture lines that extend from
there behavior interpreted as pain can be the main part of the fracture toward the shoulder
observed, and a pain assessment tool such as joint and toward the elbow joint. These fracture
the Glasgow composite pain scale can be used lines are parallel to the long axis of the bone.
[37]. In a deceased animal, it is certainly pos- There is extensive soft tissue swelling that
sible to comment that a particular injury extends almost the entire length of the upper leg
caused moderate to severe pain and/or chronic from the shoulder joint to the elbow joint
pain (see Table 5.1). (Fig. 5.36). There is a 1-cm-diameter wound in
the middle of the swollen soft tissue. There is a
skin wound located on the craniolateral surface
5.36 W
hen Did a Traumatic Injury of the upper left leg. Delilah is unable to bear
Occur Relative weight on the leg. She is in excruciating pain and
to the Animal’s Death? resents any manipulation of the leg.
Terminology This fracture represents a catastrophic failure
of the left humerus. This is a blunt force trauma
Traumatic events can be described as occurring injury that resulted from a very high-energy
antemortem, perimortem, and postmortem. impact. The comminution (bone in pieces) of the
Antemortem trauma occurs before death. It is fracture site with fracture lines extending toward
recognized by active healing of injured tissue, the should joint and elbow joint is evidence of an
associated hemorrhage, and the presence of impact equivalent to that expected from a motor
hemosiderin. Perimortem indicates an event vehicle accident or a high-rise fall from a window
occurred around the time of death. There is no or roof. The extensive soft tissue trauma is also
tissue healing or hemosiderin present. The evidence of a very high-energy impact. This injury
implication is that perimortem traumatic inju- is not consistent with an impact from a 6–7 lb.
ries are directly associated with the manner of object that fell 5 ft. (see following calculations).
death or the handling of the remains. Postmortem Considering how a dog lies on the floor, an
fractures occur after death and are usually con- object falling from above would not strike the
sidered to be associated with taphonomic pro- upper leg in a way to cause such significant dam-
cesses [38]. age. When a dog lies down, the upper leg is in an
92 R. Reisman
Fig. 5.36 and 5.37 Delilah’s left front leg with a severe skin wound and swelling and a radiograph of the comminuted
fracture
almost vertical position with the elbow and the Typically, three steps are involved:
lower leg resting on the ground. A dog does not
lie down with the entire leg extended. 1. Calculate the velocity of a falling object:
This is a large very heavily muscled dog. The • Multiply the height of where the object is
muscle of the upper leg provides a cushion and pro- dropped by the pull of gravity (the pull of
tection of the humerus bone. A blunt force impact of gravity on earth is 9.8 m/s).
the upper leg results in the transmission of energy • Multiply this ×2.
that is absorbed and dissipated by the muscle as • Then take the square root of this number.
well as the bone. An application of blunt force to the 2. Find the kinetic energy before impact:
upper leg that causes such a catastrophic failure of • Square the velocity.
the bone must overwhelm the protection provided • Multiply the squared velocity times the
to the bone by the upper leg muscles. A 6 lb., 10 oz. mass of the object.
object falling approximately 5 ft. would not result in • ×1/2.
an impact with this amount of energy. 3. Find the force of the impact:
Finally, this is a large dog and the humerus is a • Divide the kinetic energy before impact by
large strong bone. Causing this degree of damage to the distance the object travels during the
this bone would require a very high-energy impact. impact.
Calculating the force of a falling object
(protocol for calculation provided by Dr. Vincent 1 m = 39.3700787 in.
Tranchida, Forensic Pathologist, Office of Chief 1 m = 3.2800399 ft.
Medical Examiner New York, NY). For calculat- Convert lb. to kg and inches and feet to
ing the force of a falling object, you need: meters.
1 . The mass of the object 5 ft. = x m x/5 = 1/3.2800399 x = 5/3.2800399 x = 1.52 m
2. The height of the drop 1 in. = x m x/1 = 1/39.3700787 x = 0.0254 m
3. The depth of the impact
5.37.1 Case Example (CR 4211-11) 9. Tranchida V. Module 14 blunt force trauma. OCME
Death Scene Investigation; 2010.
10. Munro HM, Thrusfield MV. ‘Battered pets’: non-

We have a 6 lb., 10 oz. (or 3 kg) object dropped accidental physical injuries found in dogs and cats.
from a height of 5 ft. (or 1.52 m) that travels J Small Anim Pract. 2001;42:279–90.
through approximately 1 in. of bone (0.025 m)— 11. Intarapanich NP, McCobb EC, Reisman RW, et al.
Estimate of the width of Delilah’s humerus, but Characterization and comparison of injuries caused
by accidental and non-accidental blunt force trauma
you can adjust the number as needed: in dogs and cats. J Forensic Sci. 2016;61:993–9.
12. Whiting WC, Zernicke RF. Biomechanics of mus-
1. Velocity squared = 1.52 × 9.8 m/s × 2 = 29.8 culoskeletal injury. 2nd ed. Champaign: Human
[the square root of 29.8 = velocity (5.46 m/s)] Kinetics; 2008.
13. FH F, Stone DA. Sports injuries: mechanisms, pre-
2. Kinetic energy before impact = velocity vention, treatment. Baltimore: Lippincott Williams &
squared × mass of the object × Wilkins; 1994.
1/2 = (29.8 × 3 × 0.5) = 44.7 14. Dadds MR, Whiting C, Hawes DJ. Associations

3. Force of the impact = kinetic energy/ among cruelty to animals, family conflict, and psy-
chopathic traits in childhood. J Interpers Violence.
distance = 44.7/0.025 = 1788 2006;21:411–29.
15. Kolata RJ, Johnston DE. Motor vehicle accidents

The force of the falling object is about 1788 in urban dogs: a study of 600 cases. J Am Vet Med
Newtons. The force to fracture an adult human Assoc. 1975;167:938–41.
16. Tong LJ. Fracture characteristics to distinguish

humerus is approximately 3500 Newtons. The between accidental injury and non-accidental injury
reported scenario of the traumatic event was not in dogs. Vet J. 2014;199:392–8.
adequate to fracture the Delilah’s humerus. The 17. Munro HM, Thrusfield MV. ‘Battered pets’: features
owner when presented with this information that raise suspicion of non-accidental injury. J Small
Anim Pract. 2001;42:218–26.
changed his story. 18. Kempe CH, Silverman FN, Steele BF, et al. The

battered-child syndrome. JAMA. 1962;181:17–24.
19. Franck H, Franck D, Press CRC. Forensic biomechan-
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Sharp Force Trauma
6
Martha Smith-Blackmore and Nicholas Robinson
6.1 Description, Interpretation, cases, the sharp injury is sustained when the ani-
and Documentation of Sharp mal is impaled on an implement or object.
Force Injuries The force required to inflict sharp injuries and
the effect of such injuries are quite variable. A
The assessment, documentation, and interpre- pointed object with a sharp edge may penetrate
tation of sharp force injuries are essential tasks vital structures with minimal force, while a dull
for the forensic veterinarian or veterinary edge will require much greater forces and may, in
forensic pathologist. For the purposes of this addition, induce minor tissue tearing or even
discussion, the term “veterinary examiner” accompanying blunt trauma. The severity and
will be used to refer to forensic veterinarian lethality of any penetrating injury are related to
and veterinary forensic pathologist when the vicinity of the wound tract to vital organs and
appropriate. The purpose is to assist in estab- large vessels.
lishing how a wound or injury has been caused. When documenting injuries inflicted by sharp
The basic elements of documenting sharp force forces for forensic purposes, it should be done in
injuries are to record the number, location, pat- sufficient detail to permit precise interpretation
tern, direction, length, and depth of the wounds or reconstruction but using enough lay terminol-
and whether or not the injury caused was due ogy that the judicial system can decide the most
to accidental or deliberate causes. appropriate interpretation of the injuries
Sharp force injuries are penetrating injuries described and their relevance to a criminal case
from the mechanical application of a sharp object [1]. The veterinary examiner should not hesitate
to the body of an animal. Sharp injuries may be to express an evidence-based opinion of causality
made by any implement with a sharp or cutting of injury or death and suggest the type of weapon
edge (e.g., knife, scissors, broken glass). In rare that may have been used to inflict a wound based
on training and experience. In criminal cases, the
final rendering of opinion is performed by a judge
M. Smith-Blackmore, DVM (*) or jury.
Forensic Veterinary Investigations, LLC, On the skin surface, the edges of a stab,
Boston, MA, USA incised, or chop wound are referred to as the
e-mail: marthasmithdvm@gmail.com
wound’s margins, and the ends of the wound are
N. Robinson, BVSc, PhD, MACVSc, DACVP called the angles. The length of the wound should
Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts
University, North Grafton, MA, USA
be ascertained using a scale (ruler) or a pair of
e-mail: nrobinson@tufts.edu calipers from angle to angle and recorded in

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67172-7_6
96 M. Smith-Blackmore and N. Robinson
c entimeters or millimeters. The wounds should

be carefully measured and documented with pho-
tography and diagrams before manipulating or
probing the wounds. The width of the wound
should be measured at its widest point. The
amount that the wound gapes depends on the
elasticity of the skin and the orientation of the
wound in relation to the Langer’s lines (also
known as tension or cleavage lines, the lines of
skin tension corresponding to the natural orienta-
tion of collagen fibers in the dermis, generally Fig. 6.1 Multiple stab wounds, numbered
parallel to the orientation of the underlying mus-
cle fibers) [2].
The depth of the wound should be gently The skin, soft tissue, organs, cartilage, and
probed and measured at the deepest point. Care bone are materials with different properties, each
should be used when inserting probes so that no capable of capturing different characteristics of
additional tissue disruption is caused. Insertion sharp instruments. These properties must be con-
of probes should only occur after careful exami- sidered when making estimates of knife orienta-
nation, documentation, and photography of the tion, type of edge (sharp, dull, straight, or
wound. Skin is highly elastic and receives vary- serrated), and shape of the blade [3]. The edge of
ing support from underlying structures. The a cutting instrument may produce smooth, rough-
depth of penetration does not necessarily reflect ened, or irregular margins, depending on the
the length of the weapon. The depth of the wound blade and motion. Sharp blades and a slicing
tract is determined by the elastic recoil of the tis- motion will produce the smoothest margins. The
sues and the portion of the weapon inserted; how- wounds will become progressively rougher with
ever, any amount of the weapon may be inserted, blade dullness and width. Blunt trauma including
not necessarily its entire length. Stab wounds bone fractures may be adjacent to sharp force
may gape and appear shorter than the blade that trauma when there are significant impacts to the
was used to create the wound due to the contrac- knife guard or in cases of the cutting instrument
tion of the skin. being thick and heavy.
The shape of the wound should also be noted A tool mark is any impression, cut, gouge, or
using simple terms, such as linear, triangular, abrasion caused by a tool coming into contact
V-shaped, or crescent-shaped. The position of the with another object [4]. Tool marks may be left
injury should be described in relationship to fixed on tissues. Tool marks are divided into class and
anatomical landmarks and by using anatomical type. Class includes the general design such as a
diagrams and body charts. knife, single edged or double edged and serrated
When documenting multiple sharp force inju- or straight, and the length, width, thickness, spine
ries, it is important to describe every wound, using features, and hilt shape. Because these features
an organizational scheme to keep track of the inju- vary along the length of a blade, the mark or
ries. The wounds can be numbered sequentially, shape of the wound inflicted depends on the angle
beginning with the most cranial wound and work- and depth of penetration. Tool mark type charac-
ing caudally and then down the limbs. The wounds teristics are features limited to a single imple-
can be labeled in permanent marker (e.g., ment such as a blade defect acquired after
Sharpie®, Sanford L.P., Oak Brook, IL) directly manufacture.
on the skin after it has been shaved. When there Because of malleability and compacting proper-
are numerous, similar sharp force injuries within a ties, the cartilage can retain tool marks [3]. When
relatively small area, it is appropriate to describe bone is impacted with sharp trauma, it may conserve
the wounds together as a cluster (Fig. 6.1). tool marks, if the impact is across the grain of the
6 Sharp Force Trauma 97
bone. When the impact runs with the grain of the end of the incised wound is usually the starting
bone, splitting occurs, deforming the mark. Precise end of the wound as the weapon will be with-
understanding of bone conformity to impact and its drawn toward the end of the wound, but that isn’t
interpretation is best made by a forensic physical always the case.
anthropologist. Human forensic pathologists are also It is important to remember that altercations
an invaluable resource as they are exposed on a daily are not static activities, and both the assailant and
basis to lethal injuries; many features of non-acciden- the victim may be moving during the application
tal injury have diagnostic features that are indepen- of an instrument that causes injury. Any relative
dent of the victim’s species [5]. angles and depths of contact between the victim
Photographs should be taken of each injury and the weapon can therefore occur, and over-
site, from an overall perspective, medium dis- interpretation and simplification should be
tance perspective, and close-up, with and with- avoided (Fig. 6.3) [6]. If the cutting instrument
out a scale in the image. The digital image
evidence should be supported by written notes
and hand- drawn sketches. In the absence of a b c d
robust chain of custody protocols, sequential
digital numbering (usually imparted by the cam-
era) adds weight that all photographs are from
the same specimen. The injuries should first be
examined and documented before and again
after shaving the fur coat from the region. The
wound should be photographed gaping and e f g
again with the margins apposed. The angles will
be easier to be appreciated as sharp or blunt
after the margins are apposed.
6.2 Incised Wounds

Fig. 6.2 Mechanism of formation of dovetailed incised
Incised wounds are cuts (“slash” or “gash” wounds: (a–d), the knife is rotated or the victim animal
wounds) inflicted by sharp instruments in which moved against the knife; (e–g), simultaneous course incis-
the cutting edge runs perpendicular or tangen- ing motions; (f), double-dovetail injury inflicted by a
tial to the skin surface cutting through the skin double-edged knife. Source: Dettmeyer, Reinhard, Marcel
A. Verhoff, and Harald SchuÌtz. “9: Pointed, Sharpand,
and deeper anatomical structures (Fig. 6.2). Semi-sharp Force Trauma.” Forensic Medicine:
Incised wounds create a defect that is longer Fundamentals and Perspectives. Heidelberg: Springer,
than its deep. Incisions are usually caused by 2014
sharp cutting implements, usually bladed weap-
ons, such as knives and razors. The margins of
an incisional injury tend to be straight,
unbruised, unabraded, and not inverted and
lacking in tissue bridges. Tissue bridges are
strands of soft tissue (nerves, vessels, and other
soft tissues) that extend across the wound gap
seen in lacerations caused by blunt force trauma;
these structures are typically severed in sharp
force trauma incisions.
If the skin is loose where the blade is drawn Fig. 6.3 Incised wound to the front of the right thigh on a
across it, the incision may be notched. The deeper puppy. Note the “M” shape to the top of the wound
which the external region of hemorrhage is the

only indicator that a stab wound has been
inflicted. Lethal wounds will primarily have
acute tissue damage of the major organs or
structures that were affected, while nonlethal
wounds may have varying degrees of healing. If
a body cavity is penetrated and the wound is
survived, then fibrous adhesions may form
between the area of injury and the viscera of the
subjacent cavity.
Stab wounds to the thorax can cause V-notched
wounds to the ribs, and small particles of bone
can be carried along the wound tract. When the
Fig. 6.4 Stab wound with motion to the medial left head is stabbed, punctures to the skullcap are
elbow. The deepest aspect of this wound is obscured by possible, and brain-heart syndrome may ensue
the dorsal skin flap
with neurogenic shock and subsequent myocar-
dial necrosis (Figs. 6.6 and 6.7).
changes direction or if the animal moves while
being cut, the shape of the wound may reflect
those movements (Fig. 6.4).
a
6.3 Stab Wounds
Stab wounds are cuts inflicted by sharp instru-

ments in which the defect created is deeper than its
long. Stab wounds are caused by sharp or pointed
implements like knives, forks, ice picks, screw-
drivers, or scissors. Where there are multiple stab
wounds with a variety of forces, the impression of
b
the tool may be apparent on soft tissue.
Stab wounds tend to be more dangerous than
slash wounds due to the penetration of body
cavities and deeper, larger blood vessels
(Fig. 6.5). The appearance of the external injury
may not correlate with the seriousness or lethal-
ity of internal damage to vital structures, such as
the heart, liver, or major blood vessels, which
can lead to death, usually from hemorrhage, air
embolism, cardiac tamponade, or tension pneu- Fig. 6.5 Multiple stab wounds, numbered. In this case,
mothorax. If the original injury is survived, the injuries were alleged to have been caused by the
delayed complications from stab wounds such puppy being caught under a fence. The distribution of
injuries is not consistent with that presentation. (a) Small
as peritonitis, pyothorax, or even sepsis may
breed dog with lung tissue herniated out of a stab wound
ensue. The sharper the implement used, the less to the left lateral chest. (b) Herniated small intestines out
tissue disruption will occur, even to the extent to of a stab wound to the right flank
Axes, and other bulky instruments, although

capable of cutting, may cause lacerations because
the injury caused by the size of the instrument
(e.g., axe head) overrides the cutting effect of the
tool. Mixed wounds are common, with some
incised element, and some laceration, bruising,
and swelling, and abrasion also present. Each
element of the injury must be documented.
Microscopically, the soft tissue injury will be
largely reflected by the age of the wound with
more hemorrhage and tissue disruption in the
acute wounds and fibrosis in the chronic wounds.
If the weapon comes in contact with bone, a
strike pattern may result; however, strike patterns
Fig. 6.6 Stab wound to the back of the skull in a small may differ with varying weapon characteristics.
breed dog
A machete creates distinct thin striations and
tends not to fracture the bone, while a heavier
implement such as a meat cleaver will have more
pronounced striation [7, 8].
6.5 Chainsaw Injuries
Chainsaw injuries, while rare, may be encountered

as accidental, intentional, or postmortem injuries
to animals. Chainsaws are hazardous to operate,
and injuries to human operators are caused by
kickback, pushback, and pull-in. Kickback is the
most common and poses the greatest hazard.
Kickback occurs when the rotating chain is
Fig. 6.7 (Heart from a dog in Fig. 6.6) Subendocardial
hemorrhage and acute myocardial necrosis secondary to
stopped suddenly by contact with a more solid
acute brain trauma area throwing the saw rapidly backward toward
the operator [9]. It is conceivable that an operator
using a chainsaw near an animal may cause acci-
6.4 Chop Wounds dental trauma to that animal. Accidental chainsaw
injuries have been described in dogs biting a run-
Edged weapons may produce sharp trauma, blunt ning chainsaw causing cuts to bilateral oral com-
trauma, or a combination of both. Chop (or hack) missures and other oral trauma [10, 11]. Chainsaws
wounds are created with a combination of sharp have been used as a dismemberment tool, and
and blunt force trauma, and the resulting trauma postmortem dismemberment using chainsaws has
is a combination of cutting and crushing. Chop been studied in pigs [12, 13].
wounds may have contused or abraded margins, Chainsaw injuries are complex and involve
and the underlying bones may be fractured. both soft tissue and skeleton [14]. Chainsaw teeth
Machetes, axes, lawn mower blades, and boat produce a characteristic defect given the serrated
propellers are examples of implements that will nature of the blade, causing avulsion with tissue
inflict chop wounds. loss coincident with chain width of 8–10 mm at a
attempted hemostasis with fibrin accumulation.

The severity of the goring and whether vital
organs were involved will determine whether any
of the wounds progress to chronic wounds and
show evidence of blood resorption and healing
(scarring/fibrosis).
6.7 Claw Marks and Bite Wounds
Bite wounds are covered elsewhere in this text;

however, it is important to note that bite
wounds and deep claw marks can result in
Fig. 6.8 Cutting chain of chainsaw showing individual trauma that mimics sharp force injury slash
flat broad vertical and horizontal cutting teeth (Photo
courtesy of Dr. Jason Brooks, Penn State University)
wounds (Fig. 6.9). Animal fights are very
dynamic, and tearing of flesh will occur as the
victim of the bite pulls against the biter and
minimum (Fig. 6.8) [15]. The size of the saw and vice versa. Bite wounds differ from sharp force
type of skin/fur/hide will contribute to the varia- trauma as they tend to be accompanied by sig-
tion of lesion seen. nificant crushing and avulsion injuries.
The characteristic striations created on the Postmortem scavenging may produce artifact
surface of wood as it is cut by a chainsaw can which must be noted to be different from ante-
also be found on bony surfaces cut by a chainsaw mortem wounds.
[12]. The striae pattern of the chainsaw has been
described as having a lack of fineness and an
irregularity to the surface of cut bone. Often only 6.8 Trap Injuries
portions of the tool pattern may be visible on the
initial or terminal aspects of the saw cut. When There are many different types of traps available
an incomplete cut is made into bone with a chain- for a variety of species. Iossa et al. [18] defined
saw, the kerf is described as wide, the floor is flat 34 different pathological outcomes from animal
to convex with a line in the middle, and the kerf encounters with different types of traps. Some
walls are ridged [16]. These characteristics are examples of commonly used traps are box trap,
retained even in cremated remains [13]. body-gripping trap, leghold snare, neck snare,
and various types of leghold traps (Fig. 6.10). If a
6.6 Goring Injuries
Horned animals may inflict goring injuries on

other animals. These injuries can be of various
shapes, sizes, and directions, and they can mimic
sharp or chop injuries with penetration of the
skin, underlying structures, penetration of body
cavities, and accompanying contusions and rarely
fractures [17]. Ventral herniation of subjacent
viscera may occur and is most frequent in the
flank where the muscle is thin. Goring can induce
significant tissue disruption in a number of organs
all of which will produce hemorrhage and Fig. 6.9 Bite wounds mimicking sharp force trauma
a c
Fig. 6.10 Common types of animal traps: (a) Foothold spring trap (closed). (b) Foothold spring trap (open). (c) Neck
snare (Photo courtesy of Dr. Jason Brooks, Penn State University)
trap injury is suspected, it is more likely to be with potential tissue necrosis if the snare is tight
located in a focal area on an extremity or around enough. Leghold traps will induce some local-
the head and neck. Depending on the type of ized tissue disruption with hemorrhage and fibrin
device, injuries can range from minor skin lacer- before necrosis may occur following crushing
ations through to major compound fractures of from the trap jaws.
the appendicular as well as axial skeleton. If an
animal is presented for examination with the trap
in place, then the most difficult part of the inves- 6.9 Bow and Arrow Injuries
tigation is identifying the trap type. If there is no
trap available for examination, then description Broadhead arrows are sharp-edged arrowheads
of the distribution pattern of wound may make used in hunting which will produce sharp trauma.
matching a known trap possible. For example, Arrow injuries differ from gunshot injuries in
there may be focal possibly linear crushing inju- that they lack the cavitation and energy transfer
ries to a distal limb combined with multiple forces that create significant tissue disruption.
puncture wounds that may indicate that an injury Broadhead arrows will slice through skin and
was caused by a leghold trap with curved spring- organs, sometimes in a wound tract that runs
powered jaws containing metal teeth (traps with through and through an animal producing a per-
metal teeth have long been outlawed in the US forating injury.
although some antique or homemade specimens Various bow constructions exist, including
maybe encountered). The microscopic appear- traditional bows (straight or recurve), compound
ance of trap injuries will depend on the location bows, and crossbows. A bow is a flexible arc that
and type of trap; snare-type traps will induce shoots aerodynamic arrow projectiles from the
more skin abrasions and subcutaneous bruising stored energy in a drawn string. The mechanics
of the different designs result in a variation of diameter circular or slit-like lesions which may
bow strength or draw and the resulting kinetic be difficult to differentiate from firearm injuries
energy of the arrow. Arrows may have either con- [19]. The field tip can closely simulate a bullet
ical tips or bladed cutting tips known as wound by causing a circular entrance hole with
broadheads. abraded margins. The injuries inflicted by bows
A traditional bow consists of an arc and a with cutting arrowheads have unusually clean,
string that is drawn back and released manually. radiating incised wounds. The wound shapes
A compound bow has mechanical aids to help inflicted by bladed arrowheads will reflect the
with drawing the bowstring. Usually, these aids shape and array of the cutting blades. Triple- or
are pulleys at the tips of the limbs. A crossbow quadruple-bladed arrowheads will produce stel-
consists of a bow fixed transversely on a stock, late or radial cuts in the same geometry as the
having a trigger mechanism to release the bow- blades causing the wound. The length of the
string and often incorporating or accompanied by wound will vary depending on the angle of entry
a mechanism for bending the bow. All styles of or exit, the fur coat, and the thickness of the skin.
bows may be used for hunting or archery (target The microscopic appearance of the wounds will
sports). depend on the organs through which it passes and
The arrowhead is the projectile point of the the type of edge of the arrowhead. The sharper
arrow. Arrowheads that inflict cutting injuries the arrowhead, the cleaner the cut with the result-
include the fixed and mechanical broadheads ing injury reflecting an incision with localized
(Fig. 6.11). Fixed-blade broadheads will have tissue disruption and hemorrhage for an acute
three or four triangular-shaped blades perma- injury. Variation will occur depending on the type
nently affixed in an open, cutting configuration. of the organ and its response to injury and age of
Mechanical or expanding broadheads will have the wound from fibrosis and scarring in the skin
two or more blades that will expand upon impact. to almost complete healing with little trace of
Conical-tipped arrows (field tips) produce small previous injury in the liver.
Fig. 6.11 Types of

arrowheads: conical
field point (left), fixed
broadhead (center),
mechanical broadhead
(right) (Photo courtesy
of Dr. Jason Brooks,
Penn State University)
When an arrow has passed completely through wound, their presence indicates that the blade
an animal, it can be difficult to differentiate the was inserted to its maximum possible depth;
entry wound from the exit wound. Careful exami- however, as just stated, because of the elasticity
nation of the fur at the wound’s edge can help of skin, subcutaneous tissues, and internal tis-
discern the difference; the cutting edge of the sues, the depth measurement of the wound can
arrowhead slices through the fur and then the still be greater than the blade length. Obviously,
skin and tissues during entry. During exit from it is also possible for a 3-in.-long blade to pene-
the body, the skin is cut from the inside out, evert- trate less than 3 in.
ing the skin edges and resulting in less cut fur at The pathway for each wound should be docu-
the wound edges. mented, taking note of all organs injured, as well
The wound track of the arrow injury will be as the direction of the wound (Fig. 6.12). As
less disrupted than the wound track of a firearm noted earlier, it is common for many pathologists
projectile. This is due to the lower energy trans- to provide three directions for each wound. For
ference and a lack of associated wound cavita- example, a stab wound may have traveled from
tion. Human victims suffering from fatal right to left, from upward, and from front to back.
crossbow injuries can maintain consciousness Another stab wound might have gone from back
and capability of action longer than they would to front, slightly downward, without any signifi-
with similar wound tracks from a firearm. cant right/left deviation. Other veterinary exam-
Depending on the degree of injury and organs iners choose to measure or estimate the angle of
involved, survival times of hours seem to be pos- each wound, in reference to various anatomic
sible, even in cases with severe penetration of the planes. As always, the complete examination
body [19]. should be assess for the presence of natural dis-
The path of the arrow track may help to pro- ease which may be the primary cause of death, a
vide evidence of directionality of the shooter rel- contributing factor, or incidental finding.
ative to the victim; however, the direction of the
arrow may change path within the body. In
humans, it has been demonstrated an arrow may 6.11 Aging of Wounds
change direction during body passage up to as
much as 90° [20]. The aging of wounds requires multiple pieces of
evidence. The time of injury may be quite different
from the time of death, and particular attention
6.10 Internal Examination needs to be paid to both if the correct sequence of
events is to be estimated. Gross evaluation of
On internal examination, the examiner should wounds is the primary means by which wounds
describe the pathway of each sharp force injury. are aged, this coupled with the evaluation of post-
In cases of multiple stab wounds, wounds may mortem interval. Histology is used to confirm or
remain relatively superficial, without penetration refute diagnoses made macroscopically as well as
of body cavities or internal organs. Occasionally, being used as an ancillary method when the gross
multiple wound pathways may arise from a sin- examination does not yield a definitive answer.
gle skin injury. In such instances, it can be The time of death or postmortem interval is a com-
inferred that the weapon was thrust in and out of plicated process that becomes more difficult to
the same site. determine with increasing time postmortem. The
It is entirely possible for a knife with a 3-in.- details are outside the scope of this chapter, but
long blade to produce a wound that is 4 or 5 in. unless the death is witnessed, a detailed and com-
deep. When “hilt mark” injuries surround a stab plex series of assessments are required. The age of
a d
Fig. 6.12 Broadhead arrow wounds in a cat. (a) The Closer view of the wound. (e) Arrow trajectory. (f) Arrow
wound is on the right shoulder. (b) Note cut fur at wound path. (g) Arrowhead shape conserved through the liver
edges. (c) Wound clipped of fur and edges apposed. (d) lobe
the wound can be classified by using categories of reports of fibrin clotting postmortem, but these
inflammation because an inflammatory response are extremely small and usually isolated, and
occurs in an attempt to stem blood flow, close dead with other evidence, the determination of ante- or
space, and ultimately heal the wound. Acute postmortem wound should be able to be
wounds are characterized by tissue disruption and ascertained.
abundant hemorrhage with variable amounts of
fibrin being present for attempted hemostasis.
There may be tissue necrosis depending on the References
wound type, but it should be minimal; these
wounds are typically 0–8 h old. Subacute wounds 1. Stark M. Clinical forensic medicine: a physician’s
guide. London: Humana Press; 2011.
can have hemorrhage, fibrin, tissue disruption, and 2. Irwin D. Tension lines in the skin of the dog. J Small
+/− necrosis with neutrophils appearing with vari- Anim Pract. 1966;7:593–8.
able numbers of macrophages; these wounds are 3. Symes SA, et al. Anthropological and pathological
around 16–36 h old. Chronic wounds can be quite analyses of sharp trauma in autopsy. In: Proceedings
of the 51st Annual Meeting of the American Academy
variable from the wound filling with granulation of Forensic Sciences; 1999.
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plete healing with a residual scar. These can be sic science. Boston: Pearson; 2011. Print.
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sic pathologists in veterinary forensic medicine.
3–7 days and over 2 weeks depending on any Forensic Sci Med Pathol. 2011;7(3):231–2.
residual presence of the acute/subacute process. 6. Knight B, Saukko P. Knight’s Forensic pathology.
Complicating factors to the attempted aging of London: Arnold; 2004.
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Raton: CRC Press; 2001.
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decay of tissues can obscure many of the factors analysis of sharp force trauma in bone and cartilage: a
listed above. A body that has been immersed in validation study. J Forensic Sci. 2013;58(5):1119–26.
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S, Omalu B, Dominick J, Wecht C. Death by chain-
of the blood leech away from the wound making saw: fatal kickback injuries to the neck. J Forensic
it appear to have been postmortem in the case of Sci. 2004;49(2):1–6.
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other evidence not removed by water. ing minimal injury to dog’s mouth after biting chain-
saw; VIN message boards: dentistry folder, Feb 19,
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Firearm Injuries
7
N. Bradley-Siemens, A.I. Brower, and R. Kagan
who engage in forensic casework integrate

7.1 Introduction themselves into a team that can supply the exper-
tise needed. In cases of projectile injury, such
Veterinary forensics is a relatively new disci- teams might include forensically trained veteri-
pline within the forensic sciences. The impor- narians, law enforcement personnel, scene
tance of veterinary pathology to the discipline investigators, and ballistic and toolmark experts.
cannot be overstated, particularly in cases This chapter provides veterinary pathologists
involving projectile injury. Projectile injuries are with a useful projectile injury resource. It
often lethal, or result in euthanasia, and they includes an overview of the ammunition used to
tend to result in litigation. Veterinary patholo- produce gunshot projectile injury in animals.
gists have advanced training in postmortem Ballistics theory, patterns of tissue injury, meth-
examination and access to purpose-built facili- ods to determine and interpret projectile trajec-
ties and specialized equipment, often including tory, recovery and preservation of ballistic
digital radiography and computed tomography. evidence, and additional techniques used in pro-
Access to these resources can be essential in jectile case investigations are also provided.
recovery, interpretation, and preservation of pro- Throughout this chapter the various facets of a
jectile evidence obtained from an animal. While projectile case investigation are related to the role
veterinary pathologists are in the best position to of the veterinary pathologist and relevance to the
conduct forensic postmortem examinations, postmortem examination.
cases involving gunshot wounds typically
require a broad range of additional expertise.
Thus, it is important that veterinary pathologists 7.2 General Considerations
While a projectile injury may be a relatively

The views expressed by the author do not necessarily
represent those of the US Fish and Wildlife Service.
straightforward problem to solve in terms of a med-
ical diagnosis, these cases can be extremely com-
N. Bradley-Siemens, D.V.M., M.N.M. (*) plex and should not be undertaken without a full
A.I. Brower, D.V.M., DACVP
Department of Veterinary Pathology and Population
understanding of the case circumstances and the
Medicine, Midwestern University College of expectations of the submitter. There is currently no
Veterinary Medicine, Diagnostic Pathology Center, minimum standard of documentation to be com-
5725 West Utopia Rd, Glendale, AZ, 85308 USA pleted if the legal status of a case is unknown. In this
e-mail: nbradl@midwestern.edu
chapter, the authors recommend steps that mirror
R. Kagan, D.V.M., DACVP human forensic protocols and suggest that these be
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Forensic
Laboratory, Ashland, OR, 97520 USA
performed for every case involving a projectile
e-mail: nbradl@midwestern.edu injury. First, not all projectile injuries in animals are

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67172-7_7
108 N. Bradley-Siemens et al.
illegal. A shooting must be determined to have been (FADPAC) was developed by Dr. Randall
done without the owner’s permission, beyond the Lockwood of the American Society for the
extent of a legal hunting season, without statutory Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA). It is
protection, or must be the cause of unnecessary suf- intended to evaluate the significance of an indi-
fering before being investigated as a crime [1]. vidual’s involvement in a particular act of animal
Additional federal and/or state laws may come into cruelty as an indicator of dangerousness or possi-
play in wildlife shootings depending on the species ble risk for involvement in future acts of violence
involved, the season, and the location in which the against others [3]. In this assessment, 33 factors
shooting took place. Projectile injuries to animals were established based on threat assessment crite-
may be accidental or intentional, they may involve ria used by the National Center for the Analysis of
complex crime scenes and investigations beyond Violent Crime and on studies of animal cruelty
the injured animal, and the perpetrators can range offenders and habitual violent offenders. The per-
from juveniles to adults. Cases may include public petrator risk assessments consider victim vulner-
endangerment or property damage, and they may ability (small, harmless, or nonthreatening
involve legal or illegal firearms. animals), number of victims, severity of injury
To understand and interpret projectile injuries, inflicted, close proximity to the victim at the time
veterinarians and veterinary pathologists need to of injury, duration of abuse, degree of premedita-
understand wound ballistics, and they need to be tion, risk of exposure when performing the act of
aware that these types of cases may require anal- abuse, past history of positive interactions with an
ysis and documentation of large quantities of evi- animal victim, and documentation of the act
dence in preparation for prosecution. In a through photographs or video recording. The
postmortem examination, the pathologist must be presence of five or more of these factors is consid-
able to distinguish entrance from exit wounds ered cause for concern about future acts [3].
and understand factors that can affect or alter Projectile injury profile features that have been
their appearance. The pathologist may need to reported indicate that shooting incidents almost
assist in the determination of the approximate invariably involve male perpetrators, that animal
distance from which a projectile was fired based shooting from a vehicle typically involves two sus-
on wound examination and should determine the pects (one to operate the vehicle and the other to
trajectory of the wound path into and through the shoot), and that the type of weapon used may
body. Proper collection and preservation of bal- reflect the age of the suspect [3–5]. For example,
listic evidence and assisting with other aspects of preteen and teen shooters are more likely to use
an investigation may also be necessary. Finally, air- or gas-powered weapons that use BB or lead
proper documentation and preparation of a foren- pellet projectiles, and adults are more likely to use
sic report involves an awareness of medicolegal higher-power weapons and shotguns. Data on the
needs and requirements [2]. types of weapons used was presented in a study of
121 projectile injuries treated at Boston’s Angell
Memorial Animal Hospital over an 11-year period.
7.3 Projectile Injury In this study, the vast majority of wounds were
in Companion Animals caused by handguns, with a small distribution of
in the United States cases involving rifles, shotguns, and BB or pellet
guns. Tendencies in weapon type have also been
There is limited data available on the number of reported, with handgun injury predominating in
veterinary forensic projectile cases investigated or urban areas, rifles and shotguns in rural areas, and
prosecuted annually. A national database for entry air- or gas-powered guns (including pellet and BB
of these types of crimes does not currently exist, guns) in suburban areas [6]. Historical and signal-
and profile data on suspects who commit animal ment data reported on dogs with projectile injuries
cruelty using firearms is also scant. A study to in a University of Pennsylvania study indicated
establish the Factors in the Assessment of that the majority are young and sexually intact.
Dangerousness of Perpetrators of Animal Cruelty These included German shepherds (18%), pit bull
7 Firearm Injuries 109
mixes (13%), Rottweilers (13%), Doberman pin- designed to protect target species and regulate
schers (10%), and Mastiffs (2%) [4]. Companion hunting. Applicable federal protections include
animals shot with firearms also tend to be “outside the Migratory Bird Treaty Act, the Endangered
and unsupervised,” with most shootings occurring Species Act, the Marine Mammal Protection
in animals roaming at large [2, 6]. Pet-Abuse.com Act, and the Bald and Golden Eagle Protection
(http://www.pet-abuse.com) is an online resource Act. When investigating wildlife deaths, species
that gathers data on animal cruelty investigations identification becomes important as this often
in the United States. According to this source, in dictates which law has been violated. If the spe-
2013, projectile injuries accounted for over 14% cies is not obvious to the investigator, genetic
of recorded animal cruelty cases, and from 1998 to analysis or consultation with an expert capable
2010, 10.3% of recorded animal cruelty cases of determining taxonomy may be necessary.
involved shootings of companion animals (dogs,
cats, and horses).
7.5 Weapons and Projectiles
7.4 Wildlife Projectile Injury To effectively evaluate projectile injuries, a basic

knowledge of firearms and the ammunition they
Though the principles of case investigation are carry is necessary. There are five categories of
largely the same, wildlife cases have a different small arms: handguns, rifles, shotguns, subma-
focus than domestic animal cases. In wildlife chine guns, and machine guns. Projectile injuries
cases, shooting deaths may be motivated by the in veterinary species are commonly caused by
illegal wildlife trade, poaching, killing of animals handguns, rifles, and shotguns; thus, the follow-
perceived to be nuisances, failure to understand ing discussion will be limited to factors involving
or acquire appropriate permits, and mistaken these types of firearms.
identity (such as confusing a red wolf for a coy- Handguns, rifles, and air rifles typically have
ote). In this respect, the profile differs somewhat rifled barrels. In rifling a barrel, spiral grooves are
from domestic animal cases. cut the length of the inside or bore of the barrel. The
In the United States, wildlife is covered metal left between the grooves is called “the lands”
under a number of federal and state laws [2, 7] (Fig. 7.1a). The purpose of rifling is to cause
Fig. 7.1 (a) Rifling: illustrating lands and grooves that imprint on projectiles (b). Bullet cartridge: labeled segments of
a bullet before being fired
a bullet to rotationally spin along its longitudinal attached to the end of their barrels. These attached
axis, which helps to stabilize a projectile’s flight devices are used to suppress the sound of the
through the air, improving accuracy. While rifling weapon when it is fired. Essentially, the
increases accuracy, it also slows the projectile down suppressor is a metal tube with a series of baffles
by decreasing velocity as the energy of the projec- within it that divert gases/particles expelled from
tile is deviated from a forward direction [7]. the barrel, effectively decreasing the sound
The caliber of a weapon is determined based created when the weapon is fired. This feature
on the diameter of the bore of the weapon mea- can also narrow the spread and minimize the
sured from land to land, so it is the diameter of a amount of gunshot residue leaving the weapon.
barrel before the rifling is cut. Caliber specifica- Suppressors not aligned correctly when attached
tions can be given in inches or as metric units. to the barrel or homemade suppressors can alter
Examples of the former using inches include the the projectile as it leaves the barrel by causing
0.38 special, 0.45 ACP, or a 0.357 Magnum and nicks or indentations. These alterations to the
of the later metric units include 9 × 19 mm projectile are referred to as a “baffle strike” [8].
Parabellum or 5.56 × 45 mm cartridges. A shotgun is fired from the shoulder and the
The speed at which a projectile leaves the barrel barrel is smooth-bored, so no barrel rifling is pres-
of a weapon is called the muzzle velocity. This ent. Shotgun barrel diameter is referred to as
velocity is dependent on the type and caliber of gauge, most commonly either 10, 12, 16, 20, or 28
ammunition, the length of the barrel, the propellant gauge, although other sizes also exist. Gauge
(gunpowder) burn rate, and the gas produced after more accurately refers to shotgun ammunition. A
initial ignition of the primer. Handguns are generally gauge is the weight of a solid metal sphere that fits
considered low-velocity weapons. The most into the barrel of a firearm, and this weight is
common types of handguns currently in use are given as a fraction of a pound, for example, a one-
autoloading pistols (automatics and semiautomatics) twelfth pound ball fits a 12 gauge bore. Shotguns
and revolvers. A pistol has a magazine containing are used for dispersion shots on moving targets at
multiple cartridges. The magazine is placed in the relatively short distances. They can fire multiple
handgrip of the pistol. A revolver has a revolving types of shells (ammunition), including pellets,
cylinder containing multiple chambers, and each buckshot, and slugs. In the United States, the fed-
chamber contains one cartridge. The cylinder eral law mandates a minimum barrel length of
rotates mechanically to align each chamber with the 18 in. (45.7 cm) for shotguns. The barrel of a shot-
barrel and the firing pin. gun may have a device known as a choke that can
A rifle is a type of weapon designed to be fired influence the dispersion of shotgun pellets. This
from the shoulder. Rifles are used for longer can alter interpretation of the range of discharge
distances and have greater precision and accuracy in a shotgun injury [7]. Air- or gas-powered weap-
than handguns. In the United States, rifles are ons range from toys to highly sophisticated pistols
required to have a minimum barrel length of and rifles. An air rifle uses the expanding force of
16 in. (40.6 cm). Rifles are generally considered compressed air or gas to move a projectile down a
to be a high-velocity weapon. There are multiple rifled barrel. An air gun is differentiated from an
types of rifles: hinged or single shot, lever action, air rifle by its smooth-bored barrel. The same pro-
bolt-action, pump-action, and autoloading [7]. jectiles may be used in either type of weapon.
Rifles can either be semiautomatic or automatic.
In a semiauto rifle, the weapon will fire one round
each time the trigger is pulled back. In an auto 7.6 Non-firearm Projectiles
rifle, the weapon will continue to fire rounds as and Other Devices
long as the trigger is pulled back or until the
weapon runs out of ammunition. Arrows are shafted projectiles shot with a drawn
Handguns and rifles can have devices called bow or crossbow. Arrow velocities do not approach
suppressors, commonly referred to as silencers, those of firearms, but hunting arrows are capable
of passing through a large mammal. The main type 7.7 Ammunition

of arrowhead used for hunting large game is the
broadhead tip. Broadhead tips have two to four Ammunition is a combination of a propellant and
razor-sharp blades that may be fixed in position, or projectile developed to achieve specific parame-
designed to swing out on contact with the target ters of distance, target penetration, and wounding
(“mechanical” blades). Other types of arrowheads capacity. To accomplish this, ammunition design
such as field points or blunt points are used for must take into consideration the caliber of the
small game and target shooting. Field-tipped weapon in which it will be used, composition of
arrowheads are conical, whereas blunt points are the projectile, and the amount and burn rate of the
blunt and rounded. They are designed to kill small propellant.
game by “shock” (focused blunt force trauma). A cartridge consists of a cartridge case, a
Judo points have wires extending from the sides of primer, a propellant (gunpowder), and a bullet
the head to facilitate the retrieval of arrows fired (projectile). The cartridge case is usually
into vegetation. composed of some type of metal, commonly
A nail gun is a construction tool that uses brass or steel. The purpose of the cartridge case is
blank cartridges or compressed air to fire a metal to expand and isolate the chamber of the weapon
nail into an object such as wood, concrete, or against a backward escape of gases when the
steel. The caliber range of the blank cartridges is cartridge is fired. The primer is the cartridge
0.22–0.38. The cartridges are loaded with a ignition component, igniting the propellant
quick-burning propellant that can attain pressures (gunpowder) in the cartridge when it is struck by
higher than a firearm. While the nail is intended the firing pin of the firearm. In the United States,
to penetrate the surface into which it is being dis- primer compounds may consist of lead styphnate,
charged, it may ricochet off of a hard surface. barium nitrate, and antimony sulfide. Primers are
Injuries sustained are usually accidental; how- classified as a center fire or a rim fire, with the
ever, nail guns have been used to inflict inten- primer in the center or in the rim of the cartridge
tional injuries on victims [2]. base, respectively. The propellant is the
The captive bolt gun uses compressed air or a gunpowder within the cartridge that is ignited to
blank cartridge ignited by a firing pin. The bolt propel the projectile forward. The bullet
device is usually a 7–12 cm metal rod, which is (projectile) is the segment of the cartridge that
driven out of the barrel of the captive bolt gun exits the barrel of the weapon when it discharges
and then recoils back into the barrel via the use of (Fig. 7.1b).
spring tension. The end of the bolt is circular, Modern bullets generally consist of two cate-
7–12 mm in diameter, with sharpened edges, gories: unjacketed and jacketed. The latter cate-
resulting in a sharp-edged, circular penetration in gory can be further subdivided into full-jacketed
the skin and the bone. This device is designed for and semi-jacketed bullets. There are also a vari-
slaughtering cattle or other large animals, ety of bullet shapes including round nose, wad-
although there have been reported cases of cap- cutter, semi-wadcutter, and hollow-point. Round
tive bolt gun use in companion animals [2, 7]. nose bullets consist of a partially blunt, conical
A bang stick is a pipe-shaped device used to kill shape, and a flat or beveled base. The wadcutter
sharks, large fish, and alligators. The weapon will bullet resembles a cylinder with a base that is
fire when in direct contact with the target/subject. either beveled or hollow. The semi-wadcutter
The bang stick is a metal cylinder acting in the bullet is a truncated cone with a flat surface at the
capacity of a cartridge chamber, with a firing pin tip. At the base of the cone, there is a shoulder lip
device. Most bang sticks use standard handgun the diameter of the bore. The hollow-point bullet
ammunition such as 0.357 Magnum or 0.44 is similar to the semi-wadcutter with a cavity in
Magnum. The force of the bang stick does not the nose portion of the bullet used to enhance
result from the bullet, but from the high-pressure expansion (mushrooming) of the bullet when it
gas that is forced into the target subject [7]. impacts the target (Fig. 7.2). At high velocities,
Fig. 7.2 Fired
projectile: projectile and
semimetal jacket: these
may separate in the body
both may have evidence
of rifling and should be
recovered for evidence
Fig. 7.3 Examples of

plastic-tipped bullets.
Note the range of colors,
which can be used to
determine bullet make
and sometimes caliber
lead bullets may melt or fragment, so jacketing wound tract, whole or in pieces. These plastic
provides a protective metal casing around the tips come in a variety of colors, which can be
bullet. Thus, jacketed bullets may be used in used to identify bullet manufacturer and caliber
higher-velocity weapons. After entry in the body [9], and though small, may stand out during nec-
of an animal, the metal jacketing can separate ropsy due to the coloration. Bullet tips consist of
from the lead bullet. The jacketed segment is a cone and stem that may break into two pieces
essential for ballistics. This portion of the projec- on impact (Fig. 7.3). Air rifle tips are diamond-
tile may retain rifling marks that can be used to shaped (Fig. 7.4).
identify the weapon. Shotgun shells are comprised of a primer in
Some rifle bullets and air rifle pellets are the base, powder, wadding, and shot enclosed in
designed with polymer tips. The purpose of the a cardboard or plastic casing (Fig. 7.5).
polymer tip is to fill the otherwise hollow point, Terminology to describe shells will vary in
stabilizing the projectile in flight but still allow- different parts of the world. In the United States,
ing for mushrooming. The tips tend to fall out on there are three standard sizes of shells based on
impact with the body and may be found along the length, 2¾, 3, and 3½ in., and the most popular
jectiles generally ranging in diameter from 1 to

9 mm. Shotgun pellets in the smaller range are
often called birdshot pellets and range in size
from 0.05 to 0.16 in. (1.3 to 4 mm), also known
as size 12–1 shot using the American shot size
standards. Larger shotgun pellets ranging from
0.24 to 0.36 in. (6.1 to 9.1 mm), or #4 to #000
shot, are commonly known as buckshot.
Shotguns shells may also contain a slug, which
is a solid piece of metal similar to a bullet [7, 8].
Depending on the manufacturer, shotgun shells
may contain pellets of more than one size and/or
shape. Home-loaded shotgun shells could con-
tain any combination of materials.
Air guns or air-/gas-powered guns fire pellets
or BBs. Pellets come in various shapes, including
round nose, pointed, wadcutter, or flat. The most
common pellet has a “wasp waist,” also called
diablo style (Fig. 7.6). BBs are round and resem-
ble large shot pellets. Pellets and BBs are made
from a variety of materials depending on the
brand. Materials include, but are not limited to,
copper, lead, steel, and zinc.
Fig. 7.4 Domestic dog, polymer tip from an air rifle pel-
let retrieved from a wound tract through the abdomen 7.8 The Process of Firing a Gun
The discharge of a firearm is initiated by pulling

the trigger, releasing the firing pin within the
gun. When the pin strikes the primer of the
cartridge case, it ignites, causing a flame. The
flame enters the chamber of the cartridge case,
igniting the powder and producing large
quantities of gas and heat. One gram of
propellant produces 1 L of gas under high
temperature and pressure. The intense heat of
the gas exerts pressure on the projectile and the
sides of the cartridge. The gas pressure on the
Fig. 7.5 Intact and cutaway views of 12 gauge shotgun
base of the projectile propels it down the barrel
shells, birdshot, buckshot, and slug of the weapon. After the bullet exits the barrel, a
burst of flame, gas and unburnt powder, soot,
primer residue, and vaporized metal from the
caliber sizes are 12 (approximately equal to an projectile and cartridge case all follow the
18.5 mm bore diameter), 16 (16.8 mm bore), and projectile. This material is referred to as gunshot
20 (15.7 mm bore). The length of the shell will residue (GSR). In revolvers a similar material
determine the amount of powder, and the volume will emerge from both the cylinder-barrel gap
of shot varies depending on the size and number and the barrel [7]. The GSR may also travel
of shot pellets. Pellets are spherical metallic pro- rearward from a weapon and onto a shooter.
Fig. 7.6 Round and

pointed tipped air rifle
pellets
7.9 allistics and Wounding

B transfer, in combination with weapon type, that
Capacity best predicts the wounding capacity of a projec-
tile [7, 11].
Ballistics is the science of projectile travel. The
flight path of a projectile can be broken down into
three stages: internal ballistics, the path of a pro- 7.10 E
xamination and Necropsy:
jectile within the weapon; external ballistics, the General Considerations
projectile’s flight through the air; and terminal
ballistics, the projectile pathway through an Determination of the cause and manner of death
object. When a projectile enters the body of a vic- in projectile injury cases may be insufficient to
tim, terminal ballistics may also be referred to as address all of the questions these cases raise. In
“wound ballistics” [10]. addition to standard necropsy procedures and
The physics underlying wound ballistics is reporting, the pathologist must provide informa-
partially expressed in the equation: kinetic tion on entry and exit wounds, projectile trajec-
energy = ½ × mass × velocity2. The equation tory, and related forms of tissue injury. The
describes the influences mass and velocity have pathologist must also be aware of external evi-
on the amount of kinetic energy that can be deliv- dence that needs to be collected prior to the post-
ered to tissues by a projectile. When the mass of mortem examination and must, whenever
a projectile is doubled, the kinetic energy is dou- possible, retrieve ballistics evidence. Before
bled; however, if the velocity is doubled, the manipulating the carcass, a plan should be devel-
kinetic energy is quadrupled. In addition to the oped that takes into account the best sequence for
variables described in the kinetic energy equa- gathering evidence. Figure 7.7 provides a sug-
tion, the effects of distance traveled and changes gested stepwise procedure that will address most
in media along the path will influence the capacity case scenarios. Prior to receiving the case, com-
of a projectile to cause tissue damage. Projectile municate with the law enforcement agency crime
velocity changes with the distance traveled before scene investigation (CSI) unit or state crime labo-
contact, affecting the amount of kinetic energy ratory, and be familiar with the types of evidence
transferred to tissue. The resistance of tissues to they can process and how they want evidence
the projectile will also influence the amount of submitted. These units can offer a great deal of
energy delivered. For example, skin provides expertise in evidence handling and collection and
enough resistance that a minimum bullet velocity may be able to provide trained personnel to
of 50–60 m/s is required for penetration. All of obtain and analyze evidence such as GSR. Image
these factors influence the final kinetic energy analysis (see specific examples below) should
transferred to tissues, and it is the kinetic energy also be completed before in-depth physical
1.Contact members of your forensic 2.Receive case and transfer chain of 3.Whole Body Radiographs +/- CT, +/-
expertise team and form a plan custody metal detector
4.External Examination: entrance and

6. Internal evidence collection: see text 5. Necropsy with digital photography:
exit wound examination collection of
for projectile collection and storage Include identification of trajectory and
external evidence (GSR wound
procedures trauma assiciated with projectile
sampling), and digital photography
7. Review preliminary findings with

8. Turn over collected evidence to lead
forensic team. Decide on additional 9. Complete necropsy report and
investigator for storage and transfer
testing cytology, GSR and ballistics submit to lead investigator
chain of custody
analysis, entomology
Fig. 7.7 Case process for forensic pathology projectile injury
manipulation of the body is conducted. ries sustained. Pathway descriptions should be

Manipulation of the body during removal from a kept simple and succinct, listing organs or
body bag or during the course of the external structures involved using anatomically correct

exam should be minimized until the presence and terms, and using the directional terms up, down,
positioning of a projectile are established and left, right, forward, and backwards. In cases with
external evidence has been collected. Investigation multiple projectile wounds, it may be helpful to
teams may check a body with a metal detector number the wound tracts on a diagram.
prior to turning it over to a pathologist, but Additionally, projectile wounds may be num-
pathologists may also consider having this piece bered, beginning in the cranial region of the body
of equipment in their necropsy facility. If a metal working caudally. Identifying each tract in this
detector is to be used, be mindful of metal on the way can help keep things organized in the mind
table or the surface the body is on that may com- of the investigator between the necropsy and
plicate analysis and interpretation. report writing. A good diagram can also be used
Following image analysis, additional planning as a visual aid for trial.
should occur for the recovery of each projectile
and its components, or for identifying a projec-
tile’s path in the event of complete perforation 7.11 Photography
through the body. The pathway (trajectory)
within the body needs to be photographed and A complete set of digital images should be taken
documented. Documentation will describe any starting with photographs of the body as received,
organs or structures involved in the path of the including any packaging or seals. A minimum
projectile and provide measurements of any inju- database of external digital photography should
include full-body right and left lateral images of

sufficient quality that the animal can be identi-
fied. If the body is still in rigor mortis, the photo-
graphs should capture this body position. Images
should also include all external evidence, such as
blood and other fluids on the body, collars and
tags, ropes, chains, leaves, or other environmen-
tal or foreign material that might be trapped in
the fur or received with the body. Closer images
of external lesions and environmental evidence
should also be taken at this time. Photographs
should follow best practices for forensic imaging
(see Chap. 1).
Fig. 7.8 Domestic cat, this radiograph shows both an
end-on and lengthwise view of plastic-tripped air rifle pel-
7.12 Radiology lets. Note the central area of radiolucency visible in the
end-on pellet where the plastic tip is located
In any forensic case, but especially when projec-
tile injury is suspected, whole-body radiographs
prior to postmortem examination are strongly
advised. Therefore, if undertaking forensic pro-
jectile case works, one should either have radio-
graphic equipment available on-site or should
have a working relationship with facility that
does. Radiographic images need to be taken with
a minimum of two views with standard markers
and identification. If the body is received in a
body bag or other packaging, it is recommended
that the first images be taken of the body while
still in the bag to document any superficially
located pellets or bullet fragments that may fall
off of the body during unpackaging and manipu-
lation. Refer to Chap. 1 for imaging and imaging
documentation guidelines.
Radiographs can show the shape and density
characteristics of the projectile, location of the
projectile within the body, and often will better Fig. 7.9 Gray wolf (Canis lupus), this radiograph of the
show bone fractures than gross postmortem thorax shows the classic “lead snowstorm” consistent
with fragmentation of a bullet fired from a high-velocity
examination (Fig. 7.8). Radiographs can also
rifle. The bullet traveled across the body in a ventral to
help to define the trajectory of the projectile dorsal and slightly cranial to caudal direction
within the body. Examination of radiographs
should include identification and localization of
the projectile and any related fragments in the entry and exit wound identification (Fig. 7.9). If a
body. Wound tracts may also be identified based projectile hits a bone, the majority of the bone
on the presence of gas, hemorrhage, bone or fragments will be found between the altered bone
metal opacities. The direction of fragments or and any exit wound, indicating the direction of
beveling of bone in images may help determine travel of the projectile. Radiographs should not
the direction of the projectile and contribute to be used to draw conclusions regarding caliber.
This is considered inaccurate as angle and dis- a specified diameter) untouched and as a whole.
tance from the film can affect measurements Skin and the adjacent underlying soft tissues can
taken from the image. be placed on a piece of cork or Styrofoam to keep
When attempting to retrieve small fragments the shape, size, and anatomical orientation for fur-
obscured by traumatized tissue, fur or feathers, ther analysis. These types of samples can be ana-
taking additional radiographs of the area overlain lyzed using a scanning electron microscope and
by a metal grid (hardware cloth works well) can X-ray spectrometry to determine the quality and
help the investigator localize the fragment. quantity of soot particles, information that can be
used to help determine the range of discharge.
There are several simple techniques used to collect
7.13 Computed Axial evidence during the external examination. When
Tomography powder particles associated with gunshot wounds
are found, they can be scraped into a Post-it® note
Computerized axial tomography (CT) operates and placed in a sealed paper envelope. Entry and
on the same principle as radiography but offers exit wounds should be shaved, and the fur placed
improved full-body scanning and visualization in a cellophane or waxed paper envelope. Clear
for projectile retrieval and fracture description tape can be used to retrieve stippling from the skin
[12]. CT images differ from radiographic images and then placed on a glass slide. Sections of skin
in that the imaging is repeated as the body moves containing contact wounds with soot or stippling
through a rotating beam of radiation. Data from can also be taken at necropsy and either forwarded
all angles around the body, equal to hundreds of to a ballistics expert or photographed, sampled for
individual X-rays, are then compiled through residue, and fixed in formalin [2, 14].
computer software to form images that are con-
structed as slices. Because the slices of the object
are taken in sequence as the object is moved 7.15 N
ecropsy Findings: Wound
through the rotating beam, the compilation can Analysis
create a 3-D view of the entire body. CT imaging
is a rapid and increasingly affordable technology Necropsy findings may be straightforward, as in
that allows postmortem examination without dis- the case of a single gunshot wound with a retained
turbing anatomical structures. While CT imaging projectile, or they may be more complex. Multiple
has similar soft tissue limitations to radiography, gunshot wounds and/or projectiles (such as shot-
it greatly improves three-dimensional localiza- gun pellets), through-and-through wounds with
tion of projectiles and projectile paths prior to little to no projectile fragmentation, and the gen-
necropsy [13]. In general, digital imaging is con- eration of secondary projectiles from bone frag-
ducive to storage and use of images for legal pro- ments can all complicate analysis.
ceedings, and the comprehensive nature of CT Projectile injury needs to be differentiated
scans offers in-depth, full-body medicolegal doc- from other forms of trauma, including wounds
umentation of trauma that is superior to standard from captive bolt stunners, motor vehicles, ani-
radiography. mal bites, and lacerations. Whole-body radio-
graphs will be one of the best ways to diagnose
gunshot injury, but determination of wound char-
7.14 Collecting External Evidence acteristics is also critical in the assessment of any
projectile injury.
Because protocols may differ between laborato- Determination of entrance and exit wounds
ries, collection of external evidence should be dis- and identification of any intermediary wounds
cussed with the responsible forensic laboratory are necessary early steps when conducting a
before proceeding. Some procedures include exci- complete projectile injury postmortem examina-
sion of the entry wound and surrounding tissue (to tion. This determination is critical for crime
scene recreation and trajectory analysis. Projectile charge of a weapon, in addition to the powder,
wounds may be penetrating or perforating. A soot from the ignition of the powder emerges
penetrating wound occurs when a projectile from the muzzle. The soot is carbon and contains
enters a body and does not exit, in which case the vaporized metals from the primer, projectile, and
projectile may be referred to as a “retained mis- cartridge case. If the muzzle of the barrel is held
sile.” A perforating wound occurs when the pro- close to the body of the animal, soot can be
jectile passes completely through the body or deposited on the animal. These marks are typi-
organ. Additionally, projectile wounds can be cally found on exposed skin; thus, long or dense
considered graze or tangential. A graze wound hair coats may obscure these findings. The
involves the projectile striking the skin at a shal- “flame,” also called the muzzle flash, produced
low angle, causing an abrasion. In a tangential when firing a gun, is composed of superheated
wound, the skin is torn to the level of the subcu- incandescent gases. These gases can cause sear-
taneous tissue [2, 10]. ing of skin or fur around contact and near-contact
Projectiles “punch in” and “explode out” of gunshot entrance wounds. Soot or burned hair
the body, resulting in entrance wounds that are may still be present in these cases, thus it is
classically smaller and tidier than exit wounds
(Fig. 7.10). Entrance wounds are typically round Table 7.1 Characteristics of entry and exit wounds
to ovoid with a thin rim of abrasion (abrasion Entry wound Exit wound
ring) where the projectile pushed into the tissue. Punched-out circular hole, Slit-shaped, stellate,
Fur or feathers may protrude into the wound usually small diameter (may irregular, small, or
(Table 7.1). An abrasion ring is present in most be less than the projectile) large diameter
entrance wounds, no matter the range, and con- Abrasion ring (collar) around Usually no abrasion
periphery ring
sists of a reddish to reddish-brown zone of
Inward indented skin or fur Maybe protruding
abraded skin caused by the heat of the projectile underlying tissue
entering the tissue. GSR (gunshot residue), Usually GSR absent
Depending on how close the shooter was to stippling, or soot dependent
the victims, there may be soot marks, gunpowder, on distance the weapon was
and/or burns at the entry wound. During the dis- fired
a b
Fig. 7.10 (a, b) Gray wolf, comparison of an entrance (a) and exit (b) wound made by a high-velocity rifle. Note the
smaller size and rounder shape of the entrance wound as compared to the larger, more irregular exit wound
a b
Fig. 7.11 (a, b) Sternum from a bald eagle (Haliaeetus well delineated with edges pushed inward (medially). On
leucocephalus), comparison of entrance (a) and exit (b) the exit side, the holes are splintered with fragments
shot pellet wounds. On the side of impact, the holes are pushed outward (laterally)
important to sample hair over projectile wounds mination of the trajectory direction of a projectile
prior to further examination of the entrance (Fig. 7.12). Similar findings are regularly
wound. The size, intensity, and appearance of the encountered in captive bolt gun lesions of
soot pattern and the range at which it occurs will slaughtered cattle.
depend on multiple variables, including range of Irregular entrance wounds can occur if the
fire, type of gunpowder, angle of the muzzle to shot was made with the muzzle of the gun
the target, barrel length of the weapon, weapon contacting the body surface or if the bullet
caliber, type of weapon, and the type of target. ricocheted or passed through a barrier or other
Additional factors influencing the soot pattern intermediate target prior to entering the body.
include weather conditions such as wind, air Intermediary wounds occur when a projectile
pressure, or rainfall. Because most areas of the passes through one part of the body, and then
animals that will be examined are haired, it will reenters another part, causing a reentry wound. In
be necessary to sample hair for powder and soot. perching birds, the folded wing may be an
It will then be necessary to shave the area around intermediate target, resulting in what is essentially
wounds to identify any evidence on the skin. a reentry wound to the body cavity. A reentry
It is relatively common to receive projectile wound normally does not have an abrasion ring
wound cases for which there is no intact entrance which can help differentiate it from an entry
wound in the skin. This may be due to predation, wound. An intermediary wound may also be
postmortem decomposition, or removal of tissue caused by a projectile passing through an object
under some other circumstances. In the absence such as a door, wall or window, before hitting the
of this critical evidence, interpretation of frac- animal’s body. This results in a larger or more
tures in bones, with the aid of previously irregular entry wound due to deformation and/or
described imaging tools, can be very important in tumbling of the projectile. If the intermediary
identifying projectile injury. For example, identi- object fragments it can cause a wider dispersal of
fying beveling of fractured bone edges in the shotgun pellets, thus altering the gunshot range
direction of the projectile’s path (Fig. 7.11) and determination. If one or more fragments become
retention of hair or skin driven into fracture sites embedded in the projectile this may, cause further
by the projectile can be very helpful in directing deformation and loss of stability [2, 7].
an investigation of a poorly preserved carcass. Exit wounds can be of any size and shape;
Funnel-like bone loss caused by a projectile pass- however, they will lack the abrasion ring of the
ing through a flat bone can assist with the deter- entrance wound. Exit wounds typically have jag-
a b
Fig. 7.12 (a, b) Domestic dog skull (frontal bone), com- edges around the entrance as compared to the internally
parison of entrance (a) and exit (b) side of a wound made beveled exit side
by a 0.22 air rifle pellet (cadaver study). Note the smooth
ged margins and a larger diameter than that of the contact wounds, the barrel is in contact with the
entrance wound (Fig. 7.10). Low velocity projec- skin but held lightly against the skin. Any gas
tiles can cause a slit-like exit wound resembling a preceding the projectile pushes the skin inward,
stab wound. Exit and intermediary wounds are creating a gap between the skin and the end of the
unlike entrance wounds in that their appearance barrel allowing the gas to escape. Soot is depos-
will be less dependent on the size of the projec- ited in a zone around the entrance. Angled-
tile, and their surface will hold less or none of the
contact wounds occur when the barrel is placed at
evidence related to the firing of the weapon. A an acute angle to the skin; the circumference of
summary of the features of entry and exit wounds the end of the barrel (muzzle) is not in complete
is provided in Table 7.1. contact with the skin. Gas and soot radiate out-
ward from the muzzle where contact is not com-
plete. This causes an eccentric pattern of soot
7.16 Distance with two zones. The inner zone, most distin-
guishable, is a blackened seared area of the skin
Projectile wounds can be classified as contact, or fur having a pear, circular, or oval shape. The
near contact, intermediate, or distant/indetermi- larger outside zone is shaped like a fan of light
nate, based on the distance from which they were gray soot. All or the majority of the inner zone
fired. Contact wounds are caused by placing the will be on the opposite side of the wound from
end of the muzzle in direct contact with the skin the muzzle, pointing in the direction the gun was
at the time a gun is fired. These may be further fired. Incomplete-contact wounds are similar to
subclassified as hard, loose, angled, or incom- angled-contact wounds. The muzzle of the gun is
plete contact wounds. In hard-contact wounds, in contact with the skin; however, the surface of
the barrel is pushed hard against the skin, so that the body may not be completely flat, causing a
the skin rises up around the end of the barrel. The space between the end of the barrel and the skin.
edges of the wound are seared by the hot gases Soot and gas escape from this space causing an
exiting the barrel. In this type of wound, soot is area of seared skin or fur [7].
forced into the skin. In skin areas supported by As a weapon moves from contact to varying
bone, a separation of the skin from the subcutis distances away from a target, the deposition of
may occur forming a “soot cavity.” In loose- soot or powder residue will change, but accurate
interpretation of these differences may require based on tissue beveling and angle of an abrasion
additional analysis using scanning electron ring or soot marks.
microscopy or spectrometry or other techniques. At ranges greater than intermediate range, nei-
A ballistics expert will consider the appearance ther soot nor powder tattooing is present near the
of an entrance wound in light of known varia- entrance wound, and the only marks are those
tions in types of weapons and ammunition, and produced by the projectile perforating the skin.
may also need to test fire a specific weapon to Wounds inflicted from these longer ranges may
determine the distance from which a weapon be referred to as distance-range wounds or, more
was fired. recently, as “indeterminate range.”
Near-contact wounds are created when the With shotgun wounds, as the muzzle-to-
firearm is not in contact with the skin but is held animal separation distance increases, the diame-
a very short distance away. The distance is so ter of the pellet pattern will increase. At extreme
small that most of the particles escaping cannot distances, 41–100 m, pellets separate creating
disperse and they mark the skin. In near-contact individual injuries or striking surrounding inani-
wounds, the entrance wound is surrounded by a mate objects. If the angle of a shotgun discharge
zone of powder soot covering seared and black- is perpendicular to the body, the pellet pattern is
ened skin or fur, lacking muzzle imprint. The usually circular, while an angled discharge will
zone of searing is larger than that observed in a cause an eccentric pattern. In both instances, the
loose-contact wound. The soot is embedded in diameter of the pattern is range dependent [7, 8].
the skin of the seared zone. In near-contact angled
wounds, soot radiates outward from the end of
the barrel creating two zones similar to angled- 7.17 E
xamination of the
contact wounds. In a near-contact angled wound, Wound Tract
the majority of the blackened seared zone is on
the same side of the barrel pointing toward the There are two main mechanisms by which projec-
weapon. The direction of fire is in the direction tiles damage tissue: laceration and/or crushing from
opposite of the searing. direct contact with the projectile or projectile frag-
The transition from near-contact to ment and cavitation. By the first mechanism, tissue
intermediate- distance wounds is subtle. damage results from physical contact with the pro-
Intermediate-range wounds occur when the muz- jectile or fragments and occurs directly along the
zle of the weapon is held at a distance away from wound path. Cavitation results from the transfer of
the body when fired yet is close enough that the kinetic energy along the path of the projectile. This
powder grains discharged with the projectile energy transfer forms a larger temporary wound
cause “powder tattooing or stippling” of the skin. cavity by outward expansion with stretching and
Powder tattooing involves both embedding of tearing of tissue along the trajectory. Pulsating
gunpowder particles in the skin and hemorrhage. collapse of the temporary cavity results in the
The hemorrhage associated with tattooing formation of a permanent cavity that, depending on
appears as numerous reddish-brown to orange- the elasticity of the tissue involved, may be
red punctate lesions surrounding an entry wound. considerably wider than the projectile. Projectile
The distribution around the wound is either sym- velocity has the greatest influence on the cavity
metrical or eccentric depending on the angle that formed, but the varying ability or tendency of a
the gun was fired. Powder tattooing is an ante- given projectile to fragment, or to partially or
mortem event, thus its presence indicates that an completely flatten (mushroom) on impact, in
animal was alive when it was shot. The distance combination with caliber and the presence and
for an intermediate range wound from a handgun design of an outer jacket, also significantly affect
is generally greater than 1.0 cm and can be over wound capacity [15, 16].
1.0 m depending on the weapon fired [7]. These When projectiles have passed completely
wounds can assist in determining direction of fire through the body or have been fragmented, the
a b
Fig. 7.13 (a, b) Ribcage from a gray wolf with a high- wound tract resulting from the high-velocity firearm as
velocity rifle wound (a) and a domestic cat with a low- compared to the small holes caused by the air rifle
velocity (air rifle) wound (b). Note the large, cavernous
character of the permanent wound tract can still If a projectile hits the skull, intracranial
be used to determine the general type of weapon increase of pressure may contribute to concentric
involved. High velocity gunshot, due to the fractures that form a target-shaped arrangement
amount of kinetic energy involved and of fracture lines. When a bullet makes contact
fragmentation of the bullet, tends to result in with bone, there are deceleration, deformation,
larger paths of destruction. Comminuted bone and potential fragmentation or tumbling effects
fractures and/or pulpifaction of soft tissues along on the projectile and the bone. Bone fragments
the bullet path are suggestive of a high-velocity can act as additional projectiles and can
firearm such as a rifle. Conversely, damage influence the direction and range of the original
limited directly along the path of the projectile is projectile [7, 15]. The nature of the tissue also
more consistent with low-velocity weapons such influences drag on the projectile’s terminal
as handguns, air rifles, and arrows (Fig. 7.13). A ballistics, altering the velocity it travels through
notable exception is a shotgun fired at close the tissue. While the shape of the frontal surface
range, which creates a wide swath of damage of a projectile largely determines the size of the
due to the impact of the dense group of shot cavity, current measurement techniques are too
pellets. variable to allow postmortem caliber derivation
Tissue characteristics influence the degree of [7]. Advances in the use and evaluation of
damage a projectile causes. Thicker soft tissue, computed tomography to characterize cavity
such as the liver and brain, and dense rigid tissue dimensions have the potential to improve
such as bone offer greater resistance, increasing measurement accuracy such that cavity
the energy transfer. Elastic tissues that can dimension measurement may contribute data
deform on impact, such as the lung or muscle, are useful for weapon and projectile identification
more resistant to damage, particularly that caused in the future [17].
by cavitation. Therefore, tissue such as the intes- Histopathology of gunshot cases is useful to
tine may display only contusions, whereas organs identify or rule out complicating factors such as
such as the liver may be severely lacerated [11, disease but is of little value in diagnosis of the
15]. Bone fractures are further dependent on the actual gunshot injury. At this time, histologic
type of bone and the angle of impact. The cancel- evaluation for the purposes of determining range
lous bone is softer, enhancing its ability to absorb of fire or trajectory is not recommended. Soot
energy, resulting in less fragmentation. The corti- and gunpowder may be visible on H&E-stained
cal bone, due to its greater density, tends to frac- sections of the wound, but findings are not spe-
ture and fragment. cific and other wound tract debris may appear
similar [18]. The actual wounds are to differentiate from other low-velocity projec-
microscopically consistent with mechanical tiles [21]. The absence of metal in the wound
thermal injury but, again, are not specific. tract is suggestive of arrow injury; however, a
Embolization, particularly of shot pellets and through-and-through bullet wound could not be
other small projectiles, can cause death in the ruled out. Chemical spot tests of the wound sur-
absence of an otherwise fatal wound. Emboli of face have reportedly been a helpful diagnostic
bone or soft tissue may also be noted on aid as would other residue tests that test for the
histologic examination. presence of GSR and metal material present in
If the victim survives the initial injury, only to ammunition on the surface in question [22]. If an
succumb later to secondary infection or debilita- animal is presented with an arrow present in the
tion, the cause of death is the underlying (also wound, the investigator should not assume that
known as proximate) injury. In cases where the the cause of death was an arrow wound. A thor-
animal is received injured with no history, radio- ough necropsy is still warranted as perpetrators
graphic evidence of metal fragments can be claiming legal harvest of game during arrow sea-
invaluable in determining the underlying cause of son may place an arrow in a gunshot wound to
the wounds. obfuscate.
Lead poisoning secondary to retention of lead
fragments or shot pellets has not been demon-
strated in wildlife [19, 20]. Ingestion of shot pel- 7.19 Angles and Trajectories
lets licked off of superficial injuries (or
conceivably from another nonfatal shot to the Defining a projectile path or trajectory is a criti-
stomach) could potentially cause lead toxicity. cal component in the reconstruction of crime
scenes. Trajectories can give information on the
location of the shooter, including distance from
7.18 C
omparison of Gunshot the victim, identify intermediate objects in the
and Arrow Wounds path, aid in the interpretation of the order of shots
fired, and help to determine the weapon and
Broadhead arrows have a classic y-shaped or ammunition used. Trajectory can also be used to
star-shaped entry wound (Fig. 7.14) that may corroborate or refute testimony provided by an
only be appreciated by reopposing the skin assailant or witnesses. To establish a trajectory,
edges. Field tips are conical and can be difficult the pathologist must first find the entrance wound
a b
Fig. 7.14 (a, b) Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi), together, revealing the “Y” shape of the arrowhead. In this
entrance wound from a broadhead arrow. (a) is the wound case, a lack of hemorrhage around the wound is due to
as presented. (b) shows the wound with the edges pushed marked decomposition. Photo credit: Rhoda Ralston
or wounds. Measurements of the length and tory. Once a trajectory rod has been placed, and
width of the bullet entrance wound are taken to measurements taken if so desired, a laser can be
establish the degree of the angle of the wound. attached to the rod and the light followed to an
Trajectory rods can help in the visualization area of probability for the origin of the shot.
and characterization of projectile trajectories in Photographic fog can be sprayed over the laser
some cases. Rods must be straight and can be beam to assist in visualizing the light beam and to
made of wood, fiberglass, or plastic. Metal rods improve photographic evidence. Lasers can also
are also available, but they may cause scatter if be mounted on a tripod in the area of probability
being used with CT imaging. The animal can be and shown into transparent trajectory rods to
placed in sternal recumbency or in the position in establish the likely location of the shooter.
which it was found at the crime scene. The rods The trajectory techniques described above can
are meant to simulate the path of the projectile be very helpful, but they are not uniformly appli-
into and potentially through a body. Trajectory cable. Physical proportions, normal range of
rods should be used with caution. If used incor- motion, and differences in locomotion for the
rectly, a rod can manipulate valuable and relevant species under investigation can influence likely
forensic evidence located in the wound canal and paths of trajectory and should also be considered.
may cause an artificial canal. Placement of a tra- Current concepts in trajectory analysis are largely
jectory rod and/or probing of a wound canal drawn from two sources, individual case analysis
should only be done after exploration of the in humans and research studies, many of which
wound canal has taken place with thorough docu- were conducted by the military in pigs and dogs
mentation. In addition, not all entry wounds lend [15, 23]. The studies conducted on dogs are most
themselves to placement of trajectory rods. For applicable to veterinary forensic trajectory analy-
example, entry wounds in bone can be rigid sis, but often the weapons and ammunition used
enough to prevent placement of rods without in these studies are not consistent with that
physically altering the wound, and thus rods encountered in a nonmilitary context [24].
should not be used in these cases. Ballistics data available from human civilian case
Once placed, photographs should be taken studies tends to better represent the types of
from the front, back, left, right, or bottom and weapons and ammunition seen in veterinary
from above the body. These directional photos forensic pathology. While data on projectile tra-
contribute to the development of theories based jectory analysis in veterinary species is limited,
on investigative findings and should be discussed there are some physical commonalities that sup-
with the rest of the forensic team. Additional port extrapolation of data across species. For
techniques used with trajectory rods include the example, during steady motion, there is univer-
addition of a centering piece that can be placed sality to animal patterns and the extent to which
first to ensure that the weight of the trajectory rod anatomical parts bend [25]. For this reason, one
does not alter the angle of the wound. Once should be able to factor in relative proportionality
placed into the centering piece or directly into the and predict rough bending patterns and maxi-
wound, angles can be measured from the rods by mum angles using data across species.
centering a protractor against the middle of the Repeatability and reliability of a technique
entry wound. An angle finder is used to insure the should be considered when producing discover-
protractors’ level, and a plumb line is hung from able evidence in a legal case, and the production
the rod and bullet hole to determine horizontal of trajectory angles may be the most controver-
and vertical angles. There are several types of tra- sial technique introduced in this review. Angles
jectory kits that provide these tools (Kaleidoscope obtained using rods are dependent on positioning
System Fusion Trajectory Kit®, Evi-Paq® of the animal. The exact position of the victim
Trajectory Kit). prior to death is often unknown and can be par-
Lasers can be used in conjunction with rods to ticularly difficult to determine if a projectile pen-
improve the examiner’s understanding of trajec- etrates a victim while the victim is in motion, if
there is evidence of intermediary wounds, or Projectiles are considered evidence; thus, they
fragmentation of the projectile. Additionally, require an intact chain of custody. If a projectile,
angles may be inaccurate or differ depending on or any other evidence obtained during a postmor-
who acquired them. The practicality and rele- tem investigation is given directly to an officer or
vance of the information that could be gained investigator, a date and signature in an evidence
from trajectory rods and angles should be consid- log will maintain this chain. The movement of
ered on a case-by-case basis and in consultation evidence should also be documented in your
with the forensic team. report, including the name and identity number
of the officer or investigator who received the
evidence. While evidence is in the possession of
7.20 The Necropsy Report the pathologist, it must be stored in a secure
location.
The postmortem report should include the number,
appearance, and locations of all entrance and exit
wounds, as well as some description of the path of 7.22 Advanced Techniques
the projectile (trajectory), the injuries produced, in Gunpowder Analysis
and the site of lodgment if a projectile failed to exit
the body. It should also include the description of The main component of modern gunpowder is
any retrieved projectile. Retrieval of all projectile nitrated cellulose. When a weapon is fired, parti-
segments should be done with gloved hands, plas- cles of unburned, partially burnt, and burnt gun-
tic instruments, or forceps with rubber tubing to powder containing nitrite and nitrate compounds
prevent damage of forensic evidence. are expelled from the barrel. With the multiple
textures and colors of animal fur, it can be diffi-
cult to visualize a residue pattern with the naked
7.21 P
rojectiles as Evidence: eye. Using a wavelength of 455 nm or the crime
Collection and Storage scene search (CSS) range (485–530 nm), an
alternative light source can be used to examine
The following are best practices for handling pro- the area around the wound for any adhering par-
jectile evidence. Once a projectile is recovered, it ticles. It is crucial to document any observed pat-
should be examined for the presence of tissue or terns before an area is shaved for examination.
markings. The projectile can be gently cleaned Infrared photography can be beneficial in
for examination and photography and prepared demonstrating the nitric acid present in ammuni-
for cytological analysis by placing it in a test tube tion on the fur of an animal. This may help distin-
with sterile saline. Once the debris has been guish a residue pattern, which can assist in
rinsed off, place it on a surgical towel to dry. The determining the distance from which a projectile
saline from the container can then be forwarded has been fired. Digital cameras can be enhanced
to law enforcement agency CSI personnel for with an infrared lens attachment to facilitate tak-
cytological analysis. Projectile cytology may be ing these types of entrance wound pictures.
necessary if the projectile went through some- Ballistics experts can also use microscopy of fur
thing or someone prior to entry into the animal from entrance wounds to distinguish particles of
under examination [7]. Once cleaned and dried, burned and unburned gunpowder residue, or use
the projectile should be photographed. chemical analysis, called a Griess test, to detect
Identification, date, measurement, police report organic nitrite residue left on hair or other materi-
number, and location of recovery should be als [8, 26].
included in these images. Finally, the projectile Two additional tests may help to identify
should be measured and weighed before storing GSR. A presumptive, rapid test for GSR identifies
in wax paper in a dry match box-type container the presence of nitrocellulose surrounding a gun-
with identifying information. shot entrance wound (Dr. Rachel Touroo, Forensic
Director of ASPCA, University of Florida). This Legal Note The findings and conclusions in this
test uses a spray or a sponge device applied to the chapter are those of the author and do not neces-
area around the suspected entry wound and, if sarily represent the views of the US Fish and
positive, results in an immediate color change. Wildlife Service.
This may be particularly helpful when a projectile
wound is suspected, based on the wounds
observed, but is not supported with radiologic or
physical projectile evidence. If a positive result is
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T. Chronically embedded lead projectiles in wild- residue. Forensic Sci Commun. 2004;6:1–12.
life: a case series investigating the potential for lead 27. Weis C, Brooks JW, Moorehead WK, Ristenbatt

Toxicosis. J Zoo Wildl Med. 2015;46:438–42. RR. Shooting distance estimation using gunshot
21. Hain JR. Fatal arrow wounds. J Forensic Sci.
residue on mammalian pelts. Master’s Thesis. The
1989;34:691–3. Pennsylvania State University; 2017.
Strangulation, Suffocation,
and Asphyxia
8
Beverly J. McEwen
8.1 Introduction accurate data on the frequency of asphyxia-related

deaths in animals reported to police in the National
Asphyxia, derived from anciet Greek “asphuxia,” Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS) [19].
literally translates as “stopping of the pulse,” yet, Deprivation of oxidative respiration results in
since the mid-eighteenth century, the term was cellular injury or death and asphyxia is funda-
transformed to imply a lack of oxygen resulting in mentally an acute lack of sufficient oxygen deliv-
death [1]. In the forensic context, asphyxia refers ery to the brain [2]. Oxygenation of blood
to death by rapid cerebral anoxia or hypoxia due to requires that there is adequate [20, 21]:
accidental or non-accidental causes [2, 3].
Accidental or non-accidental suffocation, strangu- • Environmental oxygen (21% oxygen in air)
lation, and mechanical asphyxia in animals are • Effective ventilation
described in a small number of textbooks [4–7], • Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange across
case reports [8–10], and reviews [3]. In contrast, the alveolar capillaries
there is a plethora of literature on asphyxia in the • Percentage of hemoglobin in an arterial blood
human medical forensic literature in textbooks is occupied by oxygen molecules (SaO2)
[11–16], reviews, case series, and case reports. In • Partial pressure of dissolved oxygen in the
people, the incidence of various types of asphyxial blood (PaO2)
deaths are well documented in registers such as • Hemoglobin concentration and integrity
the Centers for Disease Control (CDC) [17]. At • Delivery of oxygen to tissues
present, the true frequency of deaths in animals • Release of oxygen into the tissues
due to drowning and non-drowning asphyxia is • Utilization of oxygen by cells
not known, although statistics from one website
(pet-abuse.com) indicates they comprise about Mechanisms that interfere with any individual
2.8% of their reported cases of animal cruelty or combinations of the above oxygen uptake,
[18]. In 2016, the Federal Bureau of Investigation transport, or delivery functions, if severe enough,
(FBI) began collecting data on acts of animal cru- will be lethal [20]. Hypoxia indicates reduced
elty that should eventually provide detailed and oxygen and anoxia designates oxygen depletion
[14, 20]. Hypoxemia causes reduced oxygen
delivery to tissues and therefore cellular hypoxia,
B.J. McEwen, DVM, MSc, PhD, DACVP degeneration, and death. Glycolytic energy pro-
Animal Health Laboratory, University of Guelph, duction can occur in hypoxic states, but is abro-
Guelph, ON, Canada, N1G 2W1
e-mail: bmcewen@uoguelph.ca
gated with ischemia as the substrates for

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67172-7_8
130 B.J. McEwen
glycolysis do not reach the tissues [22] and waste 8.2 Classification
products are not removed [23]. and Terminology
In companion animals, an SaO2 of 91–100%
reflects a normal PaO2 of 80–100 mmHg [23, 24]. Asphyxia is a mechanism of death rather than
By definition, hypoxemia is an SaO2 of less than a cause of death [2, 3, 16] although most clas-
95% or a PaO2 of less than 80 mmHg [25]. sifications of asphyxia are structured on the
Serious hypoxemia occurs at an SaO2 less than initial circumstances rather than the mecha-
90%, or a PaO2 less than than 60 mmHg [26, 27]. nism. Different classification schemes of
According to Swann, when the SaO2 concentra- asphyxia abound in medical pathology [11–14,
tion is 12% or less, dogs survive only 2–5 min 30–32] and any scheme may be used, although
[28]. Irreversible cerebral damage occurs in dogs efforts to standardize the classification of
when the arterial oxygen drops below asphyxia are proposed [30, 31]. Figure 8.1
20–23 mmHg and the cerebral blood flow is provides a classification of asphyxia [3] based
below 10 mL/100 g/min [23, 29]. In contrast, upon that proposed by Sauvageau and
equine hemoglobin has a higher affinity for oxy- Boghossian [31] supplemented by associated
gen, so that 90% SaO2 saturation is achieved at a pathophysiologic mechanisms [30, 33] and
PaO2 of only 54 mmHg, indicating that horses are underlying reasons for cerebral anoxia or
more tolerant of low PaO2 values [23, 27]. hypoxia [2, 30, 33].
Suffocation Strangulation Mechanical Asphyxia
Inadequate
environmental Ligature:
oxygen Pressure on the neck Positional asphyxia:
Confined spaces
Vitiated OR by a constricting band Position compromises
atmosphere Displacement of tightened by force ability to breathe
oxygen by other other than the weight
gases of the body
Manual: Traumatic asphyxia:

Failure of cells to External chest or
Chemical Pressure on the neck
uptake or use abdominal compression
asphyxiants by hands, forearms or
oxygen by a heavy object
limbs
preventing respiration
Hanging:
Smothering: Pressure on the neck
Obstruction of air by a constricting band
passages above the tightened by the
epiglottis including weight of the body
mouth, nose, pharynx
Failure of oxygen transport in the
blood
(ischemia)
Choking:
Obstruction of air
passages below Failure to transfer to transfer
the epiglottis adequate environmental oxygen
into the blood
Fig. 8.1 Classification and definition of asphyxia

8 Strangulation, Suffocation, and Asphyxia 131
Table 8.1 Additional descriptive terms for specific gestion, and petechiae are classic tenets of death
trauma associated with asphyxia used in human forensic due to asphyxia [32, 34].
pathology but recommended to avoid in veterinary foren-
sic pathology These five characteristics are now often
referred to as the “obsolescent quintet” [32, 34].
Term Description
Although neither the presence or absence of pete-
Garroting Historically, a form of Spanish
judicial execution ligature chiae can confirm death due to asphyxia, of the
strangulation where a stick, five lesions, petechiae are the most compelling
metal, or similar object is indicator of fatal neck compression [2, 32, 34,
placed under the ligature and 35] because they indicate impaired venous return
twisted
from the head. Compression of neck veins with a
Burking A combination of chest
compression and smothering patent arterial supply ruptures postcapillary
Chokehold Application of pressure to the venules, producing petechial hemorrhages [2, 30,
neck by forearm or other 34–36]. The development of petechiae in fatal
cylindrical object and pulled neck compression depends on the duration, con-
back by the other hand
sistency, and intensity of the force applied to
Carotid sleeper hold Compression of the carotid
arteries with an open airway arteries and veins [3, 14, 32]. Petechiae are most
Throttling Strangulation by hand or commonly seen in the skin, conjunctiva, sclera,
rarely by ligature larynx, and oral mucosa [34, 37–41], but their
Gagging Material fixed over the face or presence is not pathognomonic for strangulation
in the oral cavity to prevent as they can develop with strenuous sneezing,
breathing
coughing, vasculopathies, and clotting disorders
Incaprettamento Ligature strangulation with a
person in a prone position, feet
[14, 20, 35, 42]. Knowing the disposition of the
and wrists are bound together body at the death scene is critical to determining
and then tied to a ligature the significance of petechiae: if an animal was
around the neck found in an inverted position, lividity will result
in congestion and vibices which may mimic ante-
Definitions and descriptions of other terms mortem petechiae [35, 43]. If the arterial supply
relating to asphyxia used in medical forensic is completely occluded, then petechiae will not
pathology are given in Table 8.1, but it is recom- develop as the blood is prevented from entering
mended to avoid many of them in veterinary and the tissues. Therefore, the absence of petechiae
medical [31] forensic pathology as their usage is does not preclude strangulation as a cause of
derived from specific contexts and potentially death if both arterial and venous vascular sup-
creates confusion. plies are obstructed. Tardieu spots are foci of
extravased blood that develop during the peri-
mortem or postmortem period and resemble ante-
8.3 Asphyxia: Traditional mortem petechiae or purpura [35, 43, 44]; the
Misconceptions and Myths term is often used to describe scleral petechiae
and to infer asphyxial death in medical forensic
A number of myths and misconceptions regard- pathology [13, 35]. This phrase should be avoided
ing the mechanisms and lesions of asphyxia in veterinary forensic pathology due to the inac-
propagated in the medical literature need to be curate use in medicine and the implied causal
addressed. inference [3].
Myth 1: Cyanosis, fluidity of the blood, Myth 2: Pulmonary edema is a pathogno-
engorgement of the right ventricle, visceral con- monic feature of asphyxia.
132 B.J. McEwen
Pulmonary edema with or without hemorrhage, accelerates premature death of the heart and
atelectasis, or emphysema is described in animal brain,” are supported in experimental carbon
and human victims of strangulation and suffoca- dioxide-induced asphyxia in rats [61].
tion [20, 28, 45–52] but also occurs with many Bidirectional signals between the heart and brain
other conditions. Some studies propose that pul- intensify as cardiac function deteriorates result-
monary lesions in lungs from people that were ing in autonomic cardiac toxicity. The autonomic
strangled, drowned, aspirated, and/or suffocated or effects are mitigated by removing the effects of
to people dying due to non-asphyxial causes can the sympathetic but not the parasympathetic sys-
be discriminated by morphometric and semiquan- tem [61]. A similar theory of autonomic conflict
titative histological parameters [52, 53]. These between parasympathetic and sympathetic
studies were done on relatively fresh specimens, responses in individuals with predisposing condi-
and for such techniques to be a useful adjunct to tions and immersed in cold water is postulated to
histologic diagnosis of asphyxia in animals, addi- occur in some cases of drowning [62, 63].
tional research and validation are required.
Myth 3: Cardioinhibitory reflex cardiac arrest
and vasovagal inhibition are confirmed mecha- 8.4 Categories of Asphyxia
nisms of death due to asphyxia.
According to Pollanen, vasovagal inhibition 8.4.1 Strangulation
and cardioinhibitory reflex cardiac arrest (CiRCA)
are “probably better viewed as part of the folklore All forms of strangulation cause neck compression
of forensic pathology rather than a robust concept and death may be due to partial or complete vascu-
based on scientific evidence.” [2] Notwithstanding, lar and/or airway obstruction, although the exact
this is still a hotly debated topic in medical foren- mechanism is still not completely understood [60,
sic pathology, as these mechanisms are often 64, 65]. Airway obstruction may occur by direct
invoked especially when anatomic lesions are compression of the trachea or by dorsal displace-
absent [2, 13, 41, 54–58]. Stimulation of the ment of the tongue or epiglottis to the posterior
carotid sinus with activation of a baroreflex and pharynx [58, 66] but death can occur without tra-
subsequent circulatory collapse caused by a blow cheal occlusion in people [31] and dogs [44, 67].
to the neck in people was not confirmed as a sole There is no consensus on the number and types of
cause of death, in a systematic review of cases lesions with strangulation in people [68] as the
[57], nor was it observed in experiments on ani- duration, consistency, and type of applied force,
mals [59]. Clinically significant conditions such the anatomic site of compression, and the struc-
as sympathetic stimulation, drug abuse, or under- tures that are occluded influence the physiologic
lying cardiac disease were present in cases of sus- responses, the time until death, and the lesions
pected CiRCA, save one [57]. Similarly, produced [58, 60, 64, 65]. The difference between
stimulation of the vagus nerve by strangulation or ligature strangulation and hanging is that in hang-
foreign body esophageal occlusion causing bra- ing, the ligature is tightened by the weight of the
dycardia and cardiac asystole was invoked over body and, with ligature strangulation, the con-
120 years ago as a mechanism of death; however, stricting band around the neck is tightened by
it was only hypothesized to occur [60] and lacks force other than the body weight [31]. In hanging,
supporting scientific proof [2, 14]. the body can be suspended, partially suspended, or
There is, however, substantial evidence for not suspended, and, with the head acting as a ful-
significant involvement of the concurrent and crum, the ligature placement and angle of the head
physiologically opposing sympathetic and para- will affect the force needed to partially or totally
sympathetic systems in the pathophysiology of occlude the vessels [58]. This distinction is signifi-
asphyxia. Current theories of autonomic conflict cant in people as most (not all) hangings are sui-
between the sympathetic and parasympathetic cidal or are due to autoerotic asphyxia, whereas
responses, described as a “brainstorm which non-accidental ligature strangulations and all man-
ual strangulations are homicides [14]. Obviously emia than people [3, 69]. Compression of the
in animals, hanging and ligature strangulations carotid arteries in people causes rapid uncon-
will be accidental or intentional. sciousness [12], whereas ligation of both com-
During strangulation the larynx, trachea, jugu- mon carotid arteries in dogs, pigs, goats, and
lar veins, common carotid, and vertebral arteries calves did not produce neurological deficits or
and their branches may be partially or totally even a behavioral change [72]. Dogs will even
occluded [31]. The pressures cited to occlude the survive simultaneous ligation of the common
neck vessels and trachea in people are 2 kg for carotid and vertebral arteries, and cerebral
the jugular veins, 5 kg for the carotid arteries, global ischemia is not produced [73–77] unless
15 kg for the trachea, and 30 kg for the vertebral there is concurrent severe hypotension [75]. For
arteries [14, 49]. These values were established example, permanent brain damage in people
over a 100 years ago on human cadavers [49, 60], occurs within 4 min of total cerebral arterial
and it is not known if they can be applied to living occlusion [35] but takes 8 min in dogs [78].
animals, but the relative pressures required to Even after 6 min of cerebral ischemia, dogs
obstruct the trachea and vessels are likely appli- eventually recovered to full functionality in one
cable. More recent experiments on human cadav- experiment [78].
ers reported that if the ligature knot is placed Early experiments on non-anesthetized ani-
submentally, the pressure required to occlude the mals, while disturbing, provide some indica-
vertebral arteries is 7 kg [58]. Changes in the tion of the reaction of animals to strangulation
pressure applied to the neck by ligature or man- [3, 5, 69]. Tardieu described experiments in
ual strangulation often results in intermittent which dogs died 12–20 min after total suspen-
blood flow to and from the brain, whereas com- sion, whereas a dog partially suspended, with
plete obstruction of the arterial vascular supply is paws able to touch the ground, was relatively
thought to occur with hanging in people [32]. quiet for the first 5 min at which time convul-
Veterinary pathologists must be aware that sions began and were followed by uncon-
anatomic variations in the blood supply to the sciousness at 10 min and death at 28 min [44].
brain in animals affect the degree and duration of Tardieu described a tracheotomized dog that
physiologic responses to various types of survived after 3 h of hanging, further support-
asphyxia, especially strangulation, compared to ing the difference between dogs and humans in
people [3, 69]. Because dogs and cats have abun- their response to hanging [44]. A Mastiff
dant collateral circulation to the brain, complete experimentally strangled with a ligature did
cerebral ischemia with hanging is unlikely [31, not become unconscious until 3.5 min: it was
60], and it is likely for this reason that they passive for the first 55 s, after which is behaved
remain conscious longer and develop cardiac violently, throwing itself against a wall rolling,
arrest later than that described in people. In the defecating, and urinating [44]. In anesthetized
nineteenth century, Tardieu stated that: “la resis- dogs, if the trachea is occluded regardless of
tance des animaux, aux diver genres d’asphyxie vascular compromise, cardiac arrest occurs
est plus grande que celle de l’homme” (i.e., “the within 4–6 min [74, 78–84]. If only the vascu-
resistance of animals to various kinds of asphyxia lar supply is occluded and the trachea is patent,
is greater than that of man”) [44]. cardiac arrest in animals takes up to twice as
In people the brain is supplied by the internal long as with concurrent tracheal obstruction
carotid and vertebral-basilar arterial systems [79, 83].
[70, 71], whereas internal carotid arteries are Pathologists may be asked about the physio-
absent or vestigial in cats and are small in dogs logic, behavioral reactions and suffering or pain
[71]. The numerous extracranial and intracra- that occurs in asphyxiated animals. Physiological
nial anastomoses in dogs and cats create an responses in anesthetized or non-anesthetized
extensive collateral cerebral circulation that animals with experimental occlusion of the cere-
makes them less susceptible to cerebral isch- bral blood supply with or without tracheal
134 B.J. McEwen
o cclusion are available in the literature [74–76, grabbed by the collar and is swung or lifted are
79, 80, 83–85] and are recently reviewed [3, 69]. described in the veterinary literature [5, 7, 9, 40].
It is suggested that the literature on animal wel- Other than the ligature, the most relevant lesion
fare, particularly on breathlessness or “air hun- in ligature strangulation is the ligature mark [92,
ger” in animals, be consulted should such 93]; however, the absence of a ligature mark
questions arise [86, 87]. does not rule out strangulation. The type and
placement of the ligature, the duration of stran-
8.4.1.1 Lesions of Strangulation gulation, and the characteristics of the animal’s
While specific lesions may be characteristic fur will impact the presence and appearance of
of strangulation, none are pathognomonic lesions [5]. If the animal is submitted for nec-
Table 8.2 [3, 5, 6, 9, 37, 40]. Pulmonary edema, ropsy with a ligature, in situ photographs at the
congestion, emphysema, and atelectasis are scene are essential. Transport and handling of
reported, but these lesions are commonly the body prior to the necropsy may displace the
observed in animals dying due to natural causes. ligature, and the postmortem documentation
Congestion of the cervix is reported in a dog due may differ from that described at the scene.
to lividity during vertical suspension of the body Swabs for DNA from the ligature, the oral cav-
[37]. The presence or absence of inflammation ity, and claws of the animal should be taken prior
and hemorrhage in the lungs, trachea, larynx, to its removal. If the ligature cannot be slipped
skin, and eyes should be documented in all cases over the head, then it should be cut, leaving the
of suspected strangulation [3, 5]. Lesions of acute knot intact [13], placed in a paper evidence bag,
respiratory distress syndrome are reported fol- and appropriately sealed. Ligatures can be tow-
lowing strangulation [50, 88, 89] in those animals els, fabric, wire, cords, collars, leashes, ropes,
that do not die immediately. The temporal appear- chains, or other types of material that are used to
ance of the histological lesions in the brain of encircle and constrict the neck. Shaving the neck
animals with ischemic-hypoxic damage are thor- often reveals ligature marks and abrasions that
oughly reviewed by Finnie [90, 91]. were not apparent due to the protective layer of
Reports of intentional and accidental strangu- the animals fur (Figs. 8.2 and 8.3). The ligature
lation including punitive training methods mark should be described as single or multiple,
known as “helicoptering” where the dog is complete or incomplete, and the location on the
neck and relationship to other lesions such as
Table 8.2 Lesions of strangulation described in animals petechiae, congestion, or abrasions should be
Tissues or organs Lesion documented. The entire skin should be reflected
Skin and subcutaneous Ligature mark or furrow
tissue Subcutaneous ligature mark
Contusions, abrasions
Congestion
Petechiae
Muscles of the neck Contusions, hemorrhage,
congestion
Laryngeal-hyoid Laryngeal-hyoid fractures
apparatus
Lungs Congestion, edema,
hemorrhage
Multifocal atelectasis
Emphysema
Lesions of acute respiratory
distress syndrome
Eyes Scleral congestion
Fig. 8.2 Rope ligature around neck indenting the skin.
Conjunctival petechiae Photograph courtesy of Dr. J. DeLay
in all cases of suspected traumatic animal abuse. by hanging, and those hanged following eutha-
The ligature mark may be more clearly visible in nasia, indicating that these lesions are not
the subcutis than on the skin due to compression pathognomonic for an antemortem reaction [94].
of the tissue (Figs. 8.4 and 8.5). Histologically,
flattening of the epidermis and adnexal epithe-
lium is described in ligature mark of rats killed
Fig. 8.3 The ventral neck of the dog shown in Fig. 8.2 Fig. 8.5 The ventral neck of the same cat shown in
following ligature removal and shaving of the skin. The Fig. 8.4. A circumferential discrete dark band caused by
ligature created a deep furrow. Several small abrasions compression by the ligature is evident in the subcutis. The
and a contusion were apparent after shaving the skin. hemorrhage of the ventral neck muscles and mandible is
Photograph courtesy of Dr. J. DeLay due to blunt force trauma
Fig. 8.4 A cat found with a knotted rope ligature

136 B.J. McEwen
Positive immunohistochemical staining of the bones ossify in utero, and the basihyoid and cerato-
skin for proinflammatory cytokines such as hyoid bones ossify 1 and 2 months, respectively,
interleukin-1β may eventually aid in determin- following birth [77]. Considerable variation of the
ing the vitality of the changes at the ligature mineralization of the thyroid and cricoid cartilages
mark and wound age estimation [94]. is reported in dogs [100] occurring as early as
External lesions and internal contusions or hem- 6–12 months of age [77].
orrhage should be examined with reference to the Pressure and release during manual and some
significant anatomic structures of the neck includ- types of ligature strangulation increases the like-
ing the trachea, laryngeal-hyoid apparatus, carotid lihood of petechiae because the arterial blood
arteries, and jugular veins. Detailed examples of supply may be intermittent and the extensive
neck dissection are available in the medical litera- cerebral collateral circulation in dogs and cats
ture [95]. In animals, a layered dissection with likely mitigates complete arterial occlusion with
careful removal of ventral neck muscles, exposing complete venous occlusion [3]. Strangled ani-
the larynx, trachea, carotid arteries, especially the mals may have localized or distant abrasions,
carotid bifurcation, and jugular veins should be contusions or other lesions of blunt force trauma,
attempted in any suspected case of strangula- sexual abuse, and/or projectile wounds ([3, 37,
tion [3]. Intimal tears of carotid arteries are reported 98]). Abrasions, lacerations, or contusions may
with strangulation [41, 66, 96, 97] (Fig. 8.6). be self-inflicted while struggling or may be
Fractures of the laryngeal-hyoid bones and carti- caused by the perpetrator.
lages are reported in animals [9, 10, 37, 39, 98], Vertebral fractures (hangman’s fracture) fre-
and some may have a callus indicating prior injury quently occur with judicial hanging as a result
[98]. Careful palpation, removal, and fixation of of the submental placement of the ligature, sud-
the larynx and proximal trachea en bloc enable den drop, and suspension of the body [101].
additional examination by serial sections of these Vertebral fractures are rare in suicidal hanging
structures [3]. Microscopic hemorrhages and frac- in people unless there are concurrent risk factors
tures may be present in the laryngeal-hyoid appara- such as obesity, degenerative disease of the cer-
tus even if gross lesions are not present [99]. In vical spine, a sudden drop, and complete sus-
dogs, the stylohyoid, thyrohyoid, and epihyoid pension of the body [14, 38]. The frequency of
vertebral fractures in animals that are hanged is
not known.
8.4.1.2 Case Report: Manual

Strangulation [102]1
During a violent domestic dispute, a Cairn/Wire
terrier mixed breed, 13-week-old male dog was
witnessed to be manually strangled and swung
around multiple times. The witness observed the
puppy gasping for breath for “several hours”
before it died. It was buried in a shallow grave
and was exhumed by a law enforcement officer
after 2 days. Fractures, luxations, or sublux-
ations were not present on orthogonal whole
body radiographs. A 2.0 cm partially circumfer-
ential area of pallor on the neck was evident after
the skin was shaved. A 7 × 3 mm laceration was
Fig. 8.6 Three horizontal intimal lacerations of the
carotid artery from a horse that was moved following
death by a wire neck ligature. Histologically, a vital reac- Case material courtesy of Dr. Nancy Bradley-Siemens,
1
tion was not present in the artery Midwestern University

present on the left dorsal aspect of the head. may become saturated with fluid or vomitus and
Irregular contusions were caudal to the left ear become impermeable to air. This not only affects
and left lateral neck at the ramus of the mandi- the ability to breathe, but may also decrease heat
ble. The dorsal lungs were diffusely red and sank dissipation in animals that cannot sweat [24].
in formalin. A small focal wedge shaped area of Obligate nasal breathers such as horses, rabbits,
hemorrhage was present in the ventral caudal and small rodents [103] will suffocate if their
right lung lobe. Histologically, lesions in the nasal cavity is obstructed by foreign objects. One
lungs were moderately severe fibrinosuppurative researcher has postulated that in horses, the bit of
interstitial pneumonia with hyaline membranes a bridle causes nasopharyngeal obstruction and
consistent with acute respiratory distress asphyxia in racehorses by a variety of mecha-
syndrome. nisms; however, this hypothesis has not been
proven and requires additional research [104].
Following experimental obstruction of the tra-
8.4.2 Suffocation chea in anesthetized dogs, cardiac arrest may
occur within 4–6 min [79] but may take as long
8.4.2.1 Obstructive Suffocation as 9–10 min [83]. In one experiment, all dogs
Choking, smothering, inadequate environmental with cardiac arrest could be resuscitated after
oxygen, and chemical asphyxiants are collec- 5 min of obstructive asphyxia, some between 5
tively classified as forms of suffocation [31]. and 10 min, and none after 10 min [105]. In
Obstruction of the air passages above the epiglot- 6–8-month-old anesthetized miniature pigs, car-
tis is smothering, whereas choking is defined as diac arrest occurred between 13 and 20 min
obstruction of air passages below the epiglottis (16.8 ± 1.3 min) following clamping of an endo-
(Fig. 8.1). Diagnosis of accidental obstructive tracheal tube [106].
asphyxia caused by inhalation or swallowing of
objects such as food or toys that lodge in the tra- 8.4.2.2 Nonobstructive Suffocation
chea, in the larynx, or in the proximal esophagus Nonobstructive, nonchemical suffocation may
is straightforward. Animals may have foreign occur with an absolute decrease in environmental
objects inserted into their mouth or oral cavity oxygen, replacement of oxygen by other gases
(Fig. 8.7) or may have their muzzle taped shut. such as carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, or inert
Objects in the oral cavity may obstruct the airway gases such as helium, nitrogen, or argon [107,
or displace the tongue which results in airway 108]. Inert gases, classified as simple asphyxiants
obstruction. Those made of absorbent material displace environmental oxygen resulting in
hypoxia. Chemical asphyxiants such as carbon
monoxide (CO), cyanide (CN), and hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) interfere with oxygen transport in
mitochondria [108]. The physiologic effects of
inhaled simple and chemical asphyxiants, cur-
rently or previously used for euthanasia of ani-
mals, are described in the American Veterinary
Medical Association (AVMA) guidelines for
euthanasia [87].
Nonobstructive Suffocation: Oxygen

Depletion and Vitiated Atmosphere
Experiments to determine the effects of oxygen
depletion on non-anesthetized dogs by breathing
Fig. 8.7 A cloth gag containing many sharp pins inserted
into the oral cavity of a cat. Photograph courtesy of Dr. pure nitrogen [28] gradual oxygen depletion
M. Spinato [109] or rebreathing air with CO2 removed [110]
138 B.J. McEwen
resulted in death within 3.5–4 min, 11–35 min,

and 16–26 min, respectively. Gasping or a ten-
fold increase in respiratory rate was reported in
the dogs breathing pure nitrogen or rebreathing
air [28, 110]. Dogs, however, are less susceptible
to very low oxygen concentrations than people:
dogs develop cardiac arrest between 9 and 21 min
breathing oxygen concentrations less than 2.43%,
whereas people will die in less than a minute if
the oxygen concentration is 2–3% [111]. For
euthanasia, pigs require at least 7 min of expo-
sure to oxygen concentrations less than 2% [87].
Animals confined in airtight spaces will die
due to depletion of environmental oxygen, and
death may be accelerated by hyperthermia and
Fig. 8.8 Cat, thorax. The lungs are diffusely edematous,
heat stroke [3]. In contrast to obstructive multifocally congested and emphysematous. This cat was
asphyxia, cardiac arrest in dogs takes at least placed in a 15-L airtight container and was dead when
twice as long and up to 30 min with nonobstruc- removed after an hour
tive asphyxia by plastic bag suffocation [79] or in
experiments where the inspired oxygen concen- Table 8.3 Calculation for oxygen consumption by a cat
tration is 2.43% [28, 110]. Animals may become entrapped in a 15 L airtight plastic pail [3]
entrapped in airtight containers or may have their Parameter Measurement
heads lodged into cans [8] or cups and, if unable Volume of air 15,000 mL
to extricate themselves, will suffocate. Container air volume displaced by 3000 mL
the cat
Case Report: Death Due to Entrapment Air available in container 12,000 mL
in Confined Space [3] Oxygen available in container 2520 mL
A young, pregnant cat, presumed to be a stray (air = 21% O2)
Weight of cat 4900 g
animal by the person who found it, was trans-
Oxygen consumption, cat [112] 0.44 mL/g/h
ported to an animal shelter by placing it in a
Oxygen consumption/minute by 36 mL/min
15 L airtight plastic container during the 60 min entrapped cat
drive. Upon arrival at the shelter, the cat was Time to consume available oxygen 70 min
dead and rigor mortis had not started to develop.
The animal was received for postmortem the
Carbon Dioxide Toxicity
next day. Externally, the cat’s claws were frayed.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a product of tissue
The lungs were diffusely congested, mildly
metabolism and acts as a simple asphyxiant by
edematous with focally extensive emphysema
replacing environmental oxygen. CO2 is a stable,
of the cranial lobes (Fig. 8.8).
odorless, colorless gas, normally present indoors
Based upon data for oxygen consumption in
at concentrations of less than 0.1% [113]. Toxic
the domestic cat [112], it was determined that the
exposure often occurs in situations where it is
available oxygen would have been depleted
released from combustion, fermentation, putre-
within 70 min (Table 8.3). The calculations do
faction, or dry ice [113], and nonfatal hypercar-
not account for the increased physical exertion,
bia due to malfunction of an anesthetic machine
increase in CO2, and possible increased environ-
is reported in dogs and cats [114]. The mecha-
mental temperature or hyperthermia, all or some
nism of CO2 toxicity is thoroughly reviewed by
of which would have likely decreased the sur-
Guais [113].
vival time.
CO2 is used for intentional euthanasia, and the Table 8.4 Systemic asphyxiants [107, 108]
maximum acceptable concentration of 0.08–3% Asphyxiant Source
depends upon the duration of exposure and rate Azides (sodium azide, Car airbags
of displacement of oxygen [87]. Above 80% CO2, lead azide, hydrazoic Primers
inhalation results in an isoelectric EEG within azide, hydrazoic acid) Shell detonators
30 s and respiratory arrest within 1 min in anes- Broad spectrum biocides
thetized dogs, but it takes 7–8 min to develop car- Carbon monoxide Car exhaust
diac arrest with 80% CO2 compared to 1 min with Propane and butane heaters
100% CO2 [115]. Inhaled CO2 causes respiratory Propane generators
acidosis and is painful due to the formation of Methylene chloride (a paint
stripper that is metabolized
carbonic acid on mucous membranes of the respi- to CO)
ratory tract and conjunctiva [87, 116]. It also Produced when desflurane,
causes breathlessness (air hunger) and induces a enflurane, isoflurane are
fear response due to its effect on the amygdala passed through dry
[87, 117]. If concentrations are gradually absorbents containing a
strong alkali (potassium or
increased during euthanasia, the distress and sodium hydroxide) [119]
aversive behavior may be diminished [87]. Cyanides and cyanogens Hydrogen cyanide
Animals and people will adapt to chronic, low- Seeds of Prunus species
level continuous but not intermittent exposure to (apricots, bitter almonds,
CO2 [113, 116]. choke cherries, peaches)
Laetrile (sold in some health
food stores as vitamin B17)
Chemical Asphyxiants
Industrial solvents
Asphyxiants may be toxic gases, liquids, or sol- (acetonitrile, propionitrile)
ids that can be inhaled, ingested, injected, or per- Fumigants (cyanogen
cutaneously absorbed inhalation [107]. Chemical bromide)
asphyxiants either impair the transport of oxygen Smoke inhalation Fire smoke contains many
by hemoglobin or interferes with oxygen use at toxic products of
combustion: CO, cyanide,
the tissue level by inhibiting cytochrome c oxi- CO2, irritant gases, soot
dase and oxidative phosphorylation (azides, CO, Hydrogen sulfide Decomposition of sulfur-
cyanides, hydrogen sulfide, nitrous oxide [107, containing organic material
118]). Due to their high metabolic rate, the brain (compost pits, manure pits,
and heart are the most frequently affected organs. sewers)
Mixture of household
Most azide toxicity occurs in people as a result of
chemicals and toilet bowl
industrial or laboratory exposure or accidents cleaners
[107] (Table 8.4). Methemoglobin-inducing Prescription and non-
substances prescription drugs
Carbon Monoxide Chemicals (e.g., cocaine,
Carbon monoxide (CO) is an odorless, color- copper sulfate, nitrous
oxide, zinc phosphide etc.)
less gas produced by incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbon fuels such as coal, peat, gasoline,
propane, butane in engines, heaters, or genera- the liver to CO [120]. Smoke inhalation, one of
tors. Other sources of CO include anesthetic the more common sources of CO and cyanide
gases desflurane, enflurane, and isoflurane toxicity in animals, is reviewed in volume 2
when passed through dry absorbents containing Chap. 2 (thermal/electrical injuries).
a strong alkali (potassium or sodium hydrox- CO directly competes with oxygen for hemo-
ide) [119], and inhaled fumes from the paint globin binding sites and has a 200–300 times
stripper, methylene chloride are metabolized in greater affinity for hemoglobin than does oxygen
140 B.J. McEwen
[37, 107, 121]. Because of the rapid uptake with treated, the concentration of oxygen given to
a T ½ of 50 s [122], even low concentrations and patients [127–129]. Experimentally, the variation
brief exposure can produce toxic levels of car- in the half-life of carboxyhemoglobin is likely
boxyhemoglobin. CO binds to a variety of heme due to biological differences and experimental
proteins, platelet heme, myoglobin, and mito- protocols: the half-life of carboxyhemoglobin in
chondrial cytochrome c oxidase, causing toxic dogs was 114 ± 42 min ventilated with air follow-
effects beyond displacing oxygen from binding ing CO exposure [122], whereas in pigs ventilated
hemoglobin by [107, 121, 123]: with 30% oxygen following inhalation of 1% CO
for 10 min, the half-life was 60.5 min ± 4.7 [130].
• Interrupting cellular respiration with produc- Lesions of CO toxicity are due to a combina-
tion of reactive oxygen species (ROS). tion of hypoxia and direct toxic effects, and their
• ROS causes neuronal necrosis and apoptosis. presence may depend upon the survival time of
• Dysfunctional cellular respiration invoking the animal [121, 131]. The cherry red color of
stress induced activation of hypoxia-induc- soft tissues with CO and HCN toxicity must be
ible factor 1α, which results in neurologic or differentiated from freezing or refrigeration arti-
myocardial injury if the CO concentration is fact [34, 37] although it may also be masked by
high. advanced postmortem changes. The cherry red
• Pro-inflammatory effects by promoting color of CO toxicity is stable and may be observed
platelet-
neutrophil aggregation leading to even in early stages of decomposition [41],
neutrophil degranulation and release of whereas it is evanescent with HCN and therefore
myeloperoxidase and proteases. may be absent even in a relatively fresh animal
[3, 37]. Initial lesions following acute exposure
Because of these manifold actions, the car- to CO are non-specific and may include variably
boxyhemoglobin levels may not correlate with intense vascular congestion, perineuronal, and
clinical signs or eventual outcome, [123] and perivascular edema of the cerebral cortex, corpus
unlike other asphyxiants, neurological lesions may striatum, sensory, and visceral efferent centers
be caused without prior unconsciousness. Survival [109]. Specific histologic lesions described with
time with carbon monoxide exposure is time and experimental and accidental CO toxicity in dogs
concentration dependent [87]. Dogs masked with and cats include neuronal necrosis of the palla-
0.6% CO in air died within 20–30 min with dium, substantia nigra, and cerebellum [131–
75–85% carboxyhemoglobin levels in blood 133]. Demyelination, necrosis, and cavitation of
[109]. Following 2 h of inhaling 0.18–0.22% CO the cerebral deep white matter are reported to
in air, dogs convulsed and became unconscious occur experimentally in cats and dogs following
although they did not die until 7–8 h following a period of survival [109]. Myocardial coagula-
exposure [109]. At 1% CO in air, dogs were hyper- tion necrosis is reported in cats [132] and people
pneic at 8 min and died between 16 and 26 min [121]. The distribution of the brain lesions in
[124]. The American Veterinary Medical acute CO toxicity is thought to be related to the
Association recommends concentrations of 4–6% cerebral blood supply, direct cytotoxicity, hypo-
of carbon monoxide for euthanasia of dogs tension, and hypoxia [132–134]. Histological
although there may be vocalization and agitation evidence of smoke inhalation, burns with a vital
prior to unconsciousness [87]. reaction, and laryngeal edema will aid in deter-
Carboxyhemoglobin levels in arterial or mining if the animal was alive prior to the fire.
venous blood are required for a definitive diagno-
sis of CO toxicity and are remarkably stable in Cyanide Toxicity
blood samples stored for weeks or months [125, Cyanide occurs in plants, fertilizers, pesticides,
126]. The half-life of carboxyhemoglobin in rubber, components of common household goods
blood depends upon the duration of exposure, the (plastics, melamine, upholstery), and as sodium
saturation of hemoglobin with CO [127], and, if or potassium salts used in mining and industry
[135]. Hydrogen cyanide (HCN), also known as ([136, 141]). At postmortem, tissues are often
prussic acid, is a colorless gas. Inhalation, inges- cherry red due to oxyhemoglobin; however, this
tion, and contact are the routes of exposure which color dissipates quickly [5]. Pulmonary edema
can be acute, subacute, or chronic [136]. Plant and marked necrosis of the gray matter were
sources of cyanide include cassava, almonds, present in dogs exposed to 143–633 ppm of
wild cherries, pits of peaches, apricots, choke hydrogen cyanide for 2–10 min [141].
cherries, and Sorghum bicolor [137] although
over 300 species of plants may cause acute or Hydrogen Sulfide
chronic cyanogenic glucoside toxicity [136]. Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an asphyxiant and
Livestock exposure is usually by ingestion of mucosal irritant. H2S binds to cytochrome c oxi-
plants containing high levels of cyanogenic glu- dase and inhibits cellular respiration at high con-
cosides, and wildlife in particular may be exposed centrations (>20 μm) [118]. It is a component of
to NaCN which is a by-product of mining [138]. “sewer gas,” produced by fermentation of organic
Chronic exposure to cyanide may cause hypothy- matter [14, 107] and even a small concentration
roidism and cystitis ataxia toxidromes usually in of 1000–2000 ppm (0.1–0.2%) in air can be rap-
livestock [136]. CO and hydrogen cyanide are idly fatal. The rapid incapacitation of victims of
significant chemical asphyxiants among the over H2S toxicity is referred to as “knockdown,” and
400 gases released in fires responsible for acute frequently, those coming to their aid are also rap-
toxic effects [139]. The acute lethal dosage for idly incapacitated [108]. It is a highly toxic gas,
most animals is approximately 2 mg/kg, and cya- that is colorless, heavier than air, and characteris-
nogenic levels of ≥200 ppm in plants are danger- tically smells like rotten eggs. Reports of H2S
ous [136]. Ingested cyanide is detoxified to toxicity in swine [142], poultry [143], and cattle
thiocyanate by rhodanese, a mitochondrial [144] are usually due to exposure to recently agi-
enzyme; however, because dogs have lower rho- tated manure pit gas. Recumbency, convulsions,
danese levels than most other species [135, 136], and rapid death occur [144, 145], although ani-
they are reportedly the species most sensitive to mals that survive may be blind and recumbent
cyanide toxicity [135]. and cattle have ruminal atony [144]. H2S is also a
Cyanide completely disrupts cellular respira- strong irritant of the mucous membranes of the
tion by blocking the transport of electrons from eyes, respiratory tract, and skin [108, 145].
cytochrome oxidase a3 (a subunit of cytochrome In animals dying acutely, lesions are non-specific
c oxidase) to oxygen, preventing the mitochon- including pulmonary hemorrhage, congestion, and
dria from using oxygen and therefore decreases edema [142, 145–147]. In people, gray-green dis-
ATP needed for cellular function [140]. Cells coloration of the viscera and brain [34, 148] are
then switch to anaerobic respiration, resulting in reported [142, 145] with acute toxicity, although
lactic acidosis [122]. The half-life in dogs this could possibly be due in part to the formation of
infused with potassium cyanide in one experi- sulfhemoglobin by bacteria during decomposition
ment was 129 min [122] and may not be detect- [146]. Laminar cortical necrosis of the cerebral cor-
able with toxicological analysis of blood due to tex, gray matter of the cerebellum, and hippocam-
its instability [14]. pus were present in cattle that survived for 2 days
The onset of clinical signs is rapid, usually following exposure [144].
less than half an hour and survival is rarely more
than 2 h [136]. Pathologists must be aware that at Lesions of Suffocation
postmortem, cyanide can be absorbed percutane- With the exception of choking on a large foreign
ously; the gas can be inhaled from stomach con- object, gross and microscopic lesions of nonob-
tents of the animal [37]. Clinical signs reported in structive suffocation are non-specific and vari-
animals include hyperpnea, dyspnea, tachycar- able [3, 12, 14, 37, 149]. The body should be
dia, salivation, muscle fasciculations, defecation, examined for tape or adhesives from tape, fibers,
urination, lacrimation, convulsions, and vomition or other trace evidence that may have been used
142 B.J. McEwen
Table 8.5 Lesions in suffocation are often not specific inhibits venous return to the heart [3]. In animals
[3, 37, 151] traumatic asphyxia may occur if animals are
Tissue or crowded and trampled [37, 152], trapped under
organ Lesion heavy objects, or intentionally by physical vio-
Lungs Emphysema, hemorrhage, congestion lence or in sadistic videos [4, 153, 156].
(Tardieu), edema
For positional asphyxia to occur, three condi-
Acute respiratory distress syndrome
Trachea Possibly foreign material if aspirated or
tions must be met: the position of the body
gagged impedes normal gas exchange, the victim cannot
Soft tissues Cherry red with CO and HCN toxicity move to another position, and other causes of
Possible abrasions, contusions natural or traumatic death are not involved [36,
154]. Animals trapped in a posture obstructing
respiration by producing pressure on the thorax
to smother, muzzle, or choke the animal [3, 37]. or narrowing of the airways will die if they are
If foreign objects are not present externally, there unable to extricate themselves due to the awk-
may be trace evidence in the air passages. ward position, traumatic injury, or prior incapaci-
Histological examination for hemorrhage, isch- tation [3]. Positional asphyxia will also occur in
emia, necrosis, and embedded or aspirated for- an animal hanging from the hind feet in an
eign material is recommended. Abrasions and inverted position, resulting in pressure on the
contusions may occur during restraint of the ani- respiratory tract from the abdominal organs and
mal during obstructive suffocation or may be reduced cerebral circulation [154, 155]. Rabbits
self-inflicted in attempts to escape in obstructive hung by the hindlimbs died within 17–44 h due to
and nonobstructive suffocation. The claws should a combination of impairment of respiration due
be examined for fraying, and swabs should be to thoracic pressure on the diaphragm from
taken if DNA analysis is considered. Sand, soil, abdominal viscera and circulatory failure due to
and gravel in the trachea and nasal cavity indicate subsequent hypoxia [155]. In people, death is
inhalation, but if only present in the oral cavity thought to be due to hypoxia and cardiac failure
then passive transfer of the material following due to cardiac overload [36, 156, 157] and may
death must be considered [3, 37]. take hours to days [14].
Non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema occurs in
dogs with partial, total, or intermittent airway
obstruction [47, 50, 81]. In most cases of suffoca- 8.4.4 L
esions of Mechanical
tion, pulmonary lesions are non-specific and may Asphyxia
be various combinations of emphysema, hemor-
rhage, congestion, and edema [3, 37, 147, 150]. If The history and information from the scene, espe-
death is not immediately fatal and depending cially the position of the animal when found, are
upon the mode of suffocation, pulmonary lesions often required to contextualize the postmortem
of respiratory distress syndrome [3] and neuro- findings [3, 156, 158]. Lesions of positional
logical or myocardial lesions as described may asphyxia may include petechiae, ecchymoses,
also be present [131–133] (Table 8.5). congestion, and edema directly proportional to
the degree of venous obstruction, but may be
absent if there is concurrent arterial occlusion
8.4.3 Mechanical Asphyxia anterior to the heart [36]. Accompanying trau-
matic lesions may be intentional or self-inflicted
Mechanical asphyxia occurs when respiration is during struggling. Masque ecchymotique is a term
physically impeded. Traumatic asphyxia is due to used in medical forensic pathology to describe
external pressure on the chest, whereas positional discoloration of the face, neck, and upper body
or postural asphyxia develops if the animal is in a due to mechanical asphyxia [156], features that
position that inhibits the ability to breathe and may be difficult to see due to the animal’s coat.
The skin should be reflected in order to determine ior to noxious or painful stimuli are addressed in
if ligatures were placed around the hindlimbs in the increasing literature on animal welfare [86,
cases of suspected inversion. Fractures, lacera- 87, 162–164], and several reviews have specifi-
tion, contusions, abrasions, and internal hemor- cally tackled the welfare implications of breath-
rhage may be present in cases of traumatic lessness in animals [86, 163]. How long does it
asphyxia [3], and retinal and tympanic hemor- take to become unconscious and develop respira-
rhages, cerebral edema, pulmonary congestion, tory and cardiac arrest and when does irreversible
and petechiae are described in people [156]. cerebral ischemia occur? People become uncon-
scious during hanging within 8–18 s and develop
irreversible brain damage within 4–6 min [38,
8.5 Summary 64]. While there is no prescriptive answer to
these questions in animals, the peer-reviewed lit-
Despite the plethora of literature available, medi- erature indicates that for some mechanisms of
cal pathologists are frequently in a quandary asphyxia [9, 28, 49, 69], consciousness is main-
regarding the diagnosis of asphyxia-related deaths tained for longer periods and the onset of death is
[34, 41, 43]. Animals and people are similar in often longer than in people.
that death due to the various mechanisms of Experimental data offers some insight into
asphyxia may or may not produce lesions, and, if the pathophysiology of various mechanisms of
present, the lesions are neither sensitive nor spe- asphyxia in animals [3, 70, 165], but does not
cific indicators of asphyxiation [2, 3, 20, 34, 37, provide the veterinary pathologist with sufficient
43]. Nonetheless, the presence and absence of or easily applicable information when con-
lesions should be documented in all forensic nec- fronted with these cases. The paucity of peer-
ropsies: this is the evidence. The interpretation or reviewed literature in veterinary forensic
opinion that the death was due to asphyxia pathology will hopefully be remedied in the
requires definitive and compelling evidence from future by the publication of case series, case
the postmortem, history, death scene, and/or body reports, and registries describing macroscopic
[2, 12, 20, 34, 158–160]. This is clearly evident and microscopic lesions in cases of confirmed
from the case examples of manual strangulation asphyxial deaths.
and suffocation. Unlike medical examiners, vet-
erinary pathologists rarely attend a death scene.
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Index
A hypoxia, 129
Abrasions, 81, 82, 136, 142 mechanical asphyxia, 142–143
Accelerated decomposition, 51 nonobstructive suffocation
Acceleration, 71 carbon dioxide toxicity, 138–139
Accidental injuries (AI), 66–67, 70, 84 carbon monoxide, 139–140
Accumulated degree days (ADD) cat, thorax, 138
PMI, 53 chemical asphyxiants, 139
postmortem changes, 50 cyanide toxicity, 140–141
Acute respiratory distress syndrome, 134 hydrogen sulfide, 141
Algor mortis, 44–45 oxygen consumption, 138
Alternative light source (ALS) oxygen depletion, 137
evidence, 21 vitiated atmosphere, 137–138
forensic necropsy, 33–35 obstructive suffocation, 137
Ammunition oxidative respiration, 129
air guns/air-/gas-powered guns fire pellets, 113 strangulation
air rifle tips, 112, 113 acute respiratory distress syndrome, 134
bullet tips, 112 breathlessness/air hunger, 133–134
cartridge case, 111 congestion, 134
diablo style, 113, 114 experiments, 133
full-jacketed and semi-jacketed bullets, 111 external lesions, 136
hollow-point bullet, 111 extracranial and intracranial
plastic-tipped bullets, 112 anastomoses, 133
primers, 111 intentional and accidental
rifle bullets and air rifle pellets, with polymer strangulation, 134
tips, 112 internal carotid and vertebral-basilar arterial
round and pointed tipped air rifle pellets, 113, 114 systems, 133
round nose bullets, 111 internal contusions, 136
and semimetal jacket, 111, 112 ligature, 132–133
semi-wadcutter bullet, 111 ligature removal and shaving of skin,
shotgun shells, 112, 113 134, 135
unjacketed and jacketed bullets, 111 manual strangulation, 132–133, 136–137
wadcutter bullet, 111 partial/complete vascular and airway
Animal abuse, 2–3 obstruction, 132
Animal crime, see Animal abuse rope ligature, 134, 135
Animal cruelty, see Animal abuse three horizontal intimal lacerations, 136
Animal law, 2 vertebral fractures, 136
Asphyxia traditional misconceptions and myths, 131–132
blood oxygenation, 129 Authentication evidence
classification, 130 chain of custody, 16
definition, 130, 131 container with packing tape and token evidence
descriptions, 131 seal, 16, 17
glycolytic energy production, 129–130 evidence receipt, 16
hypoxemia, 129 packaging, 16

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-67172-7
150 Index
B rib, 86, 87
Bald and Golden Eagle Protection Act, 109 secondary healing, 84
Bang stick, 111 very high-energy, 82, 83
Battered-child syndrome, 71 healing rib fractures, 88, 89
Bench trial, 6 human ligament injury severity, 70
Bending force, 73 injury identification
Bending strength, 78 brain, 75, 77
Biological evidence, 20 gingival laceration, 74–76
Biomechanics lungs, 75, 77
acceleration, 71 right eye, 75, 76
of animal tissue injury, 72 skull, 75, 77
classical mechanics, 71, 72 injury type, 68
external forces, 72 left-side and right-side impacts, 75, 76
internal forces, 72 material science, 71
kinematics, 72 mechanical laws of physics, 71
load, 72 mechanisms of injury, 74–75
mechanical engineering principles, 71–72 motor vehicle accidents skin lesions, 71, 81–82
motion, 71 non-accidental injuries, 66–67, 70, 84
speed, 71 observed injury/injuries, 67–68
velocity, 71 One Health Initiative, 65
Bloated stage, 48 pain, 91
Blunt force trauma perimortem, 91
accidental injuries, 66–67, 70, 84 person(s) behavior/statements raise
age of injuries, 88 suspicions, 67
angular/rotational motion, 72 physical properties of tissues, 71
antemortem, 91 postmortem, 91
bending force, 73 qualitative aspects, 72–73
bilateral femoral head osteotomies, 88, 89 repetitive injuries, 86, 88
bilateral femoral neck fractures, 88, 90 rib fractures, 68, 69
biomechanics shear, 74
acceleration, 71 shearing, 73
of animal tissue injury, 72 with single abdominal contusion, 82, 83
classical mechanics, 71, 72 skull fracture, 68–70
external forces, 72 soft tissue injuries
internal forces, 72 abrasions, 81, 82
kinematics, 72 contusions, 79–80
load, 72 lacerations, 81
mechanical engineering principles, 71–72 soft tissue swelling, 91, 92
motion, 71 standard medical practice, 67
speed, 71 strain, 73
velocity, 71 stress, 74
blood loss (hemorrhage), 84 tensile, 73
blunt object, characteristics of, 77 tissue characteristics
cat’s injuries, 68 animal age, 78
cause of death, 84–86 bending strength, 78
comminuted fracture, 91, 92 compressive strength, 78
compressive, 73 elastic modulus, 78
deformation, 74 material science, 77
with distal right metaphyseal bone ultimate percentage elongation, 78
fracture, 88, 89 ultimate tensile strength, 78
“failure to treat,” 90 wet compact bone, 77–78
falling object, 92–93 tissue dimensions, 71
forensic evaluation, 66 tissue response, 79
fractured left front humerus, 91, 92 torsion, 73
fractures translational/linear motion, 72
cancellous bone, 82 Bolt device, 111
compact or cortical bone, 82 Bow and arrow injuries
high-energy, 82, 83 broadhead arrows, 101, 104
low-energy, 82 compound bow, 102
occipital bone injuries, 83 conical field point, 102
primary healing, 83–84 crossbow, 102
Index 151
fixed broadhead, 102 definition, 43

mechanical/expanding broadheads, 102 due to entrapment, 138
traditional bow, 102 sudden and/or unexpected, 2
triple-or quadruple-bladed arrowheads, 102 suspicious, 2
wound track, 103 time of, 44, 47, 55, 103
Broadhead tips, 111 violent, 2
Decay stage, 48
Decomposition
C accelerated, 51
Chain of custody ADD method, 50
chronological documentation, 5 autolysis, 47
evidence handling, 37–38 degradative effects, 47
sample evidence receipt, 16 five-stage scales, 48–49
Chainsaw injuries, 99–100 independent scoring system, 50
Chop/hack wounds, 99 parallel and simultaneous processes, 47
Circumstantial evidence, 11 putrefaction, 47
Classical mechanics, 71, 72 rate, 50
Claw marks and bite wounds, 100 Reed’s four-stage scale, 48
Clinical forensic medicine, 1 six-stage scale, 48–49
Cognitive biases, 17 TBS method, 50
Compressive strength, 78 Direct evidence, 11
Confirmation bias, 17 Disposition hearing, 7
Contextual bias, 17 Documentation evidence
Contusions, 79–80 cognitive biases, 17
Crime scene confirmation bias, 17
anabolic steroids, 15 contextual bias, 17
critical triage, 13 digital media card, 19
cursory or brief examinations, 13–14 location evidence, 19, 20
deceased animals, 14 L-shaped forensic scale or
documentation, 13 ruler, 18–19
dogfighting investigation, 14, 15 “Master” and “Copy” files, 19
human vs. animal investigation, 13 photographs, 18
identifying, collecting, and preserving evidence, 13 RAW file format, 19
information, 12 sample canine body diagram, 19, 20
intake triage, 14 Dry stage, 48
law enforcement reports, 12, 15
non-animal medical and nonmedical evidence, 14
physical evidence, 10–11 E
reviewing photographs, 12 Elastic modulus, 78
testimonial evidence, 10 Endangered Species Act, 109
Crime scene investigation (CSI), 114 Entomological evidence, 21
Criminal proceedings Entomology, 55–57
bench trial, 6 Evidence
Daubert test, 6 alternative light source, 21
disposition hearing, 7 authentication evidence
Frye test, 6 chain of custody, 10, 16
grand jury, 6 container with packing tape and token evidence
jury trial, 6 seal, 16, 17
preliminary hearing, 6 evidence receipt, 16
redirect, 6 packaging, 16
retrial or post-conviction proceeding, 7 biological, 20
sentencing hearing, 7 circumstantial evidence, 11
voir dire, 6 collection and preservation, 21, 22
Critical triage, 13 container label, 22
crime scene or necropsy
anabolic steroids, 15
D critical triage, 13
Daubert test, 6 cursory or brief examinations, 13–14
Death deceased animals, 14
asphyxial, 129, 131, 143 documentation, 13
cause of, 84 dogfighting investigation, 14, 15
152 Index
Evidence (cont.) gunshot residue, 113

human vs. animal investigation, 13 gunshot vs. arrow wounds, 123
identifying, collecting, and preserving handling projectile evidence, 125
evidence, 13 necropsy report, 125
information, 12 photography, 115–116
intake triage, 14 projectile injury
law enforcement reports, 12, 15 ammunition, 111–114
non-animal medical and nonmedical evidence, 14 bullet cartridge, 109
physical evidence, 10–11 in companion animals, US, 108–109
reviewing photographs, 12 CSI unit/state crime laboratory, 114
testimonial evidence, 10 forensic pathology, 114, 115
definition, 9 handguns, 110
direct evidence, 11 historical and signalment data report, 108
documentation evidence machine guns, 110
cognitive biases, 17 pathway descriptions, 115
confirmation bias, 17 profile features, 108
contextual bias, 17 public endangerment/property
digital media card, 19 damage, 108
location evidence, 19, 20 rifling, 109–110
L-shaped forensic scale or ruler, 18–19 shotguns, 110
“Master” and “Copy” files, 19 submachine guns, 110
photographs, 18 wildlife, 109
RAW file format, 19 radiology, 116–117
sample canine body diagram, 19, 20 wound analysis, 117–120
entomological, 21 wound tract, 121–123
firearm, 21 Foothold spring trap, 100, 101
forensic necropsy, 9 Forensic necropsy, 4–5
fruit of the poisonous tree, 10 alternate light source exam, 33–35
linkage diagram, 9, 10 carcass evaluation, 29
long-and short-term storage matrices, 22–24 computed tomography, 37
Rule 402, 10 core body temperature, 29
Rule 901, 10 decomposed remains, 31
storage areas, 22–23 desiccated carcasses, 31–32
toxicological, 20–21 document identifiers, 28
trace, 21 evidence, 9
Evidence handling evidence handling
chain of custody, 37–38 chain of custody, 37–38
completion process, 41 completion process, 41
premature disposal, 41 premature disposal, 41
trace evidence collection, 38–41 trace evidence collection, 38–41
Expert witness, 5–6 external examination, 27
External ballistics, 114 external wounds, 29
External forces, 72 histopathology, 30–31
initial evaluation, 27, 28
internal examination, 29–30
F magnetic resonance imaging, 37
Factual witness, 5 multiple scoring systems, 29
Family violence, 65 packaging materials, 27, 28
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 3 photography, 35
Field-tipped arrowheads, 111 probe, 29, 30
Firearm evidence, 21 radiographically visible evidence,
Firearm injuries 27, 28
angles and trajectories, 123–125 radiography, 35–37
ballistics and wounding capacity, 114 sample collection, 28
computerized axial tomography, 117 skeletal preparation, 32–34
distance, 120–121 skin visualization/reflection, 29, 30
external evidence collection, 117 species-specific features, 28
in gunpowder analysis, 125–126 Forensic photography, 4
Index 153
Fresh stage, 48 report writing, 5

Frye test, 6 veterinary forensic medicine and pathology, 1–2
videos, 4
Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 109
G Motion, 71
Glycolytic energy production, 129–130 Multiple scoring systems, 29
Goring injuries, 100 Multiple stab wounds, 96, 98–99
Grand jury, 6 Muzzle flash, 118
Gunshot residue (GSR), 113 Muzzle velocity, 110
H N
Human medicolegal system, 1 Nail gun, 111
Hypoxemia, 129 National Incident-Based Reporting System
Hypoxia, 129 (NIBRS), 3
Neck snare, 100, 101
Non-accidental injuries (NAI), 66–67, 70, 84
I Nonobstructive suffocation
Incised wounds, 97–98 carbon dioxide toxicity, 138–139
Indirect evidence, see Circumstantial evidence carbon monoxide, 139–140
Intake triage, 14 cat, thorax, 138
Internal ballistics, 114 chemical asphyxiants, 139
Internal forces, 72 cyanide toxicity, 140–141
Interpersonal violence, 65 hydrogen sulfide, 141
oxygen consumption, 138
oxygen depletion, 137
J vitiated atmosphere, 137–138
Jury trial, 6
O
K Obsolescent quintet, 131
Kinematics, 72 Obstructive Suffocation, 137
L P
Lacerations, 81 Physical evidence
Livor mortis, 45–46 transfer, 11
Load, 72 transient, 10–11
Load-deformation curve, 74 Plastic deformation, 74
Locard exchange principle, 11 PMI, see Postmortem interval
Location evidence, 19, 20 Postmortem changes
L-shaped forensic scale or ruler, 18–19 algor mortis, 44–45
decomposition
accelerated, 51
M ADD method, 50
Marine Mammal Protection Act, 109 autolysis, 47
Masque ecchymotique, 142 degradative effects, 47
Mechanical asphyxia, 142–143 five-stage scales, 48–49
Medical examiner (ME) system, 2 independent scoring system, 50
Medicolegal investigation parallel and simultaneous processes, 47
animal abuse, fundamental of, 2–3 putrefaction, 47
applications, 7 rate, 50
criminal proceedings, 6–7 Reed’s four-stage scale, 48
expert witness testimony, 5–6 six-stage scale, 48–49
forensic necropsy, 4–5 TBS method, 50
forensic photography, 4 desiccation, 47, 48
law enforcement reports, 4 livor mortis, 45–46
medical history, 4 mummification, 51
owner or witness statements, 4 rigor mortis, 46–47
154 Index
Postmortem interval (PMI) claw marks and bite wounds, 100

accuracy, 44 digital image evidence, 97
ancillary methods documentation, 95
botany, 57 goring injuries, 100
microbial assay, 58 incised wounds, 97–98
microscopic changes, 58–59 internal examination, 103, 104
molecular methods, 58 interpretation, 95
ocular tonometry, 57 mechanical application, 95
postmortem chemistry, 57 multiple stab wounds, 96, 98–99
radionuclide-based methods, 59 tension/cleavage lines, 96
early and late postmortem periods, 59–60 tool mark, 96
entomology, 55–57 trap injuries, 100–101
estimation, 43, 44, 50–52 wound shape, 96
gross changes Shearing force, 73
accumulated degree days, 53 Slash/gash wounds, see Incised wounds
animal scavenging, 54 Soft tissue injuries
autolysis and putrefaction effects, 53 abrasions, 81, 82
frozen carcasses, 53 contusions, 79–80
gaseous distention, 53 lacerations, 81
liver mortis, 52 Speed, 71
purge fluid, 53 Suffocation
rigor mortis, 52–53 lesions of, 141–142
total body score, 53 nonobstructive suffocation
typical progression, 52 carbon dioxide toxicity, 138–139
temperature changes, 54–55 carbon monoxide, 139–140
Preliminary hearing, 6 cat, thorax, 138
Projectile injury chemical asphyxiants, 139
firearm injuries cyanide toxicity, 140–141
bullet cartridge, 109 hydrogen sulfide, 141
in companion animals, US, 108–109 oxygen consumption, 138
handguns, 110 oxygen depletion, 137
historical and signalment data report, 108 vitiated atmosphere, 137–138
machine guns, 110 obstructive, 137
profile features, 108
public endangerment/property damage, 108
rifling, 109–110 T
shotguns, 110 Tensile, 73
submachine guns, 110 Testimonial evidence, 10
wildlife, 109 Torsion, 73
non-firearm, 110–111 Total body score (TBS), 50, 53
Purina Body Condition System, 29 Toxicological evidence, 20–21
Putrefaction, 47 Trace evidence, 11, 15, 21
appropriate seal evidence, 38
ballistic evidence, 38, 39
R DNA analysis, 39–40
Reed’s four-stage scale, 47 fingerprints, 38–40
Retrial/post-conviction proceeding, 7 forensic entomology, 40
Rigor mortis, 46–47 miscellaneous, 40–41
toxicology samples, 40
Transfer evidence, 11
S Transient evidence, 10–11
Sentencing hearing, 7 Trap injuries, 100–101
Sharp force trauma Tufts Animal Care and Condition (TACC)
aging of wounds, 103, 105 scale, 29
angles, 95
assessment, 95
bow and arrow injuries, 101–103 U
chainsaw injuries, 99–100 Ultimate percentage elongation, 78
chop/hack wounds, 99 Ultimate tensile strength, 78
Index 155
V intermediary wounds, 119

Velocity, 71 irregular entrance wounds, 119
Violence, 65 muzzle flash, 118
Virtopsy® Project, 37, see Voir dire, 6 projectile’s path, 119
reentry wound, 119
retained missile, 118
W soot pattern, 119
Wet compact bone, 77–78 ballistics, 114
Wound chop/hack, 99
aging of, 103, 105 claw marks and bite, 100
analysis, 117–120 incised, 97–98
entrance wounds, multiple stab, 96, 98–99
117, 118 shape, 96
exit wounds, 117–120 tract, 121–123

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What topics are covered in the book?

What topics are covered in the book?

Jason W.

ISBN 978-3-319-67170-3 ISBN 978-3-319-67172-7 (eBook)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2018930341

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by Springer Nature

What is truth? This fundamental concept has inspired me since childhood.

University Park, PA, USA Jason W. Brooks

1 Medicolegal Investigation�������������������������������������������������������������� 1

1.1 Veterinary Forensic Medicine with “forensic pathology.” Forensic p­athology,

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 1

the chronological documentation of every per- The responsibility to “prove” or “disprove” a

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 9

Linkage Diagram tion that must be maintained to record all who

manner that will preserve it until the examina-

2.5 Evidence Documentation

It is important to understand that simply having

Fig. 2.5 Sample canine

identify the victim or place the victim in a particu-

Short-Term Storage Conditions

Never Less than 24

Best Less than

Wet Bloody Items Best Less than 24

Bones Acceptable Acceptable Acceptable

Hair Best Acceptable

Vaginal Smears Best

Long-Term Storage Conditions

Liquid Blood Never Best

Hair Best Acceptable

Vaginal Smears Best

Buccal Swabs Best

Best Acceptable Acceptable

3.1 The Forensic Necropsy 3.1.1 I nitial Evaluation and External

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 27

Fig. 3.1 Radiograph of

Fig. 3.2 Initial photos

Fig. 3.3 An emaciated

Fig. 3.4 (a) Reflected

tine diagnostic necropsy. Special attention should

3.1.3 Histopathology 3.2.1 Decomposed Remains

Fig. 3.6 Example of a

Fig. 3.8 A dermestid

Fig. 3.9 Black bear

Fig. 3.10 A portable

Fig. 3.12 Copy stand

3.3.3 Computed Tomography

3.4.2 Trace Evidence Collection 3.4.2.1 Ballistic Evidence

Fig. 3.15 A .45 caliber

4.1 Introduction known as time since death, is highly dependent

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 43

Fig. 4.1 Lividity in the

Fig. 4.2 Rigor mortis in

temperature at the time of death [13, 23]. In

The postmortem drying of mucous membranes

Fig. 4.5 Desiccation of

4.3  stimating the Postmortem

University Park, PA, USA Jason W. Brooks

1 Medicolegal Investigation�� 1

1.1 Veterinary Forensic Medicine with “forensic pathology.” Forensic pathology,

2.5 Evidence Documentation

3.1 The Forensic Necropsy 3.1.1 I nitial Evaluation and External

3.1.3 Histopathology 3.2.1 Decomposed Remains

3.3.3 Computed Tomography

3.4.2 Trace Evidence Collection 3.4.2.1 Ballistic Evidence

4.1 Introduction known as time since death, is highly dependent

4.3 stimating the Postmortem

and preservation is critical for the analysis of 4.4.2 Postmortem Chemistry

4.4.4 Molecular Methods referred to as the microbiome. Analyses of

5.1 Introduction Health Assembly in Geneva, Switzerland, mem-

5.7 Differentiating Accidental 5.8 Tissue Injury

5.16.2.2 Shear these structures are subject to excessive load-

5.25 Fracture Healing [29]

5.29 Rib Fractures were identified. Because of the location and

5.31 Number of Impacts eased tissue. Review of previous medical

5.35 Pain 5.37 T

c entimeters or millimeters. The wounds should

6.2 Incised Wounds

6.5 Chainsaw Injuries

6.7 Claw Marks and Bite Wounds

6.6 Goring Injuries

7.4 Wildlife Projectile Injury To effectively evaluate projectile injuries, a basic

of passing through a large mammal. The main type 7.7 Ammunition

7.9 allistics and Wounding

8.1 Introduction accurate data on the frequency of asphyxia-related

8.4.1.2 Case Report: Manual