In 0c 2

Ideally there are 4 dt and idmt curve but in etap there is no such provision so we use 0c2

For directiona threre is always idmt curve but in etap there is no such provision we use oc2

If angle between volage and current is 45 and voltage and current in same direction then it is consider
forword direction relay will operate

When voltage and current are in opposite direction angle is 180

relay setting ( Directional )

 Its direction depend upon power generated and power required if generated power is less than
required . then it take power from other shop relay direction will in reverse direction.
 When power is taken by feeder direction of relay in reverse direction .
 When power is given by feeder direction of relay in forward direction .
 Always add ct near to CB and above cable line .

Magnetic reluctance

Magnetic reluctance, or magnetic resistance, is a concept used in the analysis of magnetic

circuits. It is defined as the ratio of magnetomotive force (mmf) to magnetic flux. It represents the
opposition to magnetic flux,

Leakage Flux

As practically it is not possible that all the flux in the circuit follows a particularly
intended path and sets up in the magnetic core and thus some of the flux also
sets up around the coil or surrounds the core of the coil, and is not utilised for
any work in the magnetic circuit. This type of flux which is not used for any
work is called Leakage Flux and is denoted by φ

ICT

ICT is interconnecting transfomers which are are used to connect two EHV line at
different voltages. The interconnecting transformer are auto transformer which can step
up & step down the voltages for synchronization of two grid voltages.The function of the

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inter-connecting transformer is - as the name suggests - to inter-connect two systems at
different voltages.

They are normally auto-transformers and they will have a delta connected tertiary
winding of about 33kV voltage rating, for providing a circulating path for the zero-
sequence currents.

On the Other hand Power transformers are used in the transmission of the power in
higher voltage networks. These are used in step up and step down application (400 kV,
200 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33kV). Power transformers are generally rated above 200 MVA.

Power transformers are used for the transmission of the high power, which is above 33
KV, and they also require 100% efficiency. Power transformers are used as the set up
device. They are designed to use the maximum core and can operate near to knee point
of B-H curve. The maximum iron and copper loss in these transformers is recorded at
the time of peak load. They work generally on full load, thus these are designed in such a
manner that copper loss is minimum.

Know more about the power transformers and its important factors.

Vector group
Transformers built to ANSI standards usually do not have the vector
group shown on their nameplate and instead a vector diagram is given to show
the relationship between the primary and other windings.

. When two transformers are connected in parallel, their phase shifts must be
identical; if not, a short circuit will occur when the transformers are energized.”

The transformer vector group is indicated on the Name Plate of transformer by

the manufacturer. The vector group indicates the phase difference between the
primary and secondary sides, introduced due to that particular configuration of
transformer windings connection

Unit Auxiliary Transformers (UAT)

The Unit Auxiliary Transformer is the Power Transformer that provides power to the auxiliary
equipment of a power generating station during its normal operation. This transformer is connected
directly to the generator out-put by a tap-off of the isolated phase bus duct and thus becomes cheapest
source of power to the generating station.

It is generally a three-winding transformer i.e. one primary and two separate secondary windings.
Primary winding of UAT is equal to the main generator voltage rating. The secondary windings can have
same or different voltages i.e. generally 11KV and or 6.9KV as per plant layout.

switchgear

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All equipment associated with fault clearing process of an electric circuit are covered by
term switchgear

Isolator

It is disconnecting switch which is used to disconnecting under no current condition.

after opening of isolator earthing switch can be closed to discharge the trapped electrical
charge to ground.

For 400 kv and above series capacitor are used for increasing power transfer ability.
Shunt reactor are used for compensation of reactive power.

During a fault current and voltage undergo a continuous change and phenomenon
observed are called transient phenomenon.

Sub transient state – zone in which current is very high and decreases very rapidly

Transient state- after first cycle decrease in current is very less rapid . the region in
which decrease in current is less rapid

Steady state- during steady state r.m.s. value of short circuit almost remains constant .

Circuit breaker is operated during Transient state.

fault calculation

it provide information about fault current and voltage at various point of power system .

Transient Recovery Voltage

after final arc extinction and final voltage zero a high voltage wave appear across cb
contact tending to re establish arc

earthing

connecting conductor to earth.neutral of transformer and generator are grounded . at

each voltage level in power system earthing is provided.neutral of CT and PT are also
gounded.

Neutal earthing has several advantage –

Arcing ground capacitance between line and earth get charged from supply . during
flash over voltage again get discharged.

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Voltage of healthy phases with respect neutral are stabilized by neutral earthing .

neutral earthing is used to discharge over voltage due to lightening.

Simplified design of earth fault protection.

Grounded system require less insulation than ungrounded system .

Overvoltage and insulation coordination

Magnitude and wave shape of over voltage cause by switching operation it totally
depend upon connected resistance inductance and conductance value

Deaerator

A deaerator is a device that removes oxygen and other dissolved gases from water,
such as feedwater for steam-generating boilers

Positive negative and zero sequence

1. In static and balanced power system components like transformer and

lines, the sequence impedance offered by the system are the same for
positive and negative sequence currents. In other words, the positive
sequence impedance and negative sequence impedance are same for
transformers and power lines.
2. But in case of rotating machines the positive and negative sequence
impedance are different.
3. The assignment of zero sequence impedance values is a more complex
one. This is because the three zero sequence current at any point in
a electrical power system, being in phase, do not sum to zero but must
return through the neutral and /or earth. In three phase transformer and
machine fluxes due to zero sequence components do not sum to zero in
the yoke or field system. The impedance very widely depending upon
the physical arrangement of the magnetic circuits and winding.
1. The reactance of transmission lines of zero sequence currents can
be about 3 to 5 times the positive sequence current, the lighter
value being for lines without earth wires. This is because the

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 spacing between the go and return(i.e. neutral and/or earth) is so
much greater than for positive and negative sequence currents
which return (balance) within the three phase conductor groups.
2. The zero sequence reactance of a machine is compounded of
leakage and winding reactance, and a small component due to
winding balance (depends on winding tritch).
3. The zero sequence reactance of transformers depends both on
winding connections and upon construction of core.

Slack Bus

In electrical power systems a slack bus (or swing bus), defined as a Vδ bus, is used to balance the
active power |P| and reactive power |Q| in a system while performing load flow studies. The slack
bus is used to provide for system losses by emitting or absorbing active and/or reactive power to and
from the system.

Voltage Control

A generator can be selected as a voltage control (regulated) system, which means that the
generator will adjust its var output to control the voltage. Therefore, the generator’s terminal
voltage magnitude, operating real power (MW), and minimum and maximum allowable reactive
power supply (Max Q and Min Q) must be entered for voltage control generators. A voltage
control generator means that the generator is base loaded (droop mode with fixed MW) with an
Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) controlling the field excitation for a constant voltage
operation. During load flow studies, if the calculated generator Mvar falls outside the generator
Mvar capability limits (Max Q or Min Q limit), the value of the Mvar will be set equal to the
limit and the generator mode is changed to Mvar control.

Droop speed control

In electrical power generation, droop speed control is a speed control mode of a prime
mover driving a synchronous generator connected to an electrical grid. This mode allows
synchronous generators to run in parallel, so that loads are shared among generators in proportion
to their power rating

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NGR
Before going to the reason of using NGR one should first know what is NGR?
NGR(Neutral Grounding Resistor) is nothing but a high resistance grounding which in
context of electrical power system means the grounding of the system
neutral through a resistance which limits ground-fault current to a value equal to , or
slightly greater than the capacitive charging current of that system.

The neutral grounding resistor is the connection between the system neutral and the
ground. It provides a path for ground fault current to return to the transformer neutral.
NOW COME TO THE REASON:

1. Combines the benifits of ungrounded and grounded systems.

2. Allows the user to run with a single ground fault on the system,or shut down in
an orderly manner.
3. Prevents transient overvoltages and limits voltage fluctuation at the neutral
during a ground fault.
4. Facilitates the location of ground faults.
5. Minimizes the risk of arc flash and arc blast on the first ground fault.
6. Limits energy available to a ground-fault fault.
7. Provides current to current-sensing ground-fault protection.

stabilising resistor

We generally provide a Stabilising Resistor in a High Impedance REF Protection

Scheme, to reduce sensitivity of the relay from operating through fault
conditions maybe in case a CT Saturates. This resistor is calculated such that under an
external fault condition (that is for full fault level), the voltage developed by the un-
saturated CT shall not circulate more current than the setting in the relay - thus
preventing the relay from operating for an external fault and chattering...

The purpose of the stabilising resistor is to prevent the relay from operating due to
saturation of the current transformers during motor start-up.

Definite time overcurrent relay is used as a backup protection of distance relay of transmission
line with time delay, backup protection to differential relay of power transformer with time delay
and main protection to outgoing feeders and bus couplers with adjustable time delay setting.

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RMS VALUE = 1.1 AVERAGE VALUE

Bm (flux density max allowed ) for

Ferrite = 0.3 tesla

Cold rolled green oriented silicon steel ( CRGO ) = 1.2 tesla

CRNGO = 1 tesla

Isolation Transformer

It perform function of both isolation and step up

Polarity
Voltage on primary side measured with respect to dot side (+ ve )and not dot side ( - ve ) in phase with
dot on secondary side with respect to not dot side

When supply is given to primary side of transformer current I1 start flowing throw N1 it will induce E2 in
secondary side because of that current I2 start flowing throw N2 which produces mmf which oppses
N1I1 and E1 will reduces . so there is difference in supply given and E1 because of that current I1 start
increasing till it nullify effect of N2I2 mmf so at the end only N1 I1 remain in core

Note – flux will always remain same in core of transformer wheather it is in loaded condition or not.
Turns ratio - 1:n where n means N2 / N1

Aw = no. of turns accomadted in window area. Current carrying capabilitiy decide by Aw

Thickness of copper wire depend upon current flowing in wire so we can keep copper losses minimum.

Prescribed current density ( j) = 3 A/mm2 s

Current density( j ) = I rms / area of wire

Aw = N1 Awire 1 + N2 Awire 2

Ac = cross sectional area of core . Volatge capability decided by Ac

Ac + Aw = Ap

V+ I = P

Ap= power handling capability of core.

Use of transformer

1. isolation
2. power transformer - 1)step up 2)Step down
3. impedance matching

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impedance of transformer

if pri = Z1

then sec. = n Z1

if pri = Z2

then Sec. = Z2 / n2

higher flux density reduces weight per kva

1. more rigid core

2. lesser weight and size per kva
3. lower iron losses and higher flux densities
4. lower cost of mnufactuer

presence small amount of water in transformer reduces insulating properties .

for moderate voltage porecelin bushing are used to insulate lead and for higher voltage oil, filled or
capacitor filed bushings are used

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