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Journal of Organizational Behavior

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Employee Engagement and

Organizational Behavior Management
a a
Timothy D. Ludwig & Christopher B. Frazier
a
Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina, USA
Published online: 07 Mar 2012.

To cite this article: Timothy D. Ludwig & Christopher B. Frazier (2012) Employee Engagement and
Organizational Behavior Management, Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 32:1, 75-82,
DOI: 10.1080/01608061.2011.619439

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 Journal of Organizational Behavior Management, 32:75–82, 2012
Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0160-8061 print/1540-8604 online
DOI: 10.1080/01608061.2011.619439

DISCUSSION ARTICLE

Employee Engagement and Organizational

Behavior Management

TIMOTHY D. LUDWIG and CHRISTOPHER B. FRAZIER

Downloaded by [Colorado State University] at 20:55 25 September 2013

Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina, USA

Engagement is a “buzz” word that has gained popularity

in Industrial/Organizational Psychology. Based on a “Positive
Psychology” approach, engagement is perceived as a valuable state
for employees, because surveys on the construct have found it cor-
relates with some organizational tactics (e.g., human resource
policies, procedural justice) and positive outcomes (e.g., growth,
lower costs, lower absenteeism). Reviews of the engagement liter-
ature suggest engagement is not clearly defined, which is com-
mon with some popular cognitive/emotional constructs. Positive
Psychology is nothing new to behavior analysis (Luthans, Youssef,
& Rawski, 2011), which has many applications through the field
of Organizational Behavior Management to create an “engaged”
workforce and culture.

KEYWORDS engagement, industrial/organizational psychology,

organizational behavior management

Employee engagement is a young and indistinct construct within organiza-

tional research yet to be clearly defined. Nonetheless, it has become the
latest “buzz” word in management, sparking opportunistic interest in the
academic field. However, from a behavior analytic perspective, employees’
“vigor” and “energy” may be simply a matter of managing contingencies
through the behavioral systems that include operational and managerial
processes.
Employee engagement is not a well-defined construct, as many authors
define it differently. According to the Gallup Employee Engagement Survey

Address correspondence to Timothy D. Ludwig, Department of Psychology, Appalachian

State University, Boone, NC 28608, USA. E-mail: ludwigtd@appstate.edu

75
 76 T. D. Ludwig and C. B. Frazier

Analysis Tool (ESAT; Corporate Leadership Council, 2009) survey, engage-

ment can be broken into rational and emotional engagement. Rational
engagement is defined as “the extent to which employees believe that man-
agers, teams, or organizations have their self interest in mind (financial,
developmental, or professional),” while emotional engagement is defined
as “the extent to which employees value, enjoy, and believe in their jobs,
managers, teams or organizations” (p. 4). Towers Perrin (2003) defines
engagement as “employees’ willingness and ability to contribute to com-
pany success . . . the extent to which employees put discretionary effort
into their work” (p. 1). Macey and Schneider (2008) add that engagement
contains organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB).
Moreover, engagement has been described as made up of different
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psychological states (or at least is correlated with states) such as involve-

ment, attachment, mood (Macey & Schneider, 2008), job satisfaction, and
organizational commitment (Saks, 2006; Wefald, & Downey, 2008). Positive
Affectivity has also been highly correlated with engagement (Macey &
Schneider, 2008). Of course, the causal directionality and “third variable”
problem is pervasive in this research, because it is unclear if these psy-
chological states lead to engagement, if engagement leads to these states,
or if these states all covary with another variable altogether (e.g., company
success).
Variables that lead to engagement are numerous. A highly correlated
variable in Saks’ (2006) review, as well as the large-scale study produced
by Towers Perrin (2003), was job characteristics (cf., Hackman & Oldham,
1976). These include challenging work, autonomy over decisions, and career
advancement opportunities. Saks (2006) argued employees must be given
adequate resources to get their job done well. Auxiliary policies and facili-
ties such as a day care center, gym, and cafeteria help employees balance
their lives more efficiently with more flexibility, supposedly leading to
engagement (Foursight Consulting, 2005; McLeish, 2008; Pitt-Catsouphes &
Matz-Costa, 2008; Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004).
Management behavior moderates the relationship between engage-
ment and organizational outcomes (e.g., sales) and therefore can influ-
ence employee behavior (Smith, Huelsman, Bergman, & Ludwig, 2010).
Blessing White, Inc. (2008) state that managers must be engaged for their
subordinates to be engaged. Additionally, survey data suggest that man-
agement must be customer focused, communicate effectively, and have the
employees’ well-being as a high priority to produce engaged employees
(Towers Perrin, 2003) because they have built “trust” (Chughtai & Buckley,
2008). Organizational variables that may be related to engagement include
human resources, policies, values, culture, technology, etc. (Towers Perrin,
2003) that promote a perception of procedural justice (i.e., how fair
employees perceive the processes around outcomes; Saks, 2006).
Correlational research suggests the outcomes of engagement are indeed
impressive, as they speak directly to business results (Hyten, 2009).
 Engagement and OBM 77

Employee engagement been shown to be positively correlated to higher

revenue growth, a lower cost of goods sold, and negatively correlated with
intentions to quit/turnover (Saks, 2006; Towers Perrin, 2003). Organizations
in the top quartile of employee engagement accrued 1% to 4% more in orga-
nizational profits annually (Harter, Schmidt & Hayes, 2002). However, the
causality or directionality of such statements remain suspect. It is unclear
whether engagement creates the successful organizations or if successful
organizations make employees more engaged or if both are a result of
another variable such as managerial behavior (Smith et al., 2010).
Saks (2008) states, “The engagement concept . . . needs to be role
specific rather than a cocktail of related constructs,” (pp. 42–43) and thereby
disagrees with defining engagement as merely job satisfaction, organizational
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commitment, or an outcome of management caring (Saks, 2009). Saks (2008)

suggests that “behavioral engagement” should be the research construct
of interest because it is observable and is most directly related to human
performance and the bottom line. We agree with Saks’ (2008, 2009) assess-
ment as well as A. C. Daniels (2009), who states that engagement is simply
“a non-specific non-scientific term used to describe the amount of positive
reinforcement available in a workplace for value-added behavior” (p. 7).

ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR MANAGEMENT: AN ALTERNATIVE

VIEW OF ENGAGEMENT

A. C. Daniels (2009) argues a key variable that drives all organizational out-
comes is human behavior: “If management practices, systems, and processes
are not designed on the basis of known facts about behavior, no organiza-
tion can expect to create a workplace where all employees consistently give
their best” (p. 7). Indeed, the variables associated with engagement above
are not uncommon to the science of behavior analysis applied to organiza-
tions called Organizational Behavior Management (OBM), which works on
improving behavior without being concerned with or attempting to change
psychological traits, states, or other covert phenomena.

Reinforcement
A. C. Daniels (2009) suggests positive reinforcement is the most efficient way
to make behavior effective and create the kind of organizational cultural
behaviors that are credited to engagement. According to Daniels, posi-
tive reinforcement has to be personal, immediate, contingent on behavior,
and frequent. Geller (2003) recommends noncontingent rewards over pos-
itive reinforcement, because it can be used to recognize individuals and
groups with financial or social outcomes. When delivered effectively by
management, such rewards can have a profound effect on a positive work
environment. Geller (2003) suggests rewards create pleasant personal states
 78 T. D. Ludwig and C. B. Frazier

as a consequence of receiving them. Skinner (1974) noted that positive

results stemming from behavior can create a positive psychological state
such as happiness. Gravina (2011) too suggests that responses to common
organizational survey measurements, such as job satisfaction, organizational
commitment, or even engagement, are classically conditioned responses.
Also, Mawhinney (2011), in this issue, argues convincingly that “cumulative
effects of reinforcers (punishers) contingent on performances will account
for variations in performance-related satisfaction.” Perhaps engagement is
the label for the classically conditioned response to the copious amount of
social and other reinforcement associated with value-added behavior.
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Adequate Resources
Deming (1986) famously said that it is management’s job to remove the bar-
riers to employees’ success. OBM takes a similar view whereby availability of
resources serves as an antecedent to promote behaviors and to ensure that
behaviors are maintained with the proper reinforcers. Take, for example,
a story told by Ludwig (2011) where a manager complained that workers
were not doing housekeeping in an industrial plant. After an assessment
of antecedents and consequences, it was found that workers did not have
the right tools conveniently located proximal to their housekeeping behav-
iors. Providing those resources (step ladders and work sinks) increased the
behavior regardless of any increase in an “engagement” score.

Management Behaviors
Many management actions that create “engaged” employees can be
explained from an OBM perspective and applied through intervention. OBM
research is full of empirically tested communication tools: task clarification
(Crowell, Anderson, Able, & Sergio, 1988; Rice, Austin, & Gravina, 2009;
Slowiak, Madden, & Mathews, 2005), goal setting (Ludwig & Geller, 1997;
Tittelbach, DeAngelis, Sturmey, & Alvero, 2007), checklists (Eikenhout, &
Austin, 2005; Rodriguez et al., 2005), posted policies (Squires et al., 2007),
and explicit rules (Johnson, Houmanfar, & Smith, 2010).
A related issue to management communication is management consis-
tency. OBM research emphasizes the use of Behavioral Systems Analysis,
including process maps of the managerial processes (Diener, McGee, &
Miguel, 2009) to reveal places where work procedures, tasks, and reinforcers
are ambiguous. When these ambiguities are exposed and corrected, behav-
iors are better specified and reinforced, leading perhaps to the conditions
attributed to “engagement.”
A final management behavior that may be related to the conditions
of engagement is performance feedback (Crowell et al., 1988; Rice et al.,
2009; Squires et al., 2007; Tittelbach et al., 2007). A. C. Daniels and
 Engagement and OBM 79

J. E. Daniels (2004) explain that ambiguous verbal feedback can be a pun-

isher and reduce behavior. Conversely, unambiguous feedback that is timely,
objective, based on employee behavior, and linked to business results, goals,
or valued consequences, can have a strong impact on behavior, especially if
that behavior is self-generated.

Autonomy
Another aspect of engagement, also popular among noted social psychol-
ogists (Allport, 1937; Deci & Ryan, 1985) is the concept of autonomy.
This aspect of engagement is argued to be related to a “positive” culture
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(Saks, 2006; Towers Perrin, 2003). Since cultural variables are primarily
measured with survey research, there are very few behavioral examples
of this relationship. However, A. C. Daniels (2000) and others (Geller,
2002) have pointed to what may be called “Discretionary Behavior,” where
employees go beyond what is discriminated by the reinforcers and engage
in other behaviors that are desirable to the organization or community
(OCB, in I/O Psychology terminology; Macey & Scheider, 2008). OBM
research has shown that when given the opportunity to set their own goals
(i.e., implicit rules), employees generalize desirable behaviors beyond the
original targeted behaviors specified in the goals (Ludwig, 2001; Ludwig
& Geller, 1997). Ludwig and Geller (1997, 2001) call this phenomena
“response generalization” and also suggest that there is a causal relation-
ship between participatory intervention tactics and response generalization
(Ludwig, 2001). Thus, when managers change the job design to allow for
more autonomous behaviors, they may indeed find employees engaging
in desirable behaviors beyond the original “targeted” suggestions (A. C.
Daniels, 2009; Ludwig, 2001).

Experimental Causality
It is easy for organizations to gather data from their employees by giving
them surveys that may tell them valuable information (Blessing White, Inc.,
2008). However, it is much more difficult for those organizations to uti-
lize that information for effective behavior change. All of the engagement
studies reviewed above were based on correlational explorations between
survey data, psychological questionnaires, and organizational data. While
these exploratory studies may direct us toward high-impact interventions
whose impact maintains over time and may generalize to other behaviors,
discretionary and otherwise, they are severely limited in the practical, causal
advice they can offer the practitioner. Indeed when investigating the Gallup
company’s survey approach to engagement, which they sell for tens of thou-
sands of dollars, we found that after the survey results are completed they
 80 T. D. Ludwig and C. B. Frazier

only suggest that focus groups be convened to brainstorm how engagement

can be improved.
In contrast, behavior change in OBM studies is demonstrated with
robust repeated measures (within) experimental designs (e.g., ABA rever-
sal, multiple baselines) gaining inferences of substantial causal relationships
(Cook & Cambell, 1979; Kazdin, 1982). Thus, the OBM community is in a far
better position to advise practitioners on specific methods to garner broad
performance improvement in a workforce.
We believe that research should continue to be conducted linking the
correlational findings around engagement to OBM practices and behav-
ioral change. When OBM can fill the gap left by Industrial/Organizational
Psychology research through expanded terminology and scope (Geller,
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2003; Weigland & Geller, 2004), then it may indeed find itself back in the
mainstream of organizational literature and practice.

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