Journal of Coastal Research 00 0 000–000 Coconut Creek, Florida Month 0000

Santos Sea Outfall Wastewater Dispersion Process: Physical

Modeling Evaluation
Paolo Alfredini*, Emilia Arasaki, and José Carlos de Melo Bernardino
Hydraulic Laboratory of Polytechnic School
University of São Paulo
São Paulo, SP 05508-900, Brazil

ABSTRACT
Alfredini, P.; Arasaki, E., and de Melo Bernardino, J.C., 0000. Santos sea outfall wastewater dispersion process: Physical
modeling evaluation. Journal of Coastal Research, 00(0), 000–000. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.

To be environmentally sustainable, the ocean disposal of domestic sewage via a sea outfall must be carefully studied,
such as previous modeling of waste-plume dispersion processes, for environmental impact assessments. A scale
model, reproducing the Santos Bay and Estuary was calibrated at the Hydraulic Laboratory of Polytechnic School,
University of São Paulo, Brazil. The complete modeling of this large estuarine system used numerical and scale
models, which were all related to each other. Such an overall model, composed of individual hydraulic and numerical
components, is called a hybrid model. It combines the advantages of both model components and adequate field
survey measurements and is particularly important for simulating the plume dispersion process in Santos Bay. The
goal hereby is to present a performance comparison of the outfall plume dispersion for improvement in the length of
the Santos outfall. The study required preliminary numerical simulations in the near-field mixing processes to
define the boundary conditions in the beginning of the far field. In addition, numerical simulations in the far field
were required to reproduce the wind effect for calibrating the scale model of the air-tunnel hydro-aerodynamics.
Scale model runs, using an advanced methodology for dye-plume monitoring, were calibrated with a numerical
model of the plume dispersion and validated with independent runs of another numerical model of plume dispersion
and comparison with satellite images of the plume. The conclusion was that an enlargement of 1 km of the outfall
would reduce the risk of the plume returning.

ADDITIONAL INDEX WORDS: Southeastern Brazil, scale model, numerical model, plume monitoring, wind effect.

INTRODUCTION summary measure of average achievement in key dimensions

Wastewater treatment and the disposal of residuals is one of of human development: a long and healthy life, being
the most important features of coastal management. The knowledgeable, and having a decent standard of living. The
management scenario is even more complex when social and HDI is the geometric mean of normalized indices for each of the
environmental issues are considered. The Brazilian Federal three dimensions. (hdr.undp.org/en/content/human-
Constitution defines the coastal zone as a national heritage. development-index-hdi). Although inadequate, the situation
This zone comprises a fragile ecosystem, together with a dense in São Paulo State, especially in the coastal region (Baixada
urban and tourist population, the latter, a natural outcome of Santista, see Figure 1a), is far better than it is in the rest of the
its environmental attributes. country. The use of preliminary wastewater treatment plants
Adequate decision-making, in this specific case, must be and subsequent ocean disposal for domestic sewage, via sea
based on both environmental studies and technical capabilities, outfalls, has become an option since 1969, when the first
including regionally developed solutions with local public domestic wastewater ocean disposal was conceived and
participation. Thus, government agencies need to become submitted to Secretaria de Serviços e Obras Públicas do Estado
aware of the problems involved and provide adequate infor- de São Paulo (see Occhipinti, 1972). The 4-km-long ocean-
mation for the sustainable development and management of disposal system at Santos Bay (Figure 1b), in operation since
maritime and coastal areas. 1979 and serving a population of more than one million
inhabitants during the main summer holidays, is the oldest
The Brazilian and Baixada Santista Context for Sea along the São Paulo coast.
Wastewater Disposal The sea outfall, discharging at a depth of 11 m, was designed
The Brazilian sanitary situation has contributed to its low and constructed with a 1.75-m diameter and a length of nearly
ranking in the Human Development Index (HDI). According to 4 km. The diffuser system was designed and constructed with a
the United Nations Development Program, the HDI is a length of 200 m, comprising 40 circular openings of 300 mm in
diameter, each 5 m apart. More details concerning the
DOI: 10.2112/JCOASTRES-D-15-00106.1 received 10 June 2015; geometric characteristics of this outfall are available in
accepted in revision 25 October 2015; corrected proofs received
Marcellino and Ortiz (2001). For comparison, the effluent
27 December 2015; published pre-print online 20 January 2016.
*Corresponding author: alfredin@usp.br discharge depths proposed here are 11 and 12 m, for lengths of
Ó
Coastal Education and Research Foundation, Inc. 2016 4 and 5 km, respectively.
0 Alfredini, Arasaki, and de Melo Bernardino

Figure 1. (a) Map showing São Paulo State and the Baixada Santista region. This is the most important Port Metropolitan Region of Brazil. (b) Detailed map of
Santos Bay and the neighboring coastal area. Santos Bay is located at the confluence of an estuarine region where Santos Port is located.

Hybrid Modeling length; and at 5 km, as an alternative for dispersion

Scale and numerical models are extremely important tools, improvement. The study required preliminary numerical
which aid in the planning, projection, maintenance, and simulations of the near-field mixing processes to define the
operation of sea outfalls (Fundo Estadual de Recursos Hı́dricos, boundary condition concentration of a constituent, which
2008), especially in combination with any type of land- defines the beginning of the far field. In addition, numerical
treatment system. Studies focusing on scale models for simulations of the far field are required to reproduce the wind
evaluating outfalls are cited in specialized literature (Kobus, effect to calibrate the scale model of the air-tunnel hydro-
1980; Novak and Čábelka, 1981), and a recent bibliographic aerodynamics. Scale model runs, using an advanced method-
search shows that mainly field observations and numerical ology for dye-plume monitoring, were validated with a
models are being used, as cited in Carvalho, Roberts, and computational model of plume dispersion and by satellite
Roldão (2002); Maalouf, Rosso, and Yeh (2014); Muhammeto- images of the near-field plume. In fact, the effect of wind on the
glu, Yalcin, and Ozcan (2012); Pritchard, Savidge, and Elsäer far-field transport is not usually reproduced directly in a scale
(2013); and Roldão, Carvalho, and Roberts (2001). Specifically, model, adding a novelty for comparison with the published-
in the region of the Santos Outfall, studies with numerical research state of the art.
models are found in Baptistelli (2008); Marcellino and Ortiz
(2001); Ortiz, Garcia, and Subtil (2011); and Subtil et al. (2012). METHODS
According to Abraham and Ohlmeyer (1980), the rapid Hydraulic problems associated with public health engineer-
development of computer technology and the integration of ing works and their impact on the environment have been
numerical hydrodynamic models with scale models make a increasingly involved physical and numerical models in
much closer interconnection between numerical and hydraulic Hydraulic Laboratories, based on adequate field surveys
models possible. Hence, a complete model of a natural area measurements. The interaction of an outfall with the recipient
should be formed from a series of numerical and hydraulic body of water and the need to study its siting requires special
submodels, which are all related to each other. Such an overall consideration (Novak and Čábelka, 1981).
model, composed of individual hydraulic and numerical The awareness of the importance of a good evaluation about
components, is called a hybrid model. Such a model combines all the forcing processes acting in the dispersion of a buoyant
the advantages of both model components and is particularly effluent provides the right way to choose the most adequate
important for simulating tides in large estuarine systems, such modeling methods.
as the Santos Bay and Estuary, and joining those models with
Dispersion Stages of a Buoyant Effluent
adequate field-survey measurements.
When effluent is discharged in the form of a submerged jet
Goal of the Research through an outfall diffuser, the flow is elevated by a buoyant
The goal of this research was to present a performance force proportional to the difference between its density and the
comparison of the plume-dispersion process at different outfall density of the water body (seawater). As the jet rises toward the
lengths for the Santos outfall: at 4 km, the original construction surface, it mixes with seawater and both the quantity of the

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 00, No. 0, 0000

 Evaluation of Wastewater Dispersion 0

Figure 2. Dispersion of a buoyant effluent with various mechanisms of identification for the initial dispersion stages in the near field. The hybrid-model
technique used in this research reproduces this region with CORMIX 2 software, introducing the final plume-dispersion characteristics as the initial boundary
condition for the far-field numerical and physical modeling.

 
movement (the launching force) as the buoyancy decreases and ]C ]C ]C ]C
¼ u þv þw ; ð2Þ
the tangential forces (advection) transform the kinetic and ]t ]x ]y ]z
potential energy (Figure 2).
where u, m, and w, are the transport velocities of the
This process is called initial dilution and occurs in a
substance in the x, y, and z directions, respectively.
region called the near field, depending on the area’s
The diffusive processes are characterized by the local
environmental conditions (turbulence of the water level,
concentration variations of the property produced by
current, speed, and stratification) and the geometric
uneven water movements (on the small scale), known as
characteristics of the diffuser (the number of risers, their
turbulence, and by the simultaneous occurrence of molec-
diameter and angle inclination, and the alignment with the
ular diffusion (on the microscale). These processes are
current, etc.). There is consensus among experts that an
characterized by the local exchange of the property without
efficient diffuser system should achieve dilutions on the
an effective water transport. The diffusive capacity of the
order of 100 in the near field: ‘‘ocean turbulence’’ is much greater than that of the
C0 molecular diffusion.
D0 ¼ ; ð1Þ The equation for advective and diffusive transport is given
C
below. Equation (3) provides the effective local variation in the
then the jet reaches the hydrostatic level, and the mixture
concentration due to the combined diffusion effects and
of effluent and seawater undergoes a transition between
advection (or convection). The fluid is considered incompress-
the vertical and horizontal spread flows. At that stage, the
ible; that is, the specific mass of the medium within a volume
plume enters the so-called sewage field, which takes place
remains constant, and the density is defined as the mass per
at the transition between the near field to the far field.
unit volume (q ¼ m/V):
As the plume moves away from the launch point, the
influence on the mixing process from the geometrical configu- ]C ]C ]C ]C
þu þm þw ¼ DÑ2 C; ð3Þ
ration of the diffuser decreases, and a second phase begins, in ]t ]x ]y ]z
which advection and environmental turbulence control the where u, m, and w are the components of the mean velocity in
trajectory and the dilution rate of the plume. This region is the x, y, and z directions, respectively.
called far field. Thereafter, two natural processes decrease the If source/sink biogeochemical processes are added to the
concentration of the effluent at that point: advective transport second member of the equation, it is possible to account for
and turbulent diffusion. transformations that are due to oxidation, excretion, deteri-
The advective process is characterized by local variations oration, growing, biodegrading, etc., which results in a
in the concentration of the property (the substance, general equation for the conservative constituent Ø:
pollutant, bacteria, etc.) because of mass transport, which
is performed by the regular circulation of the water system, ]ðqØÞ
þ divðqØuÞ ¼ divðCgrad ØÞ þ SØ : ð4Þ
characterized by the velocity field due to the discharge of ]t
the transient tide (Figure 3). By the principle of the The first term relates to the rate of Ø from the fluid element,
conservation of mass and ignoring the effect of diffusion the second refers to the liquid flow of Ø through the fluid
and by considering the density gradient to be very small in element (advective term), the third is the rate of Ø from the
relation to the concentration gradient, the advective diffusion (the diffusive term C is the diffusion coefficient),
transport equation of a conservative substance may be and the last term is the variation rate of Ø from the source or
given as follows: sink term.

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 00, No. 0, 0000

0 Alfredini, Arasaki, and de Melo Bernardino

Figure 3. Transient discharge during spring tidal variation at the access channel to Santos Port and the São Vicente channel. Santos Port channel has a larger
tidal prism than does the São Vicente channel, hence, the higher discharge in the Santos Mouth is the major tidal forcing in Santos Bay.

In general, we can say that the local current carries the where vj is the jet launching velocity, Q0 is the effluent
plume of effluent out of the discharge area and, during the discharge, and LD is the diffuser length.
0
transport, turbulence spreads the contaminant around its (2) Flux of the buoyancy: j0 ¼ J0/LD, with J0 ¼ g0 Q0
0
center. where g0 ¼ g[(qa – qe)/qe], qa is the salt water density, and
qe is the effluent density.
Software CORMIX 2 (3) Flux of the volume q0 ¼ Q0/LD, with Q0 ¼ vja0
The software CORMIX 2 (Cornell Mixing Zone Expert where a0 is the surface area of the discharge nozzle.
System), recommended by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, was used because it is an expert system commonly Dimensional analysis of the three flow quantities associated
employed for predicting jet or plume dilution in the near field. with the environmental parameters along with the ambient
It is based on the integral method of assuming a Gaussian velocity (ua) and the buoyancy gradient () leads to six scale
distribution for the jet or plume and is used for calculating the length settings:
concentration in the jet or plume axis (Doneker and Jirka,
(1) Discharge length scale: Lq ¼ q20 =m0 ;
1991; Jirka and Akar, 1991). The application of CORMIX 2
(2) Transition length scale of the jet/plume: lM ¼ m0 =j2=3 ;
facilitates an evaluation of the dilution efficiency of a
(3) Length scale of the jet/current: lm ¼ m0 =u2a ;
submerged, multiport diffuser system. 0 1=3
(4) Length scale of the jet/stratification: lm ¼ m0 =1=3 ;
CORMIX is a numerical model based on an integral method, 0 1=3
(5) Length scale of the plume/stratification: lb ¼ j0 =1=2 ;
which uses the conservation of mass and the quantity of motion
as governing equations and adds other variables (such as the (6) Length scale of the current/stratification: la ¼ ua =1=2 :
mass of the pollutant, its density, and the temperature and
salinity of the seawater), which are solved along the central Software FLUENT
FLUENT 6.1.22-2D software (academic license, FLUENT,
axis of the jet trajectory.
2003), based on the computational fluid dynamics finite
In this work, the subsystem CORMIX 2, version CORMIX
volume technique, was used for the far-field numerical
GI4.2 (academic license), was used. It was designed for ocean
outfalls using a multiriser diffuser system. simulation employed to calibrate the hydraulic scale model.
The result of the numerical model is based on the geometric An appropriate model was used to simulate the multiphase
characteristics of the outfall and the environmental conditions mixture, i.e. sea and effluent. This consisted of a simplified,
of the water body, providing the initial dilution of the pollutant multiphase model for modeling multiphase flows, wherein
to be analyzed, the effluent plume behavior over long distances, the phases are moving at different speeds. This becomes
and verifying the occurrence of recirculation. possible by solving the momentum, continuity, and energy
Considering a length unity for the diffuser, the local equations for the mixture, as well as the volume fraction
discharge parameters are as follows: equations for the secondary phase and the algebraic
expressions for the relative speeds. In this case, Santos
(1) Flux of the quantity of movement: m0 ¼ M0/LD, with M0 ¼ Bay geometry was reproduced in the neighborhood of the
v jQ 0 sea outfall, using the available bathymetry. A two-dimen-

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 Evaluation of Wastewater Dispersion 0

sional numeric dispersion–process simulation was run by ] ~Yi Þ ¼ ÑJ

~i :
ðqYi Þ þ ÑðqV ð9Þ
inserting, as inlet data, the values of the near-field end at ]t
the surface, obtained by using previous simulations with The geometrical creation of Santos Bay was first carried out
CORMIX. in AutoCAD and then transferred to Gambit 6.2.16, with a
FLUENT records the maximum concentrations of the computation grid of 44,063 nodes. A triangular, unstructured
constituent at each grid point. The complete differential mesh was built for the whole Santos Estuary, which included
equation formulation for the control volume with local the channels and the regions of Praia Grande and Guarujá.
variations in concentration, advection, dispersion, and source
or sink rates are used as a starting point for computational Model System WQMAP
procedure in the finite-volume method. FLUENT is based on The model system WQMAP was developed by Applied
Science Associates. It is composed of a transport module
solving the equation for the fluid flow (seawater and wastewa-
incorporating a hydrodynamic component. The water quality
ter) and the pollutant dispersion:
module uses the grid and the velocity field results of the
Z Z Z Z
]ðqØÞ hydrodynamic module to obtain the dynamic distribution of the
dV þ divðqØuÞdV ¼ divðCgrad ØÞdV þ SØ dV:
]t constituents. Yassuda et al. (2000) presented the detailed
VC VC VC VC
formulation for the WQMAP system and the tools for
ð5Þ visualizing the results.
The equations for the water-quality module were derived
Model of k/ of Turbulence through an Eulerian approach, using the complete differential-
The default turbulence model is a semiempirical model equation formulation for volume control, with local variations
based on model transport equations for turbulent kinetic in concentration, advection, dispersion, and source or sink
energy (k) and for the dissipation rate (). In the derivation rates.
of the model k/, it is assumed that the flow is fully In this article, the results obtained by Consórcio ENCIBRA-
turbulent and the effects of molecular viscosity are Falcão Bauer-TECAM (2006b) running WQMAP were used to
negligible. evaluate and validate the dispersion in the scale model.
WQMAP records the maximum concentrations of the constit-
Transport Equations for Turbulence Model k/ uent at each grid point.
The transport equations for the turbulent kinetic energy (k) As a dispersion-validation procedure, TM-LANDSAT (bands
and for the dissipation rate () are the following: 1 to 3, orbit points 219/77 and 219/76) and HRV-SPOT (XI and
   XS, orbit points 717/397 and 717/398) satellite images provided
] ] ] l ]k
ðqkÞ þ ðqkui Þ ¼ lþ t þ Gk þ Gb  qe  YM different tidal conditions with appropriate image treatments
]t ]xi ]xi rk ]xi
(Ortiz et al., 2006).
þSk ð6Þ
Software LabVIEW
  
] ] ] l ]  The National Instruments’ LabVIEW software consists of a
ðqÞ þ ðqui Þ ¼ lþ t þ C1 ðGk þ C3 Gb Þ programming language directed toward an object widely used
]t ]xi ]xj r ]xj k
to solve industrial automation problems. The View Module is a
2
C2 q þ S ð7Þ LabVIEW software package that has resources for acquisition
k
and processing of discrete images (pictures) and/or continuous
In Equations (6) and (7), Gk is the kinetic energy generation images (films) and can extract different types of image
from turbulence due to the average velocity gradient; Gb is the information as a whole or in part. Because of these features,
kinetic energy generation of the turbulence due to the LabVIEW Vision Module was used for treatment of the
turbulence; YM is the contribution of the floating expansion methylene blue images (see ‘‘Hydraulic Scale Model’’ below)
on compressible turbulence to the dissipation rate; C1 (1.44), obtained during the scale model runs.
C2 (1.92), and C3 are constants; rk (1.0) and r (1.3) are the Because of reflections arising from the water and the acrylic
Prandtl turbulence numbers for k and , respectively; and Sk plates of the air-tunnel (see ‘‘Hydraulic Scale Model’’ below),
and S are terms defined by the user. the extracted image (Figure 4a) had to be manually handled
(Figure 4b) to improve the identification of all dye field formed
Modeling the Turbulent Viscosity by the methylene blue. After that treatment, the images of each
The turbulent viscosity l1 is calculated by combining k and : run were included in the program within the LabVIEW Vision
Module.
k2
l1 ¼ qCl ; ð8Þ The first block of the program (‘‘Original Image’’) is

responsible for opening the selected image (Figure 5a). The
where Cl is a constant with a standard value of 0.09. blocks ‘‘Image Calibration’’ and ‘‘Image Correction’’ are
This study only considered the convection phenomena (or responsible orthogonalizing and georeferencing the picture,
advection), the dispersion, and the conservative substance, so that each pixel of the image is assigned a coordinate (N, E) in
according to the scale model procedure when using methylene the real world (Figure 5b). Therefore, some image pixels must
blue as the conservative tracer. Therefore, the general equation include their actual coordinates, so that the software can resize
can be expressed as follows: the image and georeference it.

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 00, No. 0, 0000

0 Alfredini, Arasaki, and de Melo Bernardino

Figure 4. (a) Example of an original, extracted image of the methylene blue dispersion from a model run with light reflections from the acrylic plates of the air
tunnel. (b) Treatment of the dye field original image handled to best identify the dye pattern before applying the LabVIEW Vision Module.

The next block (‘‘Color Threshold’’) transforms the color of the Baixada Santista Estuary and Santos Bay (Figure
image into binary, which selects as logic those pixels that are 6a). The criteria applied for choosing characteristic cali-
within a certain spectral range of the RGB (red, green, and bration points were in accordance with procedures for
blue) system (Figure 5c). In this case, it selected the RGB comparing monitored estuarine tidal propagation times
spectrum range, corresponding to the shade of blue used in the (with a real data matrix, according to OESA, Consórcio—
manual processing of the spots. King and Gavaris, 1970). This study identified the
Some pixels outside the region of interest eventually bridge estuarine locations at 10, 30, 50, and 70 minutes of
the realized spectral filter. Furthermore, because of slight displacement during spring high tide, measured from zero
variations in the pitch of the pixels belonging to a single spot, time at the Santos Bay Thalweg mouth (see Figure 6b). For
there may be ‘‘holes’’ in the logic in that region. To fill those example, time 0 corresponds to Palms Island, 10 minutes to
holes and eliminate spurious pixels from the image, three the Ponta da Praia location, and 30 minutes to Torre
blocks are employee: ‘‘fill holes,’’ ‘‘remove small objects,’’ and Grande. Hydraulic calibration and validation were carried
‘‘remove large objects’’ (Figure 5d). out according to experience and calculations based on
Similitude Laws (Kamphuis, 1975).
Scale Modeling of a Buoyant Effluent Outfall Bathymetric and local shoreline data were obtained from the
The derivation of scale modeling laws for the reproduc- Brazilian Navy (2004, 2012). The geometric scales used for
tion of a convective spread over the surface and the mass constructing the distorted Froude model were horizontal
transport by ambient currents of buoyant sewage effluent 1:1200 and vertical 1:200. The discharge scale was
(see Figure 2) requires a distorted scale model. This study 1:3,394,113, and the tidal currents time was 1:84.85. The tidal
case presented had a primary goal of determining outfall cycle could be reproduced in the model as well as the regular
positions and lengths and may have had distortions higher wave regime (Alfredini, Arasaki, and Amaral, 2008). The tidal
than 15. Bacterial and biological decay is usually neglected cycle was generated by operational software created at
in physical models that use a conservative tracer. The LHEPUSP, where one cycle in the model (8.75 min) corre-
near-field stages of turbulent entrainment at the effluent sponded to 12.38 hours in a real situation. The ocean-point
jet, the rise of the jet by buoyancy with mixing because of disposal discharges of the Guarujá, Santos, and Praia Grande
turbulence at the plume boundary, and the diffusion and (subsystems 1 and 2) sea outfalls were reproduced in the scale
dispersion because of the turbulence in the ambient model. Figure 6a is a picture of the scale model area, showing
conditions result in a general dilution of the effluent, the outfall lines of Guarujá, Santos, and Praia Grande 1. It is
requiring a large, undistorted scale model. The use of a also possible, thereby, to see the access channel entrance to
hybrid procedure of scale and numerical modeling is an up- Santos Port.
to-date procedure. A scale fixed-bed hydraulic model was Because of the reduced scale, the purpose of the physical
calibrated at the Hydraulic Laboratory of Polytechnic runs presented in this study was to show only the far-field
School, University of São Paulo (LHEPUSP), occupying hydrodynamic dispersion process affected by both the tidal
an area of nearly 750 m2 and reproducing about 1000 km2 cycle and wind. The runs were undertaken during the spring

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 00, No. 0, 0000

 Evaluation of Wastewater Dispersion 0

Figure 5. (a) An example of the LabVIEW Vision Module steps with the Original Image module and the treated, original image. (b) An example of the LabVIEW
Vision Module steps with the results of the Image Calibration and Image Correction modules, which effectively introduced the digitized, coordinated positioning.
(c) An example of the LabVIEW Vision Module steps with results of the Color Threshold module, which selects the spectrum range corresponding to the shade of
blue. (d) An example of the LabVIEW Vision Module steps with the final steps using the modules Fill Holes, Remove Small Objects, and Remove Large Objects to
eliminate image defects.

tide conditions, which correspond to the higher-intensity velocity scale adopted of 1:14.14. Further, the densimetric
tidal-current circulation. Adjustment was achieved by Reynolds number in the model is at least 100 times the limiting
changing roughness of the estuarine bottom, using increas- value of 150 suggested.
ing gravel dimensions, thus improving tidal propagation- The mass transport of the effluent by advection is
time regulation. On obtaining an appropriate tidal-calibra- governed by the laws valid for open-channel flow models,
tion time, hydraulic validation was verified by comparing with the model operated according to the Froude law, and
monitored local speeds and floating tracks measured in field the ambient Reynolds number exceeding the limiting
campaigns (Alfredini, Arasaki, and Amaral, 2008). The conditions characterizing the beginning of the region,
Santos Bay hydrodynamic current circulation pattern, where resistance is proportional to the square of the
summarized based on current field monitoring surveys, is velocity and a correct reproduction of the head loss from
presented in Figure 6c. friction.
The convective spread over the surface near the outfall is Scale model runs were performed for two lengths: the first at
dependent on the density difference at the origin of the spread, the present length up to the discharge point at 4 km (present
i.e. at boil (see Figure 2). For a correct reproduction, the condition) of the Santos sea outfall, and the second at 5 km
densimetric Froude law has to be observed with the thickness (proposed). During the runs, a constant volumetric discharge of
of the buoyant layer as the length term, giving in practice the methylene blue dye tracer was injected through a submerged

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 00, No. 0, 0000

0 Alfredini, Arasaki, and de Melo Bernardino

Figure 6. (a) Panoramic view of the scale model. This picture shows the total area built at Hydraulic Laboratory. (b) Time delays in the real estuarine spring high-
tide propagation in Santos Bay. Time 0 corresponds to Palms Island and 10 min to Ponta da Praia. The hydrodynamic tidal propagation in the estuary was
achieved by increasing the roughness of the model bottom. (c) Typical circulation pattern in Santos Bay and the neighboring coastal area. The Santos outfall is
located between the two areas of flood flux (B and C), an unstable location, but with the 5-km-long outflow, the influence of seaward flux (D) is strongest and
favorable for dispersing the sewage far-field seaward.

stainless steel tube, reproducing the flow inside the sea outfall kQ ¼ kvert 3 khor 3ðkvert Þ1=2 ;
up to the point of discharge and considering the two lengths      
1 1 1
mentioned above. The runs were always initiated under local kQ ¼ 3 3 ;
200 1200 14:14
high-tide conditions.
kQ ¼ 1 : 3; 394; 113 ð10Þ
Dye Tracer to Reproduce the Buoyant Effluent
To simulate the discharge of the plume through the outfall, a    
cm3 cm3 3600
system composed of a Mariotte’s bottle and an energy Qmodel ¼ Qreal 3 ;
h s kQ
dissipator cylinder was developed (Figure 7). The Mariotte’s
3600
bottle is a device that provides constant pressure, delivering a Qmodel ¼ 3; 500; 000 3 ;
3; 394; 113
constant rate of flow from the closed bottles or tanks. The
L
energy dissipator cylinder is composed of a transparent, plastic Qmodel ¼ 3:7 ; ð11Þ
h
tube (caliber ¼ 45.7 mm) with a length of 50 m, coiled in a
polyvinyl chloride cylinder (similar to a coil). This system is where kQ is the liquid discharge scale, khor is the geometric
coupled with a stainless steel tube (caliber ¼ 2.2 mm), horizontal scale, kvert is the geometric vertical scale, kmodel is the
representing the outfall, but without the multiple port systems model discharge, and Qmodel is the actual discharge. Therefore,
existing in the real condition. the mean flow of the discharge from the sewage dump operation
To visualize and simulate a sewage plume, the dispersion at the Santos outfall is 3.5 m3/s.
scenarios were monitored with methylene blue solution The next step was to determine the concentration of the
(dissolved in water). Methylene blue is a well-adapted tracer tracer during the simulations with the physical model, using as
for wastewater investigations (Schudel et al., 2004) and a reference, tests made previously in other studies (Schudel et
groundwater studies (Singhal and Gupta, 2013). al., 2004).
Calculations take into account the model scales, having This chemical solution is well known in the scale-model
reached a maximum, approximate flow rate of 3.7 L/h, as technique as a good colorimetric tracer. Four dye solution
follows: concentration were tested (1%, 0.5%, 0.25%, and 0.125%) to

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 Evaluation of Wastewater Dispersion 0

Figure 7. System-scheme composed of a bracket (A), Mariotte’s bottle (B), and energy dissipater cylinder (C), with a stainless steel tube (D) reproducing the
outfall. This device was an improvement to achieve a permanent discharge at the outfall.

achieve the best results in tracking the effluent for at least 3 d because this concentration gave an intermediate dispersion
(six tidal cycles) and to avoid excessive patching of the scale spot in the wave scenarios and allied the winds to tidal
model bottom. currents.
The tests for determining the concentration of methylene The dispersion scenarios were monitored with the 0.25%
blue with the Mariotte’s bottle system are described in the methylene blue solution, simulating a sewage flow equal to 3.34
Table 1. The model conditions in the tests were the mean sea- m3/s (operational volumetric discharge) and 5.3 m3/s (maxi-
level rise, the syzygy tide at the 1.4-m range, and the start of mum effluent discharge).
the high tide slack and wave absence. Wind Simulation with the Air Tunnel
After evaluations by photos and videos of the tests, a Wind influence, the main parameter for inducing storm-
methylene blue concentration of 0.25% was the ideal surge effects, was carried out in a air-tunnel device,
simulating SW winds generated during meteorological cold
fronts. The air tunnel was constructed in acrylic (total length
¼ 7.5 m; width ¼ 3 m) with a suction fan downwind, in the
vertex (Figure 8a). The system was supported by steel piles
used to adjust the tunnel level above the water. Suction fan
rotation velocity was calibrated according to the POM
(Princeton Ocean Model) numerical modeling results de-
scribed by Harari and Gordon (2001) (see Figure 8b). This is a
tridimensional model.

RESULTS
The calibration of the wind effects on the hydraulic currents
and the numerical modeling results used to calibrate and
validate the scale model plume dispersion are presented in this
section. First, the FLUENT software was used to calibrate the
most adequate discharge rate for the dye tracer. Next, the
Figure 8. The use of an air tunnel in a similar-scale model was a novelty
used in this research. (a) The air tunnel was located at the Santos results from the WQMAP software were used as an indepen-
outfall area with the fan. The scenario shows the plume dispersing dent validation, and to compare the results with the treated
seaward. (b) The air tunnel is located to reproduce SW wind from
satellite images.
232830 0 with the fan rotation calibrated according to Harari and Gordon
(2001) to simulate the environmental conditions of 7 February 1997, The simulations presented here were undertaken in the
1900 hours (local time). High tide was at 1536 hours, low tide was at presence and absence of transient discharge, considering
2132 hours, and the tidal range was 1.3 m (spring tide); the wind was
tidal variation data at the two entrances to the bay, viz.,
SW at 13.9 m/s; and the sea-level rise up to astronomical levels was 0.50
m. the access channel to Santos Port and the São Vicente
channel.

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0 Alfredini, Arasaki, and de Melo Bernardino

Table 1. Tests of the scale model to evaluate the concentration of methylene Table 3. Comparative results of the plume dimensions in the near field
blue tracer that best visualized the complete tidal cycle. Here, it is possible using the satellite images and CORMIX (Ortiz et al., 2006). These data
to observe the trials made to define the best concentration of the tracer to be show a similar trend between the image and CORMIX, considering that the
successfully detected after at least 3 days in real time. discharge and wind conditions were not known when the images were
taken.
Complete Tidal
Methylene Blue Medium Cycles in the Model Distance from Plume Length Plume Width
Tests Concentration (%) Flow (L/h) (days in real time) the Diffuser, m (image), m (CORMIX), m
1 1 1 6 (3) 730 380–411 500–640
2 0.5 1 6 (3) 1030 560–570 660–920
3 0.5 2 6 (3) 1700 911–926 920–960
4 0.25 1 12 (6)
5 0.125 1 12 (6)
6 0.25 6 6 (3) recorded by the anemometer at 3 m/s in the model at the fan
location.
Calibration of the Air Tunnel Hydraulic Scale-Model Calibration and Validation
The calibration adjustment, obtained through a trial and Using Numerical Simulations
error procedure, was made by measuring water speeds that Numerical simulation in the near-field (CORMIX 2)
corresponded with different suction-fan rotations and coupled with the run in the far field (FLUENT) were used
choosing the speed that best fit the Harari and Gordon to calibrate the dispersion field in the scale model. The
(2001) data for a spring tide with the occurrence of a storm quality of the calibration result was evaluated with the
surge (50 km/h SW wind). The environmental conditions validation procedure, using an independent numerical
correspond to those of 7 February 1997, 1900 hours (local simulation (WQMAP) and treated with the satellite images
time). The high tide was at 1536 hours and low tide was at of the plume.
2132, the Tidal Range was 1.3 m (spring tide), the wind was
Near-Field CORMIX 2 Boundary Condition for the
SW at 13.9 m/s, and the sea-level rise up to astronomical
Far-Field FLUENT Runs
levels was 0.50 m.
For numerical simulation of the near-field results present-
The current field circulation shows the most notable
ed in this article, two values for wastewater volumetric
aspects, such as near the mouth of Santos Port, where a
discharge were considered, viz., a maximum discharge Qmax
deflection of the resultant tidal and wind currents was
of 5.3 m3/s and a mean operation volumetric discharge Qmean
observed moving clockwise toward Ponta da Praia. This of 3.34 m3/s.
convergence of the resulting currents reached values of up to Stratification layers were considered according to data
60 cm/s in the actual tide, corresponding, in the model, to a obtained from surveys made by FUNDESPA in the winter–
velocity of 4.2 cm/s, measured by a micropropeller. At spring of 1997 (FUNDESPA, 1998) (see Figure 9a) and in the
approximately Palmas Island, converging speeds up the summers of 1994, 1995, and 1998 (Consórcio ENCIBRA-Falcão
coast of the same order of magnitude were observed. As Bauer-TECAM, 2006a) (see Figure 9b). Table 2 summarizes the
shown in Figure 8b, the wind tunnel acted over an area in results obtained from running CORMIX 2 for the concentration
which the results of the numerical model indicate currents of the constituent phosphorus at the end of the near field
were toward the shore. (CFNF); the initial dilution (SFNF); the plume lengths in the
This adjustment was made by trial and error by three coordinates x (horizontal longitudinal), y (horizontal
measuring the water speeds corresponding to the different lateral), z (vertical); and the plume width in the near-field end
speeds of the fan and choosing the best fitting. This (B) for the maximum wastewater volumetric flow rate (Q ¼ 5.3
condition was monitored by a capacitive gauge for measur- m3/s). Table 3 shows comparative results of the plume
ing water level in the same location as the real tidal gauge dimensions in the near field using the satellite images and
at Torre Grande. CORMIX 2.
With the use of a digital anemometer TAFR-180 model Initial dilution (SFNF) was defined as the relationship
(Instrutherm Measuring Instruments Ltd.), the repeatability between the discharge parameter concentrations (Co) and the
of the fan speed in correspondence to this calibration parameter concentrations at the near-field end (CFNF).
condition was always checked during the runs with wind Phosphorus, which is considered a conservative parameter
action. Once this condition was certified, the speed was in this study because of it’s low biodegradability, was used for
Table 2. Initial dilution and plume dimensions in the near field for total phosphorus. These results were taken as boundary condition for the FLUENT runs,
and the constituent was considered conservative.

Sea Outfall Co (mg/L) CFNF (mg/L) SFNF Q (m3/s) Uc (m/s) x (m) y (m) z (m) B (m)
Santos 5.24 0.09 62.6 5.3 0.15 112.26 0 11 100.69

CFNF, indicates the concentration of the constituent phosphorus at the end of the near field; SFNF, the initial dilution; Q, the sewage discharge; Uc, the current
veolocity in the near-field; x, y, and z, the plume lengths in the three coordinates x (horizontal longitudinal), y (horizontal lateral), z (vertical); and B, the
plume width in the near-field end.

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 Evaluation of Wastewater Dispersion 0

Figure 9. (a) Vertical stratification observed with isopycnal mapping (rt) according field surveys of Santos Bay winter conditions at the bottom. (b) Vertical
stratification observed with isopycnal mapping (rt) from field surveys of Santos Bay winter conditions at the surface. (c) Vertical stratification observed with
isopycnal mapping (rt) from field surveys of Santos Bay summer conditions at the bottom (three surveys).

analyzing the wastewater-field concentration. It was as- rized in Table 4, were simulated for transition and far-field
sumed from environmental monitoring (data from Fundação conditions using FLUENT. The first condition generated
de Estudos e Pesquisas Aquáticas, 1998) that a constant was for a stagnated sea, with a slack-tide or wind effect, and
concentration of phosphorus at C ¼ 5.24 mg/L was discharged the second condition was for a spring tide with 2 m/s wind
at the outlet section of the diffuser. Santos estuary waters in effect.
the region of sea outfall discharge are class 2 in resolution for Table 4. Boundary conditions for simulations in FLUENT. Two possible
the pattern of discharge (CONAMA No. 430, 2011), which different environmental conditions were run to evaluate the constituent
signifies the water is acceptable for recreational activities dispersion pattern. Scenario 1 reproduces a stagnant condition with the
average effluent rate, a slack tide. In contrast, scenario 2 shows the extreme
with secondary (incidental) contact. The water-quality discharge with equinoctial tidal spring currents and wind action, hence a
standard for phosphorus is 0.093 mg/L P (CONAMA N8 430, dynamic environment.
2011).
Santos Port São Vicente Wind
Far-field FLUENT Runs for the Scale Model Scenarios Effluent Channel Channel Effect
Dispersion Calibration 1 Q ¼ 3.5 m3/s — — —
Taking as boundary conditions effluent concentrations of Co ¼ 0.09 mg/L
phosphorus at 0.09 mg/L at the end of the near field, 2 Q ¼ 5.3 m3/s Tidal transient Tidal transient 2 m/s
Co ¼ 0.09 mg/L discharge discharge
obtained when running CORMIX 2, two scenarios, summa-

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0 Alfredini, Arasaki, and de Melo Bernardino

Figure 10. Percentage of the concentration contours for a conservative constituent (100 at the end of the near field, according to CORMIX 2 software) for the first
scenario for one tide cycle, according to FLUENT and a comparison with the scale model. These runs used a stagnant calibration reference without tidal or wind
forcing.

The results of simulations using FLUENT on the boundary The image processing in the SPRING 3.5–INPE software
conditions in Table 4 are presented in Figures 10–12. The scale (GIS data from the National Institute of Space Research of
model and the numerical model plume images are superim- Brazil), according to the framework showed in Figure 15.
posed so the effluent dispersion (advection þ diffusion) in the Figure 16 identifies and maps the sewage-plume dispersion
overall calibration results can be evaluated. patterns in Santos Bay using the satellite images. It is possible
If 100 is the percentage of the concentration in the beginning to observe the plumes touching the surface in the near field,
of the far-field, Figure 10 shows the percentage of the sinking afterward, and having no relationship between the
concentration contours for the first scenario specified in Table area and the sewage discharge (Ortiz et al., 2006), with the
4. The seawater was considered stagnate, and only an effluent geometrical characteristics shown in Table 5.
volumetric flow rate was considered. Figure 10 presents the
final result for one tide cycle in FLUENT, corresponding to the Runs with a 4-km Outfall Length
scale model and overlapping. Both the wind blowing shoreward, such as under storm-
Figure 11 shows the second scenario with FLUENT. Here, in surge conditions, and the wave climate acting in the diffuser
addition to the effluent discharge, transient discharges in the region can produce an increase in landward sewage-reflux
Santos Port and São Vicente channels were added. In Figure frequency, which mostly reaches the mouth of the Santos
11, the effluent discharge time is equivalent to three tide cycles, estuary. When considering the technical, economic, and
with the plume flowing toward the open sea. environmental aspects involved in outfall enlargement and
Figure 12 also reproduces the second scenario using
Table 5. Comparative results for plume dimensions using the satellite
FLUENT after six tide cycles (3 d). The plume flows seaward, images, and the brackets show the values obtained from the scale model run
but the wind effect is apparent throughout the entire process, showed in Figure 10. These data show a similar trend between the image
with the plume dispersing throughout almost all Santos Bay and the scale model, considering that the discharge and wind conditions
were not known when the images were taken. From these results, it is
and closer to the coast.
possible to verify the quite similar values for the plume geometry,
WQMAP Runs and Satellite Images as Scale-Model considered a measure of the good quality for validating the dispersion in
the scale model.
Dispersion Validation
In Figures 13a and b present the results obtained by Distance from Plume Surface
WQMAP in the winter (8-d run) and summer (16-d run) for a the Diffuser (m) Width (m) Area (km2)
conservative constituent with an effluent discharge rate of 5.3 730 380–411 0.1
m3/s. In the scale model, the longest run was 3 d (Figure 12); 1030 560–570 0.3
hence, Figure 14 presents the comparison at the same scale (1300) (615) (0.5)
1700 911–926 0.7
used in Figures 12 and 13a.

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 Evaluation of Wastewater Dispersion 0

Figure 11. Percentage of the concentration contours for a conservative constituent (100 at the end of near field, according to CORMIX 2 software) for the second
scenario after three spring tide cycles, according to FLUENT and a comparison with the scale model. These runs reproduce 1.5 d with 2 m/s winds onshore and are
the final results of the dispersion calibration.

safe navigation in the Santos Port Access Channel, the Hydraulic Scale Model Results: Runs with a 5-km
proposed changes in outfall length require due evaluation. Outfall Length
Figures 17a (Q ¼ 3.34 m3/s) and b (Q ¼ 5.3 m3/s) reproduce The increase in length to 5 km (isobath ¼ 12 m), with a air
various scenarios with the air tunnel and plume dispersed tunnel, was performed within an area where diffuser interfer-
throughout the region of the Santos Port Access Channel for ence at the Santos Port access channel or basins is eliminated,
the 4-km outfall. by being deeper than the present alignment (Figure 18a with Q

Figure 12. Percentage of the concentration contours for a conservative constituent (100 at the end of near field, according to CORMIX 2 software) for the second
scenario after six spring tide cycles, according to FLUENT and a comparison with scale model. These runs reproduce 3 d with a 2 m/s wind onshore and are the
final results of the dispersion calibration.

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 00, No. 0, 0000

0 Alfredini, Arasaki, and de Melo Bernardino

Figure 13. Percentage of the concentration contours for a conservative constituent (100 at the end of near field, according to CORMIX 2 software), according to
WQMAP, (a) for winter conditions for 4–31 July 2005, and (b) for summer conditions for 1–16 January 2006. The WQMAP simulations presented are independent
numerical runs to validate the scale model dispersion.

¼ 3.34 m3/s). As shown in Figure 18b (Q ¼ 5.3 m3/s), the trend is beginning at the high tide (ebb) and ending at the low tide
similar to that of th 4-km outfall, but with less-intense (flood). According to the LabVIEW software Vision Module,
shoreward dispersion. the surface level of coincidence between the scale model
image and the FLUENT increases with the time of disper-
DISCUSSION sion. Furthermore, the scale model dispersion has a larger
Of great importance for this study, the effluent-dispersion dispersion range because it is a conservative tool for
calibration presented in Figures 10–12 show similar evolu- evaluating the sewage far field.
tion patterns after the same tidal cycles, with a primary The complementary validation, with a comparison of the
seaward dispersion tendency and complete tidal cycles near-field length, width, and surface area, obtained from

Figure 14. Plume dispersion comparison at the same geometrical scale: scale model and FLUENT with an effluent discharge of 5.3 m3/s overlap the results of
WQMAP image with the same discharge rate. These figures validate the final dispersion rate.

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 Evaluation of Wastewater Dispersion 0

Figure 15. Digitation of satellite images. From the original TM-LANDSAT and HRV-SPOT images in bands 1, 2, and 3, the software SPRING-INPE 3.5 treats
the geometric correction, atmospheric correction, reflectance conversion, image normalization, contrast stretch, spatial filtering, visual interpretation, and
finally, maps the plume dispersion.

the satellite images and the results of Figure 10, is The runs with 4-km length showed that the plume tended
encouragingly similar. In validating the far field with to disperse seaward, especially for a scenario with Q ¼ 3.34
independent data from the WQMAP modeling, it was not m3/s. However, the plume, especially for Q ¼ 5.3 m3/s,
possible to have the same days of running for comparison. returns to the Santos Port Access Channel. This confirms
In Figure 14, a similar plume trend can be observed, the presence of a larger plume from a larger effluent
despite different environmental conditions for the tide and discharge into Santos Bay. Otherwise, increasing the
wind and different periods of observation, showing similar outfall length by at least of 1 km disperses the plume
trends to the E and N in the bay and the highest strongly seaward.
concentration situated in the center of the Santos Bay.
Once the scale-model dispersion was calibrated and validat- CONCLUSIONS
ed, it was possible to evaluate the improvement created by The assessment of Santos sewage outfall with a 5-km length
increasing the length of the outfall. with the end of isobath at 11 m shows that the dispersion tends

Figure 16. Identification and mapping of the sewage plume dispersion patterns in Santos Bay using TM-LANDSAT and HRV-SPOT satellite images. According
to the date is indicated the tide condition as high or low water slack tide, flood or ebb of syzygy or neap. Unfortunately it was not possible to have the information of
the sewage discharge.

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0 Alfredini, Arasaki, and de Melo Bernardino

Figure 17. (a) Plume effluent discharge (Q ¼ 3.5 m3/s) from the 4-km-long Santos outfall after 3 d using the environmental conditions specified in Figure 8b. (b)
Plume effluent discharge (Q ¼ 5 m3/s) from the 4-km-long Santos outfall after 3 d using the environmental conditions specified in Figure 8b.

to shift toward deeper waters because of the pipeline extent; Vicente (B) to deflect currents shoreward, and an outward ebb-
therefore, it follows a similar trend to that of the 4-km outfall, flux tendency in the bay itself (D). Studies with the scale model
but with less intensity in the shoreward dispersion. Results showed that, by extending the length of the Santos sea outfall 1
from scale modeling with an air tunnel showed that dispersion km, it is possible to increase the seaward effluent flow, without
in the far field in this adverse scenario could be improved by interfering with the port access channel, which would tend to
increasing the length of the sea outfall. Actually, with the diminish eutrophication in the bay as a whole. However, these
current hydrodynamics circulation pattern at Santos Bay studies must be refined to obtain the ideal outfall length.
(Figure 6c), there is obviously a dominant outer-eastward flux The effectiveness of using a scale model was demonstrated
(A) at depths of more than 12 or 13 m, a tendency toward inner with the support of adequate calibration and validation based
flooding at the Santos mouth (C), a secondary tendency at São on field measurements and numerical models, providing a

Figure 18. These pictures clearly show an improvement in the plume dispersion scenario from the original outfall length of 4 km. (a) Plume effluent discharge (Q
¼ 3.5 m3/s) from a 5-km-long Santos outfall after 3 d using the environmental conditions specified in Figure 8b. (b) Plume effluent discharge (Q ¼ 5 m3/s) from a 5-
km-long Santos outfall after 3 d using the environmental conditions specified in Figure 8b.

Journal of Coastal Research, Vol. 00, No. 0, 0000

 Evaluation of Wastewater Dispersion 0

hybrid model that well described sewage dispersion from the Harari, J. and Gordon, M., 2001. Simulações Numéricas da Dispersão
outfalls. Indeed, scale model provided a more-accurate de Substâncias no Porto e Baı́a de Santos, sob a Ação de Marés e
Ventos. Revista Brasileira de Recursos Hı́dricos, 6(4), 115–131.
description of the water hydrodynamics after the field Jirka, G.H. and Akar, P.J., 1991. Hydrodynamic Classification of
measurements. submerged multiport-diffuser discharges. Journal of Hydraulic
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