Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of

Sociology

Assignment of Sociology

Topic:
Contributions of August Comte and Spencer in the
Development of Sociology

Submitted by:
ROLL NO: 64, 75, 79, 84, 86, 91, and 95

Submitted to:

MISS Faiza

Department:
BS-IT (6th-Semester)

Submitted Date:

16-August-2018

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

Introduction:
The credit for having established sociology into an independent and a separate science and to
obtain for sociology a respectable position in the family of social sciences goes to Comte and
Spencer.

Both of them championed the cause of sociology. In addition to Comte and Spencer, other
thinkers such as Durkheim, Marx and Weber also took a leading role in marketing sociology a
science. Hence these five thinkers are often called the “Pioneers” or “founding fathers of
sociology”.

August Comte- The Founding Father of Sociology:

August Comte was born in France. He was professor of Physics. During his
life, there was French Revolution. Socio-cultural institutions had changed.
There was social disorganization in society. This resulted in the creation of
new social problems. With the expansion of industry the institutions were
affected. Specially the family underwent drastic changes. The peace of the
family had vanished and kinship relationship among the members of the
families had disappeared. The whole of France was in the grip of these
conditions.

Comte thought on these problems deeply and came upon a solution which he presented in
the form of a new science theories of Comte, later called Sociology.

Contributions of August Comte in the Development of Sociology

Methodology:

According to Comte, the new science of human society must use the positive method. By this
method, he meant the subordination of concepts to facts and acceptance of the idea that all social
phenomena are subject to general laws-social laws.

Comte was a student of mathematics but he denied that the positive method could be identified
with the use of mathematics and statistics. He believed that the positive knowledge could be
gained through four methods, i.e. observation, experiment, comparison, and historical method.

1. Observation

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

Observation is through examination of specific social facts to create laws of society.

2. Experimentation
Experiment is through observation, manipulation of settings or persons and
assessment of impact.
3. Comparison
Comparison is to animals and other parts of the world to that society.
4. Historical research
Historical understanding is done through research of social change or dynamics.

According to him, observation should be guided by a theory of social phenomena.

He believed in the use of observation to explain the variations of human behaviour. Comte was
aware that actual experiment was not possible in the study of society. But in French language,
experiment generally refers to controlled observation. He advocated the careful study of
‘Pathological Cases’, as the scientific equivalent of pure experimentation. He stressed the need
of fruitful comparison for the study of social phenomena.

He maintained that comparison could be carried out between the human and the animal societies,
between coexisting societies and between social classes in the same society. He explained that by
this method the different stages of evolution may all be observed at once. Comte maintained that
these conventional methods of science-observation, experimentation, and comparison- should be
used in combination with the historical method.

The historical ‘method should be used to search the general laws governing the successive
transformations of humanity through fixed, but limited number of stages. He insisted that we
could not understand a particular social phenomenon without knowledge about its social context,
for example, to understand the significance of a religion, one should understand the entire social
and cultural context.

There are two further points of methodological significance which need to be mentioned:

i. In Comte’s opinion, society is in one respect like an organism in that the whole is better
known than the parts. From this proposition he came to a somewhat inconsistent
conclusion that such specialized studies as economics are misleading because no social
fact taken as an isolated phenomenon should be introduced into a science.

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

ii. In Comte’s work there is a suggestion, which anticipates by more than fifty years, an
outstanding contribution of Max Weber. Comte took social types to be “limits to which
social reality approaches closer and closer without being ever able to reach them”. In this
statement perceives in elementary form, Max Weber’s ideal type, an excellent
methodological tool for sociological analysis.

Static and Dynamic Sociology:

Comte divided sociology into two major parts: static and dynamic. This division was taken over
from Biology, which was known at that time as Physiology. According to Comte, “the statically
study of sociology consists in the investigation of the laws of action and reaction of the different
parts of the social system. Social dynamics, on the other hand, is the study of continuous
movements in social phenomena through time.”

He wrote in his book, ‘Positive Philosophy’ that the distinction between the two is a distinction between
two aspects of theory. It corresponds with the double conception of order and progress: for order consists
in a permanent harmony among the conditions of social |existence and progress consists in social
development. Both static and dynamics are essential for the study of society.

According to Comte, social statics is concerned with the analysis of the structure of society at any given
movement as well as the analysis of elements, which at any given moment determine the consensus. The
social static is essential for understanding the nature of social order. On the other hand, social dynamics
must be subordinated to social statics.

Social dynamics consists of a description of various stages for the development of mind and society with
the help of historical analysis. Social dynamics is history, which is not concerned with individual names,
rather it is history of a scientific nature in search of abstract social laws operative in mind and society.
Comte believed that social dynamics is concerned with human development and social progress.
Progress is observable in all aspects of society—physical, moral, intellectual and political.

The law of three stages:

Comte considered sociology to be true science, which is concerned with the search of social
laws. Based on his belief in social evolution, he puts forth the law of three stages. According to
him, “each of our leading conceptions, each branch of our knowledge, passes successively
through three different theoretical conditions: the theological or fictitious; the metaphysical or
abstract; and the scientific or positive.”

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

A brief description of these three stages is as follows:

1. Theological or fictitious stage:

Priests and military dominate this stage. In this stage, man tries to understand the nature of all
beings; origins and purposes of all effects and the beliefs that all things are caused by
supernatural beings. In this stage, all theoretical conceptions, whether general or special, bear a
supernatural impress. The theological stage went through three phases of fetishism, polytheism
and monotheism.

2. The metaphysical or abstract stage:

Churchman and lawyers dominate this stage. At this stage, mind takes into account abstract
forces and a belief that personified abstractions are capable of producing all phenomena. This
stage started about 1300 A.D. and was transitional and short lived.

3. The positive or scientific stage:

This stage started in the beginning of the 19th Century in which observation predominated over
imagination and all theoretical concepts became positive. The industrial administrators and
scientists dominate this stage. At this stage, the human mind gives up the futile search for
absolute notions, origin of the universe and its causes; rather it seeks to establish scientific
principles governing all types of phenomena.

According to Comte, corresponding to the three stages of mental progress, there are stages of
society. The theological and metaphysical stages are dominated by military values. The positive
stage marks the beginning of the industrial society.

Thus, Comte refers to two major types of societies; the theological-military society, which was
dying; and scientific-industrial society which was being born during his lifetime. He believed
that the new scientific—industrial society would become the society of all mankind. This is the
final stage in a series of successive transformations and each stage is definitely superior to the
previous one.

Hierarchy of sciences:
According to Comte, Just like individuals and societies, sciences also pass through the same
stages. As astronomy began in mystical speculation and developed through philosophy and
finally reached the scientific method, similarly sociology has arrived at a point in which religious

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

notions or metaphysical causes are not relevant. At the scientific stage sociology is concerned
with observation and analysis of all types of human relationships in society.

The abstract and theoretical sciences are arranged in a hierarchy in which more concrete and
complex sciences succeed the more general and abstract science. Mathematics is at the base on
hierarchy followed by astronomy, because the positive method has been adopted first of all in
these sciences. Over a period of time, they are followed by mechanics, physics, chemistry,
biology, and finally sociology.

Comte believed that the social sciences are at the top of the hierarchy because they enjoy all the
resources of the anterior sciences and offer the attributes of a completion of the positive method.
The positive method must prevail in history and politics and finally in sociology which is the
roof of all sciences.

In establishing hierarchy of the sciences, Comte distinguished the methodological features of

various sciences. Biology, which immediately precedes social sciences, employs a holistic
methodology. Unlike physics and chemistry, which analyze individual elements, biology
employs a holistic approach and proceeds from the study of organic wholes.

According, to Comte, in the Inorganic sciences, the elements are much better known to us than
the whole which they constitute; so that In that case we must proceed from the simple to the
compound. But the reverse method is necessary in the study of man and society; man and society
are better known to us and more accessible subjects of study than the parts which constitute
them.

Just as biology cannot explain an organ or a function without reference to the total organism,
similarly, sociology cannot explain social phenomena without reference to the total social
context. In the words of Comte, “there can be no scientific study of society either in its
conditions or its movements If It is separated into portion and its divisions are studied apart.”

Comte's Positive Contributions and Weaknesses:

Ritzer and Goodman identify eight positive contributions that Comte made to sociology:

 Comte coined the term "sociology" and may be viewed as its founder.
 Comte thought of sociology as a positivistic science.
 He elaborated four methods of sociology.
 He distinguished social statics from social dynamics.

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

 He was a macro sociologist.

 He viewed social structures as taming individual egoism.
 He offered a dialectical view of structural change.
 He attempted to integrate theory and practice.

Ritzer and Goodman also identify ten basic weaknesses of Comte's work:

 Comte's thought was distorted by his own experiences in life.

 He was out of touch with the real world.
 He was out of touch with other thinkers of his times.
 His empirical work is laughable, and his theoretical work far too generalized.
 His work is only marginally sociological.
 He made no original contributions to sociology.
 His sociology was primitive in its organicism — i.e., he crudely viewed society in terms of
the workings of the human body.
 Comte heavy-handedly imposed his theoretical frameworks on the data he was analyzing.
 His self-conceit led him to make many ridiculous pronouncements and blunders.
 His positivist religion is strangely similar to Catholicism, which casts doubt on his scientific
intentions.
 His plans for the future appear totalitarian and bizarre.

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

Herbert Spencer:
Spencer was born In England in 1820. As a child he was weak and sickly. He
never attended a regular school and was instructed at his home. By the age of
sixteen, he was well trained In Mathematics and Natural sciences. But his
major Interest was In Ethics and Politics. His first book, ‘Social Statics’ was
published in 1852.

This book was followed by another book named ‘First Principals’ in 1862. Later his major works
include multi-volume work—”Principles of Biology’ in 1865 ; then a multi-volume work called
‘Principles of Psychology’ in 1872 ; followed by multi-volume work entitled ‘Principles of
Sociology’ in 1896. He had also written an eight volume study ‘Descriptive Sociology” (1873 to
1894) as well as the highly acclaimed The Study of Sociology’ in 1873.

Contributions of Herbert Spencer in the Development of Sociology

His major contributions have been described below:

Science and Society:

Like Comte, Spencer believed in and worked for a science of society which they both argued to
be possible because they thought society was an order of coexistence and progress. Where there
is order, the components of that order may constitute the subject of a science.

This social science (sociology) is the science of what Spencer called the super-organic, that is,
social evolution. He divided all phenomena in the universe into three categories, i.e., inorganic,
organic and super-organic. Sociology, according to him, was concerned with the super-organic
or the socio-cultural phenomena.

Though for both Comte and Spencer, sociology was a positive science but there were differences
of opinion between two of them regarding function of the new science of society in modern state.
Whereas Comte wanted sociology is to guide men in building a better society in which to live.
Spencer was of the view that the new science should not interfere with the natural process
occurring within society.

There is a tendency within all natural phenomena to improve itself and society being a natural
phenomenon, is no exception. Spencer, like Comte had perceived the significant role of history
for the new science of society. In the words of Spence, “That which it really concerns us to know
is the natural history of society. The only history that is of practical use is what may be called

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

“Descriptive sociology”. According to Spencer, history, if done well, is essentially sociology, a

careful description of social phenomena in evolution.

Organic analogy:

Spencer took great pains to elaborate in great detail the organic analogy which is the
identification of a society with biological organism. He regarded the recognition of the similarity
between society and organism as the first step towards a general theory of evolution.

In the words of Spencer, “So complete is society organized on the same system as an Individual
that we may perceive something more than an analogy between them, the same definition of life
applies to both”.

Spencer noted several similarities between biological and social organisms, which are as
follows:
i. Both society and organism are distinguished from inorganic matter by visible growth
during the greater part of their existence.
ii. As societies and organisms grow in size, they also increase in complexity of structure.
iii. Both in societies and organisms, progressive differentiation of structure is accompanied
by progressive differentiation of functions.
iv. Evolution establishes for both societies and organisms differences in structure and
function that make each other possible.
v. Just as a living organism may be regarded as a nation of units that live individually, so a
nation of human beings may be regarded as an organism.

After describing the analogy, Spencer also described the differences between the society and
organism. According to him the parts of an animal form a concrete whole but the parts of society
form a whole which is discrete. While the living units composing the organism are combined
together in close contact, the living units composing the society are free, are not in contact and
are more or less widely dispersed. Spencer continued to use the organic analogy as a scientific
premise to build his theory of evolution.

Spencer tried to pinpoint the similarities and differences between organic and social life but
denied that he held the doctrine of organic analogy. In his words, “I have used the analogies, but
only as a scaffolding to help in building up a coherent body of sociological induction. Let us take

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

away the scaffolding: the inductions will stand by themselves”. However, Spencer consistently
used the terminology of organism in his writings.

Theory of Evolution:
The major concern of Spencer was with evolutionary change in social structures and social
institutions. According to him, the evolution of human society, far from being different from
other evolutionary phenomenon, is but a special case of universally applicable natural law.
Ultimately, all universal phenomena- inorganic and super-organic—are subject to the natural law
of evolution.

According to Spencer, “Evolution is an integration of matter and concomitant dissipation of

motion; during which the matter passes from an indefinite, incoherent homogeneity to a definite,
coherent heterogeneity; and during which the retained motion undergoes a parallel
transformation”. Within this framework of universal evolution, Spencer developed his three
basic laws and his four secondary propositions—each building upon each and all upon the
doctrine of evolution.

The three basic laws are:

i. The law of persistence of force;

ii. The law of the indestructibility of matter and

iii. The law of continuity of motion.

The four secondary propositions are:

i. Persistence of the relationship between the force;

ii. Transformation and equivalence of forces,

iii. Tendency of everything to move along the line of least resistance and greatest attraction,
and

iv. The principle of the alteration or rhythm of motion.

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

There are two distinct and interrelated aspects of Spencer’s theory of evolution:

1. The movement from simple societies to various levels of compound

societies:
Spencer identified four types of societies in terms of their evolutionary stages—simple,
compound, doubly compound and trebly compound, each being distinguishable on the basis of
more of less complexity of their social structures and functions. There is an inherent tendency for
the homogeneous to become heterogeneous and for the uniform to become multiform.

2. Change from military to industrial society:

This view point of society states that types of social structure depend on the relation of a society
to other societies in its significant environment. Thus the evolution is from military to industrial
societies, the former characterized by ‘compulsory co-operation’ while the later is based on
‘voluntary cooperation’.

The military society is also characterized by a centralized government, a rigid system of

stratification, economic autonomy and state domination of all social organization. The chief
characteristics of an industrial society are: free trade, laws of economic autonomy, independent
voluntary organization; relatively open system of stratification and a decentralized government.

A question related to Spencer’s writings is, whether he believed that evolution, which was the
law of becoming, was directed towards progress. Spencer did not hold the view that evolution
necessarily leads to progress. In Spencer’s words, “the doctrine of evolution is erroneously
supposed to imply some intrinsic proclivity in every species towards a higher form.

Similarly, many make the erroneous assumption that the transformation which constitutes
evolution implies an intrinsic tendency to go through those changes which the formula of
evolution expresses’. But, according to him, the progress of evolution is not necessary; it
depends on certain conditions.

The frequent occurrence of dissolution (process opposed to evolution), the movement of the
multiform to the uniform, shows that, where essential conditions are not maintained, the reverse
process takes place Thus, it will be wrong to assume that Spencer claimed the ever-presence of
evolution or the notion that evolution necessarily leads to progress. However, Spencer believed
that man by his very nature was pre-destined to progress.

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

Spencer stated that societies need not necessarily pass through the identical stages of evolution or
become exactly one like the other.

He maintained that there were differences between the individual societies due to disturbances
which interfered with the straight line of evolution.

He refers to fine possible disturbances which are as follows:

i. A somewhat different original endowment of the races;
ii. The effect due to the impact of the immediately preceding stage of evolution;
iii. Peculiarities of habit;
iv. The position of a given society in the framework of a larger community of societies and
v. The impact of the mixture of races.

Social Darwinism:
Social Darwinism is an attempt to apply Darwin’s theory of evolution, dealing with the
development of plants and animals. LO social phenomena. Herbert Spencer and summer were
the two most outspoken advocates of social Darwinism in sociology Spencer’s social

Darwinism is centered on two fundamental principles which are discussed below:

(i) The principle of the survival of the fittest:

Spencer full endorsed the natural process of conflict and survival which operates as a kind of
biologically purifying process. According U him, nature is endowed with a providential tendency
to get rice of unfit and to make room for the better; it is the law of nature that the weak should be
eliminated for the sake of strong.

(ii) The principle of non-interference:

Spencer was a serious; advocate of individualism and laissez-faire politics. He opposed almost
any form of state interference with private activity. He insisted that the state had no business in
education, health sanitation, postal services, money and banking, regulation o housing conditions
or the elimination of poverty.

For Spencer the state was a sort of joint stock Company whose only role was the protection of
the rights of the individual and defense of its citizens against external aggression. Spencer was of
the opinion that sociologists should convince the state and the citizen not to intervene in the
natural process of selection operative in society. In his world “nature is more intelligent than man

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 Contributions of August Comte and Herbert Spencer in the Development of
Sociology

and once you begin to interfere with the order of nature, there is no knowing where the result
will end”.

Functionalism:
Spencer was a thorough going functionalist as well as an evolutionist. According to him, “There
can be no true conception of a structure without a true conception of its function”. Function
occurs within a social structure and all social structures must have functions. He explained, “To
understand how an organization originated and developed, it is requisite to understand the need
sub served by it at the outset and afterwards”. He believed that social institutions are not the
result of deliberate intentions and motivations of actors but arise from; his exigencies of social
structures and functions.

According to him, any serious sociological analysis of social institutions must necessarily
employs both the concepts of social evolution and social function. He emphasized that changes
in structure cannot occur without changes in functions and that increases in the size of social
units necessarily bring in their wake progressive differentiations in social activities. Spencer
combined his functionalism with evolutionism. According to him, if the society as to evolve into
higher and more advanced social structures and function’s, it must move from the simple to the
complex activities, which is moving from the lesser military to the more industrial activities.

Similarity and Difference Between Comte and Spencer

Similarity:-
Comte and Spencer, both is positivist.
Difference:-
Comte maintains a sense of positivist religion (subjective) whereas Spencer focuses more
on knowable knowledge (objective).
August Comte was a positivist. He believed only in things that were observable, measurable, and
testable. He believed that all theory in his new science of sociology (originally called
"positivism") must be based on observation. He believed that society would change by the
deliberate action of an elitist minority of "priests," all of whom would be trained as sociologists.
Herbert Spencer was a social Darwinist. He believed in the principle of laissez-faire ("let it
alone," meaning that government should not interfere with the "natural order" of things). To him,
social change would occur as the parts of society that didn't work well were allowed to die out,
while those that did function adequately would continue and become stronger.

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