Assessment

Subject CSE30301:
Structural Analysis 1. Final examination - 70%
2. Coursework - 30%

Prof. Y.Q. Ni (Prof. Ngai) Coursework (30%) covers:

Office: ZS930 (CEE)
Phone: 2766 6004 Mid-term test (12%)
E-mail: ceyqni@polyu.edu.hk Assignment (8%)
Laboratory experiment (6%)
Computer analysis (4%)

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Pre-requisite Subject: Syllabus

CSE 20204: Advanced Structural Mechanics 1. Introduction to structural analysis
2. Principle of virtual work
Course components include (13 weeks): 3. Flexibility method
Lecture: 2 hours per week (13 weeks) 4. Stiffness method
Tutorial: 1 hour for alternate weeks (6 weeks) 5. Finite element method
6. Influence lines
Laboratory: twice a semester (2 hours)
7. Laboratory and computer work
Computer analysis: once a semester (2.5 hours)

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 References for Subject CSE30301 1.1 What is structural analysis?
Textbook:
Structural Engineering is the science and art of planning,
 R.C. Hibbeler, Structural Analysis, 8th Edition in SI designing, and constructing safe and economical
Units, 2011. structures that will serve their intended purposes.
Structural analysis is an integral part of any structural
engineering project.
Reference Books:
 R.C. Coates, M.G. Contie & F.K. Kong, Structural Structural Design
Analysis, 3rd Edition, 1988.
 H.H. West, Analysis of Structures: An Integration of Core
Classical and Modern Methods, 1989. Structural Analysis
Courses
 A. Ghali, A.M. Neville & T.G. Brown, Structural
Analysis: A Unified Classical and Matrix Approach,
5th Edition, 2003. Structural Mechanics

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Structural analysis is the prediction of the performance

Week 1: of a given structure under prescribed loads and/or
Introduction to Structural Analysis other external effects, such as support movements and
temperature changes.

The performance characteristics include:

• What is structural analysis? • stresses or stress resultants, such as axial forces, shear
forces, and bending moments;
• Equations of equilibrium • deflections (displacements); and
• Computation of reactions • support reactions.

• Method of joints The analysis of a structure usually involves determination of

these quantities as caused by a given loading condition. The
• Method of sections object of this subject (CSE30301) is to present the methods
for the analysis of structures in static equilibrium.

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1.1.1 Classification of structures (2) Beams. Beams are usually straight horizontal members
used primarily to carry vertical loads. Quite often they are
A structure refers to a system of connected parts used to
classified according to the way they are supported, as
support loadings. Examples of civil engineering structures
indicated in the figures below.
include buildings, towers, gymnasia, and bridges.

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1.1.2 Types of structural elements Beams are primarily designed to resist bending moment;
however, if they are short and carry large loads, the
It is important for a structural engineer to recognize
internal shear force may become quite large and this force
various types of elements comprising a structure.
may govern their design.
(1) Tie Rods. Structural members subjected to a tensile
force are often referred to as tie rods or bracing struts. When the material of a beam is a metal such as steel or
aluminum, the I-shaped cross section is most effective.
They are also called bar elements.
Here the forces developed in the top and bottom flanges
form necessary couple used to resist the applied moment
M, whereas the web is effective in resisting the applied
shear V. Concrete beams generally have rectangular cross
sections.

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(3) Columns. Members that are generally vertical and Trusses consist of slender elements, usually arranged in
resist axial compressive loads are referred to as columns. triangular fashion. They can be either planar trusses (2D)
Tubes and I-shaped cross sections are often used for metal or space trusses (3D). Due to the geometric arrangement
columns, and circular and square cross sections with of its members, loads that cause the entire truss to bend
reinforcing rods are used for concrete columns. are converted into tensile or compressive forces in the
Sometimes, columns are subjected to both an axial load members. Because of this, one of the primary advantages
and a bending moment. These members are also referred of a truss is that it uses less material to support the given
to as beam-columns. loads in comparison with a beam.

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1.1.3 Types of structures Examples of truss bridges

The combination of structural members and the materials

from which they are composed is referred to as a
structural system. Each system is constructed of one or
more of four basic types of structures. These four basic
types of structures are described below.

(1) Trusses. When the span of a structure is required to

be large and its depth is not an important criterion for
design, a truss may be selected. A truss is composed of
bar elements.

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 Examples of cable-supported roofs
(2) Cables and Arches. Two other forms of structures used
to span long distances are the cable and the arch.

Cables are usually flexible and carry their loads in tension.

Unlike tension ties, however, the external load is not
applied along the axis of the cable, and consequently the
cable takes a form that has a defined sag. Cables are
commonly used to support bridges and building roofs.

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Examples of cable-supported bridges

An arch achieves its strength in compression since it has a
reverse curvature to that of the cable. The arch must be
rigid, however, in order to maintain its shape, and this
results in secondary loadings involving shear and moment,
which must be considered in its design.

In effect, an arch takes vertical loads and turns them into

thrusts that run around the arch and put the elements of
the arch in compression.

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 Examples of modern arch bridges

The Zhaozhou Bridge is the world's oldest open-spandrel stone

segmental arch bridge. Credited to the design of a craftsman
named, the bridge was constructed in the years 595-605 during
the Sui Dynasty (581–618). Located in the southern part of
Hebei Province, it is the oldest standing bridge in China.

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Structures consisting of arches and cables

Gateway Arch in St. Louis, USA

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(3) Frames. Frames are often used in buildings and are National Aquatics Centre, Beijing: 'The Water Cube'
composed of beams and columns that are either pin or
fixed connected. Like trusses, frames extend in two or
three dimensions.

The loading on a frame causes bending of its members,

and if it has rigid joint connections, this structure is
generally “indeterminate” from a standpoint of analysis.

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(4) Surface Structures. A surface structure is made from a

material having a very small thickness compared to its
other dimensions. Sometimes this material is very flexible
and can take the form of a tent or air-inflated structure. In
both cases the material acts as a membrane that is
subjected to pure tension.

Surface structures may also be made of rigid material

such as reinforced concrete. As such they may be shaped
as folded plates, cylinders, or hyperbolic paraboloids, and
are referred to as thin plates or shells.

A lot of gymnasia and stadia for 2008 Beijing Olympic

Games were designed as surface structures in view of
aesthetics.

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 1.1.4 Types of loads on structures The process of replacing an actual structure with a simple
system conducive to analysis is called structural
1. Dead loads; idealization. Most often, lines that are located along the
2. Live loads; centerlines of the components represent the structural
3. Highway bridge loads; components. The sketch of a structure idealized in this
4. Railway bridge loads; manner is called a line diagram.
5. Impact loads;
6. Wind loads;
7. Snow loads;
8. Earthquake loads;
9. Hydrostatic and soil pressures;
10. Other natural loads (thermal effect,
differential settlement, etc).

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1.1.5 Idealization of structures 1.1.6 Idealization of connections

To calculate the forces in the various parts of a structure Structural members are joined together in various ways
with reasonable simplicity and accuracy, it is necessary depending on the intent of the designer. The three types
to represent the structure in a simple manner that is of joints most often specified are the pin connection (or
conducive to analysis. called hinge), the roller support, and the fixed joint.
Structural components always have width and thickness.
Concentrated forces rarely act at a single point; rather, they
are distributed over small areas. If these characteristics are
taken into consideration in detail, however, an analysis of
the structure will be very difficult, if not impossible.

Pin- and roller-supported connections

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A pin-connected joint and a roller support allow some Examples of fixed and moment-resisting connections
freedom for slight rotation, whereas a fixed joint allows
no relative rotation between the connected members and
is consequently more expensive to fabricate.
For most timber structures, the members are assumed to
be pin-connected, since bolting or nailing them will not
sufficiently restrain them from rotating with each other.

Idealized models used in structural analysis that represent

pinned and fixed supports and the corresponding joints are
shown below. In reality, however, all connections exhibit
some stiffness against joint rotations, owing to friction and
material behaviour. In this case, a more appropriate model
for a support or joint might be that shown in Figure (c)
below. If the torsional spring constant k = 0, the joint
Fix-supported connections is a pin, and if k  , the joint is fixed.

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Examples of pin and hinge connections

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 1.2 Equations of equilibrium
A structure or one of its members is in equilibrium when
it maintains a balance of force and moment. In general
this requires that the force and moment equations of
equilibrium be satisfied along three independent axes
for 3D structures, namely,

Fx=0, Fy=0, Fz=0

Mx=0, My=0, Mz=0

These six equations are called the

equations of equilibrium of space
structures and are the necessary
and sufficient conditions for
equilibrium.

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For a plane structure lying in the xy plane and subjected

to a coplanar system of forces and couples, the necessary
and sufficient conditions for equilibrium can be expressed
as
Fx=0, Fy=0, Mz=0

These three equations are referred to as the equations of

equilibrium of plane structures.

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(1) Principle of superposition. The principle of superposition
forms the basis for much of the theory of structural analysis. N N
It may be stated as follows: The total displacement or
internal forces (stress) at a point in a structure subjected to
several external loadings can be determined by adding
together the displacement or internal forces (stress) caused
by each of the external loadings acting separately.

Two requirements must be imposed for the principle of

superposition to apply:

a) The material must behave in a linear-elastic manner,

so that Hooke’s law is valid, and therefore the load
will be proportional to displacement;

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b) The geometry of the structure must not undergo 1.3 Computation of reactions
significant change when the loads are applied, i.e.,
The following step-by-step procedure can be used to
small displacement theory applies.
determine the reactions of plane statically determinate
Throughout this subject, it is assumed that only linear- structures subjected to coplanar loads.
elastic material behaviour occurs; and the displacements
produced by the loads will not significantly change the a) Draw free-body diagrams (FBDs) of the structure;
directions of applied loadings nor the dimensions used to
b) Check for static determinacy;
compute the moments of forces.
c) Determine the unknown reactions by applying the
(2) Sign convention for internal forces (stress): (a) An axial equations of equilibrium and condition (if any) to
force is defined as positive if it is a tensile force; (b) A the entire structure;
shear force is positive if it renders the infinitesimal rotate
d) Apply an alternative equilibrium equation that has
clockwise; (c) A bending moment is positive when it
not been used before to the entire structure to
produces tension in the fibres at the bottom of the
check the computations.
infinitesimal.

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Example 1: Determine the reactions of the beam shown 1.4 Method of joints
below. In the method of joints, the axial forces in the members
of a statically determinate truss are determined by
considering the equilibrium of its joints.

If a truss is in equilibrium, then each of its joints must

also be in equilibrium. Hence, the method of joints
consists of satisfying the following two equilibrium
conditions for all member forces and applied loads and
Solution:
reactions at each joint:
a) Draw the FBD as follows.
Fx=0, Fy=0
270

270 When using the method of joints, it is necessary to draw

each joint’s free-body diagram before applying the
equilibrium equations.

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b) The structure is statically determinate (ID = 3  31 = 0). Example 2: Determine the force in each member of the
roof truss shown below.
c) Applying equations of equilibrium gives

d) Checking computations.
Take the moments about the free end to check if the
computational results are correct. The summation of Solution:
moments of all the applied forces (including the applied The support reactions are obtained by first taking the
moment) and the reaction forces about the free end moments about point A and then applying force equilibrium
should be zero. Otherwise, the computational results in horizontal and vertical directions for the entire structure.
are incorrect. They are indicated in the above figure.

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Because ID = n + r  2j = 11 + 3  27 = 0, the structure 1.5 Method of sections
is statically determinate. If the forces in only a few members of a truss are to be
Since the structure is symmetric with respect to both found, the method of sections generally provides the
loading and geometry, only the forces in half the members most direct means of obtaining these forces.
have to be determined. The method of sections consists of passing an imaginary
section through the truss, thus cutting it into two parts.
Provided the entire truss is in equilibrium, each of the
Joint A : two parts must also be in equilibrium. As a result, the
three equations of equilibrium may be applied to either
one of these two parts to determine the member forces
at the “cut section”.

When the method of sections is used to determine the

force in a particular member, a decision must be made
as to how to “cut” the truss.

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Example 3: Determine the force in members CF and

Joint G :
GC of the roof truss shown below. The reactions at the
supports have been calculated.

Joint B :

Solution:
The force in member CF can be obtained by considering
the section aa in Figure (a). The free-body diagram of
the right part of this section is shown in Figure (b).

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The force in member GC can be obtained by considering the
section bb in Figure (a). The free-body diagram of the left
part of the section is shown in Figure (c).

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