Remember to draw this out in Chemistry exams!

(Solubility tables from your textbooks are harder to

memorise)

Soluble Insoluble
Nitrate All -
Sulfate Rest Ba, Ca, Pb
Remember via:
Chloride Rest Ag, Pb “Baked Chicken Pasta
Carbonate Group1 Rest At Pastamania”
’

This table helps you know whether a salt is soluble or not.

Below: Preview of the Modified Periodic Table.

Full version available for free download at Ray‐revision.webs.com
Testing for : CATIONS
With this table, you don’t need to memorise the colours of different salts!

Cr3+ G G

Add Dil.HNO3, then

add aqueous silver
nitrate

Add Dil.HNO3

Add Dil.HNO3, then

add aqueous silver
nitrate
Sodium Hydroxide, NaOH, or Aqueous Ammonia, NH 3.

Test for GASES:

• Ammonia → Use damp litmus Paper → Turns damp red litmus paper to blue

• Carbon Dioxide → Use Limewater → lime water turn milky

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 2

• Chlorine → Use Damp litmus paper → Bleaches damp Litmus paper

• Hydrogen → Use Burning Splint → 'Pops' with a lighted splint

• Oxygen → Use Glowing Splint → relight a glowing splint

• Sulphur Dioxide → Place a drop of Potassium Dichromate(VI) on Filter paper

‐ Orange Dichromate turns green.
_________________________________________________________________________________

Mole Concept - Memorise this 4 IMPORTANT Formulas:

Mass of
No. of Volume of
Sample Particles Gas

No. of
Molar No. of
23
No. of
3
Mole Mole 6x10 Mole 24dm
Mass

Mole

Volume Concentration

Random Notes

Some Properties of All acidic solutions

1. All acids change blue litmus red

2. Acids react with metals which are above hydrogen in the reactivity series.
3. Acid reacts with bases to form salt and water.
4. Acid reacts with metal to form salt and hydrogen
Uses of Ammonia

1) Manufacture of nitric acid

2) Used to make fertilisers

Note:

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 3

 • Hydrogen can be used as a fuel!
• Ethene (Alkene) is used to make plastic

Oxidizing agents

Substance which help to increase oxidation number of other substance/decrease

oxidation number itself

Potassium Dichromate (VI)

• Acts as an oxidising agent.

• If something is oxidised, it will turn from orange to green!
• Used to test for Sulphur Dioxide – Place a drop on filter paper, colour changes from orange to green.

*Note: Potassium Dichromate turns from Orange to green when Alcohol is present!
‐ Because P.D, which is an oxidising agent, can oxidise “alcohol into organic acid”. So
alcohol is act as reducing agent.

Potassium manganate(VII)

• Acts as an oxidising agent.

• If something is oxidised, it will turn from purple to colourless!
Reducing agent in terms of oxidation number

Substance whose oxidation number increases/help to decrease oxidation number of

other substances

Potassium Iodide

• Acts as an reducing agent.

• If something is reduced, it will turn from colourless to brown!
(* or if an Oxidising agent is present)

Some Reaction requirements:

1) Fermentation
• 37oC ( temp between 20oC – 40oC)
• yeast
• absence of Oxygen

2) Alkene addition of steam, to become alcohol

• Phosphoric acid (Catalyst)

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 4

 • 300oC
• 60 atm

3) Alkene addition of Hydrogen, hydrogenation of alkene/ manufacture of margarine

• Nickel Catalyst

4) Esterification: carboxylic acid + alcohol

• Concentrated sulfuric acid

5) Hydrolysis of proteins – produce amino acids

Fractional Distillation of Petroleum

1) The crude oil is separated into different fractions by fractional distillation
2) The crude oil is heat up to 400oC.
3) Each fraction vapourise and condense at different temperature.
4) The smaller, lighter molecules separate at low boiling points come out at highest part of tower and
the heavier parts have higher boiling points collect at bottom.

General Links

Electrical Conductivity – Moving Ions in electrolyte

Mobile electrons/ delocalized electrons in metal

Heat Conductivity – Free Moving electrons

Boiling point – Strong electrostatic attraction

Why Ionic got high B.P?

1) Ionic compounds consist entirely of ions.
2) The opposite charged ions are held close to one another by very strong electrostatic attraction,
known as ionic bonds.
3) Hence large amount of energy is needed to break ionic bonds; Therefore high melting point.

4) Higher charge on ions. Hence stronger attraction, higher melting point. Example magnesium
oxide mp. Is higher than sodium chloride Mg2+ O2-: Na+ Cl-

Why Covalent Low BP?

1) Covalent compounds consist entirely of molecules as they are formed by sharing of electrons.
2) Forces between molecules are very weak.

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 5

 3) Hence only small amount of energy is needed to break bonds.

Why Ionic compounds conduct in Molten/Aqueous state?

• The ions can free to move about and can convey charges.

# Why cannot conduct in Solid state?

• The ions are fixed rigidly by strong electrostatic attraction hence cannot conduct electricity.

Why attaching Magnesium to underground pipe increase working life?

(About Sacrificial Protection – Prevention of rusting)

• Magnesium is above iron in the reactivity series.

• Water will react with Magnesium instead of iron, and Magnesium gets worn out.
• Iron rusting is much reduced.
• This is known as Sacrificial Protection

#Why cannot use copper instead of Magnesium??

• Copper is below iron in the reactivity series.

• Hence Iron rusts faster when copper is attached to iron.

Why Hydrogen More reactive (than Helium)?

• Hydrogen has 1 valence electron. It can gain one more to become stable.
• Helium has 2 valence electrons, making it very stable.

Physical Properties of Metals

1. Good conductors of heat and electricity ‐ used to make wires
2. High Bp/Mp ‐ used to make cooling utensils
3. Malleable and Ductile. – used to make jewellery

Naming an Ester
When you name or draw the structure of ester, follow this Formula:

NOL DAC
NOL means “Name Alcohol First”

DAC means “Draw Acid First”

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 6

 • So in Ethyl Propanoate (Ester), the one on the left is Alcohol, right is Acid.

Ethanol
Propanoic Acid
(Alcohol)
(Acid)

• But when you draw the chemical structure, the Acid part must be on the left side, Alcohol on the right
side.

__________________________________________________________________

3 Amphoteric Oxides: Order of oxides from left right in periodic table

BASIC OXIDE → AMPHOTORIC OXIDE -→ ACIDIC OXIDE
1. Aluminium Oxide MgO → ZnO → SO2

2. Zinc Oxide
3. Lead Oxide

OH O H

C N
When you see this in a
chemical structure,it is an
alcohol.

Amide linkage

O
||
C ‐ OH

When you see this in a chemical

C O
structure, it is an Acid
When you see this structure in an organic
compound, it is Ester linkage
General formula of organic compounds

Alkane: CnH2n+2

Alkene: CnH2n

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 7

Alcohol: CnH2n+1OH This new formula works
the same as the original!

Acid: CnH2n+1CO2H OR It is highly recommended

you use this formula to
CnH2nO2 avoid confusions.

__________________________________________________________________

Oxidation
1. Gain Oxygen
2. Loss Hydrogen
3. Loss electrons
4. Increase in oxidation state

Reduction
1. Gain hydrogen
2. Gain electron
3. Loss Oxygen
4. Decrease in oxidation state

Note: When checking if a something is oxidised or reduced, use the oxidation state to check! This produces 100%
Correct answer. If you chose to use the lose/gain of oxygen or electrons, your answer might not be correct.

“Protein undergoes hydrolysis to form amino acids!”

“Carbohydrate undergoes hydrolysis to from simple sugar/ mono saccharide!”

“Fats undergoes hydrolysis to form glycerol AND fatty acids!”

Remember 4 alkalis (Soluble oxides/Hydroxides)

1. Potassium Hydroxide KOH

2. Sodium Hydroxide NaOH

3. Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2

4. Ammonia NH3
__________________________________________________________________

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 8

 Reactivity Series:

1. Potassium

2. Sodium

3. Calcium

4. Magnesium

5. Aluminium

6. CARBON

7. Zinc

8. Iron

9. Lead

10. HYDROGEN

11. Copper

12. Silver

13. Gold

*Just remember the phrase:

“Playing soccer can make all zappy, I love Hanna coz she’s gorgeous”
Endothermic

• Absorb energy  Break bonds

• Absorb heat  Test tube turn cold
• Eg. Ice melting to water (Absorb energy to break bonds)

Bond breaking is endothermic reaction and bond making is exothermic reaction.

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 9

 More energy absorbed than released in an endothermic reaction

Exothermic

• Give out energy  Bond Forming

• Release Heat  Test tube turns hot.
Bond breaking is endothermic reaction and bond making is exothermic reaction.

More energy released than absorbed in an exothermic reaction

_____________________________________________________________

“Hydrogen used as a fuel” “Ethene used to make plastics”

Solvent suitable for Chromatography: Ethanol

__________________________________________________________________

Chemical Reactions in Blast Furnace

1. Coke burns in air to produce carbon dioxide and lots of heat.

C + O2 → CO2
2. Carbon Dioxide reacts with more coke to produce Carbon Monoxide. C + CO 2 → 2CO
3. Carbon Monoxide react with iron (III) Oxide to produce molten iron & carbon dioxide.
3CO + Fe2O3 → 2Fe + 3CO2
4. Impurities in molten iron are removed by limestone.
CaCO3 → CaO + CO2
5. Calcium Oxide formed combines with Silica present in the ore to form slag, which is tapped out.
CaO + SiO2 → CaSiO3 (Slag)

# Impurity in Blast Furnace: Silica Use: Road making

ALKANE  STRONG HEAT  ALKENE

Process: Cracking

Cracking – Breakdown of long chained hydrocarbons into smaller chains; by high

temperature.
______________________________________________________

Group 7 - Halogens

• Fluorine: Pale yellow gas

• Chlorine: Yellowish Green gas
• Bromine: Reddish Brown liquid gets darker down the group
• Iodine: Black Solid

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 10

 • Astatine: Black Solid

revision.webs.com

Note: when Bromine is added to Iodide, Got reaction!  Displacement reaction

(Bromine more reactive than Iodide)

• For group 7 elements, the more reactive elements will displace the less reactive elements in
reactions.

Why plastic cause pollution?

• It is non‐biodegradable

_____________________________________________________________________________

How to distinguish which is Acid, which is alcohol

• Test: Put some Sodium Carbonate

Because Alcohol does not
Result for Alcohol: No reaction react with carbonate!

Result for Acid: A gas is released

Because Acid can react with carbonate

“ACID + CARBONATE→ SALT + WATER + CARBON DIOXIDE GAS

Uses of Noble Gases:

1. Helium: Fill weather Baloons (Low Density)

2. Neon: Light bulbs
3. Argon: Light Bulbs (unreactive), manufacture of steel

__________________________________________________________________

*Common questions:

Does metal liberate hydrogen from Dilute Hydrochloric Acid?

• Yes – More reactive

• No – Less reactive

Is the metal reduced by heating with carbon?

• Yes – Less Reactive

• No – More Reactive

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 11

How does calcium ion show that Calcium is a metal?

• Metals form positive ions. Calcium has 3 valence electrons thus it is a metal. Metallic
character decreases by increasing valence electrons
________________________________________________________________

#Methods of preparing salts

1) ‘Titration method’ (For making all group 1 salts)

use:
Soluble + Soluble

2) For making soluble salts not from group 1, use:

Soluble + Soluble
Soluble + Insoluble

3) ‘Precipitation Method’ For making Insoluble salts,

use: Soluble + Soluble

Important: Memorise the steps of preparing salts:

Titration Method (Soluble Base + Acid)

 To prepare any salt that is from Group . (Eg. Preparing Sodium Sulfate)
1) Add 25cm of acid to a conical 1 flask
2) Add a few drops of indicator. (eg. PhenolPhthalein)
3) Add Sodium Hydroxide using a burette until indicator changes colour.
4) Repeat experiment with 25cm3 of Sulfuric Acid without indicator!
5) Heat the solution up to crystallization point.
6) Filter the crystals and dry between filter paper.

Memorise this template,

and replace the underlined
words during exams!

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 12

_____________________________________________________________________________

Insoluble salt.
Precipitation Method (Soluble + Soluble)
 To prepare any
1) Add ‘soluble salt’ with ‘soluble salt’.
2) Filter out the precipitate.
3) Wash the residue with distilled water.
4) Leave the residue to dry.

***MUST‐KNOW formulas:

Amonium NH4+ Ammonia NH3

Hydroxide OH‐ Hydrochloric Acid HCl
Nitrate NO3‐ Nitric Acid HNO3
Carbonate CO32‐ Carbon Dioxide CO2
Sulfate SO42‐ Sulfuric Acid H2SO4
Oxygen O2 Sodium Chloride NaCl
Calcium carbonate CaCO3 Copper (II) sulfate CuSO4
Why important to recycle metals?
1) metal ores are finite source in the ground
2) It saves the money needed for extraction of metals.
_______________________________________________________________________

#Why people concentrate on recycling copper?

• Copper ores are in limited supply; less energy used in recycling than it extract from the ore

Advantages of Recycling:

1. Metal ores in the ground can last longer.

2. Money saved in energy needed to extract new metals from ore.

3. Scrap metal is removed from the environment, prevents land & water pollution due to corrosion.

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 13

Disadvantages of Recycling:

1. Collecting the scrap needs cost and money.

2. Less mining save more land for other uses.

_______________________________________________________________________

Members of Homologous series have:

• have general formula / each member differs by CH2 group / by Mr of 14

• have same functional group
• have similar chemical properties
• physical properties show a trend
Remember: A base is a metal oxide or hydroxide!
_____________________________________________________________________________

*Note that excess Acid or Alkali can pollute the environment!!

If a question asks for the chemical properties of acid, avoid writing

“It turns blue litmus paper red”  write “acid reacts with base to form...”
Effects of acid rain
1) erode buildings
2) Kills fishes in fresh water lakes.
3) Makes agricultural land acidic resulting in crops growing poorly.

Important Tip:

Any question that wants you to write the Ionic Equation of any “neutralisation” reaction, just
write this out:

H+ + OH‐ →H2O

___________________________________________________
Note that salt do not react with acid!

Eg. Copper(II)Nitrate do not react with Sulphuric Acid

Salt

However, Copper(II)Oxide will react with Sulphuric Acid!

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 14
Base
 Acid

Chemical Properties of Group 7 elements

1) All are diatomic molecules.
2) All are coloured.
3) All are oxidising agents.
4) All are non‐metals.

Physical Properties of Group 7 elements

1) They have low Mp/Bp
2) They are poor conductor of electricity
3) They are coloured substances, colour become darker down the group

How to remove Sulphur Dioxide from...... ??

Ans: Use:
Acidic
• Slaked Lime
• Calcium Hydroxide

Important Note: Isotopes have:

• Same chemical properties (Because same no. of valence electrons)

• Different physical properties

Info: In chemistry, “Lime” is Alkaline! NOT same as “LEMON”!!!

“Irons reacts rapidly in steam, slowly in cold water”

__________________________________________________________________

Air
• 1% Other Gas (mainly noble gas Argon)
• 20-21% Oxygen
• 78-79% Nitrogen

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 15

 • Others: CO2, Water Vapour

Air pollutant and their sources

1. Carbon monoxide incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon
2. Methane bacterial dacay of vegetable matter
3. Nitrogen oxide internal combustion of engine/ lightning activity
4. Ozone photochemical reaction
5. Sulfur dioxide combustion of fossil fuel / volcanoes
6. Unburned hydrocarbon internal combustion of engine

Petroleum Fractions
1. Petrol(gasoline)  Fuel for cars
2. Naptha  Feed stoke for Chemical industry
3. Kerosene (Paraffin)  fuel for cooking and heating / aircraft fuel
4. Diesel  Fuel for diesel engines
5. Lubricating Oil  Wax, Polishes, Lubricants
6. Bitumen  Making road Surfaces

Particles Theory
Must memorise the following:

# Factors affecting speed of reaction

1) Concentration of solution

‐ The higher the concentration of solution, the faster the rate of reaction.
‐ Because the particles are closer together so they collide more frequently and
so there were more frequent reactions.

Note: Only applies to reactions of solutions.

_____________________________________________________________ 2)
Pressure
‐ The higher the pressure, the higher is the rate of reaction.
‐ Because the particles are closer together, so they collide more frequently and so
there were more frequent reactions.
HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 16
 Note: Only applies to reactions of gases.
_____________________________________________________________
3) Particle size of solid

‐ The smaller the particle size, the higher the rate of reaction.
‐ Because more particles exposed to reactions; more collision frequency

Note: Only applies to reactions of solids.

_____________________________________________________________
4) Temperature

‐ The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of reaction.

‐ Because at higher temperature the particles have greater kinetic energy, so
they move faster; more effective collision occur.

5) Catalyst
- Reaction is faster
- Because it lower the activation energy; more successful collision

*Methods of extraction (Decomposing metal

‐The method used depends on how reactive is the metals! compound with
electricity)Potassium
Very Reactive Metals
odium
Electrolysis For: alcium
Magnesium
Aluminium
_________________________________________________

Moderately Reactive Metals

Heating metal oxide with coke For:

Zinc

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 17

 Iron
Lead
_________________________________________________

Low Reactivity Metals

Heating metal compounds in air For:

Copper
Silver

Hard‐copy notes for other subjects are also available at http://www.ray‐revision.webs.com

©2009 Hong Ray Corporations® All Rights Reserved

Typical Uses of following substance (GCE O level)

1. Alcohol: ethanol
Solvent, renewable fuel, as a constituents in alcoholic beverages
2. Esters:
Perfumes, flavourings, solvents
3. Plastic: poly ethene
Plastic bags, cling film
4. Nylon:
Fishing line, parachute, sleeping bags
5. Terylene:
Clothing, curtain materials
6. Oxygen:
In Making steel, oxygen tents in hospitals, in welding
7. Sulfur dioxide
As a bleach, in the manufacture of wood pulp for paper
As a food preservative (by killing bacteria)
8. Sulfuric acid

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 18

 Manufacture of detergents and fertilizer
Battery acid

HS/Chemistry/revision Random note/2019 19