Issue 2 (April) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 14 (2018)

Kinetic Theory: Flatlining of Polyatomic Gases

Kent W. Mayhew
68 Pineglen Cres., Ottawa, Ontario, K2G 0G8, Canada. E-mail:Kent.Mayhew@gmail.com
By redefining a gas’ kinetic energy as translational plus rotational, an alternative ki-
netic theory was disclosed by this author that was a superior fit with empirical findings
than the accepted kinetic theory. This alternative kinetic theory’s fit for monatomic,
diatomic and triatomic gases is exceptional, however the same cannot be said of large
polyatomic gases. Accordingly, a new consideration called “flatlining” is proposed in
order to explain the discrepancy between theory and the known empirical finding for
heat capacities of large polyatomic gases.

1 Introduction In order to better understand, consider that you hit a tennis

ball with a suitable racquet. If the ball impacts the racquet’s
Traditionally accepted kinetic theory is based upon equiparti-
face at a 90 degree angle then the ball will have significant
tion and degrees of freedom [1,2,3]. Mathematically speaking
translational energy in comparison to any rotational energy.
equipartition uses the concept that a gaseous molecule with
n00 atoms has 3n00 degrees of freedom (f ), [4,5] i.e.: Conversely, if the ball impacts the racquet at an acute an-
gle, although the same force is imparted onto that ball, the
f = 3n00 . (1) ball’s rotational energy can be significant in comparison to its
translational energy. The point becomes, that both the trans-
This leads to the isometric molar heat capacity (Cv ) for lational and rotational energy, are due to the same impact [1].
large polyatomic gases being Now apply the above macroscopic considerations to the
microscopic world. When vibrating wall molecules pump
3 their mean vibrational energy onto the gas molecules that they
Cv = n00 R (2)
2 surround it, it only makes sense that this results in both trans-
lational and rotational energy of the gas [1].
where n” signifies the polyatomic number i.e. the number of This author also pointed out that all kinetic theory only
atoms in each gas molecule. Numerous explanations for tra- holds for sufficiently dilute gases because the predominate en-
ditional kinetic theory’s failure in properly describing empir- ergy exchange is due to gas-wall molecule collisions, where
ically determined heat capacities, have been proposed [1,6- wall molecules that act as massive energy pumps, i.e. gas
10]. Interestingly, Einstein thought that such failures in ex- molecules tend to take on the wall’s energy with every gas-
plaining empirical findings demonstrated the need for quan- wall collision [1]. However this would not necessarily be
tum theory [11-12]. the case for gases that are not sufficiently dilute i.e. gases
This author proposed a new alternative kinetic theory [1]. where inter-gas molecular collisions are the dominate inter-
The basis of this alternative theory was that the surrounding action [1].
walls molecule’s mean vibrational energy, as defined by (kT), This author has further asserted [1,19,20] that inter-gas
is continually pumped onto the gaseous molecules that they molecular collisions tend to obey conservation of momentum,
surround. Where (k) is Boltzmann’s constant and (T) is the rather than adhere to kinetic theory. And, when inter-gas col-
absolute temperature. lisions dominate over gas-wall collisions then kinetic theory,
After numerous impacts between the gaseous molecules the ideal gas law, Avogadro’s hypothesis, Maxwell’s distribu-
and walls, the above pumping results in the total kinetic en- tions/velocities etc. all start to lose their validity [1].
ergy (EkT (t,r) ) of an N-molecule monatomic gas being defined For a system of diatomic gas molecules, the wall mole-
by [1]: cules still pass the same mean kinetic energy onto the di-
3
EkT (t,r) = NkT. (3) atomic gas molecule’s center of mass with each collision.
2 Therefore the diatomic gas’ kinetic energy is still defined by
Traditional kinetic theory considers that the kinetic en- eqn (3) [1].
ergy as defined by eqn (3) represents purely translational en- The diatomic gas molecule’s vibrational energy would be
ergy. related to the absorption and/or emission of its surrounding
In terms of this author’s alternative kinetic theory, the blackbody/thermal radiation at temperature (T). The vibra-
above stated total kinetic energy consists of the gas’ transla- tional energy (Ev ) of an N-molecule diatomic gas in a closed
tional plus its rotational energy [1]. Interestingly, this author’s system becomes [1]
theory is a superior fit with various heat capacities studies for
gases [1,13-18], when compared to accepted theory. Ev = NkT. (4)

Kent Mayhew. Kinetic Theory: Flatlining of Polyatomic Gases 75

Volume 14 (2018) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Issue 2 (April)

And the total energy (Etot ) for an N molecule diatomic

gas becomes [1]
3 5
Etot = EkT (t,r) + Ev =NkT + NkT = NkT. (5)
2 2
Similarly, for N molecules of n”-polyatomic gas, the total
vibrational energy is [1]
Ev = (n00 − 1)NkT. (6)
And, the total energy (Etot ) for the polyatomic gas mole-
cule becomes [1]:

3
Etot = EkT (t,r) + Ev = NkT + (n00 − 1)NkT. (7)
2
Hence, Fig. 1: Empirical versus theoretical heat capacities.
!
1
Etot = n00 + NkT. (8)
2
2 Flatlining
Dividing both sides by temperature and rewriting in terms
of per mole: (N=6.022×1023 ), equation (8) becomes [1]: Why does the discrepancy exist for n”> 4? Let us consider
! ! that the gas molecule’s size influences the exchange of kinetic
Etot 1 1
= Nk n +
00
=R n +00
. (9) energy (translational plus rotational) with the wall molecule’s
T 2 2 vibrational energy. How do we model this?
For most temperature regimes, the heat capacity of gases Consider the small monatomic gas molecule hitting the
remains fairly constant, hence equation (9) can be rewritten wall at location C, in Fig 2. Here the wall molecule is mov-
in terms of the isometric molar heat capacity (Cv ) [1], i.e. ing outward from the wall thus instantly imparting momen-
! tum, hence pumping its kinetic energy onto the gas molecule
1
Cv = R n00 + . (10) during the collision.
2 Next consider the gas molecule hitting the wall at location
The difference between molar isobaric heat capacity (C p ) B. The wall molecule and gas molecule are initially mov-
and molar isometric heat capacity (Cv ) for gases is the ideal ing in the same direction, i.e. both into the wall. However,
gas constant (R). Therefore, a gas’s isobaric heat capacity C p since the wall molecule is vibrating at a very high frequency
becomes ! then within a fraction of a nanosecond, the wall molecule
1 will start moving in the opposite direction. At this point the
Cp = R n + 00
. (11)
2 wall molecule imparts its momentum hence imposes kinetic
Interestingly this author realized that the above difference energy (translational plus rotational) onto the impacting gas
between molar heat capacities allows for a relationship be- molecule.
tween the ideal gas constant (R) and the ability of a mole of Understandably, small gas molecules will tend to interact
gas molecules to do work against a gravitational field [1, 20- cleanly with the wall molecules, i.e. the significantly larger
21], as a function of temperature. vibrating wall molecules cleanly pumps/imposes their mean
Based upon equations (10) and (11) the gas’s molar spe- vibrational energy directly onto the much smaller gas molecu-
cific heats were plotted against its polyatomic number (n”) as les. Seemingly, this is not the case for larger mole-cules. Per-
is shown by Fig. 1 and compared to the traditional accepted haps vibrating wall molecules simply cannot clean-ly pump
values for large polyatomic gases as given by eqn (2). Note kinetic energy onto the larger gas molecules.
the empirical data used in plotting Fig. 1 can be found in the It can be envisioned that elongated linear gas molecules
Tables (1) and (2) provided in this author’s previous paper [1] and/or large gas molecules tend to “flatline” against the wall,
concerning kinetic theory. as is illustrated in Fig 2 at location A. The implication be-
Moreover, there was a discrepancy, between our model ing that such large and/or elongated gas molecules tend to
and empirical findings for relatively large polyatomic gases. strike two or more (several) vibrating wall molecules at an in-
It becomes a goal of this paper to provide a plausible explana- stant, when some wall molecules are moving inwards, while
tion for the moderate discrepancy between this author’s plots their neighboring wall molecules are moving outwards, with
based upon equations (10) and (11) and the accepted empiri- respect to the wall as a whole. Note: The motions of the
cal findings for large polyatomic molecules i.e. those whose molecules are indicated by the arrows in Fig. 2.
polyatomic number is greater than four (n”> 4). Clearly the above should alter the dynamics of any kine-

76 Kent Mayhew. Kinetic Theory: Flatlining of Polyatomic Gases

Issue 2 (April) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 14 (2018)

energy [1] i.e. inter-gas collisions tend to be inelastic. With

further modelling this may help explain what is witnessed.
This author’s insight that inter-gas collisions may gen-
erally be inelastic requires that radiation is given off during
such collisions thus enabling inelastic collisions to adhere to
conservation of energy [1]. Such collision induced radiation,
whether it be considered as part of the system’s blackbody
and/or thermal energy, becomes part of the system being in
Fig. 2: Shows an elongated linear gas molecule flatlining against a thermal equilibrium i.e. the walls adsorb as much radiation
wall at location A and the relative motions of the wall’s molecules energy as they emit.
or atoms plus the relative motions of the gas’ atoms. Also shown are The above is not to say that the walls and/or polyatomic
smaller gas molecules hitting the wall at locations B and C. gases necessarily emit the identical spectrum that they ad-
sorb! It is, however to say that the total rate of energy of
matic energy exchange! The expectation is that a large poly- emission approximates that of the adsorption! Note; the to-
atomic gas molecule’s mean kinetic energy would no longer tal energy associated with radiation, whether it is blackbody,
be simply defined in terms of the vibrating wall molecule’s thermal or otherwise, can often be considered as insignificant,
mean energy! Furthermore, the expectation is that polyatomic when compared to the energy associated with kinematics of
gases still interact with any surrounding blackbody/thermal matter. This is not saying that it can simply be ignored as is
radiation, thus continually striving for thermal equilibrium. too often traditionally done in thermodynamics!
Consider that the primary energy exchange is between It should also be stated that large polyatomic gases will
large polyatomic gases and their surroundings is with their have large cross-sectional areas hence the concept of being
surrounding blackbody/thermal radiation. The total energy sufficiently dilute may require higher mean molecular vol-
(Etot ) imparted onto the gas molecule becomes the purely vi- umes in the gaseous state i.e. relatively low pressures.
brational energy as defined by eqn (6). Accordingly: Can we now claim that large polyatomic gas molecules
tend to attain their kinetic energy from inter-gas collisions
Etot
= (n00 − 1)Nk. (12) that obey conservation of momentum? No we cannot! How-
T ever our expectation becomes that large polyatomic gases will
Based upon eqn (12), the expected isometric molar heat not have the specified kinetic energies that smaller gases pos-
capacity becomes: sess.
Cv = (n00 − 1)R. (13) To further emphasize; the conceptualization of small gas-
es having their kinetic energy pumped into to them by sur-
The graph for eqn. (13) is shown on Fig. 1; based upon rounding vibrating wall molecules, does not necessitate that
Cv = 0 when n”=1, and Cv = 19×8.314 =158.00 when n”=20. gas-wall molecules collisions are elastic. On the contrary, it
The fit for the isometric molar heat capacity (Cv ) based upon just implies that the gas’ mean kinetic energy is driven into
eqn. (10) was very good, if not exceptional, for monatomic them via numerous collisions with wall molecules.
through triatomic gases (n”< or = 4) but not so much larger
polyatomic gases i.e. n”> 4. Certainly eqn (13) is a better fit 3 Addressing traditional dogma
for the larger polyatomic gases than eqn. (10) was but the fit
is only fairly good at best! As previously stated traditional kinetic theory is based upon
Reconsider what all might be happening. As previously equipartition and degrees of freedom arguments. We can go
stated, flatlining implies that large polyatomic gas’ kinetic en- back further and acknowledge that for most of us, our learn-
ergy is no longer defined/controlled by the pumping of the ing started with considering a gas molecule’s momentum and
wall molecule’s vibrational energy onto the them. Remember that momentum is conserved in elastic wall-gas molecule col-
by kinetic energy herein we mean the gas’ translational plus lisions.
rotational energy. In such a situation it becomes cumbersome The main problem with the above approach being that
to infer any net direction of energy flow being exchanged dur- elastic collisions are a rarity i.e. it is rare to have a colli-
ing collisions. sion where both momentum and kinetic energy are conserved.
As previously stated, this author [1] understands that a The one simple exception being the case of two balls of equal
limitation for the isometric molar heat capacity being defined mass colliding, with the second ball being stationary before
by eqn (10) was the gas being sufficiently dilute, i.e. dilute the collision and that second ball then attains all the kinetic
enough that gas-wall molecule collisions are dominate in energy from the first ball, after the collision, i.e. first ball is
comparision to inter-gas molecule collisions. Part of the rea- stationary after the collision.
soning being that inter gas molecule collisions will obey con- Rather than address the elephant in the room, traditional
servation of momentum but not necessarily conservation of kinetic theory simply considered that all collisions are elastic,

Kent Mayhew. Kinetic Theory: Flatlining of Polyatomic Gases 77

Volume 14 (2018) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Issue 2 (April)

as well as, the gas molecule leaves the wall with the same 5 Other proofs for inelastic collisions
magnitude of momentum as it has prior to hitting the wall. There is more proof to inelastic intermolecular collisions than
Realizing that walls impose their energetics onto the dilute just the awkwardness of the mathematical justification for
gas implies that traditional teaching may have put the cart elastic intermolecular collisions. Some examples being:
ahead of the horse!
Certainly considering all collisions as being elastic avoids 1. Viscous dissipation i.e. heat being generated by gases
having to contemplate the various frequencies of radiation squeezed through a valve.
that would be associated with inelastic collisions. And when 2. Natural P-T relationships i.e. temperature increases
in equilibrium; since the mean kinetic energy of the gas mole- with increasing pressure.
cules is constant then yes the mean magnitude of momentum 3. Joule’s weight experiment i.e. Although designed to
remains constant but this is no longer a requirement for an demonstrate a correlation between work and energy,
elastic gas-wall collision! what it really shows is that imposed increases to a liq-
The situation is no more complicated if it is considered uid’s flow (due to the paddles attached to weights) re-
that a dilute gas in thermal equilibrium requires that all of the sulted in increased intermolecular friction, which gen-
following three states remain related to the same temperature erated heat.
(T). Basically, as previously stated by this author [1]:
All of the above is readily explained in terms of inelastic
1. The walls are in thermal equilibrium with the enclosed intermolecular collisions, but all are not so readily explain-
radiation i.e. blackbody, thermal or otherwise. able in terms of traditional understandings.
2. The gas’ translational plus rotational energy is pumped
into the gas by the more massive vibrating wall 6 Conclusions
molecules. This author’s previous conclusion [1]; kinetic theory needs
3. The gas’ vibrational energies are in thermal equilib- to be redrafted based upon the previous understanding that a
rium with the enclosed radiation i.e. blackbody, ther- gas’ kinetic energy has both translational and rotational com-
mal or otherwise. ponents that are pumped/imposed onto them due to the same
wall molecule’s vibrational energy. Moreover, it seemingly
Remember: Part of this radiation surrounding the gas holds for most small gaseous molecules i.e. gas’ whose poly-
molecules will now be a result of the various inelastic inter- atomic number is 4 or less.
molecular collisions. For larger polyatomic gases, flatlining helps explain what
is witnessed. Specifically flatlining means that larger poly-
4 Atmospheric gases
atomic gases tend to strike two or more vibrating wall mole-
At first glance considering that walls impose/pump their vi- cules at some instant. Therefore any kinetic energy transfer
brational energy onto relatively small gases’ kinetic energy, between impacting gas molecule and vibrating wall molecule,
may feel counter-intuitive in part because gases are routinely is not clean. Moreover it becomes awkward to even determine
put into, and/or removed from containers without any real what direction the net flow of energy exchange actually goes,
noticeable temperature changes. However, if we realize that assuming that there is any actual a net energy exchange!
the above does not necessarily hold for enclosed larger poly- This certainly improves the fit between accepted empiri-
atomic gases and that such gases generally obtain their vibra- cal findings for large polyatomic gases and the kinetic theory
tional energy from the surrounding blackbody/thermal radia- as previously proposed [1], combined with what is currently
tion, then the mean energetics of such gases will not change described herein, by this author.
significantly by placing them into, nor removing them from Interestingly, it can be contemplated that atmospheric
enclosures. gases will tend to follow similar dynamics where large poly-
Certainly small gas molecules in our atmosphere will hit atomic gases adsorb surrounding radiation (blackbody and/or
the Earth’s rough surface and have a certain amount of their thermal) thus increasing their vibrational energy. This vi-
kinetic energy pumped/imposed upon them in various inelas- brational energy is then pumped/imposed onto any small gas
tic collisions with Earth’s surface. Even so, for atmospheric molecules that collide with the larger polyatomic gases.
gases inter-gas collisions still should dominate. Furthermore, we asserted that most inter-molecular col-
Next consider the collision of a small gas molecule with lisons probably are inelastic. In which case radiation (ther-
a larger polyatomic gas. The expectation becomes that the mal, blackbody or otherwise) will be a byproduct of such col-
larger gas molecule will behave as a massive wall molecule lisions, and as such must be considered as part of a system’s
does, i.e. the large polyatomic gas molecule will use its vi- state, whether or not, that system is in thermal equilibrium.
brational energies to pump/impose some fairly well-defined And this does alter our consideration of thermal equilbrium!
mean kinetic energy (translational plus rotational) onto the The overall implication being that traditional theorists un-
colliding small gas molecules. wittingly put the cart ahead of the horse by beginning the

78 Kent Mayhew. Kinetic Theory: Flatlining of Polyatomic Gases

Issue 2 (April) PROGRESS IN PHYSICS Volume 14 (2018)

teaching of kinetic theory in terms of gas molecule’s momen- Lectures and Modern Theoretical Physics: Historical and Philosophi-
tum and elastic collisions. This ignores the fact that elastic cal Perspectives, 1904.
collisions are rare hence may be an unnecessary, illogical, un- 11. Pais A. Subtle is the Lord. Oxford University Press. Oxford, 1982.
realistic, conceptualization when applied to kinetic theory! 12. Hermann Armin (1971). The Genesis of Quantum Theory (1899–
1913). Original title: Frühgeschichte der Quantentheorie (1899–1913),
Submitted on February 12, 2018 translated by Claude W. Nash ed., Cambridge, MA.
13. Masi J.F., Petkof B. J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand., 1952, v.48(3).
References 14. Scott R.B., Mellors J.W. J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand., v.34, March 1945.
1. Mayhew K.W. A new perspective for kinetic theory and heat capacity. 15. Prydz R., Goodwin R.D. J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand., 1970, v.74A(5).
Progress in Physics, 2017, v.13(4), 166–173. 16. Giguere P.A. Heat capacities for water-hydrogen peroxide systems be-
2. Reif F. Fundamentals of Statistical and Thermal Physics. McGraw-Hill, tween 25 and 60 C. J. Chem. Eng. Data, 1962, v.7(4), 526–527.
New York, 1965. 17. Chapman S., Cowling T.G. The mathematical theory of non-uniform
3. Carey V. Statistical Thermodynamics and Microscale Thermophysics. gases, third edition. Cambridge University Press, 1970.
Cambridge University Press, 1999. 18. Wu L., White C., Scanlon T.J., Reese J.M. and Zhang Y. A kinetic
4. Goldstein H. Classical Mechanics (2nd. ed.). Addison-Wesley, 1980. model of the Boltzmann equation for non-vibrating polyatomic gases.
5. Wüller A. Lehrbuch der Experimentalphysik (Textbook of Experimen- J. Fluid Mechanics, 2015, v.763, 24–50.
tal Physics). Leipzig, Teubner, 1896, v.2, 507ff. 19. Mayhew K. Latent heat and critical temperature: A unique perspective.
6. Boltzmann L. On certain Questions of the Theory of Gases. Nature Phys. Essays, 2013, v.26, 4, 604–611.
1895, v.51(1322), 413–415. 20. Mayhew K. Second law and lost work. Phys. Essays, 2015, v.28, issue
7. Planck M. On the Law of the Energy Distribution in the Normal Spec- 1, 152–155.
trum. Ann. Phys., 1901, v.4(553), 1–11. 21. Mayhew K. Entropy: an ill-conceived mathematical contrivance? Phys.
8. Enstein A. and Stern O. Einige Argumente Für die Annahme einer Essays, 2015, v.28, issue 3, 352–357.
molekularen Agitation beim absolute Nullpunk (Some Arguments for 22. Mayhew K. Changing our perspective: Part 1: A New Thermodynamics
the Assumption of Molecular Agitation at Absolute Zero). Ann. Phys., (Self-published 2015) Available at:
1913, v.40(551), 551–560. http://www.newthermodynamics.com
9. Dahl J.P. On the Einstein–Stern model of rotational heat capacities. tex- https://createspace.com/5277845
titJ. of Chem. Physics, 1998, v.109, 10688. 23. Mayhew K. Improving our thermodynamic perspective. Phys. Essays,
10. Thomson W. Baltimore Lectures. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University 2011, v.24, issue 3, 338–344.
Press. Sec. 27. Re-issued in 1987 by MIT Press as Kelvin’s Baltimore

Kent Mayhew. Kinetic Theory: Flatlining of Polyatomic Gases 79