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CT Failure Detection For Differential Protection Applications

Conference Paper · May 2008

DOI: 10.1109/CPRE.2008.4515076 · Source: IEEE Xplore

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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

CT Failure Detection For Differential Protection Applications

L. Sevov (GE Digital Energy – Multilin, Canada), J. Cardenas (GE Digital Energy –
Multilin, Spain), Y.Sun (GE Digital Energy – Multilin, Asia)

Introduction

One of the biggest performance challenges for the differential protection in general is the
security when faced with significant CT error during external faults. There are well known
methods for differential protection to maintain security during CT error. These methods however
all assume the CTs and CT secondary circuits are operating correctly at the time of the fault.
Failure of a CT, or a CT secondary circuit, leads to appearance of a false differential current, and
can result in incorrect operation of the differential protection. Detection of a CT failure is
needed, to either be used for alarm and accept tripping of the main equipment under such
conditions, or used for blocking the protection, till the load/generation through the primary
equipment is redirected, and the problematic CT identified. The dilemma on how to detect CT
failure, and whether to block/unblock the differential protection upon CT failure detection,
becomes even more complex, when very expensive power equipment is protected, and switching
it off upon CT failure may cause outages.
The paper presents variety of schemes for detection of CT failure, and outlines different methods
of blocking bus, transformer and generator differential protections.
In particular, the use of CT failure for complex bus arrangements such as the double bus – single
breaker, where the circuit current transformers have different ratios and contribute different by
magnitude currents into the bus differential protection zone may require extra care, as the CT
failure in some cases may resemble internal fault. Another complication for detection of CT
failure used for blocking may occur in cases of evolving faults - external fault with CT
saturation, into internal fault, where the CT failure may be detected mistakenly during the
external fault, but must not be raised during the internal fault.
Blocking of the transformer differential protection upon detection of CT failure is a very
common practice for some utilities. With this respect, the relay manufacturers offer fast and
reliable CT failure detection, capable for blocking/unblocking for all kinds of fault scenarios.
Detecting CT failure and blocking the stator differential protection is also very common practice,
as it allows the personnel to take some emergency actions of switching loads and generations as
opposed to switching off the generator immediately. The paper discusses specific CT failure
detection scheme for generator protection.

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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

Current Transformer failures

Current transformers are used widely in the power system for metering and protective
relaying purposes, where they replicate the high magnitude currents into low currents. The
capability of replicating hundreds and thousands of amps current into low currents and provide
input for metering and protective relaying, makes them some of the most important devices to be
regularly maintained. The CT and the CT circuitry failures can be different by character and are
grouped in the following categories (Table 1):

Wiring problems Primary/Secondary current Current Transformer

shunt problems problems
• Cross Phasing of a CT • Shorted Turns (Wiring & • Open Secondary
• Cross Phasing of a CT/PT Leakage Current) • Shorted Secondary
• X1X2/H1H2 Reversal of a CT • Shorted Turns (Turn to Turn) • Magnetized CT
• Meter Socket Wire Error • Shorted Turns (Turn to • Dual Ratio Error
• Relay Socket Wire Error Ground) • Inaccurate Ratio on CT
• Loose Connections • Secondary Shunt • Wire Wrap Error on CT
• Corroded Connections/Terminals • Primary Shunt • Inaccurate Rated
• Insulation Stripping Error • CT Wrap Burden on CT
• Excessive Wire Length • Primary Tap • CT Burden
• Broken Wire Strands • Secondary Tap Manufacturer Error
• CT Mounted Backwards
• Polarity Dot on Wrong
Side of CT
• Overburdened CT
• Overdriven CT
• CT Phase Shift

Table 1

While many of the CT failures listed in table can be prevented during installation and
commissioning tests, others like loose or corroded connections, winding turns shorted, turns to
ground shorting or open CT secondary, cannot be predicted. These types of failures occur
instantaneously and can be either intermittent for some time turning into constant failure, or can
constantly exist from the very first time of occurrence. The current transformer replicates current
at any time, and it can fail either during the normal loading of the protected equipment, or during
power system transients, while its winding insulation and circuitry are exposed to higher currents
and voltages. Aging of the CT and its wiring insulation, and the environment are also some of
causes for failures.
Another effect of the current transformers not listed in the table, is the magnetic core
saturation, which causes a big problem for the metering and the relaying, as it introduces error
currents which in some cases may trigger the protections to falsely disconnect the protected
component from the power system. This type of CT error however, can be also categorized as
preventable: replace CT with higher class, enable CT saturation detection, and is not of interest
for this paper. The focus of the paper is to show schemes for CT failure detection, provide
solutions preventing the differential protections from operation, and suggests actions to maintain
power system stability.

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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

CT failure impact on differential protections

Current transformer failure may not necessarily cause operation from feeder protection
relays. These relays if not configured for detection of negative and neutral over-currents, can
tolerate low current or no current from a CT, and issue only an alarm. However, the absence of
current on the relay, when a CT fails open is very dangerous for the performance of the current
differential protections. For phase segregated differential protections such as the bus differential
protections, the absence of current input results in presence of differential current for the relay
protecting the phase with the failed CT. Depending on the winding connection type, a phase drop
caused by open CT may lead to error currents on more than one phase for the transformer
differential protection.
There are three scenarios on how the differential protections shall act upon detection of CT
failure.
1. Allow the differential protection to trip the zone
2. Block the differential protection and issue an alarm. Workout to supply power through
other power system circuitry.
3. Desensitize the differential protection and issue an alarm.

While for the first case fast CT failure detection is not required, as the differential protection
would trip the zone anyway, for the other two cases it is assumed that the CT failure is detected
before the differential protection operation. False tripping of the biased bus differential
protection caused by undetected CT failure would lead to big area outages, and jeopardize the
stability of the system. That is why, it is very important that proper CT failure detection is
performed by these relays.

Manual or automatic switching upon CT failure detection

For single bus – single breaker arrangements (Fig. 1), the detection of CT failure can be
set to block the bus differential protection and trip only the corresponding circuit breaker. In this
case, only the power for the circuit will be interrupted until the CT is replaced, while the other
circuits will stay in service. Upon tripping the circuit breaker with troubled CT, the relay
excludes the circuit currents from the zone of protection.

CB1 CB2 CB3 CBn

BUS DIFF. RELAY

Fig. 1

The schemes of detection of CT trouble and blocking the differential protection are very
efficient for the following bus arrangements (Fig. 2), where even an automatic switching is also
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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

possible: double bus-single breaker with by-pass switches (a), main-transfer bus (b), double bus
– double breaker (c), double bus and breaker-and-a-half (d), and for ring bus. In these schemes
the load of the feeder with troubled CT can be successfully transferred without any power
interruptions:

ZONE1
MAIN BUS

ZONE2

CB1 CB2 CB3 CBn BC

BC

CB1 CB2 CB3 CBn

TRANFER BUS

a) b)

ZONE 1
ZONE1

ZONE 2

ZONE2

c) d)
Fig. 2

For example, in case of CT failure detected by the relay protecting double bus – single
breaker configuration with by-pass switches (Fig. 2a), the differential protection gets blocked,
and an alarm is issued. Further, the switching procedure may include closing of the bus tie-
breaker, and transferring all circuits to the healthy bus. The switching continues with closing the
by-pass switch, and tripping the circuit breaker with the troubled CT. Since the circuit with
troubled CT becomes the only one connected to one bus, the protection of this feeder is
transferred to a standby relay connected to the CTs from the tie-breaker. The bus becomes part of
the feeder, and the feeder protection gets extended up to the bus tie-breaker. The CT can be
replaced, or the CT secondary circuit can be troubleshooted, and put back in service.
The procedure for isolating the breaker and the CT from the other bus-breaker arrangements
upon CT open conditions is even easier, as it takes only few steps such as closing the other
breaker associated to this circuit, and open the one with detected open CT. The important goal
here is that all this will happen without interrupting the load of the circuit, and without leaving
the circuit without protection.

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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

CT trouble detection for bus protection

Detecting of CT trouble without using special scheme

The advanced low-impedance bus differential schemes (Fig. 3a) are designed to act
securely during external faults, without giving up on sensitivity, and as such do provide some
comfort for the cases of CT trouble without setting up any special CT trouble detection schemes.
Each CT from the circuit connected to the bus contributes different amount of current into the
bus differential zone, and further its magnitude is estimated by the relay with respect to the
restraint current being the maximum current from all zone inputs. Depending on the circuit
loading conditions, a current dropdown from the differential zone caused by open CT, may not
necessarily result in bus differential operation(3b). If during normal bus loading an input with
insignificant amount of current becomes zero, the bus differential protection will detect
differential current, will pickup, but will not operate. The security is provided by a directional
flag (fig. 3c, 3d), which acts as a distinguishing factor between internal and external faults. In
this case, if the angle between two zone inputs with significant amount of current remains larger
than 90° degrees (3c), while another current input drops to zero, because of an open CT, the bus
biased differential protection will pickup, as the case enters the differential/restraint operation
region, but will not operate. This however will not check true, if a CT normally contributing
significant amount of current (3d) drops from the zone, and there are no other two opposite to
each other currents available in the zone to keep the directional flag low. Under such conditions,
the differential protection may be prone to operation.

|I D |
AND

DIF1
DIF2
DIR
OR

TRIP
OR

AND

One missing
SAT current
DIF1

DIF2
Normal state IR

a) b)

DIR = 0
DIR = 1
I5
I2 I5
I2
I1 I1

I3 I4 In I3 I4 In

c) d)

Fig. 3

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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

General detection schemes without identifying the troubled CT

The easiest ways to detect CT trouble on the protective relays is to supervise the
protection by the system voltages, check-zone for bus applications, and over-current detection.
These schemes can be set in any modern protective relay, and are applicable in the protection of
any power system component that is equipped with current transformers. For simplicity they are
described in the paper as applied to the bus differential protection.
Referring to Fig.4, if a differential current is detected because of an open phase, but the
bus voltages are detected healthy, bus differential trip is not initiated. The relay issues a CT
trouble alarm and further action can be taken including CT trouble identification, bypassing the
breaker and the CT (double bus bar arrangements) and isolating the troubled CT, or
disconnecting the circuit from the bus.
In the second case (Fig.5), it is assumed that the inputs for the bus check-zone are taken
from either different CT windings, or different CTs installed next to the ones used for the
tripping differential zone. Bus protection trip from this zone will not be initiated, if the check-
zone does not confirm presence of differential current and does not pickup.
Configuring a bus differential check-zone is very common practice even when the zone
shares the same CT inputs with the tripping zone. In such case the check-zone is used to
supervise the tripping zone during switching of circuit breakers, or disconnect switches, where a
mismatch between the physical bus configuration, and the bus replica on the relay may trigger
false differential protection operation.

BUS DIFF.PKP
UNDERVOLTAGE PKP
(CHECK-ZONE)

AND
AND

CT TROUBLE CT TROUBLE
BUS DIFF. PKP
BUS DIFF. PKP
TRIP ZONE
TRIP ZONE

Fig. 4 Fig. 5

Another good technique for CT trouble detection is the use of over-current supervision (Fig.6).
For this scheme, the following is assumed:
- The pickup level for each instantaneous over-current protection is set above the
maximum load for the circuit
- The CT inputs for the tripping bus differential zone and the bus check zone are the
same
- Only CT inputs from the same phase are available in the bus protection relay
- The tripping bus zone reconfigures its inputs dynamically mapping the status of the
circuit disconnect switches
- The current inputs for the bus check-zone are active at any time and do not depend on
the status of the disconnect switches

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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

50P PKP - F1

50P PKP – F2

OR
50P PKP – F3

AND
AND
50P PKP – Fn 87B TRIP
CT TROUBLE

87B OP
87B PKP TRIP ZONE
TRIP ZONE
87B PKP
CHECK-ZONE

Fig. 6

The sensitivity of the bus differential protection is therefore determined by the lowest
over-current pickup setting corresponding to the smallest circuit load from all zone circuits.

Schemes identifying the troubled CT

There are a number of CT failure detection schemes available for the protection engineer
to apply for the specific case. While all schemes from above use the presence of differential
current and supervision element to detect CT trouble, without the capability of identifying the
bad CT, there are many other CT trouble methods, which actually can identify it. Most of these
schemes run on digital protective relays connected to three-phase inputs, and are capable of
computing phase sequence components, but some of them can be set even on phase segregated
protections, such the bus differential protection. These schemes can be applied for CT trouble
detection when protecting either a bus, transformer, generator or a line.

CB1 CB2 CB3 CBn

IA-CT1a
BUS TRIP ZONE

IA-CT1b BUS CHECK ZONE

Fig. 7

The setup from figure 7, does not require three-phase bus differential relay for identifying the
troubled CT. It is assumed that two CT windings, or two individual CTs are available per each
circuit from the bus, where the inputs from the first set of CTs are used to configure the main bus
differential zone, and the inputs from the second set of CTs used for bus check-zone
configuration. One bus differential relay is applied per each phase, with connections to all pairs
of CTs from the circuits. Further, the relay compares the information for the circuit current from
both CTs, checks for difference current between them, and blocks the bus trip.

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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

Another CT trouble scheme (Fig.9) for the bus differential relay connected to all circuit
CTs from one phase is shown below. The logic can identify the troubled CT, without using any
other additional conditions such as the phase sequence components that are normally available
on relays connected to all three-phase CTs of the circuit.
The method of detection uses the following facts:
- During normal operating conditions, the current from each circuit connected to the
bus is higher than the differential current of the protected bus zone. During open CT,
the current from the circuit would drop to 0, and the sign of the difference between
the absolute values i1 − id < 0 changes from positive to negative.
- The logic will be performed, if the current from each circuit is higher than half of the
bus differential pickup setting. This is to ensure, that the scheme does not pickup
when the differential current during normal conditions is low by magnitude, but not
zero.
- The circuit breaker is closed
The scheme must be supervised by an over-current element set for each circuit, to separate the
CT trouble cases, from the cases of internal and external for the bus faults. The pickup level for
each OC protection is set to be just above the maximum load current for the circuit. It is
therefore understandable, that CT trouble during fault conditions – either internal or external for
the bus, will remain undetected. The bus low impedance differential protection is required to act
on all types of faults, only if any of the OC protections picks up. No matter whether the bus
experiences internal or external fault conditions, it is assumed that least one OC element will
pickup.
To secure the logic for the cases if no load through the circuit is detected, while the
breaker is closed, it is recommended that the magnitudes of the other two currents (Fig. 8) from
the same set of CTs are monitored by the bus relays phase B, and C, and the “No Load” status is
sent to the bus relay phase A. This way, the logic for CT trouble for this CT circuit will not be
executed, if the currents from phases B, and C are below the pickup setting of the differential
protection.

ib1 < 87B _ pkp

AND

No Load (CB1)
ic1 < 87B _ pkp

Fig. 8

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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

87B OP
TRIP ZONE

AND
50 PKP – ia1(C1) 87B TRIP
50 PKP – ia2(C2)

OR
50 PKP – ia3(C3)

50 PKP – ian(Cn)

ia1 − id < 0

AND
CT TROUBLE
CB1 CT
No Load (CB1)

52a(CB1)

i 2 − id < 0

AND
CT TROUBLE
CB2 CT
No Load (CB2)
52a(CB2)

i n − id < 0
AND

CT TROUBLE
CBn CT
No Load (CBn)

52a(CBn)

Fig. 9

CT trouble detection on relays connected to three-phase CTs

The transformer and generator current differential protections are also affected by a CT
failure, as they could falsely operate and disconnect the protected component from the system.
Depending on the amount of power transferred through these power system components, or the
importance of the components in the system, some utilities impose very strict requirements for
the protective relays to reliably detect CT trouble, and block the main differential protection. For
these utilities disconnecting the generator or the transformer from the system due to CT trouble
is unacceptable, as opposed to detecting the trouble, block the protection, and issue an alarm.
Further, the possible scenarios following CT trouble detection can involve connecting standby
generator, in case of detected CT trouble on generator protection relay, or closing the low side
tie-breaker (Fig.10) for two power transformer arrangement, before disconnecting the one with
failed CT.

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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

Utility

CB1 XFMR. CB3

RELAY

Clos
eT
CB2 CB4

ie-C
B
Tie-CB

Fig. 10

Variety of CT failure detection schemes can be employed in the transformer protective

relays depending on the availability of power system measurements, computation of signals
using the measurements, and the flexibility of creating logic. The minimum measurements for
the transformer differential relay would include phase currents from each winding, and ground
current from winding grounded neutral. Based on this, the relay computes all symmetrical
components per set of CTs, and ground differential current used later as an input for the winding
Earth Fault protection. The transformer relay can also include three-phase voltage measurements
from at least on side of the transformer, or per each winding, where setting up a CT detection
scheme becomes easier as discussed already through the paper. The proposed scheme however,
is simple, and easy to set.
Power
transformer

CT1 CT2
WINDING 1

WINDING 2

Ia1, Ib1, Ic1 Ig Ia2, Ib2, Ic2

CT ratio matching CT ratio matching

Ia1 comp. Ia2 comp.
Ib1 comp. Ib2 comp.
Ic1 comp. Ic2 comp.
Phase shift Phase shift
compensation Iad, Ibd, Icd, compensation

RELAY

Fig. 11
st
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 CT failure detection for differential protection applications

The CTs on both sides of a transformer have different ratios, and if the transformer
differential relay does not apply CT ratio matching to these currents, the main current differential
protection would not be balanced. There are some exceptions, where the ratio between the CT
primary and the corresponding winding nominal current matches the ratio between the CT
primary and nominal current for the other transformer winding. In such cases a compensation
factor of 1 is applied to all measured currents. The important fact that one can realize, is that
under normal conditions, the magnitude of the currents (1) from both windings will be equal
after CT ratio matching is applied, and hence can be used in our scheme for CT failure detection.

ia1 _ c. = ia 2 _ c.
ib1 _ c. = ib 2 _ c. (1)
ic1 _ c. = ic 2 _ c.

These equations check true during normal transformer loading conditions, and during
symmetrical external faults without CT saturation. During cases of external fault and CT
saturation, the currents from both sides of the equations are not equal, and differential current
would be computed by the relay.
Now, if for example the measured current phase A drops down due to CT open on phase A, only
one of the equations (1) will check false, while the other two will be true. Therefore, CT trouble
initiate flag is raised (fig. 12b). To assure the logic will not be falsely triggered during external
fault with CT saturation, a current supervision is added (fig.12a), which is to say that, if any of
the measured currents is above the transformer emergency loading current, and its corresponding
phase over-current element picks up, the CT trouble logic will not be executed. This logic is
repeated for CT open detection on phases B and C.

ia1 > 1.1In _ max( w1)

ib1 > 1.1In _ max( w1)
ic1 > 1.1In _ max( w1)
OR

Any _ OC _ pickup
ia 2 > 1.1In _ max(w2)
ib 2 > 1.1In _ max(w2)
ic 2 > 1.1In _ max(w2)
a) ia1c − ia 2c > C1.(87 PKP )
ib1c − ib 2c > C 2.(87 PKP )
AND

CTF _ Ph. A _ Initiate

ia1c − ia 2c > C 2.(87 PKP )

ib1 − ic1 > k .CT 1

b)

Any _ OC _ pickup
AND

CTF _ Ph. A _ Initiate

AND

CT _ TRBL _ Ph. A
52a (CB1) 100ms
AND

52a(CB 2) 0

c)
Fig. 12
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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

The flag CTF _ Ph. A _ Initiate will be raised, if the absolute value of the unbalance
between the absolute values of the magnitude compensated currents measured from the CTs
phase A on both sides of the transformer is bigger than a portion C1 of the differential protection
pickup. At the same time the unbalance between all other compensated currents must not be
bigger than some C2 portion of the pickup. Another constant “k” is set to be above the maximum
current unbalance between the absolute values of the inter-phase currents from either group of
three-phase currents. Depending on the values of the constants C1, and C2, the CT trouble
detection can be tuned up to the phase current unbalances that are normally observed during
normal transformer loading. The CT failure detection will not be executed unless both
transformer breakers are closed. This will ensure that the differential protection is not blocked
after the transformer is energized and before connected to a load.

Setting up CT failure detection on the generator protective relay is aided by the fact that
the stator differential protection would be insensitive for single phase to ground faults, where the
fault is limited by the generator neutral resistor to a very small current. The relay is normally
connected to generator terminal VTs, and computes voltage sequence components, used in the
logic for CT failure detection.

In1 > 0.1CT _ line

OR

In 2 > 0.1CT _ ntrl

CTF _ Initiate
AND

S
Vn > 0.2VT _ line
CT _ Fail
87G _ OP
R
In1 > 0.1CT _ line
AND

In2 > 0.1CT _ ntrl

The logic is based on the conditions that CT failure flag will be raised, if neutral over-voltage is
not detected, but the neutral current from either side of the generator exceeds some minimum
current as related to its CT rating, and no 87G operation is detected. On the other hand, the logic
for the stator differential protection is set to operate, only if any 2 of 3 stator differential elements
operate, and no CT failure is detected.

Conclusions:
The schemes for CT failure detection shall be very well estimated before applied, especially for
the cases, where blocking the differential protection is a requirement. The schemes can be
weighted according to the following:

1. Reliability on detection of CT trouble

2. Accurately identify the problematic CT
3. Speed of detection, and blocking the differential protection

In terms for one to decide which CT trouble scheme to use, the following shall be accounted.

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CT failure detection for differential protection applications

1. The type of AC power system quantities measured by the relay

2. Availability for usage of computed current and voltage symmetrical components
3. Flexibility of building basic math functions, and produce flags
4. Flexibility of building logic

There are other methods for detection of CT trouble as well, which involve monitoring of the
ratio between the negative to positive sequence components from the group of CTs, or using
buffer of one cycle of data to detect difference with the real signal upon sampling summation.
Both of these methods have been patented, and are not to be discussed in this paper.
At the end, upon relay AC signals availability, the preference shall be given to these
schemes involving voltages, and to the ones with check-zone that uses currents from CTs
different than the ones connected to the main zone. The accuracy of detecting CT trouble
therefore would be less for these schemes, which use inputs from one set of CTs per circuit, and
hence are based on only currents.

References:

[1] B90 Bus Differential Relay (Instruction Manual), GE Publication GEK-113338B, 2007
(http://www.multilin.com).
[2] T60 Transformer Differential Relay (Instruction Manual), GE Publication GEK-113353B,
2007 (http://www.multilin.com).
[3] Sevov L., Kasztenny B., Taylor E. “Commissioning and Testing Complex Bus Protection
Schemes – Experience at Pacific Gas and Electric ”
[4] Kasztenny B., Brunello G., Sevov L., “Digital Low-Impedance Busbar Protection with
Reduced Requirements for the CTs”, Proceedings of the 2001 IEEE T&D Conference and
Exposition, Atlanta, GA, October 28 – November 2, 2001, paper reference 0-7803-7287-
5/01.
[5] Kasztenny B., Cardenas J., “Phase-Segregated Digital Busbar Protection Solutions”,
Proceedings of the 57th Annual Conference for Protective Relay Engineers, College
Station, TX, March 30 – April 1, 2004. Also Proceedings of the 58th Annual Georgia Tech
Protective Relaying, Atlanta, GA, April 28-30, 2004.

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 CT failure detection for differential protection applications

Biography:

Lubomir Sevov received his M.Sc. degree from Technical University of Sofia, Bulgaria in 1990.
After his graduation, he worked as a protection and control engineer for National Electric
Company (NEC) Bulgaria. Mr. Sevov joined GE Multilin in 1998 as a relay test design engineer
and in 2001 he was promoted as an application engineer in the research and development team.
In 2004 he became a member of the association of professional engineers Ontario, Canada. He is
a member of the IEEE – PES since 1999.

Jorge Cardenas received his Engineering degree from the Universidad de Ingenieria (Peru) in
1977 and his MBA from the Universidad Politecnica de Madrid (Spain) in 1998. Jorge began his
career with the Utility Electroperu (Peru) as a Protection & Control Engineer, and in 1987 he
moved to ABB (Spain) as a HV equipment Sales Engineer, and than promoted to a Control
Design Engineer. In 1989 he joined GE, where he has held several positions. Currently Jorge
works as EMEA-Application Manager with GE Digital Energy-Multilin. He authored several
papers presented on protective relay conferences around the world. He is a member of a CIGRE
group.

Yingkai Sun received his Bachelor degree majored in Power System & Automation from
TianJin Univercity, China in 1989. After his graduation, Yingkai worked as a protection and
control engineer for TianJin Electric Power Company China. In 1998, Yingkai obtained his M.Sc
degree majored in Protective Relaying from TianJin University. In 2000, Yingkai joined GE
Multilin and has been working on several roles of testing technologist in Utility Product Group,
sales manager in Asia and application engineer in the Research and Development team. At
present, Yingkai is working for GE Digital Energy in Asia on sales role.

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