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Lecture-1 (Introduction To Prolog)

This document provides an introduction to Prolog. It discusses exercises and resources for learning Prolog including the Learn Prolog Now book and SWI Prolog interpreter. It describes the basic constructs in Prolog including facts, rules, and queries. It also discusses Prolog's history and differences from procedural programming languages.

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merajul islam
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108 views91 pages

Lecture-1 (Introduction To Prolog)

This document provides an introduction to Prolog. It discusses exercises and resources for learning Prolog including the Learn Prolog Now book and SWI Prolog interpreter. It describes the basic constructs in Prolog including facts, rules, and queries. It also discusses Prolog's history and differences from procedural programming languages.

Uploaded by

merajul islam
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1

Prolog
(Programming In Logic)
2
Artificial Intelligence
Introduction to Prolog

 Exercises Teaching Material


 Learn Prolog Now!
https://sites.google.com/site/prologsite/home
 SWI Prolog interpreter http://www.swi-prolog.org/

 Book: Learn Prolog Now! by Patrick Blackburn, Johan


Bos and Kristina Striegnitz
 Code Editors: Github Atom with language-prolog
plugin / Notepad++ with Prolog (SWI) plugin. Or you
can simply use notepad/gedit to edit your code.

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3
SWI Prolog

 Sociaal-Wetenschappelijke Informatica ("Social Science


Informatics")
 SWI-Prolog is a free interpreter of the programming language
Prolog
 Works with
 Linux[Ubuntu, Debian, Fedora, openSUSE etc]
 Windows, or
 Mac OS
 There are many more Prolog interpreters

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4
Lecture 1

 Theory
 Introduction to Prolog
 Facts, Rules and Queries
 Prolog Syntax

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Aim of this lecture

 Give some simple examples of Prolog programs


 Discuss the three basic constructs in Prolog:
 Facts
 Rules
 Queries
 Introduce other concepts, such as
 the role of logic
 unification with the help of variables
 Begin the systematic study of Prolog by defining
terms, atoms, and variables

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Prolog

 "Programming with Logic"


 Declarative
 Very different from other (procedural) programming
languages
 Good for knowledge-rich tasks

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7
History of Prolog

first Prolog interpreter by


Colmerauer and Roussel

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005


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History of Prolog

implementation of DEC10
compiler by Warren

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005


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History of Prolog

Definite Clause Grammars


implementation by Pereira and
Warren

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005


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History of Prolog

Prolog grows in popularity especially in


Europe and Japan

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005


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History of Prolog

Prolog used to program natural


language interface in
International Space Station by
NASA

1972 1977 1980 1980s/1990s 2005


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Basic idea of Prolog

 Describe the situation of interest


 Ask a question
 Prolog logically deduces new facts about the
situation we described
 Prolog gives us its deductions back as answers

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Consequences

 Think declaratively, not procedurally


 Challenging
 Requires a different mindset
 High-level language
 Not as efficient as, say, C
 Good for rapid prototyping
 Useful in many AI applications

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Difference between a 14
procedural language and
prolog
Let’s assume that we know these rules-
1. If event A happens, then event B happens as well. Hence, happens(A) → happens(B)
2. If event B happens, then event C happens as well. Hence, happens(B) → happens(C)

Also assume that we know for a fact, that-


1. Event A happens. Hence, happens(A) = TRUE.

Can we deduce from these rules and the fact if event C happens?
1. happens(A) → happens(B),and happens(A) = TRUE. So, happens(B) = TRUE.
2. happens(B) → happens(C),and happens(B) = TRUE. So, happens(C) = TRUE.

Thus, we deduce that event C happens!


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Example of a logical deduction in 15
a procedural programming
language(such as C)
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int A_happens, B_happens, C_happens;
int A_happens = 1;

if (A_happens == 1)
B_happens = 1;
else
B_happens = 0;

if (B_happens == 0)
C_happens = 1;
else
C_happens = 0;

printf("%d", C_happens);

return 0;
}

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Example of a logical
deduction in a Prolog

% We DECLARE the rules

happens(b) :- happens(a).
happens(c) :- happens(b).

% And we DECLARE the fact(s)

happens(a).

That’s all we need to do! If we query the Prolog ‘Knowledge base’


regarding happens(c), it will state that happens(c) = TRUE

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Chapter 1: Logic Programs

 A logic program is a set of axioms, or rules, defining


relations between objects.
 There are 3 basic constructs which define logic
programming.
 Get well familiar with this terminologies

1. Facts
2. Queries
3. Rules

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Facts

 The simplest kind of statement is called a fact.


 Relation holds between objects  Facts
 Example: father(abraham, isaac).
 This fact says that Abraham is the father of Isaac, or
that the relation father holds between the individuals
named abraham and isaac.

 Predicate: Another name for a relation is a predicate.


 Atoms: Names of individuals are known as atoms.
Example: abraham and isaac.
 Program: A finite set of facts and rules constitute a
program.

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Queries

 Queries are a means of retrieving information from a


logic program.
 Example: father(abraham, isaac)?
 Given the facts of previous slide, the answer to this
query is true/yes.

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Fact vs. Queries

 .
Fact terminates with a period ( ).

 Queries terminates with a question mark ( ?).


 We call the entity without the period or question
mark a goal. A fact P. states that the goal P is true. A
query P? asks whether the goal P is true.

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Atoms

 A sequence of characters of upper-case letters, lower-case


letters, digits, or underscore, starting with a lowercase letter.
• Examples: abraham, big_kahuna_burger, hamSandwich etc.

 An arbitrary sequence of characters enclosed in single quotes


• Examples: 'Vincent', 'Suarez’s bite', '@$%'
• Note: abraham and ‘abraham’ are the same thing in Prolog
 A sequence of special characters
• Examples: : , ; . :-

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Numbers

 0-9
 Integers: 12, -34, 22342
 Floats: 34573.3234

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Variables

 A sequence of characters of upper-case letters,


lower-case letters, digits, or underscore, starting with
either an uppercase letter or an underscore.

 Examples:

X, Y, Variable, Vincent, _tag etc.

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The Logical Variable,
Substitutions, and Instances

 Suppose we want to know of whom abraham is the


father.
 father(abraham, lot)?
 father(abraham, milcah)?
 ,...,
 father (abraham, isaac)? until an answer yes is
given.
 Better way to use variable logically 
 father (abraham, X)?
 X={Isaac}.

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Terms

 Variables. Example: X, Y, etc.


 Constants Example: abraham, isaac, etc.

Compound Terms: (functor)


o A functor is characterized by its name, which is an
atom, and its arity, or number of arguments.
o Example: f(t1, t2, ..., tn)
o Atom  f
o Arity  n
o ti are arguments.

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Ground Vs. Nonground

 queries, goals or terms without variable is ground.


 Example: foo(a, b) is ground.

 queries, goals or terms with variable is a non-ground.


 Example: bar(X) is non-ground.

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Substitution Vs. Instance

 father(abraham, isaac).
 father(abraham, X). Here substitution is {X=isaac}.

 father(abraham, isaac) is an instance of father(abraham,


X).
 Similarly, mother(sarah,isaac) is instance of mother(X,Y)
under the substitution {X=sarah, Y=isaac}.

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Prolog and Logic

 Clearly Prolog has something to do with logic


 Operators
 Implication :-
 Conjunction ,
 Disjunction ;
 Use of modus ponens
 Negation

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Rules

 Rules are statements of the form:


A :- B1,B2,...,Bn. where n >= 0.
 Note that a fact is just a special case of a rule when
n = 0. Facts are also called unit clauses.
 Example: A rule expressing the son relationship is
son(X,Y) :- father(Y,X), male(X).
 Similarly one can define a rule for the daughter
relationship:
daughter(X,Y) :- father(Y,X), female(X).

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Modus Ponens

 To incorporate rules into our framework of logical


deduction, we need the law of modus ponens.
Modus ponens states that from P, and Q :- P, we
can deduce Q.

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Knowledge Base

 A collection of facts and rules is called a knowledge


base (KB) (or a database) and Prolog programming
is all about writing knowledge bases.

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Knowledge Base 1

woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
true
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).

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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
true
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
true
?-

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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- woman(mia).
true
?- playsAirGuitar(jody).
true
?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
false
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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).

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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- tattoed(jody).
ERROR: predicate tattoed/1 not defined.
?-

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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- party.

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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- party.
yes
?-

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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- rockConcert.

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Knowledge Base 1
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(jody).
party.

?- rockConcert.
no
?-

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Knowledge Base 2

happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):-
listens2music(yolanda).

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Knowledge Base 2
fact
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

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Knowledge Base 2
fact
happy(yolanda).
fact
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):-
listens2music(yolanda).

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Knowledge Base 2
fact
happy(yolanda).
fact
listens2music(mia). rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

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Knowledge Base 2
fact
happy(yolanda).
fact
listens2music(mia). rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda). rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

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Knowledge Base 2
fact
happy(yolanda).
fact
listens2music(mia). rule
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda). rule
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia). rule
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

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Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

head body

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Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?-

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Knowledge Base 2
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
true
?-

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Knowledge Base 2

happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
true.
?- playsAirGuitar(yolanda).
true.
?-

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Knowledge Base 2

happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

?- playsAirGuitar(mia).
true.
?- playsAirGuitar(yolanda).
true.
?- playsAirGuitar(amanda).
false.
?-
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Clauses
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

There are five clauses in this knowledge base:


two facts, and three rules.

The end of a clause is marked with a full stop.

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Predicates
happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).

There are three predicates


in this knowledge base:
happy, listens2music, and playsAirGuitar

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Knowledge Base 3

happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent),
happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

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Expressing Conjunction

happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent),
happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

The comma “," expresses conjunction in Prolog

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Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

?- playsAirGuitar(vincent).
false
?-

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Knowledge Base 3
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent),
happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

?- playsAirGuitar(butch).
true
?-

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Expressing Disjunction
happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- listens2music(butch).

happy(vincent).
listens2music(butch).
playsAirGuitar(vincent):- listens2music(vincent), happy(vincent).
playsAirGuitar(butch):- happy(butch); listens2music(butch).

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Knowledge Base 4

woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
% Careful, this doesn’t necessarily mean that loves(mia, vincent) is a fact
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

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Prolog Variables
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).

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Variable Instantiation
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia

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Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;

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Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody

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Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody;
X=yolanda

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Asking Alternatives
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- woman(X).
X=mia;
X=jody;
X=yolanda;

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Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(marsellus,X), woman(X).

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Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(marsellus,X), woman(X).
X=mia
yes
?-

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Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(pumpkin,X), woman(X).

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Knowledge Base 4
woman(mia).
woman(jody).
woman(yolanda).

loves(vincent, mia).
loves(marsellus, mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

?- loves(pumpkin,X), woman(X).
false
?-

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Knowledge Base 5

loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

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Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

?- jealous(marsellus,W).

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Knowledge Base 5
loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(pumpkin, honey_bunny).
loves(honey_bunny, pumpkin).

jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z).

?- jealous(marsellus,W).
W=vincent
?-

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What will be the output of the query

?- jealous(vincent, vincent).
What will be the output of the query

?- jealous(vincent, vincent).
true.
?

But, in real life, does this really make sense? We should have written the rule
in a way, so that the result of these types of queries(where we query the
‘jealous’ relation with the same names) would return false. We should add
another term to the rule using conjunction, which checks that the first and
second arguments are not equal.
76
Corrected Knowledge Base 5

loves(vincent,mia).
loves(marsellus,mia).
loves(jack, mia).
loves(jack, kate).
jealous(X,Y):- loves(X,Z), loves(Y,Z), \+(X == Y).
% Alternatively,
% jealous(X, Y) :- loves(X, Z), loves(Y, Z), X \== Y.

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Prolog Syntax

Terms

Simple Terms
Complex Terms

Constants Variables

Atoms Numbers

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Arity

 The number of arguments a complex term has is


called its arity

 Examples:

woman(mia) is a term with arity 1


loves(vincent,mia) has arity 2
father(father(butch)) arity 1

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Arity is important

 In Prolog you can define two predicates with the


same functor but with different arity
 Prolog would treat this as two different predicates
 In Prolog documentation arity of a predicate is
usually indicated with the suffix "/" followed by a
number to indicate the arity

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Example of Arity

happy(yolanda).
listens2music(mia).
listens2music(yolanda):- happy(yolanda).
playsAirGuitar(mia):- listens2music(mia).
playsAirGuitar(yolanda):- listens2music(yolanda).
 This knowledge base defines
 happy/1
 listens2music/1
 playsAirGuitar/1

Jisan Mahmud 4/29/2016


81
Operators and Functions

 Normal Prolog operators are prefix:


 @>(Item1, Item2).
 @=<(Item1, Item2).
 ==(Item1, Item2).
 \==(Item1, Item2).
 Some symbols can be used infix: arithmetic and
comparison

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82
Comparison Operators
Operator Meaning
\+ Not (negation by failure)
=, \=, =.. Unification, not unifiable, list unification
==, \== Term identical, term not identical
@<, @=<, @>, @>= Term less than, term less than or equal to, etc.
is Unify left-hand side with result of evaluating right
hand side.
=:=, =\= Arithmetic equal, arithmetic not equal
<, =<, >, >= Arithmetic less than, etc.
:
+, -, /\, \/ Add, subtract, bitwise AND, bitwise OR
*, /, //, Mult, div, integer division
rem, mod Different versions of mod (see manual)
>>, << Shift right, shift left
**, ^. \ Exponentiation, bitwise XOR, bitwise NOT
Jisan Mahmud 4/29/2016
83
Comparison functions

Jisan Mahmud 4/29/2016


84
Arithmetic

 Example.

bonus(Number) :- Number is 2 + 3.
?- bonus(3).
No
?- bonus(5).
Yes
?- bonus(X).
X = 5

Jisan Mahmud 4/29/2016


85
Arithmetic

 Example.
= and is have
| ?- X is 5 + 2. different meanings
X = 7
yes
= means term assignment
| ?- X = 5 + 2.
is means arithmetic assignment
X = 5+2
yes
| ?- X is 5.3 + 7.
X = 12.300000000000001
yes
Integers are coerced
| ?-
to float

Jisan Mahmud 4/29/2016


86
Arithmetic
 Example: geography.pl
/*
north latitudes and west longitudes are positive.
sound latitudes and east longitudes are negative. Try:
*/
north_of(madrid, tokyo).
location(tokyo, 35, -139).
location(rome, 41, -12).
location(london, 51, 0).
west_of(X, tokyo).
location(canberra, -31, -149). west_of(london, X).
location(madrid, 48, 3).
north_of(X, Y) :-
location(X, Lat1, _),
location(Y, Lat2, _),
Lat1 > Lat2.
west_of(X, Y) :-
location(X, _, Long1),
location(Y, _, Long2),
Long1 > Long2.
Jisan Mahmud 4/29/2016
87
Tracing

Must have a period!


 The prolog command is trace

|?-trace.

yes

{trace}

|?-north_of(madrid, tokyo).

1 1 Call: north_of(madrid,tokyo) ?

1 1 means top level call


2 2 Call: location(madrid,_81,_41) ?

2 2 Exit: location(madrid,48,3) ?

3 3 Call: location(tokyo,_108,_68) ? 3 2 means 3rd level call in


3 2 Exit: location(tokyo,35,-139) ? response to the current 2nd
4 2 Call: 48>35 ?
level call.
4 2 Exit: 48>35 ?

1 1 Exit: north_of(madrid,tokyo) ?

Yes

{trace}

| ?-

For more: visit: http://www.cse.unsw.edu.au/~billw/dictionaries/prolog/tracing.html

Jisan Mahmud 4/29/2016


88
Tracing

The command to turn off is notrace

|?-notrace.
The debugger is switched off
Yes
|?-

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89
Making Decisions
 There are no if or case statements in prolog.
 How do we make decisions?
 Example: determine how hot it is:
// determine how hot it is
void howHot(string &HowHot, int Temp){
if (Temp >= 100)
HowHot = “very”;
else if (Temp >= 90)
HowHot = “pretty”;
else if (Temp >= 70)
HowHot = “perfect”;
else if (Temp < 70)
HowHot = “cold”;
}
Jisan Mahmud 4/29/2016
90
Making Decisions

 Making decisions (howHot.pl)


Can ask
% determine how hot it is
howHot(X, 80).
Hot(HowHot, Temp) :-
Temp >= 100,
But not
HowHot = ‘very’;
howHot(very, X).
Temp < 100,
Temp >= 90,
HowHot = ‘pretty’; Cannot use is must use =
Temp < 90, is only works on arithmetic
Temp >= 70, expressions
HowHot = ‘perfect’;
Temp < 70,
Must have this test because prolog
HowHot = ‘cold’.
will view each or clause
independently. If we left out Temp
Jisan Mahmud < 100 then a temp of 110 would 4/29/2016

return both “very” and “pretty”


91

Thanks

?
Jisan Mahmud 4/29/2016

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