Gestalt Therapy Wedding Final 2012
Gestalt Therapy Wedding Final 2012
Gestalt Therapy Wedding Final 2012
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GESTALT THERAPY
Gary Yontef and Lynne Jacobs 2011
OVERVIEW
Gestalt therapy was founded by Frederick “Fritz” Perls and collaborators Laura Perls
and Paul Goodman. They synthesized various cultural and intellectual trends of the
1940s and 1950s into a new gestalt, one that provided a sophisticated clinical and
theoretical alternative to the two other main theories of their day: behaviorism and
classical psychoanalysis.
Gestalt therapy began as a revision of psychoanalysis (F. Perls, 1942/1992) and
quickly developed as a wholly independent, integrated system (F. Perls, Hefferline, &
approach, it works with patients’ awareness and awareness skills rather than using the
neutrality. Gestalt therapy replaced the mechanistic, simplistic, Newtonian system of
classical psychoanalysis with a processbased postmodern relational field theory.
Gestalt therapists use active methods that develop not only patients’ awareness
but also their repertoires of awareness and behavioral tools. Active methods and
active personal engagement of Gestalt therapy are used to increase the awareness,
freedom, and selfdirection of the patient rather than to direct patients toward preset
goals as in behavior therapy and encounter groups.
The Gestalt therapy system is truly integrative and includes affective, sensory,
cognitive, interpersonal, and behavioral components (Joyce & Sills, 2009). In Gestalt
therapy, therapists and patients are encouraged to be creative in doing the awareness
work. There are no prescribed or proscribed techniques in Gestalt therapy.
Basic Concepts
Holism and Field Theory
Most humanistic theories of personality are holistic. Holism asserts that humans are
inherently selfregulating, that they are growth oriented, and that persons and their
symptoms cannot be understood apart from their environment. Holism and field
theory are interrelated in Gestalt theory. Field theory is a way of understanding how
one’s context influences one’s experiencing. Described elegantly by Einstein’s theory
of relativity, it is a theory about the nature of reality and our relationship to reality. It
represents one of the first attempts to articulate a contextualist view of reality. Field
theory, born in science, was an early contributor to the current postmodern sensibility
that influences nearly all psychological theories today. Schools of thought that
emphasize contextuallyemergent processes build upon the work of Einstein and other
field theorists. The combination of field theory, holism, and Gestalt psychology forms
the bedrock for the Gestalt theory of personality.
Fields have certain properties that lead to a specific contextual theory. As with all
contextual theories, a field is understood to be composed of mutually interdependent
elements. But there are other properties as well. For one thing, variables that
contribute to shaping a person’s behavior and experience are said to be present in
one’s current field, and therefore, people cannot be understood without understanding
the field, or context, in which they live. A patient’s life story cannot tell you what
actually happened in his or her past, but it can tell you how the patient experiences his
or her history in the here and now. That rendition of history is shaped to some degree
by the patient’s current field conditions.
What happened 3 years ago is not a part of the current field and therefore cannot
affect one’s experience. What does shape one’s experience is how one holds a
memory of the event, and also the fact that an event 3 years ago has altered how one
may organize one’s perception in the field. Another property of the field is that the
embeddedness in a field; therefore, all attributions about the nature of reality are
relative to the subject’s position in the field. Field theory renounces the belief that
anyone, including a therapist or scientist, can have an objective perspective on reality.
(Beisser, 1970). The paradox is that the more one tries to become who one is not, the
more one stays the same. The more one tries to force oneself into a mold that does not
fit, the more one is fragmented rather than whole. Knowing and accepting the truth of
one’s feelings, beliefs, situation, and behavior builds wholeness and supports growth.
with—what one senses, feels emotionally, observes, needs or wants, and believes.
existence, including how one is affected and how one affects others. One moves
toward wholeness by identifying with ongoing experience, being in contact with what
is actually happening, identifying and trusting what one genuinely feels and wants,
and being honest with self and others about what one is actually able and willing to do
—or not willing to do.
When one knows, senses, and feels one’s self here and now, including the
possibilities for change, one can be fully present, accepting or changing what is not
satisfying. Living in the past, worrying about the future, and/or clinging to illusions
about what one should be or could have been diminishes emotional and conscious
awareness and the immediacy of experience that is the key to organismic living and
growth.
Gestalt therapy aims for selfknowledge, acceptance, and growth by immersion in
actually happening at the moment. It focuses on the here and now, not on what should
be, could be, or was. From this presentcentered focus, one can become clear about
the needs, wishes, goals, and values of self and the situation.
The concepts emphasized in Gestalt therapy are contact, conscious awareness, and
experimentation. Each concept is described below.
Contact means being in touch with what is emerging here and now, moment to
moment. Conscious awareness is a focusing of attention on what one is in touch with
in situations requiring such attention. Awareness, or focused attention, is needed in
situations that require higher contact ability, situations involving complexity or
conflict, and situations in which habitual modes of thinking and acting are not
working and in which one does not learn from experience. For example, in a situation
that produces numbness, one can focus on the experience of numbness and cognitive
clarity can emerge.
understanding. The experiment may result in enhanced emotions or in the realization
of something that had been kept from awareness. Experimentation, trying something
new, is an alternative to the purely verbal methods of psychoanalysis and the behavior
control techniques of behavior therapy.
Trying something new, without commitment to either the status quo or the
adoption of a new pattern, can facilitate organismic growth. For example, patients
often repeat stories of unhappy events without giving any evidence of having
achieved increased clarity or relief. In this situation, a Gestalt therapist might suggest
that the patient express affect directly to the person involved (either in person or
through role playing). The patient often experiences relief or closure and the
emergence of other feelings, such as sadness or appreciation.
Contact, awareness, and experimentation have technical meanings, but these terms
are also used in a colloquial way. The Gestalt therapist improves his or her practice by
knowing the technical definitions. However, for the sake of this introductory chapter,
we will try to use the colloquial form of these terms. Gestalt therapy starts with the
therapist making contact with the patient by getting in touch with what the patient and
therapist are experiencing and doing. The therapist helps the patient focus on and
clarify what he or she is in contact with and deepens the exploration by helping focus
the patient’s awareness.
Awareness Process
Gestalt therapy focuses on the awareness process—in other words, on the continuum
become foci for the work of therapy. The act of focusing enables the patient to
become clear about what he or she thinks, feels, and decides in the current moment—
and about how he or she does it. This includes a focus on what does not come to
awareness. Careful attention to the sequence of the patient’s continuum of awareness
and observation of nonverbal behavior can help a patient recognize interruptions of
contact and become aware of what has been kept out of awareness. For example,
whenever Jill starts to look sad, she does not report feeling sad but moves
immediately into anger. The anger cannot end as long as it functions to block Jill’s
sadness and vulnerability. In this situation, Jill can not only gain awareness of her
sadness but also gain in skill at selfmonitoring by being made aware of her tendency
to block her sadness. That second order of awareness (how she interrupts awareness
of her sadness) is referred to as awareness of one’s awareness process.
Awareness of awareness can empower by helping patients gain greater access to
themselves and clarify processes that had been confusing, improving the accuracy of
perception and unblocking previously blocked emotional energy (Joyce & Sills,
2009). Jill had felt stymied by her lover’s defensive reaction to her anger. When she
realized that she actually felt hurt and sad, and not just angry, she could express her
vulnerability, hurt, and sadness. Her lover was much more receptive to this than he
was to her anger. In further work, Jill realized that blocking her sadness resulted from
being shamed by her family when, as a child, she had expressed hurt feelings.
Gestalt therapists focus on patients’ awareness and contact processes with respect,
open to learning from the patient’s perspective. Therapists are present in as mutual a
way as possible in the therapeutic relationship and take responsibility for their own
behavior and feelings. In this way, the therapist can be active and make suggestions
but also can fully accept the patient in a manner consistent with the paradoxical
theory of change.
Other Systems
Classical Freudian Psychoanalysis and Gestalt Therapy
biological drives and in the establishment of relatively permanent structures created
by the inevitable conflict between these basic drives and social demands—both
legitimate demands and those stemming from parental and societal neurosis. All
human development, behavior, thinking, and feeling were believed to be determined
by these unconscious biological and social conflicts.
Patients’ statements of their feelings, thoughts, beliefs, and wishes were not
stemming from the unconscious. The unconscious was a structure to which the patient
did not have direct access, at least before completing analysis. However, the
unconscious manifested itself in the transference neurosis, and through the analyst’s
interpretation of the transference, “truth” was discovered and understood.
(talking without censoring or focusing), the patient provided data for psychoanalytic
treatment. These data were interpreted by the analyst according to the particular
version of drive theory that he or she espoused. The analyst provided no details about
his or her own life or person. He or she was supposed to be completely objective,
eschewing all emotional reactions. The analyst had two fundamental rules: the rule of
preferences in the patient’s conflict). Any deviation by the analyst was considered
countertransference. Any attempt by the patient to know something about the analyst
was interpreted as resistance, and any ideas about the analyst were considered a
projection from the unconscious of the patient.
Although interpretation of the transference helped bring the focus back to the here
and now, unfortunately, the potential of the hereandnow relationship is not realized
in classical psychoanalysis because the focus is drawn away from the actual
contemporaneous relationship, and the patients’ feelings are interpreted as the result
usually focused on the past and not on what is actually happening between analyst
and patient in the moment.
Adler, Rank, Jung, Reich, Horney, Fromm, Sullivan, and other analysts deviated from
core Freudian assumptions in many ways and provided the soil from which the
Gestalt therapy system arose. In these derivative systems, as in Gestalt therapy, the
pessimistic Freudian view of a patient driven by unconscious forces was replaced by a
belief in the potential for human growth and by appreciation for the power of
relationships and conscious awareness. These approaches did not limit the data to free
association; instead, they valued an explicitly compassionate attitude by the therapist
and allowed a wider range of interventions. However, these approaches were still
fettered by remaining in the psychoanalytic tradition. Gestalt therapy took a more
radical position.
Behavior modification provided a simple alternative: Observe the behavior,
disregard the subjective reports of the patient, and control problematic behavior by
measured, counted, and “scientifically” proved.
The behavioral approach was the inverse of the intrapsychic approach of Freudian
psychoanalysis. Hereandnow behavior was observed and taken as important data in
its own right, but the patient’s subjective, conscious experience was not considered
reliable data.
A third choice was provided by Gestalt therapy. In Gestalt therapy, the patient’s
awareness is not assumed to be merely a cover for some other, deeper motivation.
Unlike psychoanalysis, Gestalt therapy uses any and all available data. Like behavior
modification, Gestalt therapy carefully observes behavior, including observation of
the body, and it focuses on the here and now and uses active methods. The patient’s
modification and psychoanalysis, the therapist and the patient codirect the work of
therapy.
ClientCentered Therapy, Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy, and
Gestalt Therapy
Gestalt therapy and clientcentered therapy share common roots and philosophy. Both
believe in the potential for human growth, and both believe that growth results from a
relationship in which the therapist is experienced as warm and authentic (congruent).
Both clientcentered and Gestalt therapy are phenomenological therapies that work
with the subjective awareness of the patient. However, Gestalt therapy has a more
active phenomenological approach. The Gestalt therapy phenomenology is an
experimental phenomenology. The patient’s subjective experience is made clearer by
techniques, but they are designed to clarify the patient’s awareness rather than to
control her or his behavior.
Another difference is that the Gestalt therapist is more inclined to think in terms
of an encounter in which the subjectivity of both patient and therapist is valued. The
Gestalt therapist is much more likely than a personcentered therapist to tell the
patient about his or her own feelings or experience.
Gestalt therapy provides an alternative to both the confrontational approach of
rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) and the nondirective approach of Carl
Rogers. A personcentered therapist completely trusts the patient’s subjective report,
whereas a practitioner of REBT confronts the patient, often quite actively, about his
awareness. (During the 1960s and 1970s, Fritz Perls popularized a very confrontive
therapy as it is practiced today.)
Gestalt therapy has become more like the personcentered approach in two
become clear that the therapist does not have an “objective” truth that is more
accurate than the truth that the patient experiences.
Newer Models of Psychoanalysis and Relational Gestalt Therapy
There have been parallel developments in Gestalt therapy and psychoanalysis. The
concept of the relationship in Gestalt therapy is modeled on Martin Buber’s I–Thou
relationship (Yontef, 1993, Hycner and Jacobs, 1995). In its emerging focus on the
relationship, Gestalt therapy has moved away from classical psychoanalysis and drive
theory, away from confrontation as a desired therapeutic tool, and away from the
belief that the therapist is healthy and the patient is sick (Staemmler 2011). Gestalt
therapy has embraced such notions as intersubjectivity, mutual, reciprocal emotional
influence, and the search for shared meanings as part and parcel of explorations of
awareness (Wheeler, 2000).
Psychoanalysis has undergone a similar paradigm shift, and the two systems have
somewhat converged. This is possible in part because contemporary psychoanalytic
reductionism and determinism and reject the tendency to minimize the patient’s own
theory and practice (Orange, 2011). Gestalt therapy was formed in reaction to the
same aspects of psychoanalysis that contemporary psychoanalysis is now rejecting.
include the following: an emphasis on the whole person and sense of self; an
emphasis on process thinking; an emphasis on subjectivity and affect; an appreciation
development; a belief that people are motivated toward growth and development
rather than regression; a belief that infants are born with a basic motivation and
capacity for personal interaction, attachment, and satisfaction; a belief that there is no
“self” without an “other”; and a belief that the structure and contents of the mind are
shaped by interactions with others rather than by instinctual urges. It is meaningless to
speak of a person in isolation from the relationships that shape and define his or her
life.
Cognitive Behavior Therapy, REBT, and Gestalt Therapy
The assumption that Gestalt therapy does not engage with patients’ thinking processes
is inaccurate. Gestalt therapy has always paid attention to what the patient is thinking.
Gestalt therapists, like their cognitive therapy colleagues, stress the role of
“futurizing” in creating anxiety and, like REBT therapists, discuss the creation of
cognitive behavior therapy have also traditionally been an important focus for Gestalt
therapy.
There is one major difference between contemporary Gestalt therapy and REBT
or cognitive behavior therapy. In modern Gestalt therapy, the therapist does not
pretend to know the truth about what is irrational. The Gestalt therapist observes the
process, directs the patient to observe his or her thoughts, and explores alternate ways
of thinking in a manner that values and respects what the patient experiences and
comes to believe.
HISTORY
Precursors
Gestalt therapy was less a font of substantial original “discoveries” than a
developed out of a seedbed of rich and varied sources. Fritz and Laura Perls, and the
later American collaborators with whom they wrote, taught, and practiced from the
1940s through the 1960s (Isadore From, Paul Goodman, and others), swam in the
between intellectuals in all disciplines during this period.
FrankfurtamMain of the 1920s, where Fritz Perls got his M.D. and Laura Perls
her D.Sc., was a center of intellectual ferment in psychology. They were directly or
indirectly exposed to leading Gestalt psychologists, existential and phenomenological
philosophers, liberal theologians, and psychoanalytic thinkers.
Fritz Perls was intimately acquainted with psychoanalysis and in fact was a
psychoanalysis. For Perls, the revolutionary basic idea that Freud brought to Western
culture—the existence of motivations that lay outside of conscious awareness—had to
be woven into other streams of thought, particularly holism, Gestalt psychology, field
theory, phenomenology, and existentialism.
These intellectual disciplines, each in its own way, were attempting to create a
“humanistic” vision, and Gestalt therapy introduced that vision into the world of
psychotherapy. Freudian analysts asserted the essential truth that human life is
asserted the primacy of existence over essence, the belief that people choose the
direction of their lives, and the argument that human life is not biologically
analysts, especially Otto Rank and Wilhelm Reich. Both Rank and Reich emphasized
conscious experience, the body as carrier of emotional wisdom and conflicts, and the
active process of engagement between the therapist and the patient in the here and
now. Reich introduced the important notion of “character armor”—repetitive patterns
of experience, behavior, and body posture that keep the individual in fixed, socially
determined roles. Reich also thought that how a patient spoke or moved was more
important than what the patient said.
Rank emphasized the creative powers and uniqueness of the individual and argued
that the client was his or her own best therapist. Like Fritz Perls, Rank stressed the
importance of the experience of the hereandnow therapeutic relationship.
Providing a major source of inspiration to Fritz and Laura Perls were European
continental philosophers who were breaking away from Cartesian dualism, arguing
that the split between subject and object, self and world, was an illusion. These
included the existentialists, the phenomenologists, and philosophers such as Ludwig
Wittgenstein.
The new approach was influenced by field theory, the Gestalt psychologists, the
holism of Jan Smuts, and Zen thought and practice. This thinking was blended by
Fritz Perls with the Gestalt psychology of figure/ground perception and with the
Kurt Lewin .
In his first book, Ego, Hunger and Aggression (1942/1992), Perls described
people as embedded in a person–environment field; this field was developed by the
emergence into consciousness of those needs that organized perception. Perls also
wrote about a “creative indifference” that enables a person to differentiate according
to what is really needed in a particular situation. With the differentiation emerges the
experience of contrast and awareness of the polarities that shape our experience of
ourselves as separate. Perls thought of this as a Western equivalent to the Eastern
practice of Zen
Fritz and Laura left Germany during the Nazi era and later fled Nazioccupied
Holland. They went to South Africa, where they started a psychoanalytic training
center. During this same period, Jan Smuts, South African prime minister in the
1940s, coined the term holism and wrote about it. In time, Fritz and Laura Perls left
South Africa because of the beginning of the apartheid policies that Jan Smuts helped
to initiate.
The fundamental precept of holism is that the organism is a selfregulating entity.
For Fritz Perls, Gestalt psychology, organismic theory, field theory, and holism
formed a happy union. Gestalt psychology provided Perls with the organizing
principles for Gestalt therapy, as well as with a cognitive scheme that would integrate
the varied influences in his life.
The word Gestalt has no literal English translation. It refers to a perceptual whole
or configuration of experience. People do not perceive in bits and pieces, which are
then added up to form an organized perception; instead, they perceive in patterned
wholes. Patterns reflect an interrelationship among elements such that the whole
relationship of parts to each other and to the whole. The leading figures in the
Wolfgang Kohler.
Kurt Lewin extended this work by applying Gestalt principles to areas other than
Gestalt psychology. He is especially well known for his explication of the field theory
philosophy of Gestalt psychology, although this concept did not originate with him.
Lewin (1938) discussed the principles by which field theory differed from Newtonian
and positivistic thinking. In field theory, the world is studied as a systematic web of
relationships, continuous in time, and not as discrete or dichotomous particles. In this
view, everything is in the process of becoming, and nothing is static. Reality in this
field view is configured by the relationship between the observer and the observed.
“Reality,” then, is a function of perspective, not a true positivist fact. There may be
multiple realities of equal legitimacy. Such a view of the nature of reality opens
women, gays, and nonEuropeans.
Lewin carried on the work of the Gestalt psychologists by hypothesizing and
researching the idea that a Gestalt is formed by the interaction between environmental
possibilities and organismic needs. Needs organize perception and action. Perception
is organized by the state of the personinrelation and the environmental surround. A
Gestalt therapy theory of organismic functioning was based on the Gestalt psychology
principles of perception and holism. The theory of organismic selfregulation became
a cornerstone of the Gestalt therapy theory of personality.
during the Perlses’ years in Germany and in the United States. Gestalt therapy was
Martin Buber, with whom Laura Perls studied directly. Buber’s belief in the
inextricable existential fact that a self is always a selfwithother was a natural fit with
Gestalt thinking, and his theory of the I–Thou relation became, through the teachings
of Laura Perls, the basis for the patient–therapist relationship in Gestalt therapy.
Beginnings
Although Fritz Perls’s earliest publication was Ego, Hunger and Aggression
(1942/1992), the first comprehensive integration of Gestalt therapy system is found in
Gestalt Therapy (F. Perls et al., 1951/1994). This seminal publication represented the
synthesis, integration, and new Gestalt formed by the authors’ exposure to the
intellectual zeitgeist described above. A New York Institute of Gestalt Therapy was
soon formed, and the early seminar participants became teachers who spread the word
Cleveland, Miami, and Los Angeles. Intensive study groups formed in each of these
cities. Learning was supplemented by the regular workshops of the original study
group members, and eventually all of these cities developed their own Gestalt training
institutes. The Gestalt Institute of Cleveland has made a special effort to bring in
trainees from varied backgrounds and to develop a highly diverse faculty.
psychotherapy. For instance, Gestalt therapy has a highly developed methodology for
attending to experience phenomenologically and for attending to how the therapist
assumes the reality is formed in the relationship between the observed and the
observer. In short, reality is interpreted.
The dialogic relationship in Gestalt therapy derived three important principles
from Martin Buber’s thought (Hycner and Jacobs, 1995). First, in a dialogic
therapeutic relationship, the therapist practices inclusion, which is similar to empathic
engagement. In this, the therapist puts himself or herself into the experience of the
patient, imagines the existence of the other, feels it as if it were a sensation within his
developed form of contact rather than a merger with the experience of the patient.
Through imagining the patient’s experience in this way, the dialogic therapist
confirms the existence and potential of the patient. Second, the therapist discloses
himself or herself as a person who is authentic and congruent and someone who is
striving to be transparent and selfdisclosing. Third, the therapist in dialogic therapy is
committed to the dialogue, surrenders to what happens between the participants, and
thus does not control the outcome. In such a relationship, the therapist is changed as
well as the patient.
Underlying most existential thought is the existential phenomenological method.
Edmund Husserl and his descendants and the phenomenology of Gestalt psychology.
separating what is actually experienced at the moment from what was expected or
constitutes valid data. All data are considered valid initially, although they are likely
to be refined by continuing phenomenological exploration. This is quite consistent
explored rather than explained away in terms of unconscious motivation.
Although other theories have not fully incorporated the I–Thou relation or
systematic phenomenological focusing, they have been influenced by the excitement
and vitality of direct contact between therapist and patient; the emphasis on direct
experience; the use of experimentation; emphasis on the here and now, emotional
process, and awareness; trust in organismic selfregulation; emphasis on choice; and
attention to the patients’ context as well as their experiential world.
Current Status
Gestalt Institutes, literature, and journals have proliferated worldwide in the past 55
years. There is at least one Gestalt therapy training center in every major city in the
United States, and there are numbers of Gestalt therapy training institutes in most
countries of Europe, North and South America, Australia, and Asia. Gestalt therapists
practice all over the world.
sponsor professional meetings, set standards, and support research and public
professionals. The association was formed with the intention of governing itself
through adherence to Gestalt therapy principles enacted at an organizational level.
Regional conferences are also sponsored by a European Gestalt therapy association,
the European Association for Gestalt Therapy, and by an Australian and New Zealand
association, GANZ.
Gestalt therapy is known for a rich oral tradition, and historically, Gestalt writings
have not reflected the full depth of its theory and practice. Gestalt therapy has tended
to attract therapists inclined to an experiential approach. The Gestalt therapy approach
is almost impossible to teach without a strong experiential component.
Since the publication of a seminal book by the Polsters (Polster & Polster, 1973),
the gap between the oral and written traditions of Gestalt therapy has closed. There is
now an extensive Gestalt therapy literature, and a growing number of books address
various aspects of Gestalt therapy theory and practice. There are now four English
Journal), the British Gestalt Journal, the Gestalt Review, and the Gestalt Journal of
bibliography of Gestalt books, articles, videotapes, and audiotapes. This listing can be
Therapy, provides resources for articles and research and is also an online journal.
Gestalt therapy literature has also flourished around the world. There is at least one
journal in most languages in Europe, North and South America, and Australia. In
addition to the books written in English, translated, and widely read in other
countries, there have been important original theoretical works published in French,
German, Italian, Portuguese, Danish, Korean, and Spanish.
The past decade has witnessed a major shift in Gestalt therapy’s understanding of
personality and therapy. There has been a growing, albeit sometimes controversial,
interdependence, a better understanding of the shaming effect of the cultural value
childhood and triggered in interpersonal relationships (Fairfield & O’Shea, 2008; Lee
& Wheeler, 1996; Yontef, 1993). As Gestalt therapists have come to understand
shame and its triggers more thoroughly, they have become less confrontive and more
accepting and supportive than in earlier years (Jacobs, 1996).
PERSONALITY
Theory of Personality
Gestalt therapy theory has a highly developed, somewhat complicated theory of
personality. The notions of healthy functioning and neurotic functioning are actually
quite simple and clear, but they are built upon a paradigm shift, not always easy to
grasp, from linear causeandeffect thinking to a process, field theory worldview.
Gestalt therapy is a radical ecological theory that maintains there is no meaningful
way to consider any living organism apart from its interactions with its environment
—that is, apart from the organism–environment field of which it is a part (F. Perls et
al., 1951/1994). Psychologically, there is no meaningful way to consider a person
apart from interpersonal relations just as there is no meaningful way to perceive the
field theory, it is impossible for perception to be totally “objective.”
The “field” that human beings inhabit is replete with other human beings. In
more specifically, self does not exist without other. Self implies selfinrelation.
without contact—but it is the contact between humans that dominates the formation
and functions of our personalities.
functions: It connects people with each other but also maintains separation. Without
emotional connecting with others, one starves; without emotional separation, one does
not maintain a separate, autonomous identity. Connecting meets biological, social,
and psychological needs; separation creates and maintains autonomy and protects
against harmful intrusion or overload.
Needs are met and people grow through contact with and withdrawal from others.
By separating and connecting, a person establishes boundary and identity. Effective
selfregulation includes contact in which one is aware of what is newly emerging that
may be either nourishing or harmful. One identifies with that which is nourishing and
rejects that which is harmful. This kind of differentiated contact leads to growth
awareness and contact.
The most important processes for psychological growth are interactions in which
two persons each acknowledge the experience of the other with awareness and respect
for the needs, feelings, beliefs, and customs of the other. This form of dialogic contact
is essential in therapy.
Organismic SelfRegulation
Gestalt therapy theory holds that people are inherently selfregulating, context
sensitive, and motivated to solve problems. Needs and desires are organized
becomes the center of attention.
Gestalt (Figure/Ground) Formation
A corollary to the concept of organismic selfregulation is called Gestalt formation.
Gestalt psychology has taught us that we perceive in unified wholes and also that we
perceive through the phenomenon of contrast. A figure of interest forms in contrast to
a relatively dull background. For instance, the words on this page are a visual figure
to the reader, whereas other aspects of the room are visually less clear and vivid until
this reference to them leads the reader to allow the words on the page to slip into the
background, at which time the figure of a table, chair, book, or soda emerges. One can
only perceive one clear figure at a time, although figures and grounds may shift very
rapidly.
Consciousness and Unconsciousness
personality functioning is that ideas about consciousness and unconsciousness are
radically different from those of Freud. Freud believed the unconscious was filled
with impersonal, biologically based urges that constantly pressed for release.
Competent functioning depended on the successful use of repression and sublimation
to keep the contents of the unconscious hidden; these urges could be experienced only
in symbolic form.
Gestalt therapy’s “unconscious” is quite different. In Gestalt therapy theory, the
concepts of awareness and unawareness replace the unconscious. Gestalt therapists
use the concepts of awareness/unawareness to reflect the belief in the fluidity between
what is momentarily in awareness and what is momentarily outside of awareness.
When something vital, powerful, and relevant is not allowed to emerge into
foreground, one is unaware. What is background is, for the moment, outside of
awareness, but it could instantly become the figure in awareness. This is in keeping
with the Gestalt psychology understanding of perception, which is the formation of a
figure against a background.
regularly relegated to the background. This concept is roughly similar to the Freudian
comprehensible to the patient.
Gestalt therapists maintain that what is being relegated to permanent background
status reflects the patient’s current conflicts as well as the patient’s perspective on
current field conditions. When a patient perceives the conditions of the therapy
subjective states can be brought into awareness through the therapeutic dialogue.
Health
The Gestalt therapy notion of health is actually quite simple. In healthy organismic
selfregulation, one is aware of shifting need states; that is, what is of most
importance becomes the figure of one’s awareness. Being whole, then, is simply
identifying with one’s ongoing, momentbymoment experiencing and allowing this
identification to organize one’s behavior.
Healthy organismic awareness includes awareness of the human and nonhuman
example, compassion, love, and care for the environment are all part of organismic
functioning.
Healthy functioning requires being in contact with what is actually occurring in
the person–environment field. Contact is the quality of being in touch with one’s
allowing action to be organized by what is emerging, people interact in the world and
learn from the experience. By trying something new, one learns what works and what
does not work in various situations. When a figure is not allowed to emerge, when it
contact.
Tendency Toward Growth
Gestalt therapists believe that people are inclined toward growth and will develop as
fully as conditions allow. Gestalt therapy is holistic and asserts that people are
inherently selfregulating and growthoriented and that people and their behavior,
including symptoms, cannot be understood apart from their environment and what
needs organize specific behaviors.
Gestalt therapy is interested in the existential themes of existence—connection
and separation, life and death, choice and responsibility, authenticity and freedom.
toward experience derived from an existential and humanistic ethos. Gestalt therapy
understood in terms of what is experienced and how it is experienced.
Life Is Relational
throughout life. Relationships are regulated by how people experience them. From
relation to others. This derives from how people are regarded by others and how they
think and behave toward others. In Gestalt therapy theory, derived from Martin
Buber, there is no “I,” no sense of self, other than self in relation to others. There is
only the “I” of the “I–Thou” or the “I” of the “I–[I]t.” As Buber said, “All real living
is meeting” (1923/1970, p. 11).
balance and moves on to whatever need emerges next. In health, the boundary is
permeable enough to allow exchange with that which promotes health (connecting)
and firm enough to preserve autonomy and exclude that which is unhealthful
(separation). This requires the identification of those needs that are most pressing at a
particular time and in a particular environment.
Variety of Concepts
Disturbances at the Boundary
withdrawal. When the experience of coming together is blocked repetitively, one is
left in a state of isolation, which is a boundary disturbance. It is a disturbance because
it is fixed, does not respond to a whole range of needs, and fails to allow close contact
corresponding boundary disturbance, known as confluence. Confluence is the loss of
the experience of separate identity.
In optimal functioning, when something is taken in—whether it is an idea, food,
what to take in and what meaning to attach to that which is taken in. When things
(ideas, identity, beliefs, and so on) are taken in without awareness, the boundary
disturbance of introjection results. Introjects are not fully integrated into organismic
functioning.
In order for one to integrate and be whole, what is taken in must be assimilated.
Assimilation is the process of experiencing what is to be taken in, deconstructing it,
keeping what is useful, and discarding what is not. For example, the process of
assimilation allows the listener to select and keep only what is useful from a lecture
she or he attends.
person event instead of a twoperson event (an example is caressing oneself when one
wants another person to do the [caressing]), there is the boundary disturbance of
retroflection. In each of these processes, some part of the person is disowned and not
allowed to become figural or to organize and energize action.
Creative Adjustment
When all the pieces are put together, people function according to an overarching
organism and the environment” (F. Perls et al., 1951/1994, p. 230/6). All organisms
live in an environment to which they must adjust. Nevertheless, people also need to
shape the environment so that it conforms to human needs and values.
The concept of creative adjustment follows from the notion that people are growth
oriented and will try to solve their problems in living in the best way possible. This
means solving the problem in a way that makes the fullest use of their own resources
and those of the environment. Since awareness can be concentrated on only one figure
at a time, those processes that are not the object of creative awareness operate in a
habitual mode of adjustment until it is their turn to come into full awareness.
environment and adjusting to current conditions. Since people live only in relation,
they must balance adjusting to the demands of the situation (such as societal demands
and the needs of others) and creating something new according to their own,
individual interests. This is a continual, mutual, reciprocal negotiation between one’s
self and one’s environment.
The process whereby a need becomes figural, is acted on, and then recedes as a
new figure emerges is called a Gestalt formation cycle. Every Gestalt formation cycle
requires creative adjustment. Both sides of the polarity are necessary for the
resolution of a state of need. If one is hungry, one must eat new food taken from the
environment. Food that has already been eaten will not solve the problem. New
actions must occur, and the environment must be contacted and adapted to meet the
individual’s needs.
On the other hand, one cannot be so balanced on the side of creating new
experience that one does not draw on prior learning and experience, established
wisdom, and societal mores. For example, one must use yesterday’s learning to be
able to recognize aspects of the environment that might be used as a source of food,
while at the same time being creative in experimenting with new food possibilities.
Maturity
perceptual field organized with clarity and good form. A wellformed figure clearly
stands out against a broader and less distinct background. The relation between that
which stands out (figure) and the context (ground) is meaning. In a good Gestalt,
meaning is clear.
Health and maturity result from creative adjustment that occurs in a context of
environmental possibility. Both health and maturity require a person whose Gestalt
formation process is freely functioning and one whose contact and awareness
processes are relatively free of excessive anxiety, inhibition, or habitual selective
attention.
In health, the figure changes as needed; that is, it shifts to another focus when a
need is met or superseded by a more urgent need. It does not change so rapidly as to
prevent satisfaction (as in hysteria) or so slowly that new figures have no room to
assume dominance (as in compulsivity). When the figure and ground are
dichotomized, one is left with a figure out of context or a context without focus (as in
impulsivity) (F. Perls et al., 1951/1994).
The healthy person is in creative adjustment with the environment. The person
adjusts to the needs of the environment and adjusts the environment to his or her own
pathological narcissism.
Disrupted Personality Functioning
Mental illness is simply the inability to form clear figures of interest and identify with
one’s momentbymoment experience and/or to respond to what one becomes aware
of. People whose contact and awareness processes are disrupted often have been
adjustment.
Gestalt therapists assume that neurotic regulation is the result of a creative adjustment
that was made in a difficult situation in the past and then not readjusted as field
conditions changed. For example, one patient’s father died when she was 8 years old.
The patient was terribly bereft, frightened, and alone. Her griefstricken mother, the
only adult in her life, was unavailable to help her assimilate her painful and
frightening reactions to her father’s death. The patient escaped her unbearable
situation by busying herself to the point of distraction. That was a creative adjustment
to her needs in a field with limited resources. But as an adult, she continues to use the
same means of adjustment, even though the field conditions have changed. This
patient’s initial creative adjustment became hardened into a repetitive character
pattern. This often happens because the original solution worked well enough in an
emergency, and current experiences that mimic the original emergency trigger one’s
emergency adaptation.
Patients frequently cannot trust their own selfregulation because repeated use of a
solution from an earlier time erodes their ability to respond with awareness to the
current selfinfield problem. Organismic selfregulation is replaced by “shoulds”—
one’s experience. Part of the task of therapy is to create, in the therapy situation, a
reminiscent of the old situation (such as rising emotional intensity), but also contains
healthfacilitating elements that can be utilized (for instance, the therapist’s affirming
and calming presence). The new situation, if safe enough, can promote a new, more
flexible and responsive creative adjustment.
Polarities
Experience forms as a Gestalt, a figure against a ground. Figure and ground stand in a
polar relation to each other. In healthy functioning, figures and grounds shift
according to changing needs and field conditions. What was previously an aspect of
the ground can emerge almost instantly as the next figure.
recalibrating balance of these polarities make up the rich tapestry of existence.
In neurotic regulation, some aspects of one’s ground must be kept out of
awareness (for instance, the patient’s unbearable loneliness), and polarities lose their
fluidity and become hardened into dichotomies. In neurotic regulation, a patient may
readily identify with his or her strength but may, rather, ignore or disavow the
insoluble conflicts and plagued by crises or dulled by passivity.
Resistance
The ideas of holism and organismic selfregulation have turned the theory of
resistance on its head. Its original meaning in psychoanalysis referred to a reluctance
to face a painful truth about one’s self. However, the theory of selfregulation posits
that all phenomena, even resistance, when taken in context, can be shown to serve an
organismic purpose.
In Gestalt theory, resistance is an awkward but crucially important expression of
the organism’s integrity. Resistance is the process of opposing the formation of a
figure (a thought, feeling, impulse, or need) or the imposition of the therapist’s figure
(or agenda) that threatens to emerge in a context that is judged to be dangerous. For
instance, someone may choke back tears, believing the tears would be more for the
therapist than for the patient, or that crying would expose him or her to ridicule, or
someone who has been ridiculed in the past for showing any vulnerability may
assume that the current environmental surround is harsh and unforgiving. The
inhibited experience is resisted—usually without awareness. For example, a patient
may have pushed all experience of vulnerability out of awareness; however, the
shadowing the figure formation process. Instead of a fluid polar relationship, the
patient develops a hardened dichotomy between strength and vulnerability and
inevitably experiences anxiety whenever he or she feels vulnerable. The result may be
a man who takes risks demonstrating great physical courage but who is terrified by
the thought of committing himself to a woman he loves. As the conflict is explored in
therapy, he becomes aware that he is terribly frightened of his vulnerable feelings and
resists allowing those feelings to be activated and noticed. The resistance protects him
by ensuring that his habitual mode of selfregulation remains intact. When the
original creative adjustment occurred, the identification with his strength and the
banishment of his vulnerability were adaptive. Gestalt theory posits that he has
“forgotten” that he made such an adjustment and so remains unaware that he even has
any vulnerability that might be impeding his ability to make decisions in support of
his current figure of interest, the commitment.
Even when the patient becomes vaguely aware, he may not be sure that the
current context is sufficiently different that he can dare to change his dichotomized
relationship may enable him to contact his vulnerable side enough to reenliven the
polarity of strength/vulnerability such that he can resume a more momentbymoment
creative adjustment process.
Emotions are central to healthy functioning because they orient one to one’s
relationship to the current field, and they help establish the relative urgency of an
emergent figure. Emotional process is integral to the Gestalt formation process and
experiencing shame, the healthy person takes it as a sign that perhaps he or she should
regulation has been disrupted cannot experience shame as a signal but instead tends to
be overwhelmed by it.
Contact and Support
“Contact is possible only to the extent that support for it is available. . . . Support is
everything that facilitates the ongoing assimilation and integration of experience for a
person, relationship or society” (L. Perls, 1992). Adequate support is a function of the
total field. It requires both selfsupport and environmental support. One must support
oneself by breathing, but the environment must provide the air. In health, one is not
out of touch with the present set of self and environmental needs and does not live in
the past (unfinished business) or future (catastrophizing). It is only in the present that
individuals can support themselves and protect themselves.
Anxiety
Gestalt therapy is concerned with the process of anxiety rather than the content of
anxiety (what one is anxious about). Fritz Perls first defined anxiety as excitement
minus support (F. Perls, 1942/1992; F. Perls et al., 1951/1994). Anxiety can be
created cognitively or through unsupported breathing habits. The cognitive creation of
anxiety results from “futurizing” and failing to remain centered in the present.
Negative predictions, misinterpretations, and irrational beliefs can all trigger anxiety.
When people futurize, they focus their awareness on something that is not yet present.
For example, someone about to give a speech may be preoccupied with the potentially
negative reaction of the audience. Fears about future failure can have a very negative
effect on current performance. Stage fright is a classic example in which physical
arousal is mislabeled and misattribution triggers a panic attack.
Anxiety can also be created by unsupported breathing. With arousal there is an
organismic need for oxygen. “A healthy, selfregulating individual will automatically
breathe more deeply to meet the increased need for oxygen which accompanies
mobilization and contact” (Clarkson & Mackewn, 1993, p. 81). When people breathe
fully, tolerate increased mobilization of energy, are present centered and cognitively
flexible, and put energy into action, they experience excitement rather than anxiety.
Breath support requires full inhalation and exhalation, as well as breathing at a rate
that is neither too fast nor too slow. When one breathes rapidly without sufficient
exhaling, fresh, oxygenated blood cannot reach the alveoli because the old air with its
load of carbon dioxide is not fully expelled. Then the person has the familiar
sensations of anxiety: increased pulse rate, inability to get enough air, and
hyperventilation (Acierno, Hersen, & Van Hasselt, 1993; F. Perls, 1942/1992; F. Perls
et al., 1951/1994).
The Gestalt therapy method, with its focus on both body orientation and
characterological issues, is ideal for the treatment of anxiety. Patients learn to master
work (Yontef, 1993).
Impasse
An impasse is experienced when a person’s customary supports are not available and
terror. The person cannot go back and does not know whether he or she can survive
going forward. People in the impasse are paralyzed, with forward and backward
energy fighting each other. This experience is often expressed in metaphorical terms:
void, hollow, blackness, going off a cliff, drowning, or being sucked into a whirlpool.
The patient who stays with the experience of the impasse may experience
vitality, creativity, and good contact with the human and nonhuman environment. In
this mode, Gestalt formation is clear and lively, and maximum effort is put into what
is important. When support is not mobilized to work through the impasse, the person
continues to repeat old and maladaptive behaviors.
Development
Gestalt therapy has not, until recently, had a welldeveloped theory of childhood
development, but current psychoanalytic research and theory support a perspective
that Gestalt therapists have held for quite a while. This theory maintains that infants
are born with the capacity for selfregulation, that the development and refinement of
infant, that the contact between caretaker and infant must be attuned to the child’s
emotional states for selfregulation to develop best, and that children seek relatedness
through emotionally attuned mutual regulation (Stern, 1985). Gestalt therapist Frank
(Frank and La Barre 2011) has used the research of Stern and others to formulate a
comprehensive Gestalt theory of development based on embodiment and relatedness.
McConville and Wheeler (2003) have used field theory and relatedness in articulating
their theories of child and adolescent development.
PSYCHOTHERAPY
Theory of Psychotherapy
People grow and change all through life. Gestalt therapists believe growth is
inevitable as long as one is engaged in contact. Ordinarily, people develop increasing
emotional, perceptual, cognitive, motoric, and organismic selfregulatory competence.
Sometimes, however, the process of development becomes impaired or derailed. To
the extent that people learn from mistakes and grow, psychotherapy is not necessary.
Psychotherapy is indicated when people routinely fail to learn from experience.
People need psychotherapy when their selfregulatory abilities do not lead them
beyond the maladaptive repetitive patterns that were developed originally as creative
adjustments in difficult circumstances but that now make them or those around them
unhappy. Psychotherapy is also indicated with patients who do not deal adequately
with crises, feel ill equipped to deal with others in their lives, or need guidance for
personal or spiritual growth.
Gestalt therapy concentrates on helping patients become aware of how they avoid
learning from experience, how their selfregulatory processes may be closedended
rather than openended, and how inhibitions in the area of contact limit access to the
through interactions with other people. From the earliest moment of a person’s life,
both functional and dysfunctional patterns emerge from a matrix of relationships.
relationship in which the patient has another chance to learn, to unlearn, and to learn
how to keep learning. The patient and the therapist make explicit the patterns of
thought and behavior that are manifest in the psychotherapy situation. Gestalt
therapists hold that the patterns that emerge in therapy recapitulate the patterns that
are manifest in the patient’s life.
Goal of Therapy
The only goal of Gestalt therapy is awareness. This includes achieving greater
awareness in particular areas and also improving the ability to bring automatic habits
into awareness as needed. In the former sense, awareness refers to content; in the
latter sense, it refers to process, specifically the kind of selfreflective awareness that
is called “awareness of awareness.” Awareness of awareness is the patient’s ability to
use his or her skills with awareness to rectify disturbances in his or her awareness
process. Both awareness as content and awareness as process broaden and deepen as
environment, responsibility for choices, selfacceptance, and the ability to contact.
Beginning patients are chiefly concerned with the solution of problems, often
thinking that the therapist will “fix” them the way a physician often cures a disease.
However, Gestalt therapy does not focus on curing disease, nor is it restricted to
talking about problems. Gestalt therapy uses an active relationship and active methods
to help patients gain the selfsupport necessary to solve problems. Gestalt therapists
provide support through the therapeutic relationship and show patients how they
block their awareness and functioning. As therapy goes on, the patient and the
therapist turn more attention to general personality issues. By the end of successful
Gestalt therapy, the patient directs much of the work and is able to integrate problem
solving, characterological themes, relationship issues with the therapist, and the
regulation of his or her own awareness.
How Is the Therapy Done?
Therapist and patient work together to increase understanding. The goal is growth and
engagement, whether that engagement is the meeting between therapist and patient or
process. The model of engagement comes directly from the Gestalt concept of
contact. Contact is the means whereby living and growth occur, so lived experience
nearly always takes precedence over explanation. Rather than maintaining an
relates to the patient with an alive, excited, warm, and direct presence.
In this open, engaged relationship, patients not only get honest feedback but also,
in the authentic contact, can see, hear, and be told how they are experienced by the
therapist, can learn how they affect the therapist, and (if interested) can learn
something about the therapist. They have the healing experience of being listened to
by someone who profoundly cares about their perspectives, feelings, and thoughts.
What and How; Here and Now
In Gestalt therapy, there is a dual focus: a constant and careful emphasis on what the
patient does and how it is done and also a similar focus on the interactions between
therapist and patient. What does the patient do to support himself or herself in the
therapy hour in relation to the therapist and in the rest of his or her life?
Direct experience is the primary tool of Gestalt therapy, and the focus is always
on the here and now. The present is a transition between past and future. Not being
primarily present centered reflects a time disturbance—but so does not being able to
contact the relevant past or not planning for the future. Frequently, patients lose their
contact with the present and live in the past. In some cases, patients live in the present
as though they had no past, with the unfortunate consequence that they cannot learn
from the past. The most common time disturbance is living in anticipation of what
could happen in the future as though the future were now.
Now starts with the present awareness of the patient. In a Gestalt therapy session,
process is now.
Now I can contact the world around me, or now I can contact memories or
expectations. “Now” refers to this moment. When patients refer to their lives outside
of the therapy hour, or even earlier in the hour, the content is not considered now, but
the action of speaking is now. We orient more to the now in Gestalt therapy than in
any other form of psychotherapy. This “what and how; here and now” method
Exploration of past experience is anchored in the present (for example, determining
what in the present field triggers this particular old memory). Whenever possible,
methods are used that bring the old experience directly into present experience rather
than just recounting the past.
There is an emerging awareness in Gestalt therapy that the best therapy requires a
awareness process, but at the same time it involves a personal relationship in which
therapist and patient.
Awareness
process. Does the awareness deepen and develop fully—or is it truncated? Is any
particular figure of awareness allowed to recede from the mind to make room for
other awarenesses—or does one figure repeatedly capture the mind and shut out the
development of other awareness?
Ideally, processes that need to be in awareness come into awareness when and as
needed in the ongoing flow of living. When transactions get complex, more conscious
selfregulation is needed. If this develops and a person behaves mindfully, the person
is likely to learn from experience.
The concept of awareness exists along a continuum. For example, Gestalt therapy
distinguishes between merely knowing about something and owning what one is
doing. Merely knowing about something marks the transition between that
something’s being totally out of awareness and its being in focal awareness. When
people report being aware of something and yet claim they are totally helpless to
make desired changes, they are usually referring to a situation in which they know
about something but do not fully feel it, do not know the details of how it works, do
not fully know that they are making choices, and do not genuinely integrate it and
make it their own. In addition, they frequently have difficulty imagining alternatives
and/or believing that the alternatives can be achieved and/or knowing how to support
experimenting with alternatives.
Being fully aware means turning one’s attention to the processes that are most
important for the person and environment; this is a natural occurrence in healthy self
regulating. One must know what is going on and how it is happening. What do I need
and what am I doing? What are my choices? What is needed by others? Who is doing
what? Who needs what? For full awareness, this more detailed descriptive awareness
must be allowed to affect the patient—and he or she has to be able to own it and
respond in a relevant way.
Contact
Contact, the relationship between patient and therapist, is another pillar of Gestalt
therapy. The relationship is contact over time. What happens in the relationship is
crucial. This is more than what the therapist says to the patient, and it is more than the
techniques that are used. Of most importance is the nonverbal subtext (posture, tone
information to the patient about how the therapist regards the patient, what is
important, and how therapy works.
In a good therapy relationship, the therapist pays close attention to what the
patient is doing moment to moment and to what is happening between the therapist
and the patient. The therapist not only pays close attention to what the patient
experiences but also deeply believes that the patient’s subjective experience is just as
real and valid as the therapist’s “reality.”
The therapist is in a powerful position in relation to the patient. If the therapist
atmosphere can be created in which it is relatively safe for the patient to become more
deeply aware of what has been kept from awareness. This enables the patient to
experience and express thoughts and emotions that she or he has not habitually felt
safe to share. The therapist is in a position to guide the awareness work by entering
into the patient’s experience deeply and completely. Martin Buber refers to
“inclusion” as feeling the experience of the other much as one would feel something
within one’s own body while simultaneously being aware of one’s own self.
There is some tension between the humane urge of the therapist to relieve the
patient’s pain and the indispensable need of the patient for someone who willingly
enters into and understands his or her subjective pain. The therapist’s empathic
experience of the patient’s pain brings the patient into the realm of human contact.
However, trying to get the patient to feel better is often experienced by a patient as
evidence that the patient is acceptable only to the extent that he or she feels good. The
therapist may not intend to convey this message, but this reaction is often triggered
when the therapist does not abide by the paradoxical theory of change.
Experiment
In clientcentered therapy, the phenomenological work by the therapist is limited to
therapist is limited to interpretations or reflections. These interventions are both part
of the Gestalt therapy repertoire, but Gestalt therapy has an additional experimental
phenomenological method. Put simply, the patient and therapist can experiment with
different ways of thought and action to achieve genuine understanding rather than
mere changes in behavior. As in any research, the experiment is designed to get more
data. In Gestalt therapy, the data are the phenomenological experience of the patient.
The greatest risk with experiments is that vulnerable patients may believe that
change has been mandated. This danger is magnified if a therapist’s selfawareness
becomes clouded or if she or he strays from a commitment to the paradoxical theory
of change. It is vitally important in Gestalt therapy that the therapist remain clear that
the mode of change is the patient’s knowledge and acceptance of self, knowing and
supporting what emerges in contemporaneous experience. If the therapist makes it
clear that the experiments are experiments in awareness and not criticism of what is
observed, the risk of adding to the patient’s selfrejection is minimized.
In Gestalt therapy experiments arise out of the interactions between therapist and
patient and function to help the relationship develop. (See for example, Swanson,
2009).
SelfDisclosure
One powerful and distinguishing aspect of Gestalt therapy is that therapists are both
permitted and encouraged to disclose their personal experience, both in the moment
and in their lives. Unlike classical psychoanalysis, in Gestalt therapy data are
provided by both the patient and the therapist, and both the patient and the therapist
exploration.
This kind of therapeutic relationship requires that therapists be at peace with the
differences between themselves and their patients. In addition, therapists most truly
believe that the patient’s sense of subjective reality is as valid as their own. With an
appreciation of the relativity of one’s subjectivity, it becomes possible for therapists
conversations, entered into with care and sensitivity, are generally quite interesting
and evocative, and they often enhance the patient’s sense of efficacy and worthiness.
Dialogue is the basis of the Gestalt therapy relationship. In dialogue, the therapist
practices inclusion, empathic engagement, and personal presence (for example, self
disclosure). The therapist imagines the reality of the patient’s experience and, in so
doing, confirms the existence and potential of the patient. However, this is not enough
to make the interaction a real dialogue.
Real dialogue between therapist and patient must also include the therapist
surrendering to the interaction and to what emerges from that interaction. The
therapist must be open to being changed by the interaction. This sometimes requires
the therapist to acknowledge having been wrong, hurtful, arrogant, or mistaken. This
kind of acknowledgment puts therapist and patient on a horizontal plane. This sort of
open disclosure requires personal therapy for the therapist to reduce defensiveness
and the need to pridefully maintain his or her personal selfimage.
Process of Psychotherapy
People form their sense of self and their style of awareness and behavior in childhood.
These become habitual and often are not refined or revised by new experiences. As a
person moves out of the family and into the world, new situations are encountered
and the old ways of thinking, feeling, and acting are no longer needed or adaptive in
new situations. But the old ways sometimes persist because they are not in awareness
and hence are not subject to conscious review.
In Gestalt therapy, the patient encounters someone who takes his or her
experience seriously, and through this different, respectful relationship, a new sense
phenomenological focusing techniques, the patient becomes aware of processes that
previously could not be changed because they were out of awareness. Gestalt
therapists believe the contact between therapist and patient sets the stage for
development of the capacity to be in contact with one’s shifting figures of interest on
a momentbymoment basis.
Gestalt therapy probably has a greater range of styles and modalities than any
other system. Therapy can be short term or long term. Specific modalities include
individual, couple, family, group, and large systems. Styles vary in degree and type of
interpersonal contact; knowledge of and work with psychodynamic themes; emphasis
on dialogue and presence; use of techniques; and so forth.
All styles of Gestalt therapy share a common emphasis on direct experience and
experimenting, use of direct contact and personal presence, and a focus on the what
and how, here and now. The therapy varies according to context and the personalities
of both therapist and patient.
therapist inquires about the desires or needs of the patient and describes how he or she
practices therapy. From the beginning, the focus is on what is happening now and
what is needed now. The therapist begins immediately to help clarify the patient’s
awareness of self and environment. In this case, the potential relationship with the
therapist is part of the environment.
The therapist and prospective Gestalt therapy patient work together to become
clear about what the patient needs and whether this particular therapist is suitable. If
there seems to be a match between the two, then the therapy proceeds with getting
acquainted. The patient and therapist begin to relate to and understand each other, and
the process of sharpening awareness begins. In the beginning, it is often not clear
examination, the match between patient and therapist will prove to be satisfactory.
Therapy typically begins with attention to the immediate feelings of the patient,
the current needs of the patient, and some sense of the patient’s life circumstances and
history. A long social history is rarely taken, although there is nothing in Gestalt
becomes relevant to current therapy work and at a pace comfortable for the patient.
Some patients start with their life story, others with a contemporaneous focus. The
therapist helps patients become aware of what is emerging and what they are feeling
and needing as they tell their stories. This is done by reflective statements of the
therapist’s understanding of what the patient is saying and feeling and by suggestions
about how to focus awareness (or questions that accomplish that same goal).
For example, a patient might start telling a story of recent events but not say how
he was affected by the events. The therapist might ask either what the patient felt
when the reported event happened or what the patient is feeling in telling the story.
The therapist also might go back over the story, focusing on recognizing and
verbalizing the feelings associated with various stages in the story.
patients, including personality style. The therapist looks for specific ways in which
the patient’s selfsupport is either precarious or robust. Gestalt therapy can be adapted
and practiced with virtually any patient for whom psychotherapy is indicated.
However, the practice must be adapted to the particular needs of each person. The
competent Gestalt therapist, like any other kind of therapist, must have the training
and ability to make this determination. A good therapist knows the limits of his or her
experience and training and practices within these limits.
Treatment usually starts with either individual or couples therapy—or both. Group
therapy is sometimes added to the treatment plan, and the group may become the sole
modality for treatment. Fritz Perls claimed that patients could be treated by Gestalt
group therapy alone. This belief was never accepted by most Gestalt therapists and is
thoroughly rejected today. Gestalt group therapy complements individual and couples
work but does not replace it.
Gestalt therapists work with people of all ages, although specialized training is
required for work with young children. Gestalt therapy with children is done
individually, as part of Gestalt family therapy, and occasionally in groups (Lampert,
2003; Oaklander, 1969/1988).
Mechanisms of Psychotherapy
All techniques in Gestalt therapy are considered experiments, and patients are
repeatedly told to “Try this and see what you experience.” There are many “Gestalt
therapy techniques,” but the techniques themselves are of little importance. Any
technique consistent with Gestalt therapy principles can and will be used. In fact,
Gestalt therapy explicitly encourages therapists to be creative in their interventions.
Focusing
The most common techniques are the simple interventions of focusing. Focusing
ranges from simple inclusion or empathy to exercises arising largely from the
therapist’s experience while being with the patient. Everything in Gestalt therapy is
secondary to the actual and direct experience of the participants. The therapist helps
clarify what is important by helping the patient focus his or her awareness.
The prototypical experiment is some form of the question “What are you aware
of, or experiencing, right here and now?” Awareness occurs continuously, moment to
moment, and the Gestalt therapist pays particular attention to the awareness
continuum, the flow or sequence of awareness from one moment to another.
The Gestalt therapist also draws attention to key moments in therapy. Of course,
this requires that the therapist have the sensitivity and experience to recognize these
moments when they occur. Some patients feel abandoned if the therapist is quiet for
long periods; others feel it is intrusive when the therapist is active. Therefore, the
therapist must weigh the possible disruption of the patient’s awareness continuum if
he or she offers guiding observations or suggestions against the facilitative benefit
that can be derived from focusing. This balance is struck via the ongoing
communication between the therapist and patient and is not solely directed by the
therapist.
One key moment occurs when a patient interrupts ongoing awareness before it is
completed. The Gestalt therapist recognizes signs of this interruption, including the
nonverbal indications, by paying close attention to shifts in tension states, muscle
tone, and/or excitement levels. The therapist’s interpretation of the moment is not
presumed to be relevant or useful unless the patient can confirm it. One patient may
tell a story about events with someone in his life and at a key moment grit his teeth,
hold his breath, and not exhale. This may turn out to be either an interruption of
awareness or an expression of anger. On another occasion, a therapist might notice
that an angry look is beginning to change to a look of sadness—but a sadness that is
not reported. The patient might change to another subject or begin to intellectualize.
In this case, the sadness may be interrupted either at the level of selfawareness or at
the level of expression of the affect.
When the patient reports a feeling, another technique is to “stay with it.” This
encourages the patient to continue with the feeling being reported and builds the
patient’s capacity to deepen and work through a feeling. The following vignette
illustrates this technique (P = Patient; T = Therapist).
P: [Looks sad.]
T: What are you aware of?
P: I’m sad.
T: Stay with it.
P: [Tears well up. The patient tightens up, looks away, and becomes thoughtful.]
T: I see you are tightening. What are you aware of?
P: I don’t want to stay with the sadness.
T: Stay with the not wanting to. Put words to the not wanting to. [This intervention is
likely to bring awareness of the patient’s resistance to vulnerability. The patient
might respond “I won’t cry here—it doesn’t feel safe,” or “I am ashamed,” or “I
am angry and don’t want to admit I’m sad.”]
There is an emerging awareness in Gestalt therapy that the moments in which
patients change subjects often reflect something happening in the interaction between
therapist and patient. Something the therapist says or his or her nonverbal behavior
may trigger insecurity or shame in the patient. Most often this is not in the patient’s
awareness until attention is focused on it by the therapist and explored by dialogue
(Jacobs, 1996).
Enactment
The patient is asked to experiment with putting feelings or thoughts into action. This
technique might be as simple as encouraging the patient to “say it to the person” (if
the person involved is present) or might be enacted using role playing, psychodrama,
or Gestalt therapy’s wellknown emptychair technique.
Sometimes enactment is combined with the technique of asking the patient to
exaggerate. This is not done to achieve catharsis but is, rather, a form of experiment
that sometimes results in increased awareness of the feeling.
expression can help clarify feelings in a way that talking alone cannot. The techniques
of expression include journal writing, poetry, art, and movement. Creative expression
is especially important in work with children (Oaklander, 1969/1988).
Mental Experiments, Guided Fantasy, and Imagery
Sometimes visualizing an experience here and now increases awareness more
Patient; T = Therapist).
impotent. [Patient gives more details and history.]
T: Close your eyes. Imagine it is last night and you are with your girlfriend. Say out
loud what you experience at each moment.
P: I am sitting on the couch. My friend sits next to me and I get excited. Then I go
soft.
T: Let’s go through that again in slow motion, and in more detail. Be sensitive to
every thought or sense impression.
P: I am sitting on the couch. She comes over and sits next to me. She touches my
neck. It feels so warm and soft. I get excited—you know, hard. She strokes my
arm and I love it. [Pause. Looks startled.] Then I thought, I had such a tense day,
maybe I won’t be able to get it up.
One can use imagery to explore and express an emotion that does not lend itself to
simple linear verbalization. For example, a patient might imagine being alone on a
desert, being eaten alive by insects, being sucked in by a whirlpool, and so forth.
There are infinite possible images that can be drawn from dreams, waking fantasy,
and the creative use of fantasy. The Gestalt therapist might suggest that the patient
imagine the experience happening right now rather than simply discussing it.
“Imagine you are actually in that desert, right now. What do you experience?” This is
often followed by some version of “Stay with it.”
An image may arise spontaneously in the patient’s awareness as a hereandnow
experience, or it may be consciously created by the patient and/or therapist. The
patient might suddenly report, “Just now I feel cold, like I’m alone in outer space.”
This might indicate something about what is happening between the therapist and the
patient at that moment; perhaps the patient is experiencing the therapist as not being
emotionally present.
techniques. For example, in working with patients who have strong shame issues, at
times it is helpful for them to imagine a Metaphorical Good Mother, one who is fully
present and loving and accepts and loves the patient just as he or she is (Yontef,
1993).
Meditative techniques, many of which are borrowed from Asian psychotherapies,
can also be very helpful experiments.
Body Awareness
Awareness of body activity is an important aspect of Gestalt therapy, and there are
specific Gestalt therapy methodologies for working with body awareness (Frank,
breathing. For example, when a person is breathing in a manner that does not support
centering and feeling, he or she will often experience anxiety. Usually the breathing
of the anxious patient involves rapid inhalation and a failure to fully exhale. One can
work with experiments in breathing in the context of an ordinary therapy session. One
can also practice a thoroughly bodyoriented Gestalt therapy (Frank, 2001; Kepner,
1987).
Loosening and Integrating Techniques
Some patients are so rigid in their thinking—a characteristic derived from either
experimenting with the opposite of what is believed can help break down this rigidity
so that alternatives can at least be considered. Integrating techniques bring together
processes that the patient either just doesn’t bring together or actively keeps apart
(splitting). Asking the patient to join the positive and negative poles of a polarity can
be very integrating (“I love him and I abhor his flippant attitude”). Putting words to
sensations and finding the sensations that accompany words (“See if you can locate it
in your body”) are other important integrating techniques.
APPLICATIONS
Who Can We Help?
Because Gestalt therapy is a process theory, it can be used effectively with any patient
population the therapist understands and feels comfortable with. Yontef, for instance,
has written about its application with borderline and narcissistic patients (1993). If the
therapist can relate to the patient and understands the basic principles of Gestalt
therapy and how to adjust these principles to fit the unique needs of each new patient,
the Gestalt therapy principles of awareness (direct experience), contact (relationship),
and experimenting (phenomenological focusing and experimentation) can be applied.
Gestalt therapy does not advocate a cookbook of prescribed techniques for specialized
groups of individuals. Therapists who wish to work with patients who are culturally
different from themselves find support by attending to the field conditions that
influence their understanding of the patient’s life and culture (for example, see
Jacobs, 2000). The Gestalt therapy attitude of dialogue and the phenomenological
assumption of multiple valid realities support the therapist in working with a patient
from another culture, enabling patient and therapist to mutually understand the
differences in background, assumptions, and so forth.
general principles must always be adapted for each particular clinical situation. The
manner of relating and the choice and execution of techniques must be tailored to
each new patient’s needs, not to diagnostic categories en bloc. Therapy will be
ineffective or harmful if the patient is made to conform to the system rather than
having the system adjust to the patient.
It has long been accepted that Gestalt therapy in the confrontive and theatrical
style of a 1960s Fritz Perls workshop is much more limited in application than the
Gestalt therapy described in this chapter. Common sense, professional background,
flexibility, and creativity are especially important in diagnosis and treatment planning.
(such as medication, day treatment, and nutritional guidance) must be modified with
different patients in accordance with their personality organization (for example, the
presence of psychosis, sociopathy, or a personality disorder).
background and training in more than Gestalt therapy. In addition to training in the
theory and practice of Gestalt therapy, Gestalt therapists need to have a firm
experience.
This background is especially important in Gestalt therapy because therapists and
patients are encouraged to be creative and to experiment with new behavior in and
outside of the session. The individual clinician has a great deal of discretion in Gestalt
therapy. Modifications are made by the individual therapist and patient according to
therapeutic style, personality of therapist and patient, and diagnostic considerations. A
organization are needed to guide and limit the spontaneous creativity of the therapist.
responsibility for professional discrimination, judgment, and proper caution.
Gestalt therapy has been applied in almost every setting imaginable. Applications
have varied from intensive individual therapy multiple times per week to crisis
intervention. Gestalt therapists have also worked with organizations, schools, and
groups; they have worked with patients with psychoses, patients suffering from
psychosomatic disorders, and patients with posttraumatic stress disorders. Many of
the details about how to modify Gestalt techniques in order to work effectively with
these populations have been disseminated in the oral tradition—that is, through
supervision, consultation, and training. Written material too abundant to cite has also
become available.
Treatment
Patients often present similar issues but need different treatment because of
differences in their personality organization and in what unfolds in the therapeutic
relationship. In the following two examples, each of the two patients was raised by
emotionally abandoning parents.
independence.
man’s belief in his selfsufficiency and denial of dependency required that his
therapist proceed with respect and sensitivity. The belief in selfsufficiency met a
need, was in part constructive, and was the foundation for the patient’s selfesteem.
The therapist was able to respond to the patient’s underlying need without threatening
the patient’s pride (P = Patient; T = Therapist).
P: [With pride.] When I was a little kid my mom was so busy I just had to learn to
rely on myself.
T: I appreciate your strength, but when I think of you as such a selfreliant kid, I
want to stroke you and give you some parenting.
P: [Tearing a little.] No one ever did that for me.
T: You seem sad.
P: I’m remembering when I was a kid . . .
[Tom evoked a sympathetic response in the therapist that was expressed directly
to the patient. His denial of needing anything from others was not directly challenged.
compensatory selfreliance.]
Bob was a 45yearold man who felt shame and isolated himself in reaction to any
interaction that was not totally positive. He was consistently reluctant to support
sympathetic responses only served to reinforce the patient’s belief in his own
inadequacy.
P: [Whiny voice.] I don’t know what to do today.
T: [Looks and does not talk. Previous interventions of providing more direction had
resulted in the patient following any slight lead by the therapist into talk that was
not felt by the patient.]
P: I could talk about my week. [Looks questioningly at therapist.]
T: I feel pulled on by you right now. I imagine you want me to direct you.
P: Yes, what’s wrong with that?
T: Nothing. I prefer not to direct you right now.
P: Why not?
T: You can direct yourself. I believe you are directing us now away from your inner
self. I don’t want to cooperate with that. [Silence.]
P: I feel lost.
T: [Looks alert and available but does not talk.]
P: You are not going to direct me, are you?
T: No.
P: Well, let’s work on my believing I can’t take care of myself. [The patient had real
feelings about this issue, and he initiated a fruitful piece of work that led to
unavailable parents.]
Groups
Group treatment is frequently part of an overall Gestalt therapy treatment program.
There are three general models for doing Gestalt group therapy (Frew, 1988; Yontef,
1990). In the first model, participants work oneonone with the therapist while the
other participants remain relatively quiet and work vicariously. The work is then
followed by feedback and interaction with other participants, with an emphasis on
how people are affected by the work. In the second model, participants talk with each
members. This model is similar to Yalom’s model for existential group therapy. A
third model mixes these two activities in the same group (Yontef, 1990). The group
and therapist creatively regulate movement and balance between interaction and the
oneonone focus.
All the techniques discussed in this chapter can be used in groups. In addition,
there are possibilities for experimental focusing that are designed for groups. Gestalt
therapy groups usually start with some procedure for bringing participants into the
here and now and contacting each other. This is often called “rounds” or “checkin.”
A simple and obvious example of Gestalt group work occurs when the therapist
has each group member look at the other members of the group and express what he
or she is experiencing in the here and now. Some Gestalt therapists also use structured
experiments, such as experiments in which participants express a particular emotion
(“I resent you for . . . ,” “I appreciate you for . . . ”). The style of other Gestalt
therapists is fluid and organized by what emerges in the group.
Couples and Families
Couples therapy and family therapy are similar to group therapy in that there is a
combination of work with each person in the session and work with interaction
among the group members. Gestalt therapists vary in where they prefer to strike this
balance (see Lee, 2008, Yontef, 2012). There is also variation in how structured the
intervention style of the therapist is and in how much the therapist follows, observes,
and focuses the spontaneous functioning of the couple or family.
Partners often start couples therapy by complaining and blaming each other. The
work at this point involves calling attention to this dynamic and to alternative modes
of interaction. The Gestalt therapist also explores what is behind the blaming.
Frequently, one party experiences the other as shaming him or her and blames the
other, without awareness of the defensive function of the blaming.
Circular causality is a frequent pattern in unhappy couples. In circular causality,
A causes B and B causes A. Regardless of how an interaction starts, A triggers a
response in B to which A then reacts negatively without being aware of his or her role
without being aware of his or her role in triggering the negative response. Circular
causality is illustrated in the following example.
A wife expresses frustration with her husband for coming home late from work
every night and not being emotionally available when he comes home. The husband
feels unappreciated and attacked, and at an unaware level, he also feels ashamed of
being criticized. The husband responds with anger, blaming the wife for not being
affectionate. The wife accuses the husband of being defensive, aggressive, insensitive,
and emotionally unavailable. The husband responds in kind. Each response in this
disruption in the relationship and may trigger drinking, violence, or sexual acting out.
Underneath the wife’s frustration is the fact that she misses her husband, is lonely,
worries about him working so hard, really wants to be with him, and assumes that he
does not want to be home with her because she is no longer attractive. However, these
fears are not expressed clearly. The husband might want to be home with his wife and
might resent having to work so hard but might also feel a need to unwind from the
stress of work before being emotionally available. The caring and interest of each
spouse for the other often get lost in the circular defensive/offensive battle.
Often blaming statements trigger shame, and shame triggers defense. In this kind
of toxic atmosphere, no one listens. There is no true contact and no repair or healing.
Expressing actual experience, rather than judgments, and allowing oneself to really
hear the experience of the spouse are first steps toward healing. Of course, this
requires that both of the partners know, or learn, how to recognize their actual
experience.
Sometimes structured experiments are helpful. In one experiment, the couple is
asked to face each other, pulling their chairs toward each other until they are close
enough to touch knees, and then instructed to look at each other and express what
they are aware of at each moment. Other experiments include completing sentences
such as “I resent you for . . .” or “I appreciate you for . . .” or “I spite you by . . .” or
“I feel bad about myself when you . . . ”
It is critical in couples therapy for the therapist to model the style of listening he
or she thinks will enhance each spouse’s ability to verbalize his or her experience, and
to encourage each partner to listen as well as to speak. The various experiments help
to convey to patients that verbal statements are not something written in stone but are
progressing.
As described in the earlier section on psychotherapy, patients may move into
various treatment modalities throughout treatment. They may have individual therapy,
workshops while engaged in ongoing individual therapy.
Gestalt therapists tend to see patients on a weekly basis. As more attention comes
to be focused on the therapist–patient relationship, patients are eager to come more
Gestalt therapists also run groups, and there are therapists who teach and conduct
workshops for the general public. Others primarily teach and train therapists. The
shape of one’s practice is limited only by one’s interests and by the exigencies of the
work environment.
.
Can Gestalt Therapy Be Evidence Based?
There is no straightforward simple approach to the discussion of “evidence”
when it comes to gestalt therapy. The subject of research is controversial in the gestalt
therapy community. There are some who are skeptical about whether even the most
sophisticated research paradigms can adequately support a dialogical endeavor that
revolves primarily around one’s values and personal meanings. (It behooves the reader
to know that the authors of this chapter are more allied with this perspective). This is not
to deny the value of scientific findings as one useful perspective. Scientific research on
broader themes pertaining to human behavior: trauma, attachment, development,
cognition, emotional process and neuropsychology have been sources of information
and validation for gestalt therapists, as long as such research is integrated in a non
reductionistic manner into the overall structure of gestalt therapy theory and practice
(see for example, Staemmler, 2011). Our concern is when nomothetic data is being
privileged over the individual values, capacities, preferences and experiences of the
particular patienttherapist pair.
However, as Brownell points out, there are efforts underway to develop and
refine research methods that are sensitive to personal meanings. At a 2013 Gestalt
therapy research conference there are presentations on critical realism and how it fits
with both Gestalt therapy and the endeavors of research, and another on the
phenomenological philosophies of MerleauPonty and Heidegger, relating them to the
process of doing research. “There are many who are quite enthusiastic about gestalt
research around the world, as exemplified by: the people coming to the 2013 research
conference; the French, Czech, and Spanish people who translated gestalt therapy
research studies; Koreans and Portuguese in Brazil who are still in the process of doing
so; the MA programs in Mexico that are instituting research; the Chilean institute that is
going to require all its trainees to conduct singlecase, timed series studies as part of
their competencies (Brownell, personal communication, June 2012).”
We shall discuss first our concerns, and then describe research interests and
findings that excite many gestalt therapists. In the world of psychotherapy, research
increasingly takes the shape of a search of “best practices.” In the U.S.A., research on
"evidencebased practice" and "empirically supported treatments" are partly a
capitulation to the demands of insurance companies and managed care providers, which
has evolved as therapists struggle to establish themselves on equal footing with physical
medicine (Reed, Kihlstrom, & Messer, 2006). Many discussions of the need to pursue
research that can be used to develop measurably efficacious manualized treatment
approaches refer overtly to pressure from insurers and managedcare providers (Reed,
Kihlstrom, & Messer, 2006; Wachtel, 2010).
Those who question this approach to psychotherapy research are often the
researchers themselves (Reed, Kihlstrom, & Messer, 2006; Wachtel, 2010; Zeldow,
2009)! Messer uses two case studies to show something that psychotherapy researchers
themselves have discovered; the manualized approaches of evidencebased practices are
of little use in the face of “comorbidity,” and comorbidity is much more common than
otherwise. (Westen, Novotny, & ThompsonBrenner, 2004). As noted by Messer,
“Diagnoses cannot capture the unique qualities and concerns that patients bring to the
clinician, nor the specifics of the context in which their problems emerged in the past
and are taking place in the present…The strength of EST’s [empiricallysupported
treatments]…is their application to patients in general. The clinician, although needing
to attend to such empirical findings, must go beyond them to take cognizance of
patients’ unique qualities, circumstances and wishes.”
In a delightful article that explored the relationship between research and clinical
practice, Wolfe (2012), engaged in a “twochair dialogue,” between his “practitioner
head” and his “researcher head.” In doing so, he summarized well the problems of
turning the complex art of therapy—with its reliance on experience, tact and creativity
in the immediacy of momenttomoment conversationinto a scientific practice.
Ironically, he noted that the twochair dialogue he used, has its origins in gestalt therapy,
and has been shown through research to support patients to expand awareness,
illuminate emotional process, and resolve emotional conflicts.
Drawing on the writings of othersresearchers and practitionerstoo numerous
to mention, he points to the limitations of a positivist epistemology, noting that control
research trials, which are considered “strong evidence” by researchers, decontextualize
the patient, and bear no resemblance to the clinical situation.
Hoffman (2008) poses similar arguments from a postmodern perspective (while
Gestalt therapy is postCartesian, not all gestalt therapists identify the theory as post
modern. For our purposes the fine distinction between these two phrases are not
applicable):
First, postmodernism questions the ability of empirical research to be
objective. Different types of research are more appropriate for evaluating
different approaches to therapy. The measurement must be consistent
with the theory; otherwise epistemological problems threaten the validity
of the research.
Second, while all psychotherapies share the goal to decrease symptoms,
at least to some degree, and to increase the quality of life, they disagree
on what this looks like. In other words, not all psychotherapies seek the
same ends. This makes it very difficult to consider which approach to
therapy is best for which client.
A third concern relates to client values. If different therapies have
different values and lead to slightly different ends, then which approach
to therapy is best for a client is, in part, a values decision. In other words,
both values and effectiveness need to be considered when making
choices about which approach to psychotherapy is best.
The field of psychotherapy has often looked foolish by engaging in petty
debates over which approach to therapy is best. Postmodernism responds
by stating this is not even the right question! It is not possible to
determine which therapy is superior because it depends upon too many
client and therapist factors. Furthermore, when therapists are making the
determination of which approach is best, they are taking responsibility
away from their clients and imposing their values system upon them.
Instead, therapists should work with client to help them decide which
therapy approach best fits the client’s goals and values. (p.2
The most productive research, rather than trying to say one therapy is better than
another, searches out what Wolfe describes as “empirically supported principles of
change” (2012, pg. 105). That is where research into processes that cut across many
approaches, is worthy of consideration. Of such processes, the study of relational factors
has a prominent role to play. This will be elaborated further below.
Evidence Does Exist
Although relationship research validates the dialogic relationship that Gestalt
therapy encourages, each psychotherapy relationship is necessarily unique and
unrepeatable. Obviously, this creates difficulties for standard approaches to research.
Nonetheless, some researchers and therapists who value the science (as well as the art)
of therapy have tried to find points of meeting between existential values and research.
They seek ways to provide experimental support for the difficult work of making
clinical decisions that support patients to have a fuller life.
Amongst these are gestalt therapists who are pioneering research approaches that
aim to bridge the gap between traditional psychotherapy research and our complex,
awarenessoriented holistic dialogic process. They are developing research models that
are sensitive to the complexities of clinical work and that can obtain evidence, especially
of the medium and longterm effects of various aspects of practice. This has led to a
substantial increase in new studies (Strümpfel, 2006). Activity promoting research is
also described on Gestalt therapy listserves and in journals and books (see for example,
Finlay and Evans, 2009). Of special note is the work of Brownell (2008), who
encourages research, collates relevant research, and is on the team preparing the
international conference on The Research Conference in 2013, “The Challenge of
Establishing a Research Tradition for Gestalt Therapy,” which is cohosted by the
Gestalt International Study Center and the Association for the Advancement of Gestalt
Therapy, an international community.
Brownell goes so far as to say—and he substantiates his claim with clear and
strong argumentsthat it is clear to him that gestalt therapy is an evidencebased
practice (Brownell, personal commnication). Interestingly we (the chapter authors) do
not disagree with his findings! Our disagreement is with the assumption that research
evidence is adequate to the task of guiding clinicians in the momenttomoment work of
therapy.
Brownell cites different research approaches undertaken by gestalt therapists:
case studies, qualitative research, and even randomized control treatments. One gestalt
therapist has provided metastudies. Strümpfel (2006) reviewed data from 74 published
research studies on therapeutic process and outcome reanalyzed in 10 metaanalyses
and added his own calculations. Some of the studies that Strümpfel analyzed showed
more significant positive findingsacross some variablesfor the humanistic therapies
than for the behavioral and the psychodynamic approaches.
However, while it may be true that Strümpfel’s research makes gestalt therapy
look good, research that puts therapeutic approaches into competition with each other is
suspect on two grounds, both first illuminated by Luborsky, and since, reaffirmed
numerous times (Luborky et al, 2003). First, there is the finding that the particular
therapeutic orientation of the practitioner is relatively insignificant compared with the
experience, skill and personhood of the practitioner. Second, researchers tend to find
significant positive effects for the orientation that matches most closely their own
allegiances.
Consilience and Common Factors
Aside from direct gestalt therapy research, Brownell draws on supporting
evidence from research that crosses theoretical boundaries. He describes this approach
thusly:
Consilience is associated with the field of psychotherapy integration.
Consilience indicates a jumping together of knowledge across otherwise
disparate fields of study, and convergence indicates a merging or approximation
of some kind. ... consilience in this context simply points to the fact that there is
an overwhelming similarity between various elements of gestalt therapy and
certain features of other approaches (personal communication).
For just one example, Brownell summarizes the evidence that points to the
usefulness of a Mindfulness method, and says mindfulness skills are roughly equivalent
to the gestalt emphasis on teaching about awareness and the awareness process. “While
not restricting ourselves solely to awareness practice, the effects of mindfulness training
are “consilient with the gestalt principles of selfregulation, embodied selfawareness,
and the subjective experience of self, as it forms at the boundary of contact in the
environment.” (personal communication)
Common factors research also transcends any one particular therapy. Research
on relationship variables and their predictive value for a successful therapy abounds, and
has a long history. The research always finds relational conditions such as acceptance,
warmth and genuineness on the part of the therapist to be important supports for
successful therapy. These conditions among others are integrated with gestalt therapy’s
dialogic relationship (Jacobs, 2009; Staemmler, 2011; Yontef, 2002).
Add to this that metaanalytic studies of evidencebased practices, summarized
by Norcross and Wampold (2011) found that (1) the relationship makes a substantial
and consistent contribution to outcome independent of the specific type of treatment, (2)
the therapeutic relationship accounts for why clients improve (or fail to improve) at least
as much as the particular treatment method, (3) efforts to advance evidencebased
practices without including the relationship are incomplete and potentially misleading,
and (4) the relationship acts in concert with treatment methods, patient characteristics,
and practitioner qualities in determining effectiveness.
Interestingly, recent research on infantparent interaction has added a new
wrinkle to research on relational factors. LyonsRuth, a psychoanalytic developmental
researcher and clinician, studied communication patterns and attachment in infants and
children, and found that “collaborative communication” best supported the development
of what gestalt therapy would define as resilient organismic selfregulation. She
suggests that treatment should focus less on reflective understanding, and more on
“expanding areas of collaborative communication in the interactions between patient
and therapist.” (2006, p. 612). This conclusion, and the research of the humanistic
therapists, is congenial with the dialogical attitude that gestalt therapy proffers.
Studies in neurology and infant development, elaborated and summarized
thoroughly in Staemmler (2011), support the Gestalt therapy viewpoint on the
importance of the here and now and the inseparability of emotion and thought (Damasio
1999; Stern, 2004). In addition, Gestalt therapy’s inclusion of work with the body in the
methodology of psychotherapy gives it an added power that ideally would be included
in the evaluation of psychotherapy efficacy but is not included in most psychotherapy
research (Strümpfel, 2006).
Brownell (2008) also points out that there is solid, nonreductionistic research
from several researchers emphasizing both relationship and technique. An important
collection of studies of effectiveness of combining experiential techniques and a good
relationship has been robustly demonstrated by Leslie Greenberg and associates, who
have conducted, over 25 years, a large series of experiments in which process and
outcome studies are brought together with attention to context and to the combination of
technique and relationship factors. (see for example, Greenberg, Rice, & Elliott, 1993).
Gestalt therapy is exquisitely a therapy of contact and relationship. It is also an
experiential method and an experimental method, thus it seems most congenial with the
research that Greenberg et.al. have pursued.
evidence when endeavoring to understand and evaluate therapeutic efficacy, whether
by comparing different approaches or by assessing the value of therapy as a healing
enterprise. Any treatment dyad and treatment process has vastly more complex
therapist is unique and can practice well only by working within a framework
matched to his or her personality. Therefore, even if research suggests most generally
that, say, Gestalt therapy is very well suited to support a patient’s strivings for
enduring relationships, if the therapist is not attracted to working with close attention
to momentbymoment emotional experience, then he or she would probably need to
work in another framework in order to be at all helpful to his or her patients. In fact, it
is possible that therapists’ comfort within their orientations may prove to be a more
significant factor for positive outcomes than their specific orientations. Our current
research results are limited, as always, by the questions we ask and by the research
tools available to us.
Psychotherapy in a Multicultural World
The founders of Gestalt therapy were all cultural/political outsiders. Some were Jews,
and some of them were immigrants—including Fritz and Laura Perls—who had fled
persecution in Europe. Some were gay. All were interested in developing a process
oriented theory that could provide support and encouragement for people to explore
their own life paths, even if those life paths did not fit neatly within extant cultural
values. Thus, instead of establishing content goals for successful therapy (e.g.,
achievement of genital sexuality), they established a process goal: awareness.
Gestalt therapists throughout the world have been involved with, and written
immigrants and residents of Norway about their experiences and found that shame
Norway’s dominant culture. Almost all of his respondents had been in therapy with
white therapists, and the Gestalt patients spoke most enthusiastically of the chance to
explore their experience—especially their shame—on their own terms rather than
being analyzed and interpreted. Gaffney (2008) wrote about the subtle and gross
difficulties of providing supervision in the divided society of Northern Ireland. Bar
Yoseph (2005) edited a collection of articles by Gestalt therapists engaged in various
multicultural endeavors. Articles by American therapists are included.
A common thread in almost all of the literature is that efficacious multicultural
interaction requires that the therapist recognize the implications of his or her
social/cultural/political situatedness. There are two reasons for this. First, such
awareness helps the therapist to relativize his or her own cultural norms so as to help
to navigate the inevitable strong emotional reactions that emerge when coming into
Knowing ones own situatedness and relativizing it supports wanting to know about
the cultural and personal situation of the other. Second, awareness of the difference
between the relative insider status of being a professional and the often marginalized
one’s client. Billies (2005), Jacobs (2005), and McConville (2005) elaborate this point
in exploring what it means to be a white therapist in racially divided America.
phenomenological, experiential explorations with their clients. They also emphasized
that attention to the contacting and awareness processes and how these processes are
shaped by field conditions enhanced the capacity of the therapist and the client to
make creative adjustments in their work together.
attitude, a humble attitude that includes a willingness to be affected and changed by
the client. In dialogue, the therapist learns from the patient about the patient’s culture.
This attitude enables the therapist to learn more about his or her own biases, and it
also fosters contacting that is often experienced by the client as empowering.
CASE EXAMPLE
Background
Miriam often spoke in a flat voice, seemingly disconnected from her feelings and
even from any sense of the meaningfulness of her sentences. She had survived
terrifying and degrading childhood abuse, and now, some 35 years after leaving
home, she had the haunted, pinched look of someone who expected the abuse to begin
again at any moment. She could not even say that she wanted therapy for herself
because she claimed not to want or need people in her life. She thought that being in
therapy could help her to develop her skills as a consultant more fully. Miriam was
quite wary of therapy, but she had attended a lecture given by the therapist and had
felt a slight glimmer of hope that this particular therapist might actually be able to
understand her.
ashamed of her isolation, but it made her feel safe. When she moved about in the
world of people, she felt terrified, often enraged, and deeply ashamed. She was
destructive of others. She was unable to acknowledge wants or needs of her own, for
such an acknowledgment made her vulnerable and (in her words) a “target” for
humiliation and annihilation. Finally, she was plagued by a sense of unreality. She
never knew whether what she thought or perceived was “real” or imagined. She knew
nothing of what she felt, believed that she had no feelings, and did not even know
what a feeling was. At times, these convictions were so strong that she fantasized she
was an alien.
Miriam’s fundamental conflicts revolved around the polarity of isolation versus
confluence. Although she was at most times too ashamed of her desires to even
recognize them, when her wish to be connected to others became figural, she was
overcome with dread. She recognized that she wanted to just “melt” into the other
person, and she could not bear even a hint of distance, for the distance signaled
rejection, which she believed would be unbearable to her. She was rigidly entrenched
in her isolated world. A consequence of her rigidity was that she was unable to flow
back and forth in a rhythm of contact and withdrawal. The only way she could
regulate the states of tension and anxiety that emerged as she dared to move toward
contact, with the therapist and others, was to suddenly shrink back in shame, retreat
into isolation, or become dissociated, which happened quite often. Then she would
feel stuck, too ashamed and defeated to dare to venture forward again. She was unable
to balance and calibrate the experience of desiring contact while at the same time
being afraid of contact.
The following sequence occurred about 4 years into therapy. Miriam was much
better at this point in being able to identify with and express feeling, but navigating a
contact boundary with another person was still daunting. She had begun this session
with a deep sense of pleasure because she finally felt a sense of continuity with the
therapist, and she reported that for the first time in her life, she was also connected to
some memories. The air of celebration gave way to desperation and panic later as
therapist and patient struggled together with her wishes and fears for a closer
connection to the therapist.
In a conversation that had been repeated at various times, Miriam’s desperation
grew as she wanted the therapist to “just reach past” her fear, to touch the tiny,
disheveled, and lonely “cave girl” who hid inside. Miriam felt abandoned by the
therapist’s “patience” (Miriam’s word).
P: You’re so damn patient!
T: . . . and this is a bad thing? [Said tentatively.]
P: Right now it is.
T: Because you need . . .
exasperated, and confused.]
T: What does my patience indicate to you right now?
P: That I am just going to be left scrambling forever!
T: It sounds like I am watching from too far away—rather than going through this
with you—does that sound right?
P: Sounds right . . .
T: So you need something from me that indicates we will get through this together,
that I won’t just let you drown. [Said softly and seriously.]
[A few minutes later, the exploration of her need for contact and her fear has
continued, with Miriam even admitting to a wish to be touched physically, which is a
big admission for her to make. Once again Miriam is starting to panic. She is
panicked with fear of what may happen now that she has exposed her wish to be
touched. She fears the vulnerability of allowing the touch, and she is also panicky
about being rejected or cruelly abandoned. The therapist has been emphasizing that
Miriam’s wish for contact is but one side of the conflict, and that the other side, her
fear, needs to be respected as well. The patient was experiencing the therapist’s
caution as an abandonment, whereas the therapist was concerned that “just reaching
past” the patient’s fear would reenact a boundary violation and would trigger greater
dissociation.]
T: . . . so, we need to honor both your fear and your wish. [Miriam looks frightened,
on the verge of dissociating.] . . . now you are moving into a panic—speak to me .
. .
P: [Agonized whisper.] It’s too much.
T: [Softly.] yeah, too much . . . what’s that . . . “it’s too much”?
P: Somehow if you touch me I will disappear. And I don’t want to—I want to—I
want to use touch to connect, not to disappear!
T: Right, OK, so the fear side of you is saying that the risk in touching is that you’ll
disappear. Now we have to take that fear into account. And I have a suggestion—
that I will move and we sit so that our fingertips can be just an inch or so from
each other—and see how that feels to you. Do you want to try? [Therapist moves
as patient nods assent. Miriam is still contorted with fear and desperation.] Okay,
now, I am going to touch one of your fingers—keep breathing—how is that?
P: [crying] How touchphobic I am! I shift between “it feels nice” and “it feels
horrid!”
T: That is why we have to take this slowly. . . . Do you understand that . . . if we
didn’t take it slowly you would have to disappear—the horror would make you
have to disappear [all spoken slowly and carefully and quietly] . . . do you
understand that . . . so it’s worth going slowly . . . your fingers feel to me . . . full
of feeling?
P: Yes . . . as if all my life is in my fingers . . . not disappeared here, warm . . .
The patient attended a weeklong workshop the next week, after which she
reported, with a sense of awe, that she had stayed “in her body” for the whole week,
even when being touched. Since this session, this patient has reported that she feels a
greater sense of continuity, and as we continue to build on it (even the notion of being
able to “build” is new and exciting), she feels less brittle, more open, more “in touch.”
As more time has passed, and we continue to work together several times per
week, longstanding concerns about feeling alien and about being severely dissociated
and fragmented have begun to be resolved. The patient feels increasingly human, able
to engage more freely in intimate participation with others.
SUMMARY
Gestalt therapy is a system of psychotherapy that is philosophically and historically
linked to Gestalt psychology, field theory, existentialism, and phenomenology. Fritz
Perls, his wife Laura Perls, and their collaborator Paul Goodman initially developed
and described the basic principles of Gestalt therapy.
There is a consistent emphasis on the present moment and on the validity and reality
Gestalt therapy results from an I–Thou dialogue between therapist and patient, and
Gestalt therapists are encouraged to be selfdisclosing and candid, both about their
personal history and about their feelings in therapy.
The techniques of Gestalt therapy include focusing exercises, enactment, creative
However, these techniques themselves are relatively insignificant and are only the
tools traditionally employed by Gestalt therapists. Any mechanism consistent with the
theory of Gestalt therapy can and will be used in therapy.
Therapeutic practice is in turmoil in a time when the limitations associated with
managed care have encroached on clinical practice. At a time of humanistic growth in
theorizing, clinical practice seems to be narrowing, with more focus on particular
symptoms and an emphasis on people as products who can be fixed by following the
instructions in a procedure manual.
The wonderful array of Gestaltoriginated techniques for which Gestalt therapy is
famous can be easily misused for just such a purpose. We caution the reader not to
confuse the use of technique for symptom removal, however imaginative, with
human freedom, not human conformity, and in that sense, Gestalt therapy rejects the
view of persons implied in the managedcare ethos. Gestalt practice, when true to its
adjustment; it is a protest for a client’s right to develop fully enough to be able to
make conscious and informed choices that shape her or his life.
Since Gestalt therapy is so flexible, creative, and direct, it is very adaptable to
asset in dealing with managed care and related issues of funding mental health
treatment.
In the 1960s, Fritz Perls prophesied that Gestalt therapy would come into its own
during the decade ahead and become a significant force in psychotherapy during the
1970s. His prophecy has been more than fulfilled.
In 1952, there were perhaps a dozen people actively involved in the Gestalt
therapy movement. Today there are hundreds of training institutes here and abroad,
Unfortunately, there are also large numbers of poorly trained therapists who call
themselves Gestalt therapists after attending a few workshops and who do not have
adequate academic preparation. It behooves students and patients who are interested
in exposure to Gestalt therapy to inquire in depth about the training and experience of
anyone who claims to be a Gestalt therapist or who claims to use Gestalt therapy
techniques.
psychotherapy theory and practice that have been incorporated into the general
psychotherapy field. Now Gestalt therapy is moving to further elaborate and refine
phenomenological experience for both patient and therapist, the trust of organismic
theory of change, and close attention to the contact between the therapist and the
Gestalt therapists and others.
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Jacobs, L. & Hycner, R. (Eds) (2009). Relational Approaches in Gestalt Therapy. New York: Gestalt
Press.
Edited collections of articles on various topics are a tradition in Gestalt therapy. For instance, there are
collections on Gestalt therapy practice in groups, shame, couples therapy, foundational principles
(for teaching purposes), cultural issues, etc. Most edited collections in any field are uneven in
quality, containing some gems and some lackluster pieces; however, they tend to be worthy reads
because they acquaint the reader with multiple viewpoints extant in the area of interest. This
collection has uniformly interesting, thoughtful pieces that acquaint the reader with topics of current
interest in gestalt therapy.
Kepner, J. (1993). Body process: Working with the body in psychotherapy. San Francisco: JosseyBass.
Kepner’s book can be read by people who may have no particular interest in Gestalt therapy but
want to work effectively with patients while attending to body process as well as verbal
communication. It is a beautiful illustration of the holistic approach that Gestalt therapy espouses.
Kepner describes how to attend to body process, both observed and experienced, and how to weave
work with bodily experience into ongoing psychotherapy. Readers will also get an idea how the
therapist’s creativity, coupled with the readiness of the patient, can yield fertile Gestalt awareness
experiments.
Mann, D. (2010). Gestalt Therapy: 100 Key Points and Techniques. New York: Routledge.
This book is part of a series that introduces readers to the main points of various theoretical
approaches. This volume is written in a wise, personable style that exemplifies the humanity of
gestalt therapy at the same time that it teaches. It is a very good introduction to the gestalt therapy
approach.
Polster, E. & Polster, M. (1999). From the Radical Center: The Heart of Gestalt Therapy. Selected
writings of Erving and Miriam Polster. Ed. A. Roberts. Cambridge, MA, GIC Press.
This collection of readings is one of the most readable and enjoyable therapy books around. There are
many illustrative vignettes for people who want to get a sense of what Gestalt therapy is like in
practice. The book is written at the level of clinical theory and covers the basics of Gestalt therapy:
process, here and now, contact, awareness, and experiments. The writing is so lively that the reader
is bound to come away with a feel for the Gestalt therapy experience as practiced by some of its
finest senior practitioners. An earlier, equally insightful and readable book is, Polster, E., & Polster,
M. (1973/1974). Gestalt therapy integrated. New York: Vintage Books.
Staemmler, FM. (2011). Empathy in Psychotherapy: How Therapists and Clients Understand Each
other. New York: Springer Publishing Company.
This award winning book is by far the most scholarly, most thoroughly researched in all of gestalt
therapy. While the author shows how gestalt therapy is well suited to an empathic oreintation, the
knowledge and insights in this book are a boon to anyone who wants to increase their understanding
of, and skill with, empathic engagement.
Wheeler, G. (2000). Beyond individualism: Toward a new understanding of self, relationship and
experience. Hillsdale, NJ: Gestalt Press/Analytic Press.
The author manages to walk the reader, in a simple, lucid, and evocative manner, through the
paradigm shift that Gestalt therapy brings to the field of psychotherapy. He offers illustrative
experiments along the way. The reader cannot help but have his or her experience of living changed
by this book. This book, coupled with the clinical flavor of the Polsters’ book Gestalt Therapy
Integrated (see above), provides a wellrounded beginning for the interested clinician.
Yontef, G. (1993). Awareness, dialogue and process: Essays on Gestalt therapy. Highland, NY:
Gestalt Journal Press.
A compendium of articles written over a span of 25 years. Some of the articles are for those who are
new to Gestalt therapy, but most are for the advanced reader. The essays are sophisticated probes
into some of the thornier theoretical and clinical problems that any theory must address. The book
comprehensively traces the evolution of Gestalt theory and practice and provides a theoretical
scaffolding for its future.
CASE READINGS
Feder, B., & Ronall, R. (1997). A living legacy of Fritz and Laura Perls: Contemporary case studies.
New York: Feder Publishing.
This edited collection provides a look at how different clinicians work from a Gestalt perspective.
The variety of styles encourages the reader to find his or her own.
Hycner, R., & Jacobs, L. (1995). Simone: Existential mistrust and trust. The healing relationship in
Gestalt therapy: A dialogic, selfpsychology approach (pp. 85–90). Highland, NY: Gestalt Journal
Press.
Hycner, R., & Jacobs, L. (1995). Transference meets dialogue. The healing relationship in Gestalt
therapy: A dialogic, selfpsychology approach (pp. 171–195). Highland, NY: Gestalt Journal Press.
The first case is an example drawn from a workshop conducted in Israel; the second is an interesting
case report by a psychoanalytically oriented Gestalt therapist, including verbatim transcripts of three
sessions. The second case is analyzed in a panel discussion by two Gestalt therapists and two
psychoanalysts in Alexander, Brickman, Jacobs, Trop, & Yontef. (1992). Transference meets
dialogue. Gestalt Journal, 15, 61–108.
Lampert, R. (2003). A child’s eye view: Gestalt therapy with children, adolescents and their families.
Highland, NY: Gestalt Journal Press.
Case material is provided throughout this book.
Simkin, J. S. (1967). Individual Gestalt therapy [Film]. Orlando, FL: American Academy of
Psychotherapists. 50 minutes.
In this tape of the 11th hour of therapy with a 34yearold actor, emphasis is on present, nonverbal
communications leading to production of genetic material. The use of fantasy dialogue is also
illustrated.
Simkin, J. S. (1972). The use of dreams in Gestalt therapy. In C. J. Sager & H. S. Kaplan (Eds.),
Progress in group and family therapy (pp. 95–104). New York: Brunner/Mazel.
In a verbatim transcript, a patient works on a dream about his youngest daughter.
Staemmler, F. (Ed). (2003). The IGJ Transcript Project. International Gestalt Journal, 26(1), 9–58.
In this intriguing project, British Gestalt therapist Sally DenhamVaughan provides a brief summary
of her work with a patient and then an extended transcript of a session. Four therapists from Europe
and the United States offer their commentaries on the session, and then DenhamVaughan replies.
The result is not only a good example of a Gestalt therapy process but also a lively discussion of
some points of interest and controversy in Gestalt therapy. [Reprinted in D. Wedding & R. J.
Corsini. (2011). Case studies in psychotherapy. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.]
Swanson, C. (2009).The scarf that binds: A clinical case navigating between the individualist paradigm
and the ‘between’ of a relational gestalt approach. In L. Jacobs & R. Hycner (Eds.) (2009). Pp 171
186.
A delightful tale of the therapeutic process of disruption and repair, with a good example of how
experimentation emerges from the therapeutic dialogue.
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UNFigure 3421
Courtesy of The Gestalt Journal Press
Fritz Perls (1893–1970)
PAGE 1
CP Gestalt Therapy
Yontef/Jacobs
We are most grateful to Philip Brownell, M.Div.; Psy.D., who was extraordinarily generous with his
time, thoughts and expertise. He champions the ethical development and use of research. This section
is better for his input, however, opinions and any errors are ours.