Aqa 7041 7042 SP 2015 PDF

Get help and support as and
Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at aqa.org.uk/7042
You can talk directly to the History subject team a-level
E: history@aqa.org.uk
T: 0161 958 3865
history
AS (7041)
A-level (7042)
Specification
For teaching from september 2015 onwards
For AS amd A-level exams in 2016 onwards
Version 1.1 8 March 2018
(historysp7042)
aqa.org.uk
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AQA AS and A-level History . AS and A-level exams June 2016 onwards. Version 1.1 8 March 2018
Contents
1 Introduction 5
1.1 Why choose AQA for AS and A-level History 5
1.2 Support and resources to help you teach 5
2 Specification at a glance 8
2.1 Subject content 8
2.2 AS 9
2.3 A-level 11
3 Subject content 15
1A The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204 17
1B Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598 19
1C The Tudors: England, 1485–1603 20
1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702 21
1E Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment,
1682–1796 23
1H Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964 28
1J The British Empire, c1857–1967 29
1K The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975 31
1L The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991 32
2A Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216 34
2B The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499 35
2C The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564 37
2D Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–
c1570 38
2E The English Revolution, 1625–1660 40
2F The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–
1715 42
2G The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801 43
2H France in Revolution, 1774–1815 45
2J America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877 46
2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–
1941 48
2L Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945 50
2M Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957 51
2N Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953 53
2O Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945 55
2P The Transformation of China, 1936–1997 57
2Q The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980 58
2R The Cold War, c1945–1991 60
2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007 62
2T The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet
Empire, 1953–2000 64
Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration 3
Component 3: Historical investigation (non-exam
assessment) (A-level only) 66
4 Scheme of assessment 73
4.1 Aims 73
4.2 Assessment objectives 74
4.3 Assessment weightings 74
4.4 Structure of question papers 75
5 Non-exam assessment administration 79

5.1 Supervising and authenticating 79
5.2 Avoiding malpractice 79
5.3 Teacher standardisation 80
5.4 Internal standardisation 80
5.5 Annotation 80
5.6 Submitting marks 81
5.7 Factors affecting individual students 81
5.8 Keeping students' work 81
5.9 Moderation 81
5.10 After moderation 82
6 General administration 83
6.1 Entries and codes 83
6.2 Overlaps with other qualifications 84
6.3 Awarding grades and reporting results 84
6.4 Re-sits and shelf life 84
6.5 Previous learning and prerequisites 84
6.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion 84
6.7 Working with AQA for the first time 85
6.8 Private candidates 85
Are you using the latest version of this specification?

• You will always find the most up-to-date version of this specification on our website at
• We will write to you if there are significant changes to the specification.
4 Visit for the most up-to-date specification, resources, support and administration
1 Introduction
1.1 Why choose AQA for AS and A-level History
Helping students understand the significance of historical events
Our AS and A-level History qualifications have been designed to help students understand the
significance of historical events, the role of individuals in history and the nature of change over
time. Our qualifications will help them to gain a deeper understanding of the past through political,
social, economic and cultural perspectives. The engaging topics available to them throughout the
course will provide them with the knowledge and skills they require to succeed as AS and A-level
historians.
Flexibility of choice
• We offer teachers and students the choice of British, European, American and World history
• We have retained as much of the flexibility of our current specification as possible.
Well-resourced and popular topics

• After careful consultation with teachers and Higher Education, we have kept our most
popular topics so you can re-use or adapt your departmental resources. We have also
developed some new topics in response to teachers’ feedback
• We have worked closely with a number of publishers to produce textbooks that link directly to
the specifications.
Teach AS and A-level together

• Our AS not only provides a strong stand-alone qualification, it is also fully co-teachable with
the A-level
• Content for the AS and the first year of the A-level is identical
• The skills required for AS questions are closely linked to those in A-level questions
• We clearly articulate the skills and techniques that we expect students to display at AS and
A-level as well as producing clear question papers and mark schemes
We’re confident that you will enjoy teaching the AQA specifications and that your students will be
able to show what they know, understand and can do, mastering the craft of the A-level historian.
You can find out about all our History qualifications at aqa.org.uk/history.
1.2 Support and resources to help you teach

We know that support and resources are vital for your teaching and that you have limited time to
find or develop good quality materials. So we’ve worked with experienced teachers to provide you
with a range of resources that will help you confidently plan, teach and prepare for exams.
Teaching resources
We have too many History resources to list here so visit aqa.org.uk/7042 to see them all. They
include:
• sample schemes of work and lesson plans to help you plan your course with confidence
• specimen question papers and mark schemes
• guidance about source material and teaching resources
• training courses to help you deliver AQA History qualifications.
Preparing for exams

Visit aqa.org.uk/7042 for everything you need to prepare for our exams, including:
• past papers, mark schemes and examiners’ reports
• specimen papers and mark schemes for new courses
• exemplar student answers with examiner commentaries.
Analyse your students' results with Enhanced Results Analysis (ERA)

Find out which questions were the most challenging, how the results compare to previous years
and where your students need to improve. ERA, our free online results analysis tool, will help you
see where to focus your teaching. Register at aqa.org.uk/era
For information about results, including maintaining standards over time, grade boundaries and our
post-results services, visit aqa.org.uk/results
Keep your skills up to date with professional development

Wherever you are in your career, there’s always something new to learn. As well as subject-
specific training, we offer a range of courses to help boost your skills:
• improve your teaching skills in areas including differentiation, teaching literacy and meeting
Ofsted requirements
• help you prepare for a new role with our leadership and management courses.
You can attend a course at venues around the country, in your school or online – whatever suits
your needs and availability. Find out more at coursesandevents.aqa.org.uk
Get help and support

Visit our website for information, guidance, support and resources at aqa.org.uk/7042
You can talk directly to the History subject team:
T: 0161 958 3865
2 Specification at a glance
2.1 Subject content
Component 1: Breadth study
1A The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204 (page 17)
1B Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598 (page 19)
1C The Tudors: England, 1485–1603 (page 20)
1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702 (page 21)
1E Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment, 1682–1796 (page 23)
1F Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885 (page 24)
1G Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964 (page 26)
1H Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964 (page 28)
1J The British Empire, c1857–1967 (page 29)
1K The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975 (page 31)
1L The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991 (page 32)
Component 2: Depth study
2A Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1216 (page 34)
2B The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1499 (page 35)
2C The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564 (page 37)
2D Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570 (page 38)
2E The English Revolution, 1625–1660 (page 40)
2F The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–1715 (page 42)
2G The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801 (page 43)
2H France in Revolution, 1774–1815 (page 45)
2J America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877 (page 46)
2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941 (page 48)
2L Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945 (page 50)
2M Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1957 (page 51)
2N Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953 (page 53)
2O Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945 (page 55)
2P The Transformation of China, 1936–1997 (page 57)
2Q The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980 (page 58)
2R The Cold War, c1945–1991 (page 60)
2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007 (page 62)

2T The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000 (page 64)
Component 3: Historical Investigation (page 66)
2.2 AS
AS students must take assessments in both of the following components, in the same series.
• Component 1: Breadth study
• Component 2: Depth study
Students must:
• study the history of more than one country
• study a British history option for Component 1 or 2
• study a non-British history option for Component 1 or 2
Assessments
What's assessed
The first part of the corresponding full A-level option. This involves the study of significant
historical developments over a period of around 50 years and associated historical
interpretations.
Assessed
• written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes
• Two questions (one compulsory)
• 50 marks
• 50% of AS
Questions
• two sections
• Section A – one compulsory question linked to interpretations (25 marks)
• Section B – one question from two (25 marks)
What's assessed
The first part of the corresponding full A-level option. This involves the study in depth of a major
historical change or development and associated primary evidence
Assessed
• written exam: 1 hour 30 minutes
• Two questions (one compulsory)
• 50 marks
• 50% of AS
Questions
• two sections
• Section A – one compulsory question linked to primary sources or sources contemporary to
the period (25 marks)
• Section B – one question from two (25 marks)
Prohibited Combinations
Students must study a British history option for either Component 1 or Component 2. If a British
history option is chosen for Component 1, it must be combined with a non-British option for
Component 2. If a British history option is chosen for Component 2, it must be combined with a
non-British option for Component 1. Any British option may be combined with any non-British
option, other than the following:
• 1C The Tudors may not be combined with 2C The Reformation in Europe
• 1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy may not be combined with 2F The Sun King:
Louis XIV, France and Europe
This is because there is a strong conceptual emphasis which runs across both breadth and depth
options which would result in a narrowing of the student’s experience.
The following are designated British history options:
Component 1
1C The Tudors: England, 1485–1547
1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1649
1F Industrialisation and the People: Britain, c1783–1832
1G Challenge and Transformation: Britain, c1851–1914
1J The British Empire, c1857–1914
Component 2
2A Royal Authority and the Angevin Kings, 1154–1189
2B The Wars of the Roses, 1450–1471
2D Religious Conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1547
2E The English Revolution, 1625–1642
2M Wars and Welfare: Britain in Transition, 1906–1929
2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–1979
2.3 A-level
A-level students must take assessments in all three of the following components in the same
series:
• Component 1: Breadth study
• Component 2: Depth study
• Component 3: Historical investigation (Personal study)
Students must:
• study the history of more than one country
• study a British history option for Component 1 or 2
• study a non-British history option for Component 1 or 2
• study topics from a chronological range of at least 200 years
Assessments
What's assessed
The study of significant historical developments over a period of around 100 years and
associated interpretations.
Assessed
• written exam: 2 hours 30 minutes
• three questions (one compulsory)
• 80 marks
• 40% of A-level
Questions
• two sections
• Section A – one compulsory question linked to historical interpretations (30 marks)
• Section B – two from three essays (2 x 25 marks)
What's assessed
The study in depth of a period of major historical change or development and associated primary
evidence.
Assessed
• written exam: 2 hours 30 minutes
• three questions (one compulsory)
• 80 marks
• 40% of A-level
Questions
• two sections
• Section A – one compulsory question linked to primary sources or sources contemporary to
the period (30 marks)
• Section B – two from three essays (2 x 25 marks)
Component 3: Historical investigation
What's assessed
A personal study based on a topic of student's choice. This should take the form of a question in
the context of approximately 100 years. It must not duplicate the content of options chosen for
Components 1 and 2.
Assessed
• 3000–3500 words
• 40 marks
• 20% of A-level
• marked by teachers
• moderated by AQA
• Through the topics studied in Components 1, 2 and 3 (Historical investigation), A-level

students must cover a chronological range of at least 200 years.
Prohibited Combinations
Students must study a British history option for either Component 1 or Component 2. If a British
history option is chosen for Component 1, it must be combined with a non-British option for
Component 2. If a British history option is chosen for Component 2, it must be combined with a
non-British option for Component 1. Any British option may be combined with any non-British
option, other than the following:
• 1C The Tudors may not be combined with 2C The Reformation in Europe
• 1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy may not be combined with 2F The Sun King:
Louis XIV, France and Europe
This is because there is a strong conceptual emphasis which runs across both breadth and depth
options which would result in a narrowing of the student’s experience.
The following are designated British history options:
Component 1
1F Industrialisation and the People: Britain, c1783–1885
1G Challenge and Transformation: Britain, c1851–1964
Component 2
2D Religious Conflict and the Church in England, c1529–c1570
3 Subject content
The AS component content is designed to be co-teachable with the first part of the corresponding
full A-level component content – or it can be taught as a stand-alone course.
Introduction
The GCE AS and A-level Subject Content for History state that:
• AS and A-level specifications in History must provide sufficient depth and breadth to allow
students to develop the knowledge, skills and understanding specified below, and must
include a rationale for the specification of topics including periods and/or themes which
indicate how the following criteria for content are addressed
• AS and A-level specifications in History must provide a broad and coherent course of study
for all students whether they progress to further study in the subject or not
• There are no prior knowledge requirements for AS and A-level specifications in History.
Both AS and A level specifications must require students to study:
• the history of more than one country or state, including at least one outside the British Isles
• aspects of the past in breadth (through period and/or theme) and in depth
• significant individuals, societies, events, developments and issues within a broad historical
context
• developments affecting different groups within the societies studied
• a range of appropriate historical perspectives, for example aesthetic, cultural, economic,
ethnic, political, religious, scientific, social or technological.
A-level only
In addition, A-level specifications must require students to study:
• topics from a chronological range of at least 200 years
• a substantial (a minimum of 20 per cent) and coherent element of British history and/or the
history of England, Scotland, Ireland or Wales
• change and/or development over a period of time sufficient to demonstrate understanding of
the process of change, both long term (normally at least 100 years) and short term.
Rationale
Assuring a broad and coherent course of study
The Subject Criteria require that, at AS and A-level, students follow a ‘broad and coherent’ course
of study.
The specifications meet these requirements as follows.
• At both AS and A-level, an option from Component 1 and an option from Component 2 must
be studied. This must include the history of more than one country or state, including at least
one outside the British Isles.
• Coherence of study is achieved across the specification as a whole. Components 1 and 2
have similar perspectives in relation to, for example, the role of elites and the basis of
legitimacy of power and decision-making, how the exercise of power changes over time
when confronted with opposition, how ideas, social and economic or ideological
developments influence and change the exercise of power. Any combination of components
therefore, provides for a coherent and interrelated course of study enabling students to
understand these perspectives in the context of breadth and depth.
• In addition, the choice of options within the components, irrespective of chronology, will allow
students to draw conclusions about and make links in relation to, the various processes of
historical change and continuity. The components chosen provide a coherent understanding
of how change occurs, how the causes of change interrelate, of degrees of change and
continuity and of similarity, difference and significance. The components chosen also provide
a coherent understanding of how individuals and groups bring about and react to broader
social, economic, religious and cultural changes.
Not all combinations of Component 1 (the Breadth Study) with Component 2 (the Depth Study)
ensure that a broad course of study is followed. The combinations which follow will be prohibited
because their chronology is limited to predominantly a single century where there is also a strong
conceptual emphasis which runs across both breadth and depth options:
• 1C The Tudors with 2C The Reformation in Europe
• 1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy with 2F The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and
Europe
In addition, at A-level the Subject Criteria require that students study 'a substantial element of
British history' and study topics from a chronological range of at least 200 years.
The specifications meet this requirement as follows:
• at A-level, a student must study a British history option for either Component 1 or Component
2. This meets the requirement to study 'a substantial element of British history'
• at A-level, the option studied for Component 1 covers a period of 100 years. This meets the
requirement to study change and/or development over a period of time sufficient to
demonstrate understanding of change (normally at least 100 years).
By building on the knowledge of historical processes and perspectives developed in Components 1
and 2, Component 3 will add to overall coherence.
At A-level the issue to be investigated in Component 3 must be placed in the context of
approximately 100 years, must not duplicate the content of Components 1 and 2 and must ensure
that the three components together cover a chronological range of at least 200 years.
At A-level the requirement to complete a non-exam assessment task within the context of
approximately 100 years further broadens the student’s experience.

Each Breadth Study requires the study of an extended period and enables students to develop
secure understanding of the process of change over time.
Each Breadth Study is introduced by six key questions which identify issues and perspectives
which are central to the period of study. They emphasise that the study of breadth requires
students to develop an understanding of:
• The nature of causes and consequences, of change and continuity and of similarity and
differences over a long period of time
• The links between perspectives, such as political, economic, social or religious as well as
appreciating developments relating to the perspectives separately over time
• The role played by individuals, groups, ideas or ideology.
The content for each period of study is set out in chronological sections. An examination question
may arise from one or more of these sections of specified content. There is an important
interrelationship between the six key questions and the specified content. Study of the content
enables students to develop a secure understanding and knowledge of the period. The key
questions inform and guide how the content should be studied. This combination of historical
content, informed by key questions, seeks to combine ‘periods or themes’ in a manner which is
manageable and historically valid. Thus, ‘understanding of the process of change over time’ stems
from secure knowledge of shorter periods which enable the development of a broader
understanding as the study progresses.

Each Depth Study is focused on a significant period of historical change or development. Students
will gain deep understanding of change and continuity through the study of the interrelationships of
a variety of perspectives as indicated in the content. They will develop detailed knowledge and
understanding of developments and the roles of individuals, groups, ideas and ideology. Depth
Studies also promote an understanding of the complexity of the historical process through a
detailed focus on a specific period of change.
Content is presented chronologically in sections as is most appropriate to the period of study. An
examination question may arise from one, or more than one, section of specified content. To
demonstrate depth of historical knowledge and understanding, students should be able to make
links and comparisons between the aspects of the period studied. Therefore it is important that
specified content should be studied both in its own right and holistically. In this way links and
contrasts will be rooted in secure knowledge and understanding.
Each of the Depth Studies has an introductory commentary, setting out the focus of the study and
the key concepts that apply to it. There is a close interrelationship between the commentary and
the content that follows which enables students to appreciate the focus of the depth study.
Component 3: Historical investigation – non-exam assessment (A-level only)

Students will be required to identify an issue they wish to study and develop a question from this
issue which will be the focus of the Historical Investigation.
To ensure that this represents a substantial study, the issue to be investigated has to be placed in
the context of approximately 100 years. It must not duplicate the content studied for Components 1
or 2.
Students may study a specific issue or development in depth, but this must be placed in the
context of approximately 100 years, or a broader theme and/or development. Issues which relate
to international, national or local developments are appropriate, as are investigations which adopt
specific historical perspectives such as cultural, social or technological.
Through undertaking the Historical Investigation, students will develop an enhanced understanding
of the nature and purpose of history as a discipline and how historians work. They will broaden
their study of the past whilst having the opportunity to study a specific issue in great depth.
1A The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

This option allows students to study in breadth issues of change, continuity, cause and
consequence in this period through the following key questions:
• What were the motives of the crusaders and the counter-crusaders?
• What problems faced the states in Outremer and how successfully were these problems
addressed?
• How important were faith and ideas for Christians and Muslims?
• What was the impact of the crusades on the Muslim Near East?
• How did the Byzantine Empire, Outremer and the Latin West change and what influenced
relations between them?
• How important was the role of key individuals and groups and how were they affected by
developments?
Part one: the Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

The origins of conflict and the First Crusade, c1071–c1099
• Christianity in western Europe c1071; the role of the Church in the late 11th century; the
rising influence of the Papacy
• Islam c1071: Muslim expansion and the rise of the Seljuk Turks
• The Byzantine Empire c1071: the internal problems of the Byzantine Empire; the impact of
defeat in the Battle of Manzikert
• Urban II: the reasons for the calling of the First Crusade; responding to the call for help from
the Byzantine Empire; the political and religious motives of the Papacy
• The motives of the crusaders; Raymond of Toulouse and the Frankish knights; popular
movements
• The course and impact of the First Crusade and its impact on the Muslim Near East, the
Byzantine Empire and the Latin West by 1099
The foundation of new states and the Second Crusade, c1099–1149

• Establishing the states of Outremer: Kings Baldwin I, II and Queen Melisende; expansion and
conquest; trade and pilgrimage
• The foundation of the military orders: Templars and Hospitallers; their military, religious and
economic roles
• Relations of the Crusader states with the Byzantine Empire, the Latin West, the Muslim Near
East and indigenous peoples
• The Islamic response to the Crusader states: Islamic politics and the rise of ideas of jihad
under Zengi
• The preaching of the Second Crusade; its course and outcome
• The impact of the Second Crusade on the Muslim Near East, the Byzantine Empire, the Latin
West and Outremer by 1149
Part two: the revival of Islam and the later Crusades, 1149–1204 (A-
level only)
The Muslim Counter-Crusade and Crusader states, 1149–1187 (A-level only)
• The context of Islamic power in the Near East from 1149; the rise of Nureddin in Syria and
Egypt and the growth of jihad
• Outremer from 1149: political developments, military strengths and weaknesses
• Relations between Outremer and wider Christendom, the Latin West and the Byzantine
Empire
• Internal divisions within Outremer, including the reign of Baldwin IV and his successors
• The rise of Saladin: religion, politics and military expansion; victory at Hattin
• The crisis of Outremer: the consequences of Saladin’s capture of Jerusalem
The Third and Fourth Crusades, 1187–1204 (A-level only)

• Preaching and preparing for the Third Crusade: motives of Pope Gregory VIII; Henry II and
Richard I of England; Philip II of France; Frederick Barbarossa
• The course of the Third Crusade: leadership and internal rivalries of the Crusaders; the
reasons for the military outcome
• The impact of the Third Crusade; Saladin’s power and prestige in the Muslim Near East
• The origins of the Fourth Crusade; the papacy of Innocent III; the weakness of the Byzantine
Empire; the role of Venice
• The course of the Fourth Crusade: military preparations; the diversion to Zara; the failure to
make any impact on Muslim power
• The legacy of the Crusades by 1204: the Muslim Near East, the Byzantine Empire and the
Latin West
1B Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

• What were the political issues and how well did rulers handle them?
• Where did opposition come from and how was it dealt with?
• How and to what extent did the economy and society develop and change?
• How important were religious and other new ideas in Spain's development?
• To what extent did Spain become a ‘Great Power’?
developments?
Part one: the establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

The forging of a new state, 1469–1516
• The political, economic, social and religious condition of the Iberian Peninsula in 1469
• The restoration of royal authority; royal government; unity and confederation; relations with
other European powers
• Social issues and policies: the nobility, the peasantry, urban communities and the Church
• Muslims/Moriscos; the Reconquista; Jews/conversos and anti-Semitism
• Economic stagnation and change: trade and exploration in Europe and North Africa;
discovery and first settlements in the New World
• The degree of political unity and social and economic change by 1516
The drive to 'Great Power' status, 1516–1556

• Charles' inheritance; opposition and consolidation; revolts of the Communeros and Germania
• The workings of Empire: ideas and image; conciliar government; individuals and domestic
policy
• Foreign relations within Europe; campaigns against the Turks
• Religious policies and the Church in Spain
• The expansion of Empire: the conquistadores; economic and social impact of the New World
on Spain
• The political, economic, social and religious condition of Spain in 1556
Part two: Philip II's Spain, 1556–1598 (A-level only)
The 'Golden Age', 1556–1598 (A-level only)
• Philip II as ruler: character; inheritance; change and continuity in government; administration
and policy
• Opposition of individuals and groups: faction and curbing internal rebellions
• Religion and society; the Jesuits, Inquisition and relations with the Papacy
• Economic developments; royal finances, policies and impact of overseas empire
• Social and cultural developments of the ‘Golden Age’; impact of new ideas and intellectual
movements
• The condition of Spain in 1598: political, economic and social strengths and weaknesses
Spain: The 'Great Power', 1556–1598 (A-level only)

• Philip’s inheritance and ambitions; ideas and pressures; the Spanish army and navy
• The eclipsing of French power: Italy; war and interference in France
• Control of the Mediterranean: challenging the Turks; the conquest of and relationship with
Portugal
• Revolt in the Netherlands; relations with England: conflict in Europe and the Caribbean
• Spain in the New World: expansion, settlement and trade; the impact of empire
• Spain’s international position by 1598: the extent of Spain's power; illusion or reality

• How effectively did the Tudors restore and develop the powers of the monarchy?
• In what ways and how effectively was England governed during this period?
• How did relations with foreign powers change and how was the succession secured?
• How did English society and economy change and with what effects?
• How far did intellectual and religious ideas change and develop and with what effects?
developments?
Part one: consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Henry VII, 1485–1509
• Henry Tudor’s consolidation of power: character and aims; establishing the Tudor dynasty
• Government: councils, parliament, justice, royal finance, domestic policies
• Relationships with Scotland and other foreign powers; securing the succession; marriage
alliances
• Society: churchmen, nobles and commoners; regional division; social discontent and
rebellions
• Economic development: trade, exploration, prosperity and depression
• Religion; humanism; arts and learning
Henry VIII, 1509–1547

• Henry VIII: character and aims; addressing Henry VII’s legacy
• Government: Crown and Parliament, ministers, domestic policies including the establishment
of Royal Supremacy
• Relationships with Scotland and other foreign powers; securing the succession
• Society: elites and commoners; regional issues and the social impact of religious upheaval;
rebellion
• Economic development: trade, exploration, prosperity and depression
• Religion: renaissance ideas; reform of the Church; continuity and change by 1547
Part two: England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603 (A-level only)

Instability and consolidation: 'the Mid-Tudor Crisis', 1547–1563 (A-level only)
• Edward VI, Somerset and Northumberland; royal authority; problems of succession; relations
with foreign powers
• The social impact of religious and economic changes under Edward VI; rebellion; intellectual
developments; humanist and religious thought
• Mary I and her ministers; royal authority; problems of succession; relations with foreign
powers
• The social impact of religious and economic changes under Mary I; rebellion; intellectual
developments; humanist and religious thought
• Elizabeth I: character and aims; consolidation of power, including the Elizabethan Settlement
and relations with foreign powers
• The impact of economic, social and religious developments in the early years of Elizabeth's
rule
The triumph of Elizabeth, 1563–1603 (A-level only)

• Elizabethan government: court, ministers and parliament; factional rivalries
• Foreign affairs: issues of succession; Mary, Queen of Scots; relations with Spain
• Society: continuity and change; problems in the regions; social discontent and rebellions
• Economic development: trade, exploration and colonisation; prosperity and depression
• Religious developments, change and continuity; the English renaissance and ‘the Golden
Age’ of art, literature and music
• The last years of Elizabeth: the state of England politically, economically, religiously and
socially by 1603

• How far did the monarchy change?
• To what extent and why was power more widely shared during this period?
• Why and with what results were there disputes over religion?
• How effective was opposition?
• How important were ideas and ideology?
developments?
Part one: absolutism challenged: Britain, 1603–1649
Monarchs and Parliaments, 1603–1629
• The Political Nation and the social basis of power: the importance of land ownership; rival
forms of wealth including merchants
• James I: character and views on monarchy; court and favourites; Charles I: character and
views on monarchy; court and favourites
• The financial weakness of the Crown and attempts to reform and strengthen royal finance
• Religion and religious divisions: challenges to the Church of England from Catholics and
Puritans and the development of Arminianism
• Relations and disputes with parliaments: parliamentary privileges; finance; religion; foreign
affairs
• The state of relations between Crown and Parliament by 1629 and the reaction of the
Political Nation; the extent of breakdown between Crown and Parliament and the Political
Nation
Revolution, 1629–1649
• Divisions over religion: Arminianism and Laudianism; Puritanism and the emergence of
Millenarianism
• Political divisions: the Personal Rule and the extent of opposition to it in England, Scotland
and Ireland; the Short and Long Parliaments and the leadership of Pym; divisions and the
outbreak of Civil War
• The First and Second Civil Wars: England, Scotland, Ireland and the reasons for royalist
defeat
• Social divisions: the emergence of political and religious radicalism in the 1640s; the
Levellers and Millenarian groups
• Post-war divisions between Army and Parliament and the failure to secure a post-war
settlement
• Regicide: the basis for regicide and the King’s response
Part two: Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702 (A-

level only)
From Republic to restored and limited monarchy, 1649–1678 (A-level only)
• The consolidation of the Republic: Scotland and Dunbar; campaigns in Ireland; Charles II
and Worcester
• Political divisions and experiments: Republicanism and the Rump; Millenarianism and the
Parliament of Saints
• Cromwell and his aims; the Protectorates; Major-Generals and the relations with the Political
Nation
• Charles II and the nature of restored monarchy; rule through parliament and ministers;
Clarendon; the Cabal and Danby
• The emergence of Court and Country ‘parties’: causes, significance and consequences
• Religious divisions and conflicts: the defeat of Millenarianism; the restoration of the Church of
England; Protestant Dissenters; conflict over Catholic influence at Court
The establishment of constitutional monarchy, 1678–1702 (A-level only)

• Political developments and conflicts: Exclusion, its aims, methods and its failure; James II
and the attempts at absolutism and the restoration of Catholicism
• The ‘Glorious Revolution’: causes and nature; its consolidation in England, Scotland and
Ireland
• Divisions within the Political Nation and the emergence of Whigs and Tories and their impact
• Religious changes: religious toleration and changes to the position of Anglicans, Protestants
and Catholics
• Government under William and Mary: the importance of political parties and ministers; the
changing influence of Crown and Parliament and the reasons for the development of limited
monarchy
• The condition of Britain and its monarchy by 1702: the significance of the Act of Settlement;
the balance of power between Crown and Parliament; the condition of the Church of England
and non-conformism and Catholicism
1E Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment,

1682–1796
• How far were the rulers of Russia able to establish and maintain authority?
• How and why did Russian society and the economy develop?
• How important were ideology and ideas?
• How far were objectives in foreign policy achieved?
• How significant was opposition and how effectively was it dealt with?
developments?
Part one: Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Establishing authority, 1682–1707
• The political, economic and social position of Russia in 1682: the Tsars and the nobility;
economic backwardness and serfdom; Russia as a traditional, Slav society
• The Regency; the role of the Streltsy; Peter as joint ruler and the establishment of sole rule
• Westernisation; influences on Peter as a child; the Great Embassy; the reasons for and
significance of the development of St Petersburg
• Early reforms: economic and financial; political; military; changes in society
• Opposition: the Church; the Streltsy
• Foreign affairs and wars: wars against Turkey and Sweden
Increasing the glory of Russia, 1707–1725

• Economic and financial reforms and their success
• Orthodoxy and developments in the Church: attempts to increase the power of the Tsar
• Changes to central and local government; the reform of the army and the introduction of the
Table of Ranks and the Service State
• Social developments, Westernisation and extent of change by 1725
• Opposition: Astrakhan; Bashkir; Don Cossacks; Tsarevich Alexis
• Foreign affairs and wars: wars with Sweden and Turkey; involvement in European conflicts
Part two: Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796 (A-level only)

The epoch of palace coups, 1725–1762 (A-level only)
• The legacy of Peter the Great: the Service State; the role of the Church; the gentry and
serfdom; Russia’s involvement in international affairs
• Disputed successions and the role of the Supreme State Council and the Preobrazhensky
Regiment
• Tsarina Elizabeth: accession to the throne; education and Westernisation; legal reforms;
taxation
• Social developments: the redefinition of the Service State; serfdom and serf unrest
• Foreign affairs: intervention in Poland; failure to secure the Crimea; involvement in the Seven
Years War
• Russia by 1762: the extent to which Petrine reforms survived; the accession of Catherine the
Great
Catherine the Great and Russia, 1762–1796 (A-level only)

• Catherine: character and aims; extent of influence of the Enlightenment and the impact of the
French Revolution on Catherine
• Developments in central and local government: codification of the law; the Great
Commission; reform of the Senate; changes to local government in towns and rural areas
• Changes to society: the importance of landownership and the gentry; Enlightenment and
education; reforms to religion
• The economy and the persistence of serfdom and its impact on economic development
• Opposition and rebellion; plots against her and Catherine’s reaction; the Pugachev Revolt
and its consequences
• Foreign affairs and wars: Sweden; Turkey and Crimea; wars with Poland and its partition
1F Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

This option allows students to study change, continuity, cause and consequence in this period
through the following key questions:
• How was Britain governed and how did democracy and political organisations change and
develop?
• What pressures did governments face and how did they respond to these?
• How and with what results did the economy develop and change?
• How and with what results did society and social policy develop?
• How important was the role of individuals and groups and how were they affected by
developments?
Part one: the impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

Pressure for change, c1783–1812
• The British political system in 1783: government and representation; national and local
democracy; Whigs and Tories
• Government: Pitt the Younger as Prime Minister and his successors; Pitt's relationship with
the King; the 1784 election; reform of finance, administration and trade
• Economic developments: industrialisation; the growth of cotton and other industries; changes
in power; the condition of agriculture
• Social developments: the middle class; the industrial workforce; landowners; agricultural
labourers and the poor; working conditions; standards of living; the Combination Acts
• Pressures on government: the political influence of the French Revolution; Irish rebellion and
union; radicalism and opposition; party splits; demands for parliamentary reform
• Pressures on government: the political, economic and social impact of war; the condition of
Britain by 1812
Government and a changing society, 1812–1832

• Government: Lord Liverpool; the Corn Laws and other legislation; attitudes to reform and
repression; the economy; the repeal of the Combination Acts
• Government: Canning, Goderich and Wellington; legislation including the repeal of the Test
and Corporation Acts; the metropolitan police force; O’Connell and Catholic Emancipation
• Economic developments: continuing industrialisation and developments in key industries;
agricultural change; economic policies and free trade
• Social developments: the effects of industrialisation; standards of living and working class
discontent
• Pressures for change: Luddism and radical agitation; the anti-slavery movement; Methodism;
early socialism and the ideas of Robert Owen
• Greater democracy: the election of the Whigs; pressure for parliamentary reform; the Great
Reform Act and its impact; the state of Britain politically, economically and socially by 1832
Part two: the Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885 (A-level only)

Political change and social reform, 1832-1846 (A-level only)
• Government: Grey, Melbourne and the ideas and ideology of the Whig Party; the Tories in
opposition and government; Peel and the transformation of the Conservative party
• The Whig response to social change; social reforms including: education, factory legislation,
abolition of slavery, the Poor Law Amendment Act, the Municipal Corporations Act
• Pressure for change: Chartism; Irish radicalism; the Anti-Poor Law League; the Anti-Corn
Law League; social reform campaigners including Shaftesbury and Chadwick
• The Conservative response to change: finance, administration and the economy; the Bank
Charter Act; trade and business reform
• Economic developments: the railway 'revolution' and associated economic growth;
agriculture and Corn Law repeal
• Social developments: conditions in urban Britain; changes in the lives of workers and the
poor; unions and other working-class movements
Economy, society and politics, 1846–1885 (A-level only)
• Government and developing political organisation: the development of the political system
and party realignment; the emergence of the Liberal Party
• Government and democracy: Gladstone, his ministries and ideas and policies; Disraeli, his
ministries, ideas and policies; increasing democracy; legislation
• Pressure for change: social campaigns, Public Health reform; Chartism; pressure for
parliamentary reform; Irish Nationalism
• Economic developments: the mid-Victorian boom; the 'golden age' of agriculture; industrial
and transport developments; impact of increased trade; the Great Depression
• Social developments: prosperity and poverty in towns and countryside; regional divisions;
influences including Evangelicalism; 'self-help'; trade unions and education
• The political, economic and social condition of Britain by 1885; the extent of democracy and
Britain’s industrial position
1G Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

• How did democracy and political organisations develop in Britain?
• How important were ideas and ideologies?
• How and with what effects did the economy develop?
• How and with what effects did society and social policy develop?
• How and why did Britain's relationship with Ireland change?
developments?
Part one: Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Reform and challenge, c1851–c1886
• The political system: parliament and the workings of mid-19th century democracy; ruling
elites; prime ministers; parties and party realignment to 1867
• Political developments under Gladstone and Disraeli; liberalism, conservatism and the bases
of their support; the extension of the franchise
• Economic developments: agriculture, trade and industry; economic ideologies; boom and 'the
workshop of the world'; the onset of Depression
• Society and social changes: class and regional division; prosperity and poverty
• Social movements and policies; self-help; trade unions; education and social reform
legislation
• The condition of Ireland and Anglo-Irish relations: land agitation and the political response;
Home Rule
Challenges to the status quo, c1886–1914

• Political developments: the reasons for Conservative dominance to 1905; the problems of the
Liberal Party; socialism, Fabianism and the emergence of the Labour Party
• Politics 1906–1914: the ideology of New Liberalism; political crises and constitutional
change; development of the Labour Party
• Economic developments: the Great Depression and its aftermath; problems of British
industry and agriculture; staples and new industries, foreign competition; invisible exports;
debates over protectionism, tariff reform and free trade
• Social change; trade unions and new unionism; syndicalism; the issue of female
emancipation; the growth of the urban population; the expansion of service industries;
standards of living
• Social policies: government legislation and local initiatives; taxation and welfare reform by
1914
• The condition of Ireland and Anglo-Irish relations: the Home Rule movement, opposition and
the Home Rule Bills
Part two: The World Wars and their legacies: Britain, 1914–1964 (A-
level only)
The Great War and its impact, 1914–1939 (A-level only)
• The impact of war on British parties and politics: coalition government; the decline of the
Liberals; position of Conservatives and influence of Labour
• Political developments in the interwar years: electoral reform; Conservative and Labour
governments; National governments; the abdication crisis and emergence of radical political
movements, including the BUF and Communism
• Economic developments: increased state role in wartime; problems of the staple industries
and mines; the General Strike; government finances and the Gold Standard; the Depression;
economic realignment
• Social developments: changes in the role of women during and after war; the condition of the
working classes; regional divisions; changing attitudes in the twenties and 'the hungry
thirties'; the growth of the media
• Social policies: legislation and reforms in housing; education and welfare
• The condition of Ireland and Anglo-Irish relations: the Easter Rising; the Anglo-Irish War;
Government of Ireland Act and Anglo-Irish Treaty; divided Ireland before the Second World
War
Transformation and change, 1939–1964 (A-level only)

• The impact of the Second World War on British politics: Churchill as wartime leader; ‘the
Labour landslide’ of 1945; Labour ideology and policies
• Political developments: Conservative dominance from 1951 and political consensus; division
within the Labour Party; Conservatism and the Establishment; Labour victory in 1964
• Economic developments: mobilisation of resources in wartime; post-war boom; balance of
payments issues and 'stop-go' policies; changes to British industry and trade; new
technology
• Social changes and divisions: austerity and the impact of war; post-war boom and growth of
affluence; consumerism and changes in position of women and youth; immigration and racial
tensions
• Developments in social policy: the Beveridge Report; the Butler Act; the growth of the
Welfare State, including the NHS; the growth of education
• The condition of Ireland and Anglo-Irish relations: continuing north/south friction including
riots of September 1964; beginnings of civil rights campaign
1H Tsarist and Communist Russia, 1855–1964
• How was Russia governed and how did political authority change and develop?
• Why did opposition develop and how effective was it?
• What was the extent of social and cultural change?
• How important was the role of individuals and groups and how were they affected by
developments?
Part one: Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

Trying to preserve autocracy, 1855–1894
• Political authority and the state of Russia: autocracy; the political, social and economic
condition of Russia in 1855 and the impact of the Crimean War
• Political authority and attempts at reform: Alexander II; emancipation of the serfs and
attempts at domestic and military reform
• Government and Tsars: Alexander II and Alexander III as rulers; attitudes to and imposition of
autocracy; key developments
• Political authority in action: Russification; treatment of ethnic minorities and Jews
• Opposition: ideas and ideologies; individuals; liberals and radical groups and the Tsarist
reaction
• Economic and social developments: industrial developments and the land issue; social
divisions; nobles, landowners and position of the peasantry; the cultural influence of the
Church
The collapse of autocracy, 1894–1917

• Political authority, government and Tsar; Nicholas II as ruler: political developments to 1914;
1905 Revolution; Duma government
• Economic developments to 1914: industrial and agricultural growth and change
• Social developments to 1914: change and conditions of working and living in towns and
countryside; social divisions; cultural changes
• Opposition: ideas and ideologies, liberalism, socialism; Marxism; individuals and radical
groups
• Political authority, opposition and the state of Russia in wartime: the political, economic and
social problems of wartime; opposition and the collapse of autocracy; the political
developments of 1917
• Political authority, opposition and government: the Bolshevik takeover and the establishment
of Bolshevik government by December 1917; opposition
Part two: the Soviet Union, 1917–1964 (A-level only)

The emergence of Communist dictatorship, 1917–1941 (A-level only)
• Political authority and government: new leaders and ideologies; Lenin's Russia, ideology and
change; Stalin's rise, ideology and change
• Political authority and government: the consolidation of Bolshevik authority and development
of the Stalinist dictatorship
• Economic developments: Lenin's decrees; the Stalinist economy; collectivisation and the
Five Year Plans
• Social developments: effect of Leninist/Stalinist rule on class, women, young people, religion
and national minorities; propaganda and cultural change
• Opposition: faction; the Red Terror and the purges
• The political, economic and social condition of the Soviet Union by 1941
The Stalinist dictatorship and reaction, 1941–1964 (A-level only)

• Political authority, opposition and the state of Russia in wartime: the political, economic and
social impact of war; effect on Stalin, government and 'the people'
• Political authority and government to 1953: High Stalinism; the revival of terror; destruction of
'supposed' opposition and cult of personality; the power vacuum on Stalin's death
• Political authority and government: Khrushchev’s rise to power; policies and ideology; de-
Stalinisation; political and party change
• Economic and social developments: changes in industrial organisation from Stalin to
Khrushchev; agriculture and the Virgin Lands scheme; social and cultural change from Stalin
to Khrushchev
• Opposition: cultural dissidents; communist divisions; hardliners and reformers; opponents of
Khrushchev and his fall from power
• The political, economic and social condition of the Soviet Union by 1964

• Why did the British Empire grow and contract?
• What influenced imperial policy?
• What part did economic factors play in the development of the British Empire?
• How did the Empire influence British attitudes and culture?
• How did the indigenous peoples respond to British rule?
developments?
Part one: the High Water Mark of the British Empire, c1857–1914
The development of Imperialism, c1857–c1890
• The expansion of the British Empire in Africa; the Suez Canal and Egypt
• Imperial and colonial policy; India’s administration and defence; international relations,
colonial policy and the scramble for Africa; informal empire
• Trade and commerce; the chartered companies
• The role and influence on attitudes to empire of explorers, missionaries, traders, colonial
administrators
• Attitudes towards imperialism in Britain; the development of party political conflicts
• Relations with indigenous peoples; the Indian Mutiny and its impact; relations with Boers and
Bantu peoples in southern Africa
Imperial consolidation and Liberal rule, c1890–1914

• The consolidation and expansion of the British Empire in Africa
• Imperial and colonial policy; the administration of India and Egypt; ‘native policy’;
international relations and colonial policy
• Trade and commerce
• The role and influence on attitudes to empire of: Joseph Chamberlain; Cecil Rhodes; colonial
administration
• Imperialism: supporters and critics; National Efficiency; the British Empire and popular
culture; representations of empire
• Relations with indigenous peoples; challenges to British rule; the Sudan; the causes and
consequences of the Boer War
Part two: Imperial retreat, 1914–1967 (A-level only)

Imperialism challenged, 1914–1947 (A-level only)
• Expansion and contraction of empire: the impact of the First and Second World Wars; the
Mandates; withdrawal from India and the Middle East
• Colonial policy and administration in India, Africa and the Middle East; relations with the
Dominions; the Statute of Westminster; imperial defence
• The development of trade and commerce; the economic impact of war
• The role and influence on attitudes to empire of: Gandhi, colonial administration
• Imperialist ideals; popular culture; representations of empire
• Relations with indigenous peoples; protest and conflict; colonial identity; the development of
nationalist movements
The winds of change, 1947–1967 (A-level only)

• Decolonisation in Africa and Asia
• British colonial policy and administration; the Suez Crisis and its impact; international
relations; the Commonwealth
• Trade and commerce; post-war reconstruction
• The role and influence on attitudes to empire of: nationalist leaders, colonial administration
• Post-colonial political, economic and cultural ties; migration; the residual impact of empire;
popular culture
• Relations with indigenous peoples; challenges to colonial rule in Africa and Asia; Mau Mau;
the growth of nationalist movements and reactions to them; Rhodesia
1K The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

• How did government, political authority and political parties change and develop?
• In what ways did the economy and society of the USA change and develop?
• How did the role of the USA in world affairs change?
• How united was the USA during this period?
developments?
Part one: from Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

The Era of Reconstruction and the Gilded Age, 1865–1890
• The weaknesses of Federal Government: Johnson, Grant and the failure of Radical
Reconstruction
• The politics of the Gilded Age and the era of weak presidents; political corruption
• Social, regional and ethnic divisions: divisions within and between North, South and West;
the position of African-Americans
• Economic growth and the rise of corporations: railways; oil; developments in agriculture;
urbanisation
• Laissez-faire dominance and consequences; the impact of the ending of the frontier
• The limits of foreign engagement and continuation of isolationism: the continuation of the
Monroe Doctrine; territorial consolidation (Alaska) and tensions over Canada
Populism, progressivism and imperialism, 1890–1920

• Political tensions and divisions: the reaction against Big Business at national and state level
• The ideas and influence of Bryan, Roosevelt and Taft; Populism, Progressivism and Wilson’s
New Freedom
• Economic change and developments: the rise of US dominance as an economic and
industrial power and the consequences of this
• Social developments: mass immigration and urbanisation and their consequences; the
position of African-Americans
• Foreign affairs: imperialism; engagement in international affairs; Spain and the Philippines;
the Panama Canal; the First World War, neutrality and entry
• The USA by 1920: economic power; social and ethnic divisions; political reaction and
renewed isolationism
Part two: crises and the rise to World Power, 1920–1975 (A-level
only)
Crisis of identity, 1920–1945 (A-level only)
• Domestic politics: Harding, Coolidge and Republican conservatism; Hoover and the
Depression
• FD Roosevelt and the New Deals: conflict of ideas over the role of the Federal Government
• The economy: boom to bust and recovery; structural weaknesses and the impact of the New
Deals and the Second World War on economic recovery
• Social and cultural developments: ‘the Jazz Age’ in the 1920s; new social values and the role
of women; the failure of prohibition and its significance; social impact of the Depression and
the Second World War
• Social, regional and ethnic divisions: countryside versus city; divisions between North, West
and South; African-Americans and the rise of the Ku Klux Klan
• The USA and international relations: the extent of isolationism; FDR and the end of
isolationism and the Second World War
The Superpower, 1945–1975 (A-level only)

• Domestic politics: Truman, Eisenhower and post-war reconstruction
• Kennedy, Johnson and Nixon; New Frontier; the Great Society; Nixon and Republican revival
• Economic change and developments: the rise of the consumer society and economic boom
• Ideological, social, regional and ethnic divisions: McCarthyism; civil rights; youth culture;
protest and the mass media
• The USA and international relations: the Cold War and relations with the USSR and China;
the Vietnam War
• The USA by 1975: its place as a Superpower; the limits of social cohesion; new cultural
developments, including the role of women and the position of African-Americans
1L The quest for political stability: Germany, 1871–1991

• How was Germany governed and how did political authority change and develop?
• How effective was opposition?
• What was the extent of social and cultural change?
developments?
Part one: Empire to democracy, 1871–1929

The Kaiserreich, 1871–1914
• Political authority: the extent and make-up of the German Empire in 1871; the 1871
constitution; the role of Emperor and Chancellor; political groupings and parties and their
ideologies
• Government and opposition: Kaiser Wilhelm I and government under Bismarck; their
personalities and policies; the role of the Reichstag; the struggle between autocracy and
democracy; the development of parties and political opposition
• Government and opposition: Kaiser Wilhelm II and his chancellors; personalities and policies;
the place of the Reichstag; the struggle between autocracy and democracy; the development
of parties and political opposition
• Economic developments: industrial expansion; old and new industries; trade and wealth
• Social developments: the class hierarchy; elitism and the culture of militarism; the condition
of the working people
• The political, economic and social condition of Germany by 1914
Empire to democracy, 1914–1929

• Political authority: the political impact of the First World War on Germany; political change
and breakdown by 1918; the 1918 revolution; the establishment of democratic government in
the Weimar constitution
• Government and opposition to 1924: post-war political problems; attempted coups and the
opposition of left and right; the occupation of the Ruhr; the working of Weimar government;
its strengths and weaknesses
• Government and opposition 1924–1929: the impact of the Ruhr invasion and the leadership
of Stresemann; degree of governmental change; degree of opposition
• Economic developments: the impact of war; post-war economic problems and policies;
reparations; hyperinflation; Dawes and Young Plans and foreign loans; industrial growth;
agriculture
• Social developments: the effect of war on German society; social and cultural changes in
Weimar Germany
Part two: the impact of Nazism, war and division, 1929–1991 (A-level
only)
The Nazi experiment, 1929–1949 (A-level only)
• Political authority 1929–1945: the collapse of Weimar democracy and the establishment of
the one-party authoritarian Nazi State; the roles of Hindenburg and Hitler
• Government and opposition to 1945: Nazism as an ideology and in practice; Hitler's style of
government; the Terror State; opposition and resistance; key Nazi leaders; the effect of war
• Political authority and government 1945–1949: post-war occupation and division; the issue of
Berlin and the blockade; the division of Germany
• Economic developments: the impact of the Depression; recovery and development under
Nazis in peace and war; the post-war economy
• Social developments and tensions; Nazi social policies including volksgemeinschaft and the
racial state; Nazi culture; postwar German society and the legacy of Nazism
Division to unity: the Federal Republic of Germany, 1949–1991 (A-level only)

• Political authority: Adenauer as Chancellor and establishment of democracy in Western
Germany; the constitution, checks and balances; the state of German democracy
• Government and opposition: governments; parties and policies; chancellors after Adenauer
and coalition governments under the three party system; the search for consensus
• Extra-parliamentary opposition and pressure: student protest; urban terrorism and the
Baader-Meinhof gang; environmentalism
• Economic developments: the growth of the West German economy; the economic miracle
and its aftermath; participation in the EEC/EU; impact of the oil crisis
• Social developments: the effect of the Nazi legacy; standards of living; changes to the
position of women, youth, unemployment; social tensions; modern culture
• The political, economic and social condition of reunified Germany by 1991: Kohl and the
drive to reunification; strengths and problems of reunification
This option provides for the study in depth of a period of turbulence in British history, during which
the authority of the monarch was questioned and the relationship between Church, State and the
baronage was readjusted. It develops concepts such as authority, dynastic ambition and rebellion
and encourages students to reflect on issues such as territorial integrity and what makes a ‘state’.
Part one: The Reign of Henry II, 1154–1189

The Restoration of Royal Authority, 1154–1166
• The political, economic and social condition of England in 1154; the character and aims of
Henry II; the strengths and weaknesses of Henry II’s position at his accession
• The restoration of royal authority under Henry II: the barons; royal finance; justice and the
law
• The place of religion in society: the political role of the Church; ecclesiastical courts; the
importance of the Church in finance and the economy
• Henry II and England’s overseas territories; the lordship of Ireland; Normandy, Gascony and
Aquitaine; relations with France
The crisis of Royal Authority, 1166–1174

• The conflict between Church and State: Thomas Becket and the crisis of 1170; the clash
between Henry II and the Papacy
• Henry II and Ireland: the invasions of 1169 and 1171; relations with the Irish nobility
• The origins of the Great Rebellion: dynastic instability and Henry II’s relations with the three
rebellious sons, Eleanor of Aquitaine and their supporters; the role of Louis VII of France
• The course of the Great Rebellion: political instability; the barons; William I of Scotland; the
re-establishment of Henry II’s rule
The struggle for Royal Authority, 1174–1189

• Attempts to consolidate royal authority after the Great Rebellion: court and family tensions;
the barons; the royal finances; justice and the law
• Relations between Church and State: Henry II and his bishops; reconciliation with the
Papacy
• Social and economic developments: towns and trade, the social condition of England by
1189
• England’s overseas territories: developments in Ireland after the 1175 Treaty of Windsor; the
dynastic ambitions of Henry’s sons; relations with Philip II of France; Henry’s final military
campaign; the death of the King
Part two: England under Henry II’s Successors, 1189–1216 (A-level

only)
Richard I, 1189–1199 (A-level only)
• The character and aims of King Richard: attitudes towards religion and the Church; his
involvement in the Third Crusade
• England without Richard: the absentee king; royal authority under the rule of William
Longchamp, Hugh de Puiset and Walter de Coutances; the ambitions of Prince John and the
later government under Hubert Walter
• Relations with France and the conflict between Richard and Philip II; rivalries following the
Third Crusade; war from 1194; the truce of 1199
• Social and economic developments: towns and trade; persecution of Jews; the social
condition of England by 1199
King John, 1199–1214 (A-level only)

• Royal government under King John: the character and aims of the King; his relations with the
barons; the royal finances; justice and the law
• Relations with the Church: Hubert Walter as Archbishop of Canterbury; the dispute with the
Papacy; the interdict of 1208
• The loss of Normandy and war with France: the defeats of 1202–1204 and the long
campaigns to regain Normandy
• Scotland, Ireland and Wales: relations with William of Scotland and the invasion of 1209;
John’s rule in Ireland and the invasion of 1210; attempts to pacify Wales
The end of John's reign, 1214–1216 (A-level only)

• Defeat in the war with France: failure of John’s final campaign to regain Normandy; the Battle
of Bouvines; the unfavourable peace with Philip II
• Relations between King John and the barons: Robert Fitzwalter and the ‘Army of God’;
negotiations leading to Magna Carta
• The First Barons War: baronial unrest and the outbreak of the war; John’s military
campaigns; the death of the King
• King John’s legacy: the problem of the succession and role of William Marshal as Protector;
the political, economic and social condition of England by 1216

This option provides for the study in depth of a period in which the English monarchy suffered
instability and the country was subjected to a range of political, economic and social pressures. It
develops concepts such as authority, hierarchy, faction and legitimacy. It also encourages students
to reflect on the sources of power within a state, causes of political breakdown and the impact of
dynastic instability on the ‘common people’.
Part one: the Fall of the House of Lancaster, 1450–1471
The origins of conflict, 1450–1459
• English society and politics in 1450: the weakness of Henry VI’s rule; baronial factions;
Cade’s rebellion; the loss of Normandy
• The impact on English politics of the emerging power and influence of Richard of York
• The outbreak of war: the first Battle of St Albans and the balance of military power in 1455
• The uneasy peace: the influence of Margaret of Anjou; factional rivalries and their impact on
English society
The War of the Barons, 1459–1461

• The renewal of war: York’s flight into exile; the emergence of Warwick ‘the Kingmaker’; the
capture of Henry VI at Northampton
• Filling the political vacuum: the rule of Richard of York as Protector of England
• Shifting loyalties and the Lancastrian revival: Wakefield; the second Battle of St Albans; the
death of York and the restoration of Henry VI
• Proclamation of Edward IV as King; Yorkist victory at Towton; the strengths and weaknesses
of the Yorkists by 1461
The triumph of the Yorkists, 1461–1471

• The personal rule of Edward IV and the political impact of his marriage to Elizabeth Woodville
• Factional rivalries: Warwick ‘the Kingmaker’; attempts to restore Henry VI; Margaret of Anjou;
Edward, Prince of Wales
• The crushing of the Lancastrian cause: Barnet and Tewkesbury; the destruction of the
Lancastrian nobility
• The impact of the baronial wars on English society by 1471: the weakening of the
aristocracy; the impact on trade and the economy
Part two: the fall of the House of York, 1471–1499 (A-level only)
'The Sun in Splendour': the reign of Edward IV, 1471–1483 (A-level only)
• The consolidation of royal authority under Edward IV and the development of new methods
of government
• Factional rivalries and court politics: hostile reactions against the influence of the Woodvilles
• Change and continuity in English society during a decade of peace: trade and the economy,
social mobility, the regions
• The premature death of Edward IV and the crisis of the Yorkist succession
The downfall of the Yorkist Monarchy, 1483–1486 (A-level only)

• The coup d’état by Richard of Gloucester: the issue of the Princes in the Tower and Richard
III’s position as a usurper
• Factional rivalries; the emergence of Henry Tudor, dissensions among the Yorkist nobility,
Buckingham’s rebellion
• The strengths and weaknesses of Richard III’s position in 1484: the death of his wife and
heir; the problem of the succession
• The downfall of Richard III: Bosworth, the proclamation of a new Tudor dynasty under Henry
VII and his marriage to Elizabeth of York
The end of the Yorkist Dynasty, 1486–1499 (A-level only)

• Yorkist opposition to Henry VII: the Lovell revolt; defeat of the Pretender Lambert Simnel at
Stoke; the Yorkshire Uprising
• Attempts to maintain the Yorkist cause: Margaret of Burgundy, the Earl of Warwick and the
Pretender Perkin Warbeck
• The end of the Yorkist challenge: defeat of Warbeck and his Scottish and Cornish allies; the
execution of Warbeck and Warwick
• The impact of the Wars of the Roses on English society by 1499: trade and the economy;
central authority and the regions
2C The Reformation in Europe, c1500–1564

This option provides for the study in depth of a formative period of early modern history during
which the Catholic Church faced a range of challenges which led both to the emergence of a new
‘protestant’ order and ultimately to a spiritual regeneration within the Catholic Church itself. It
requires an exploration of concepts such as piety, humanism, Lutheranism, Calvinism, Zwinglism
and Catholicism as well as an in-depth understanding of more specific religious practices and
ideas in the context of the 16th century such as the mass, baptism, purgatory, heaven and hell. It
encourages students to reflect on issues such as the relationships between the spiritual and
political role of the Church and the place of religion in society.
Part one: the origins of the Reformation, c1500–1531

The condition of the Church, c1500–1517
• The Church: secular power and influence; the clerical hierarchy; Church courts; influence in
government; influence on daily life
• The Church: religious power and influence; Church doctrine, teachings and belief; the
sacraments, salvation, the role of the priest and of 'good works'
• Criticism of the Church; Pope Alexander VI; papal and clerical corruption; humanism: Colet,
More and Erasmus; heresies and anti-clericalism
• Church finances, indulgences, popular piety and the extent of demand for reform
The challenge of Luther, 1517–1521

• The Holy Roman Empire, its government, condition and social composition: emperor,
princes, knights, towns and electors; urban workers and peasants
• Martin Luther: influences on early life; the content and impact of the 95 Theses
• Disputations; the development of Lutheran thought; publications and the influence of printing
• Excommunication and Diet of Worms: attitude of Catholic Church hierarchy; Emperor and
Princes; the imperial edict and the protection of Frederick the Wise
The Protestant challenge, 1521–1531

• The spread of radical reformation: Carstadt and the Zwickau prophets; Luther's relations with
radicals and humanists
• The development of protestant doctrine: Luther, Melancthon and Zwingli
• The revolt of the Imperial Knights and the peasants' war: causes and outcomes; part played
by Lutheranism and Luther's reaction; Luther's pamphlets of 1525; imperial diets, princes and
cities; Lutheran-Catholic negotiations including the 1530 Augsburg Confession
• The Reformation in the Swiss Confederacy; the Kappel wars; support and opposition;
Lutheran-Zwinglian negotiations; the state of the Church by 1531
Part two: Reformation Europe, 1531–1564 (A-level only)

The expansion of the Reformation, 1531–1541 (A-level only)
• The geographical and social expansion of Lutheranism: Melancthon; Luther; doctrine and
leadership; position and problems of Charles V
• The development of the radical reformation; Anabaptism and the Münster rebellion
• Religious division in Germany and the formation of the Schmalkaldic league
• The Diet of Regensburg and state of the Church by 1541
The second wave of Protestant Reform, 1541–1564 (A-level only)

• Calvin: influences on early life and the evolution of doctrine; publications; early reform work
and ministry in Strasbourg
• The practice of Calvinism in Geneva: support and opposition; the impact of his relationship
with Servetus; Calvin and Luther: attitudes, similarities and differences; Calvin's authority and
concordat with Zurich and Geneva churches
• The spread of Calvinism: France, Scotland, Netherlands, Germany, Poland and eastern
Europe
• Religious War in Germany; the death of Luther; the Peace of Augsburg and the abdication of
Charles V; principles and problems of the Peace of Augsburg
The Catholic Reformation, 1531–1564 (A-level only)

• Papal revival: Paul III; report into the state of the Church; the Roman Inquisition; Paul IV and
Pius IV
• Spiritual regeneration: New Religious Orders; Loyola and the Jesuits; beliefs, discipline and
influence
• The Council of Trent: the three sessions; doctrine and the extent of reform
• The impact of reform by 1564; the response of monarchy, clergy and laity; geographical
variation; the spiritual and political role of the Church
2D Religious conflict and the Church in England, c1529–

c1570
This option provides for the study in depth of a period of major change in the English Church and
government, focusing on issues which led England to break with Rome and the problems
surrounding the establishment of a new Anglican Church and faith. It explores concepts such as
piety, humanism, Protestantism, Catholicism, authority and conformity and promotes an in-depth
understanding of the relationship between Church and state, monarch and parliament, faith and
pragmatism.
Part one: the break from Rome, c1529–1547

The Church in c1529
• The political and social role of the Church: churchmen as royal advisers; church teachings on
monarchical authority; wealth; church courts; monasteries and parish churches
• Popular piety and the Church’s spiritual role: lay religious guilds; key beliefs such as
purgatory; the role of the priesthood; the importance of printing
• Early Reformers and Humanists: the legacy of the Lollards and impact on religious belief and
practice; Humanism in England as represented by Erasmus, More and Colet
• Abuses and criticisms of the Church: the extent and impact of simony, nepotism and
absenteeism; anti-clericalism
The break from Rome, c1529–1536

• The King’s ‘Great Matter’; Henry VIII, his religious beliefs and concern over the succession;
the position and roles of Catherine of Aragon and her national and international supporters;
the roles of Wolsey, Anne Boleyn and her supporters
• The Reformation Parliament: MPs and expression of grievances; pressures on the Papacy;
legislation leading to the establishment of Royal Supremacy
• The influence of faction: Cromwell and the management of Parliament; the supporters and
opponents of change and the King’s responses; the Aragonese faction; More and Fisher;
Elizabeth Barton and the Carthusian monks
• The doctrinal and political position of the Reformation by 1536: the degree of change and
continuity in faith, belief and organisation of the Church
Change and reaction, 1536–1547

• The reformist and conservative factions: aims, influence and the reaction of the King; the
impact of foreign affairs on changes to the Church
• The Dissolution of the Monasteries: political, religious, social and economic causes and
consequences; the Pilgrimage of Grace
• Change and continuity in doctrine: liturgy, the eucharist and the Bible; doctrinal disputes as
reflected in the Ten Articles and the Bishops’ Book; the King’s Book and the Six Articles
• The state of the Church and belief by 1547: disagreements over doctrine and practice;
relations with France and Scotland and their impact; the growing influence of the Seymour
faction and Cranmer; the importance of the succession
Part two: the establishment of the Church of England, 1547–c1570

(A-level only)
A more Protestant Nation, 1547–1553 (A-level only)
• The Protestant Party and the King: the aims, beliefs and role of Somerset and the
overturning of Henry’s will; the aims, beliefs and role of Northumberland as Protector
• The development of doctrine and further reform; two Prayer Books; the role and beliefs of
Cranmer; the dissolution of the chantries and other vestiges of Catholicism
• Opposition and conformity: the Western Rebellion; Kett’s Rebellion; the influence of
reformers and acceptance of religious changes; the Church by 1553
• The crisis over the succession 1553: attempts to avoid the succession of Mary; the fall of
Northumberland and Mary’s accession
The restoration of Papal Authority, 1553–1558 (A-level only)
• Mary’s accession, aims and opposition: the Royal Supremacy and problems with her first
Parliament; the issue of the Spanish Marriage; obstacles to the restoration of the Catholic
Church
• The restoration of Papal Authority: the second Parliament and the restoration of Papal
Authority and Catholic doctrine; Mary as a reformer; the limits of the restoration
• Persecution and reform: reasons for, extent of and repercussions of the persecution of
Protestants; Mary, Pole and the attempt to reform Catholicism
• Opposition and conformity: Wyatt and other opposition to changes; support for the changes
and the extent of conformity; the war with France and the loss of Calais
The establishment of the Church of England, 1558–c1570 (A-level only)

• Religious divisions on Elizabeth’s accession: Catholics; Protestant émigrés; divisions within
those who supported the restoration of a Protestant Church; peace with France
• The re-establishment of the Church of England: Elizabeth’s religious beliefs and aims;
attempts to reconcile the conflicting groups; the role of Parliament and the passing of the
Acts of Supremacy; uniformity and the new Book of Common Prayer
• Supporters and opponents of the Settlement: consolidation of the Settlement through
Visitations; the Vestiarian Controversy; the acquiescence of Catholics
• Maintaining the Settlement: the threat posed by Mary Queen of Scots; the re-emergence of a
Catholic party and the Rising of the Northern Earls; the end of consensus and the condition
of the Settlement by 1570

This option provides for the study in depth of the challenges faced by those in authority in the years
before, during and after the English Civil War. It explores concepts such as Divine Right; arbitrary
government, Arminianism, and political and religious radicalism. It also encourages an in-depth
understanding of how government works, arbitrary government and consensus, authority and
opposition and issues of settlement.
Part one: the origins of the English Civil War, 1625–1642

The emergence of conflict and the end of consensus, 1625–1629
• The legacy of James I: religious issues and divisions; relations between Crown and
Parliament; relations with foreign powers
• Monarchy and Divine Right: the character and aims of Charles I; the Queen and the court;
the King's advisers; ideas of royal authority
• Challenges to the arbitrary government of Charles I: reactions against financial policies;
conflict over Church; reactions against foreign policy and the role of Buckingham
• Parliamentary radicalism; personalities and policies of parliamentary opposition to the King;
the Petition of Right; the dissolution of Parliament and the King’s commitment to Personal
Rule
An experiment in Absolutism, 1629–1640

• Charles I’s Personal Rule: his chief ministers; methods of government; financial policies and
the reaction against them
• Religious issues: Laud and Arminianism in England and Scotland; the growth of opposition
from Puritans
• Political issues: the role of Wentworth; policies in Ireland and England; the reactions against
the Crown; demands for the recall of Parliament
• Radicalism, dissent and the approach of war: the spread of religious radicalism; the Scottish
Covenant and the Bishops' War; the Pacification of Berwick; the second Bishops' war
The crisis of Parliament and the outbreak of the First Civil War, 1640–1642
• The Political Nation 1640: the recall of Parliament; the strengths and weaknesses of Charles
I; the strengths and divisions of parliamentary opposition
• Pym and the development of parliamentary radicalism: Pym’s personality and aims; the
Grand Remonstrance; the London mob; popular radicalism
• Conflicts between Crown and Parliament: failure of negotiations between the King and the
Long Parliament; the execution of Strafford and its political consequences
• The slide into war: the impact of events in Ireland; the failed arrest of the Five Members; local
grievances; attempts to impose royal authority and the development of a Royalist Party;
military preparations for war
Part two: Radicalism, Republic and Restoration, 1642–1660 (A-level

only)
War and radicalism, 1642–1646 (A-level only)
• The First Civil War: the strengths and weaknesses of the political and military leadership of
the Royalist cause
• The First Civil War: the strengths and weaknesses of the political and military leadership of
the Parliamentary forces; emergence of the New Model Army; the Solemn League and
Covenant; Self Denying Ordinance
• The intensification of radicalism: popular radicalism in London; religious radicalism in the
New Model Army; pamphlets and propaganda
• The end of the First Civil War: divisions amongst the Parliamentary leaders; attempts at
settlement; the capture of Charles I
The disintegration of the Political Nation, 1646–1649 (A-level only)

• Political and religious radicalism: the politicisation of the New Model Army; Lilburne and the
Levellers; Fifth Monarchists; Ranters and other populist groups
• Political and religious divisions: the attitude and actions of Charles I; divisions within the
opposition to the King; the failure of attempts to reach a political settlement
• The Second Civil War and the reasons for its outcome
• The problem of Charles I: divisions within the army and Parliament; the trial and execution of
the King
Experiments in government and society, 1648–1660 (A-level only)
• The Third Civil War: the attempted Royalist revival; the defeat and exile of Prince Charles
• Political radicalism: failure of the Levellers and Diggers and the ‘Godly Society’; Quakers,
Baptists and other radical sects; the Rump Parliament as an experiment in radical
republicanism; the Parliament of the Saints
• Oliver Cromwell and the Protectorate: Cromwell’s personality and approach to government
and his refusal of the Crown; the limits of religious toleration; the Major Generals; the
problem of the succession to Cromwell
• The monarchy restored: political vacuum after the death of Cromwell; negotiations for the
return of the monarchy under Charles II; the legacy of the English Revolution by 1660
2F The Sun King: Louis XIV, France and Europe, 1643–

1715
This option provides for the study in depth of a key figure, whose ambitions had a profound impact,
not only on France, but on the whole of Europe. It explores the concepts of French absolutism,
centralisation, aggrandisement and power. It also encourages an in-depth understanding of the
importance of monarchy and social status in the 17th century as well as the glories and perils of
personal and state confidence and ambition.
Part one: The Sun King, 1643–1685

The Regency, 1643–1661
• The French monarchy in 1643: the legacy of Richelieu and Louis XIII; the establishment of
the Regency
• The Minority of Louis XIV: the roles of Anne of Austria and Mazarin; the Parlement of Paris,
unrest and opposition; the Frondes
• France and Europe: the rise of French power at the expense of the Habsburgs; the treaties of
Westphalia and the Pyrenees
• The condition of France at the accession of Louis XIV in 1661: politics, economy and society
The establishment of Absolutism at home, 1661–1685

• Louis XIV and Divine Right: personality and aims; the restoration of order; the centralisation
of royal authority; the role of Versailles
• Louis XIV and patronage of art, culture and science: the Academie Francaise; the Academy
of Sciences; the role of Colbert
• Finance and the economy: the reforms of Colbert; taxation; trade and communications within
France; mercantilism; overseas trade and colonisation
• Louis XIV and the Church: disputes with the papacy; persecution of Jansenists; policies
towards Huguenots and the Revocation Edict of 1685
Louis XIV and Europe, 1661–1685

• The context of French foreign policy in 1661: Louis XIV’s aims, the extent of French military
resources; the Military Academy; the role of Louvois
• France and Spain: the decline of Spanish military power; the War of Devolution
• France and the Dutch Republic: relations between Louis XIV and Charles II of England; the
Franco-Dutch War; the Peace of Nijmegen
• France and the policy of Reunions: the drive to annex ‘lost’ territories to France such as
Luxembourg, Casale and Strasbourg; the Treaty of Ratisbon
Part two: Louis XIV in decline, 1685–1715 (A-level only)

Challenges at home, 1685–1715 (A-level only)
• The personal monarchy: the strengths and weaknesses of royal government; the influence of
Madame de Maintenon
• Finance and the economy: problems after Colbert; the costs of war
• Louis XIV and the Church: Gallicanism; relations with Huguenots; Jansenists and Quietists
• Pressures from below: social divisions; problems with the regions; discontent and popular
protests
Challenges in Europe, 1685–1697 (A-level only)

• The challenge of William of Orange: the Dutch-English alliance after the ‘Glorious Revolution’
of 1688
• The ‘Grand Alliance’: the League of Augsburg and the anti-French alliance between
Protestant states; the Empire and Spain
• The Nine Years War: outbreak, course and outcome; the war in Europe; the war in North
America, the Caribbean and Asia; the Peace of Ryswick 1697
• The new balance of power: the position of France in relation to the European powers by
1697; the impact of years of war on France’s economic and military resources; the prospects
of future wars
France defeated, 1697–1715 (A-level only)

• The issue of the Spanish Succession: the aims and policies of France; the international
response to French claims; the outbreak of war
• The War of the Spanish Succession: the war in Europe; the war in North America, the
Caribbean and Asia
• The Treaty of Utrecht and its impact on the balance of power in Europe
• The legacy of Louis XIV by 1715: the last years of the reign; the problem of the succession;
the annulment of the King’s will and the formation of the regency of Orleans
2G The Birth of the USA, 1760–1801

This option provides for the study in depth of the years in which thirteen American colonies chose
to sever their links with Great Britain and thus found the USA. This study explores the concepts of
imperialism, mercantilism and legitimate government and encourages students to reflect upon the
interplay of forces from below and above, the importance of ideology and the economy in political
development and the issues facing those who attempt to challenge an established authority.
Part one: the origins of the American Revolution, 1760–1776
Britain and the American Colonies, 1760–1763
• Britain and North America in 1760: British attitudes towards the colonies; the politics of
Empire; rivalries with France
• The Thirteen Colonies: social, economic and political characteristics; divisions and rivalries
within the colonies
• The price of victory: the impact on relations between Britain and the colonists of the
successful outcome of the French and Indian War and the Seven Years War
• The dream of westward expansion: the expectations of the colonists; exploiting the territories
acquired from French Canada
Enforcing the Colonial Relationship, 1763–1774

• British government legislation and policies towards the colonies; including the Proclamation
of 1763; the Stamp Act and the Townshend Acts
• The reaction of the colonists: the attitude of the colonial elites
• The reaction of the colonists: pressure and reform movements from below
• Escalating tensions: the Boston Tea Party; the ‘intolerable’ Five Acts; the organisation of
colonial opposition in Massachusetts
Ending the Colonial Relationship, 1774–1776

• The hardening of colonial opposition: the First Continental Congress; the creation of new
state constitutions
• The ideology of revolution: Paine’s Common Sense; the influence of ideas on colonial
leaders such as Samuel Adams and Thomas Jefferson; divisions between loyalists and
rebels
• The escalation of conflict: British actions to maintain control including the Quebec Act and the
assertion of military control under General Gage; colonial militias and the outbreak of
hostilities in 1775
• The Declaration of Independence: its political origins and its impact on the revolutionary
cause
Part two: establishing the Nation, 1776–1801 (A-level only)

The War of Independence, 1776–1783 (A-level only)
• The balance of military power in 1776: the strengths and weaknesses of Britain’s military
position, the strengths and limitations of the revolutionary forces, geographical factors
• The international context: the part played by France, diplomacy and sea power; the part
played by Spain
• The conduct of the war: American political leadership, the revolutionary armies and George
Washington as military leader; the political and military failures of Britain’s war effort
• Recognition of the new nation: the conduct of the peace negotiations, the terms of the peace
settlement 1783
Founding the Republic, 1776–1789 (A-level only)

• The Articles of Confederation: drafting from 1776; ratification by the thirteen states
• Obstacles blocking the path to a republic: economic problems, social tensions and inter-state
disputes, the issue of slavery
• Making the Constitution: the Philadelphia Convention and the constitutional debates between
federalists and anti-federalists, the personalities and policies of the ‘Founding Fathers’
• Ratification of the new Republic: the forwarding of the constitution to the states by the
Continental Congress, ratification of the constitution by state conventions
Washington and Adams, 1789–1801 (A-level only)

• The powers of the presidency: Washington and Adams as presidents, the implementation of
the constitution
• Financing the new nation: Alexander Hamilton as Secretary of Finance, the balance between
federal and state authority
• The rise and influence of political parties: the Jefferson Republican (Democratic Republican
Party) under Jefferson and James Madison, the Federalist Party under Alexander Hamilton
and John Adams
• The United States in 1801: the extent of national unity, relations with the world outside.
2H France in Revolution, 1774–1815

This option provides for the study in-depth of a key period of history which was to change the
relationship between the ruler and the governed, not only in France but throughout Europe and, in
time, the wider world. A study of France in revolution embraces concepts such as absolutism,
enlightenment, constitutionalism, democracy, republic and dictatorship. It also encourages
consideration of issues such as the relationship between rulers and the ruled, the place of the
Church in the State, the power of the people and promotes reflection on what makes and
perpetuates revolution.
Part one: the end of Absolutism and the French Revolution, 1774–
1795
The origins of the French Revolution, 1774–1789
• Absolutism and the structure of the Ancien Régime: Louis XVI as King; government; social
divisions; privileges and burdens; strengths and weaknesses
• The ideas of the Enlightened philosophes: extent of influence in France; the salons; impact of
the American revolution and War of Independence
• Economic problems and royal finance: attempts to improve royal finances under Turgot,
Necker and Calonne
• The Assembly of Notables and political developments, February 1787 to May 1789; the state
of France, politically, economically and socially by the meeting of the Estates-General
The experiment in constitutional monarchy, 1789–1792

• The revolution May-October 1789: developments in Versailles and Paris; developments in
the country, including the Great Fear; the October Days
• The attempts to establish a constitutional monarchy: church reforms; political, judicial and
administrative reforms; economic and social change
• Reaction to change internally and externally: the political clubs; the King and the flight to
Varennes; the demonstration at the Champs de Mars; the origins and impact of war
• Sans-culottes and the collapse of the constitutional experiment; the September massacres
and elections to the national Convention
The emergence and spread of the Terror, September 1792–1795
• The establishment of a Republic: problems and policies; debate leading to the execution of
the King
• Internal and external war: the spread of war; the rising in the Vendée; attempts to establish
wartime control; Robespierre; the fall of the Girondins and the Federalist revolt
• The progress of the war: the levée en masse and the coming of the Terror
• The spread of the Terror: executions; the influence of Robespierre and the sans culottes; the
role of the CPS; Robespierre's fall and the collapse of the Terror
Part two: the rise of Napoleon and his impact on France and Europe,
1795–1815 (A-level only)
The Directory and Napoleon's rise to power, 1795–1799 (A-level only)
• The aftermath of the Terror: the Thermidorian reaction and White Terror; the 1795 Parisian
risings
• The establishment of the Directory: the constitution; financial and political problems and
policies; strengths and weaknesses of the Directory
• Military campaigns and expansion abroad: Napoleon's contribution to French success;
background, character and military leadership; the Italian campaign and Egypt
• The coup of Brumaire and the establishment of the Consulate: the strengths and
weaknesses of the new constitution; Napoleon's position and the state of France by 1799
The impact of Napoleon's rule on France, 1799–1815 (A-level only)

• Political change: Napoleon's consolidation of power and establishment of Emperor status;
constitutional developments
• Social change: class distinctions and titles; education and attitude to women; censorship and
propaganda; the position of the Church; the Concordat and its aftermath
• Legal and administrative change: the Napoleonic codes; the prefects, police and control
• Financial and economic policies and problems: taxation; the central economy; the impact of
war and the Continental System; degree of economic change
The impact of Napoleon's rule on Europe, 1799–1815 (A-level only)

• The army and conquest during the consulate and Empire: reasons for military success by
1808 and the part played by Napoleon; the reasons for expansion and the building of an
empire, its value and problems
• The control of the Grand Empire: administration; economic and social policies
• Challenges to the Empire: the continental blockade; the Peninsular War; the Austrian
campaign; the Russian campaign; the war of the Fourth Coalition
• The collapse of the Empire: the first Peace of Paris; the 100 days; Napoleon's abdication and
second Peace of Paris; treatment of France by the Vienna settlement; the condition of
France in 1815; Napoleon's reputation and legacy
2J America: A Nation Divided, c1845–1877

This option provides for the study of a period of major change in American history, which saw the
disintegration of the country into Civil War, demanding a subsequent reconstruction. It explores
concepts such as political authority, abolitionism and social justice. It also encourages students to
consider what creates social tension and harmony, the idea of nationhood and the issues
surrounding political compromise.
Part one: the origins of the American Civil War, c1845–1861

North and South in c1845
• The American Republic: the federal government and its relationships with the states; the role
of the president; the US constitution and the Supreme Court
• The Northern states: social, economic and political characteristics
• The Southern states: social, economic and political characteristics
• The legacy of the past: the Missouri Compromise; the Nullification Crisis; southern fears of
modernisation; the moving frontier
Attempts to maintain the Union, c1845–1854

• Westward expansion and its impact on North and South: the ideas of Manifest Destiny;
controversy over the new territories acquired by victory over Mexico
• Attempts at political compromise: the Wilmot Proviso; the role of personalities such as
Zachary Taylor, Stephen Douglas and Henry Clay; the Compromise of 1850; Texas and
California; the Fugitive Slave Law
• The growth of abolitionist sentiment in the North: political leaders such as William Seward;
activists such as John Brown; popular literature and the press; the cultural and economic
influence of European immigrants arriving in the northern states
• Reactions against abolitionism in the South; political leaders such as Jefferson Davis;
popular literature and the press
The outbreak of Civil War, 1854–1861

• ‘Bleeding Kansas’: the de-stabilisation of the balance between North and South
• The emergence of the Republican Party: the political impact of the controversy over the
Kansas-Nebraska Act; the spread of Republican parties across northern states; the elections
of 1856; key personalities including Lincoln, Seward and Chase
• Hardening of positions: the Dred Scott decision; the Lincoln-Douglas debates; Harper’s
Ferry; local conflicts; the split in the Democratic Party
• The drive for secession of the South: the presidential election of 1860; southern political
leaders and proclamation of the Confederacy; outbreak of hostilities
Part two: Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861–1877 (A-level only)

The War, 1861–1865 (A-level only)
• The strengths and weaknesses of the Confederate cause: military resources; political and
military leadership; economic and geographical factors; relations with foreign powers
• The strengths and weaknesses of the Unionist cause: military resources; political and military
leadership; economic and geographical factors; relations with foreign powers
• The course of the Civil War: military campaigns; the reasons for the final defeat of the
Confederacy
• The United States at the end of the Civil War: the costs of war for the South; the costs of war
for the North; the prospects for reconciliation
Early Reconstruction, 1865–1867 (A-level only)
• Planning for the future after the war: the impact of the Emancipation Proclamation; Lincoln’s
aims; the approach to preparing for post-war reconstruction
• The Thirteenth Amendment: origins and impact
• The Fourteenth Amendment: Thaddeus Stevens; Radical republicans; the struggle to pass
the amendment; the Reconstruction Acts
• The presidency of Andrew Johnson: personality and aims; conflicts with Congress; break
with the Republicans; impeachment
Radical Reconstruction, 1867–1877 (A-level only)

• The presidency: the election of 1868 and Andrew Johnson’s Christmas amnesty; the aims
and policies of Ulysses Grant; personalities; policies; conflicts with Congress
• Radical Reconstruction in the South: the impact of the Reconstruction Acts; southern
Unionists; the role of the army; the campaign for the Fifteenth Amendment
• Resistance to Radical Reconstruction in the South: Southern Democrats and ‘Redeemers’;
the Ku Klux Klan; the issue of voter registration
• The end of Radical Reconstruction: the position of African-Americans in North and South by
1877
2K International Relations and Global Conflict, c1890–1941

This option provides for the study in depth of a period in which political ambitions and rivalries
between nations plunged the world into major wars. It develops concepts such as nationalism,
militarism and the balance of power and encourages students to reflect on the causes of war and
what makes international diplomacy succeed or fail.
Part one: Great Power rivalries and entry into war, c1890–1917
Great Powers: Britain, Germany, France, Russia and Austria-Hungary, c1890–1900
• The political structures of the Great Powers: liberal democracies in Britain and France and
autocracies in Germany, Russia and Austria-Hungary; the effect of political structures on
decision-making
• Economic strengths and armed forces: the erosion of Britain’s economic supremacy; the rise
of the German economy; economic reform in Russia; the relative strengths of the armed
forces of the Great Powers
• Empires and rivalries: the ‘Scramble for Africa’; Russo-Austro-Hungarian rivalry in the
Balkans; Russia and the Ottoman Empire
• The state of international relations by 1900: Anglo-French rivalry; Anglo-German relations;
the Franco-Russian alliance; Germany’s Dual Alliance with Austria-Hungary; potential for
conflict
The Great Powers and Crises, 1900–1911

• Forces of instability: Balkan nationalism and its significance for Austria-Hungary and Russia;
militarism and the position of the German army in the Second Reich; the arms and naval
races; military plans
• Evolving alliances: the Moroccan crises; Anglo-French Entente; the formation of the Triple
Entente
• The decline of the Ottoman Empire: the weakening of the Empire in Eastern Europe; the
causes and consequences of the Young Turk Movement
• Panslavism and the Bosnian Crisis: the causes, course and consequences of the Bosnian
Crisis
The coming of war, 1911–1917

• The First and Second Balkan Wars: causes; attempts by the Great Powers to impose peace
on the region; the impact of the Balkan Wars on the Great Powers and Serbia
• The outbreak of war in the Balkans and the July Crisis: Austria-Hungary’s and Germany’s
response to the assassination in Sarajevo; Russia's response to Austria-Hungary’s demands
on Serbia; the bombardment of Belgrade
• General war in Europe: mobilisation of German and Russian forces; the implementation of
the Schlieffen Plan and the invasion of Belgium; Britain’s declaration of war; the key decision
makers and their motives
• From European to World War: the escalation of the conflict; Italy’s motives for war; reasons
for the entry of the USA
Part two: The failure of international peace and the origins of the
Second World War, 1917–1941 (A-level only)
The end of the First World War and the peace settlement, 1917–1923 (A-level only)
• The collapse of the autocratic empires: Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman
Empire; nationalist ambitions and the impact on international relations and peace-making
• Peace-making, 1919–1923: the roles and aims of Clemenceau, Wilson and Lloyd George;
the Treaty of Versailles; the East and Southern European settlements and the settlement with
Turkey
• Challenges to the peace settlement: the consequences of the USA’s return to isolationism
and the League of Nations; the responses to the post-war settlement in France, Britain and
Germany
• The state of international relations by 1923: the position of the USA and Russia in world
affairs; continuing border disputes; the occupation of the Ruhr and its consequences
Attempts at maintaining the peace, 1923–1935 (A-level only)

• The ‘Spirit of Locarno’: consolidation of the post-war settlement; attempts at disarmament
and conciliation in international relations, including the Dawes Plan, the Geneva Protocol and
the Kellogg-Briand Pact
• The Depression and its impact on international relations: the failures of the Lausanne and
London Conferences on international debts and reparations
• Changing balance of power: the ambitions of Italy, Japan and Germany
• The collapse of collective security: the reasons for and consequences of the failure of
League of Nations in the Manchurian and Abyssinian Crises
The coming of war, 1935–1941 (A-level only)

• Germany’s challenges to the Treaty of Versailles: the aims and actions of Hitler
• The international response to German, Italian and Japanese aggression: the Rhineland
Crisis; the Anschluss; the Spanish Civil War; Italy and Albania; war in China; alliances
amongst the aggressors
• The outbreak of war in Europe: appeasement; the Czech Crisis; the crisis over Poland and
the Nazi-Soviet Pact; the outbreak of war; the reaction of Italy to the outbreak of war
• From Western European to World War: the reasons for the escalation to world war; the entry
of the Soviet Union; Japan, Pearl Harbor and the entry of the USA
2L Italy and Fascism, c1900–1945

This option provides for the study in depth of a period of Italian history during which democracy
gave way to Fascism. It requires an exploration of concepts such as liberalism, extremism,
Fascism and authority. It also encourages students to reflect on the reasons for political change,
the interaction of economic and governmental developments and the factors which promote and
sustain dictatorship.
Part one: the crisis of Liberal Italy and the Rise of Mussolini, c1900–
1926
The Crisis of Liberal Italy, c1900–1915
• The political, economic and social condition of Italy c1900: the legacy of unification; divisions
between North and South; the conflict between Church and State; class divisions
• The political system and Giolittianism: the role of the monarchy; the dominance of
government by the liberal oligarchy; anticlericalism; the role of Giolitti
• Challenges to the ruling elites: industrialisation and social change; the rise of socialism and
new political movements
• Italian foreign policies: the Triple Alliance; colonial ambitions in Abyssinia and Libya; Italy’s
decision to enter the war in 1915
The collapse of Liberal Italy and Mussolini’s Rise to Power, 1915–1922

• Italy’s war effort: aims and expectations; military campaigns; Caporetto; the impact of war
and defeat on the Home Front
• Italy and the ‘Mutilated Victory’: reactions within Italy to the post-war peace settlement and
treaties; the seizure of Fiume by d’Annunzio
• The post-war economic crisis and social unrest: unemployment and inflation; government
instability; the rise of the PSI; the Popolari and the Fascist Party
• Political breakdown and the rise of extremism: strikes; political violence and the collapse of
parliamentary government
Mussolini and the establishment of Fascist Italy, 1922–1926

• The appointment of Mussolini as prime minister: Mussolini’s tactics and the March on Rome;
the role of the King; compromises by the ruling elites
• The Fascist movement: the ideology of Fascist revolution; the different political factions within
the Fascist Party; Fascist propaganda; Mussolini as leader
• Mussolini’s consolidation of power: compromises with the elites; the use of terror and
violence; constitutional change and moves towards a one-party state; exploitation of the
popularity of Fascist economic and foreign policy successes
• The Fascist state by 1926: the extent of Mussolini’s political control; the extent of popular
support for Mussolini’s regime; the extent of opposition and dissent
Part two: Fascist Italy, 1926–1945 (A-level only)

Fascist society, 1926–1940 (A-level only)
• Propaganda and the cult of Il Duce: control of the media; education as propaganda; the role
of Fascist organisations
• The police state: the machinery of Fascist repression; methods to deal with opposition and
dissent; the race laws of 1938
• Fascist economic policies: the establishment and implementation of the Corporate State;
Fascist economic policies in response to the 1930s Depression; living standards; the impact
on the economy of Fascist military expansion
• Fascist society: relations between the Fascist regime and the Church; the impact of Fascist
organisations on women, youth, peasants and workers; the extent of ‘Fascistisation’ of
society by 1940
Fascist foreign policies, 1926–1940 (A-level only)

• Mussolini’s foreign policy ambitions: the restoration of prestige; the Mediterranean and ‘Mare
Nostrum’; empire in Africa
• Mussolini the statesman: relations with Britain and France; Italian influence in Austria; the
Stresa Front
• Mussolini and Empire: the invasion of Abyssinia and the conduct of the war; the impact of the
war on Mussolini’s popularity and prestige at home and abroad
• The slide towards war: the Spanish Civil War; changing relations with Hitler’s Germany; the
Pact of Steel; the invasion of Albania; the neutrality of Italy in 1939 and the extent of Italy’s
military preparedness by 1940
Fascist Italy and war, 1940–1945 (A-level only)

• The decision to enter the war: Mussolini’s war aims; Italy’s contribution to the conquest of
France; the implications for Italy of the continuation of the war
• Italy’s war effort: military campaigns; the impact of the war on the economy and the Italian
people; the relationship with Nazi Germany
• The fall of Mussolini in 1943: Allied invasion of Sicily and the crisis of the Fascist regime; the
overthrow of Mussolini by the Fascist Grand Council and the King; the ‘Forty Five Days’ and
the continuation of war and civil war in Italy
• The final collapse of Fascism: the restoration of Mussolini; the Fascist policies of the Salo
Republic; the intensification of civil war and the role of the partisans; the end of German
occupation; the death and legacy of Mussolini

This option provides for the study of a transformative period of British history, during which
democratically elected government faced a series of challenges, both internally and externally, and
British society underwent fundamental change. It develops concepts such as reform and
retrenchment, patriotism and pacifism, social status and cultural values. It also encourages
students to reflect on the process of economic and social change and the impact of that change for
both governments and the people.
Part one: Society in Crisis, 1906–1929
The Liberal crisis, 1906–1914
• The Liberal governments: the 1906 election; New Liberalism; the influence of Campbell-
Bannerman, Asquith, Lloyd George and Churchill; the position of Labour and the
Conservatives
• The state of the economy: staples; 'new' industries; agriculture; trade and invisible earnings;
economic concerns and external competition
• Social issues: class division; poverty; changes in taxation; the 'People's Budget'; Liberal
social and welfare reforms; reasons for legislation and its effect
• Challenges and crises: the constitutional crisis; the issue of female emancipation; Irish Home
Rule; industrial unrest
The impact of war, 1914–1922

• Politics in wartime: the 1915 coalition; Lloyd George and Bonar Law; Liberal division; the
influence of the Labour Party and the 1918 constitution; the 1918 election and the Lloyd
George coalition; policies, problems and Lloyd George's fall
• Economic issues: Britain's wartime economy; housing and austerity; trade unions; post-war
industrial problems; the position of the staple industries and trade
• Social and cultural impact of war: role of women; reform of the franchise; unions and Labour;
cultural change; issues of patriotism; conscientious objection; effect of trenches on soldiers;
the war poets
• Ireland: the Easter Rising; the war of independence and the Anglo-Irish Treaty
The search for stability, 1922–1929

• Political developments: the decline of the Liberals; the 1923 election; the first Labour
government: aims, reforms, international relations and collapse; the Conservative resurgence
and government; the roles of Baldwin, Churchill and Chamberlain
• Economic issues: post-war re-adjustment and return to Gold Standard; the problems of the
coal mines; industrial disputes and the General Strike
• Social and cultural change: unemployment and regional division; the post-war role of women;
the growth of the media including newspapers and cinema; the cultural reaction to war
• The 1929 election: the franchise extension and 'flapper vote'; the new Labour government;
MacDonald and Snowden and their aims; the state of Britain by 1929
Part two: the emergence of the Affluent Society, 1929–1957 (A-level

only)
The 'Hungry Thirties', 1929–1939 (A-level only)
• Political developments: the Labour government; domestic policies and response to economic
problems; the reasons for and policies of the National Government; the leadership of
MacDonald, Baldwin and Chamberlain
• Economic issues: the Depression and financial crisis; changes to economic policy, including
moving from the Gold Standard; tariff reform and imperial preference; effect on industry,
agriculture and trade
• Social and cultural impact of the Depression: changes in working opportunities and living
standards; National Government policies; social and regional division; literary responses;
radio and cinema; social and cultural responses to international crises
• Challenges to stability: the abdication crisis; radical political groups: the BUF; Communism
The People's War and Peace, 1939–1951 (A-level only)

• Political developments: the fall of Chamberlain; Churchill as wartime leader, character and
style; coalition government; the reasons for Labour victory in 1945; Attlee as Prime Minister;
Labour ideology and aims
• Economic issues: mobilisation of resources in wartime; the post-war economic readjustment;
Labour's post-war balance of payments problems and policies, including nationalisation
• The social and cultural impact of 'total' war: conscription; women and children; civil liberties
and restrictions; propaganda; the Blitz; plans for reconstruction including Beveridge and the
Butler Act; policies of post-war Labour government, including the creation of the NHS and
medical advances
• Britain by 1951: the Festival of Britain; continuing austerity; Labour divisions; Conservative
reorganisation and the elections of 1950 and 1951
'Never had it so good'? 1951–1957 (A-level only)

• Conservative governments and reasons for political dominance: Churchill, Eden and
Macmillan as political leaders; domestic policies; internal Labour divisions; consensus politics
• Economic developments: post-war boom; balance of payments issues and 'stop-go' policies
• Social and cultural developments: rising living standards; the impact of affluence and
consumerism; changing social attitudes and behaviour; class and 'the Establishment', the
position of women
• Britain by 1957: issues relating to New Commonwealth migrants and race-relations; nuclear
concerns and the formation of CND
2N Revolution and dictatorship: Russia, 1917–1953

This option provides for the study in depth of the coming and practice of communism in Russia. It
explores concepts such as Marxism, communism, Leninism, and Stalinism, ideological control and
dictatorship. It also enables students to consider issues of political authority, the power of
individuals and the inter-relationship of governmental and economic and social change.
Part one: The Russian Revolution and the Rise of Stalin, 1917–1929
Dissent and Revolution, 1917
• The condition of Russia before the revolution of February/March 1917: the Tsar and political
authority; the war effort; the economic and social state of Russia; discontent
• The February/March revolution of 1917: causes and course of revolution; issues of
leadership and the Tsar's abdication; the establishment of Provisional Government and the
Petrograd Soviet; the workings of the Dual authority
• Developments between the revolutions including: the return of Lenin; Lenin's ideology and
the April Theses; the July Days; the Kornilov coup and the roles of both the Provisional
Government and Trotsky; Lenin and the Central Committee of the Bolshevik Party
• The October/November 1917 revolution: causes, course and extent of revolution; leadership
and the establishment of Bolshevik authority; Sovnarkom and decrees and actions to
December
Bolshevik consolidation, 1918–1924
• The consolidation of the Communist dictatorship: the establishment of one-party control; the
removal of the Constituent Assembly; the ending of involvement in the First World War
• The Civil War: causes and course; the role of Trotsky; the murder of the Tsar; the reasons for
the Red victory; government and control in wartime
• Economic and social developments: state capitalism; social change; conditions in cities and
countryside during the Civil War; war communism; the Red Terror: revolts of 1920–1921
including the Tambov revolt and Kronstadt rising; the NEP and its political and economic
impact
• Foreign relations and attitudes of foreign powers: foreign intervention in the Civil War;
Comintern; the Russo-Polish War; discussions leading to the Rapallo Treaty; official
recognition and the repercussions of the 'Zinoviev letter'; Lenin's rule by 1924
Stalin’s rise to power, 1924–1929

• The power vacuum and power struggle: ideology and the nature of leadership; Lenin's
testament; divisions and contenders for power: character, strengths and weaknesses of
Stalin, Trotsky, Bukharin, Kamenev, Rykov, Tomsky and Zinoviev
• Ideological debates and issues in the leadership struggle: NEP and industrialisation;
'permanent revolution' versus 'Socialism in One Country'; how and why Stalin became party
leader and the outcome for the other contenders
• Economic developments: reasons for and impact of the 'Great Turn'; the economic shift; the
launch of the first Five Year Plan and the decision to collectivise
• Government, propaganda and the beginning of the Stalinist cult; Stalin's attitude to foreign
powers: China; Germany and the Treaty of Berlin; changes in the Comintern
Part two: Stalin’s Rule, 1929–1953 (A-level only)

Economy and society, 1929–1941 (A-level only)
• Agricultural and social developments in the countryside: voluntary and forced collectivisation;
state farms; mechanisation; the impact of collectivisation on the kulaks and other peasants;
the famine of 1932–1934; the success of collectivisation
• Industrial and social developments in towns and cities: Gosplan; the organisation, aims and
results of the first three Five Year Plans; new industrial centres and projects; the involvement
of foreign companies; the working and living conditions of managers, workers and women;
Stakhanovites; the success of the Five Year Plans
• The development of the Stalin cult: literature, the arts and other propaganda; Socialist
Realism
• The social and economic condition of the Soviet Union by 1941: strengths and weaknesses
Stalinism, politics and control, 1929–1941 (A-level only)

• Dictatorship and Stalinism: the machinery of state terror; the NKVD; the early purges; Kirov's
murder; the show trials; the Stalin constitution
• The Yezhovshchina: mass terror and repression at central and local levels; treatment of
national minorities; the gulags; the end of the purges; the death of Trotsky; responsibility for
and impact of the Terror and purges
• Culture and society: church; women, young people and working men; urban and rural
differences; 'socialist man' and the impact of cultural change; similarities and differences
between Lenin's and Stalin's USSR
• Stalin and international relations: co-operation with Germany; entry into the League of
Nations; pacts with France and Czechoslovakia; intervention in the Spanish Civil War;
reaction to Western appeasement and Japanese aggression; the Nazi-Soviet Pact and its
outcome
The Great Patriotic War and Stalin’s Dictatorship, 1941–1953 (A-level only)
• The impact of the war on the Soviet Union: Operation Barbarossa and the Stalinist reaction;
the course of the war; the USSR under occupation and the fight-back; the Soviet economy;
mobilisation and evacuation of industry; foreign aid
• The defeat of the Germans: reasons and results; post-war reconstruction; industry and
agriculture
• High Stalinism: dictatorship and totalitarianism; renewed Terror; the NKVD under Beria;
Zhdanovism and the cultural purge; Stalin's cult of personality; the Leningrad affair; purges
and the Doctors' Plot
• The transformation of the Soviet Union’s international position: the emergence of a
'superpower'; the formation of a soviet bloc; conflict with USA and the capitalist West; death
of Stalin and Stalin's legacy at home and abroad
2O Democracy and Nazism: Germany, 1918–1945

This option provides for the study in depth of a period of German history during which a newly
developed democratic form of government gave way to a dictatorial Nazi regime. It explores
political concepts such as 'right' and 'left', nationalism and liberalism as well as ideological
concepts such as racialism, anti-Semitism and Social Darwinism. It also encourages reflection on
how governments work and the problems of democratic states as well as consideration of what
creates and sustains a dictatorship.
Part one: the Weimar Republic, 1918–1933

The Establishment and early years of Weimar, 1918–1924
• The impact of war and the political crises of October to November 1918; the context for the
establishment of the Weimar Constitution; terms, strengths and weaknesses
• The Peace Settlement: expectations and reality; terms and problems; attitudes within
Germany and abroad
• Economic and social issues: post-war legacy and the state of the German economy and
society; reparations, inflation and hyperinflation; the invasion of the Ruhr and its economic
impact; social welfare and the social impact of hyperinflation
• Political instability and extremism; risings on the left and right, including the Kapp Putsch; the
political impact of the invasion of the Ruhr; the Munich Putsch; problems of coalition
government and the state of the Republic by 1924
The 'Golden Age' of the Weimar Republic, 1924–1928

• Economic developments: Stresemann; the Dawes Plan; industry, agriculture and the extent
of recovery; the reparations issue and the Young Plan
• Social developments: social welfare reforms; the development of Weimar culture; art,
architecture, music, theatre, literature and film; living standards and lifestyles
• Political developments and the workings of democracy: President Hindenburg; parties ;
elections and attitudes to the Republic from the elites and other social groups; the position of
the extremists, including the Nazis and Communists; the extent of political stability
• Germany’s international position; Stresemann's foreign policy aims and achievements
including: Locarno; the League of Nations; the Treaty of Berlin; the end of allied occupation
and the pursuit of disarmament
The Collapse of Democracy, 1928–1933

• The economic, social and political impact of the Depression: elections; governments and
policies
• The appeal of Nazism and Communism; the tactics and fortunes of the extremist parties,
including the role of propaganda
• Hindenburg, Papen, Schleicher and the 'backstairs intrigue' leading to Hitler’s appointment as
chancellor
• Political developments: the Reichstag Fire; parties and elections; the Enabling Act and the
end of democracy; the state of Germany by March 1933
Part two: Nazi Germany, 1933–1945 (A-level only)

The Nazi Dictatorship, 1933–1939 (A-level only)
• Hitler’s consolidation of power, March 1933–1934: governmental and administrative change
and the establishment of the one-party state; the Night of the Long Knives and the impact of
the death of President Hindenburg
• The 'Terror State': the police, including the SS and Gestapo; the courts; extent, effectiveness
and limitations of opposition and non-conformity; propaganda: aims, methods and impact;
extent of totalitarianism
• Economic policies and the degree of economic recovery; Schacht; Goering; the industrial
elites
• Social policies: young people; women; workers; the churches; the degree of
Volksgemeinschaft; benefits and drawbacks of Nazi rule
The Racial State, 1933–1941 (A-level only)

• The radicalisation of the state: Nazi racial ideology; policies towards the mentally ill, asocials,
homosexuals, members of religious sects, the Roma and Sinti
• Anti-Semitism: policies and actions towards the Jews, including the boycott of Jewish shops
and the Nuremberg Laws
• The development of anti-Semitic policies and actions; the effect of the Anschluss;
Reichkristallnacht; emigration; the impact of the war against Poland
• The treatment of Jews in the early years of war: the Einsatzgruppen; ghettos and
deportations
The impact of War, 1939–1945 (A-level only)

• Rationing, indoctrination, propaganda and morale; the changing impact of war on different
sections of society including the elites, workers, women and youth
• The wartime economy and the work of Speer; the impact of bombing; the mobilisation of the
labour force and prisoners of war
• Policies towards the Jews and the ‘untermenschen’ during wartime; the Wannsee
Conference and the 'Final Solution'
• Opposition and resistance in wartime including students, churchmen, the army and civilian
critics; assassination attempts and the July Bomb Plot; overview of the Nazi state by 1945
2P The Transformation of China, 1936–1997

This option provides for the study in depth of reasons for and the maintenance of Communist rule
in China and focuses on the way in which the country was transformed into a modern state. It
explores concepts such as authority, Maoism, mass mobilisation and economic control and
encourages students to reflect on the relationships between ideology and political change. It also
encourages reflection on the ways in which a state might be forced into change and whether
economic modernisation is possible without a corresponding political shift.
Part one: the emergence of the People's Republic of China, 1936–

1962
The Origins of the Civil War, 1936–1946
• The condition of China in 1936: Japanese expansion in China; Jiang Jieshi and the
Guomindang; leadership, ideology and policies
• The Chinese Communist Party: background; Mao's leadership; ideology and policies; hostility
to the Guomindang
• The Sino-Japanese war: the Xi'an incident and the Second United Front; political and military
co-operation and division in war; the impact of war on China, Jiang Jieshi and the GMD, Mao
and the CCP
• The end of the Japanese war: the breakdown of Nationalist/Communist cooperation and
outbreak of Civil War; the relative political and military strengths of the two sides
Communist victory and the consolidation of Mao's rule, 1946–1952

• Communist victory: reasons for Communist success; the state of China in the aftermath of
war; regional and economic issues; industry and agriculture
• The People's Republic of China: Mao's position in government; the power structure and
influence of the CCP; mass party membership; democratic centralism
• The consolidation of power: mass mobilisation campaigns and purges; the role of the PLA;
the use of terror and propaganda; land reform; attacks on landlords and land redistribution
• PRC's international position and dealings with neighbours: Korea, Tibet, Taiwan and the
USSR
The transition to Socialism, 1952–1962

• Political developments: issues of leadership and purges of the CCP; the 100 Flowers
campaign; Mao's resignation as Chairman of PRC
• Economic developments: industry and agriculture; voluntary and compulsory collectivisation;
the first Five Year Plan for industry and the Great Leap Forward; purge of Peng Dehuai;
reasons for the failure of GLF and its aftermath; debates over economic policy
• Social developments: the destruction of rightists, class enemies and rectification campaigns;
women's rights and welfare campaigns; the impact of collectivisation; the famine
• Foreign affairs: Korea; the Sino-Soviet split; clashes and the breakdown of relations between
Khrushchev and Mao
Part two: the People's Republic of China: Economic growth and the
transformation of the state, 1962–1997 (A-level only)
Reform and Control, 1962–1966 (A-level only)
• Leadership in the PRC: Mao's position in 1962; party division and ideology versus
pragmatism; the power struggle; supporters and opponents of Mao's policies; the personality
cult of Mao Zedong
• Economic developments: pragmatism and the policies of Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping
• Social change: women; education; youth; culture; ethnic groups and attacks on religion; the
benefits and disadvantages of communist rule
• International relations: Sino-Soviet relations and conflict over Xinjiang
The Cultural Revolution, 1966–1976 (A-level only)

• The origins of the Cultural Revolution: the Shanghai radicals; Mao's aims; political divisions
and the power struggle within the CCP; the purge of the party leadership and the fall of Liu
Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping
• The development of the Cultural Revolution: the actions of the Red Guards; Lin Biao and the
PLA; the widening and radicalisation of campaigns; the purging of the Red Guards; the end
of the campaign by 1969 and its political aftermath; the fortunes of Lin Biao, Jiang Qing and
the Shanghai radicals, Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping
• The economic, social and cultural impact of the Cultural Revolution: effect on economic
growth; effect on young people; the 'four olds’; anarchy, repression and rectification;
censorship and cultural stagnation; Mao's 'little red book'
• Foreign affairs: deterioration of relations with USSR and border conflict of 1969; improved
relations with USA; Kissinger and Nixon's visits and ping-pong diplomacy; condition of China
internally and externally at Mao's death
The PRC under Deng Xiaoping, 1976–1997 (A-level only)

• Mao's legacy: the power struggle after Mao’s death; Hua Guofeng and Deng Xiaoping; the
defeat of the Gang of Four; new-style leadership
• Economic developments: the 'Four Modernisations' and economic growth; agriculture;
industry; defence; science and technology
• Political developments: limitations to change; events leading to, and the aftermath of, the
Tiananmen Square demonstrations
• China as a global power by 1997: diplomatic ties and role in UN Security Council; IMF and
World Bank; co-operation with Japan and growing trade links; improved relations with the
USA and visits; Hong Kong regained
2Q The American Dream: reality and illusion, 1945–1980

This option provides for a study in depth of the challenges faced by the USA at home and abroad
as it emerged from the Second World War as a Superpower. For many Americans, post-war
prosperity realised the ‘American dream’ but the prosperity was not shared by all and significant
problems at home and abroad challenged the extent to which the ‘American dream’ was a reality. It
explores concepts and ideas such as American identity at home and abroad, anti-communism,
social equality, ethnic identities and federal versus states’ rights. It also encourages students to
reflect on the nature of democracy in a pluralist society, political protest and the power of the
media.
Part one: prosperity, inequality and Superpower status, 1945–1963

Truman and Post-war America, 1945–1952
• The United States in 1945 and the legacies of the world war: the powers of the presidency;
the main political parties; post-war prosperity; regional, ethnic and social divisions
• The USA as a Superpower: Truman’s character and policies; post-war peace making; the
Cold War and ‘containment’ in Europe and Asia; the response to the rise of Communism in
Asia
• Truman and post-war reconstruction: the economy; political divisions and domestic problems;
the rise of McCarthyism
• African-Americans in North and South: the impact of the Second World War; campaigns for
Civil Rights; the responses of the federal and state authorities
Eisenhower: tranquility and crisis, 1952–1960

• The presidency: Eisenhower’s personality and the policies of ‘dynamic conservatism’; Nixon
as Vice-President; the Republican Party; the end of McCarthyism
• The growth of the American economy in the 1950s and the impact of the ‘consumer society’
• The USA and the Cold War: Superpower rivalry and conflict with the USSR; responses to
developments in Western and Eastern Europe; reactions to the rise of Communism in Asia;
responses to crises in the Middle East
• African-Americans in North and South: the emergence of the Civil Rights Movement; the
policies and attitudes of the main political parties; the responses of the state and federal
authorities
John F Kennedy and the 'New Frontier', 1960–1963

• The presidential election of 1960 and reasons for Kennedy’s victory; the policies and
personalities of the Kennedy administration; the ideas behind the ‘New Frontier’
• Challenges to American power: the legacy of crises over Berlin and relations with
Khrushchev; the challenge of Castro’s Cuba; deepening involvement in Vietnam
• African-Americans in North and South: the rise of the Civil Rights Movement; the opponents
of Civil Rights, including within the Democratic Party; Kennedy’s policies in response to the
pressures for change
• The United States by 1963: its position as a world power; economic prosperity; the growing
pressures for social change from women and youth
Part two: challenges to the American Dream, 1963–1980 (A-level

only)
The Johnson Presidency, 1963–1968 (A-level only)
• Johnson as President: personality and policies; his pursuit of the ‘Great Society’; the impact
of the Kennedy legacy; economic developments
• Maintaining American world power: escalation of the war in Vietnam; relations between the
USA and its Western allies
• African-Americans in North and South: developments in the Civil Rights Movement;
Johnson’s role in passing Civil Rights legislation; the impact of change including urban riots
• Social divisions and protest movements: education and youth; feminism; radicalisation of
African-Americans; anti-war movements; the role of the media
Republican reaction: the Nixon Presidency, 1968–1974 (A-level only)
• The Presidential election of 1968 and the reasons for Nixon’s victory: divisions within the
Democratic Party; the personalities and policies of the Nixon administration
• The restoration of conservative social policies; the reaction to protest movements and forces
of social change; economic change and the end of the post-war boom
• The limits of American world power: peace negotiations and the continuation of the war in
Vietnam and Cambodia; the influence of Kissinger on US policies towards the USSR, Latin
America and China
• The Watergate Affair and its aftermath: the role of Congress; the resignation of the President;
Nixon’s political legacy
The USA after Nixon, 1974–1980 (A-level only)

• Ford and Carter as presidents: responses to social divisions; political corruption and the loss
of national self-confidence
• The position of the USA as a world power: the final withdrawal from Vietnam; relations with
the USSR and China; the response to crises in the Middle East; Iran and Afghanistan
• African-Americans in North and South: the impact of civil rights legislation; change and
continuity in the ‘New South’
• The USA by 1980: its position as a Superpower; the extent of social and economic change;
the reasons for Reagan’s victory in the presidential election.
2R The Cold War, c1945–1991

This option provides for the study in depth of the evolving course of international relations during
an era of tension between communist and capitalist powers which threatened nuclear
Armageddon. It explores concepts such as communism and anti-communism, aggression and
détente and also encourages students to reflect on the power of modern military technology, what
hastens confrontation and what forces promote peace in the modern world.
Part one: to the brink of Nuclear War: international relations, c1945–

1963
The Origins of the Cold War, c1945–1949
• US, British and USSR relations in 1945: conflicting ideologies; tensions at Yalta; relations
between Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill; the breakdown of the Grand Alliance at Potsdam;
relations between Stalin, Truman and Attlee
• Developing tensions: the Soviet Union occupation/control of eastern and southern Europe;
Kennan's Long Telegram; the Iron Curtain speech; Cominform; the Greek Civil War and the
Truman Doctrine on containment
• The USA’s involvement in Europe: policy towards Britain and Europe; the launch of the
Marshall Plan; US attitudes to Germany and Berlin
• Conflict over Germany: developments within the sectors, including Bizonia and currency
reform; the Berlin blockade; the creation of East and West Germany; formation of NATO
The Widening of the Cold War, 1949–1955

• US containment in action in Asia: the reconstruction of Japan and US-Japanese relations;
support for Jiang Jieshi and policy towards China and Taiwan; the defensive perimeter
strategy; support for South Korea; NSC-68
• The Korean War: causes, position and aims of Kim ll Sung and Syngman Rhee; attitudes and
actions of the UN, USA, USSR and China; military involvement and settlement
• Increasing Cold War tensions: McCarthyism in the USA and its influence in Britain and
Europe; US dominance in the UN and role as 'world policeman'; the isolation of China
• Alliances and shifts: FRG and NATO; the Warsaw Pact; SEATO; Eisenhower, Dulles and
'brinkmanship'; the domino theory; attitude to French struggle in Indo-China; the Geneva
Conference
The Global War, 1955–1963

• Khrushchev and East-West relations: impact of risings in Poland and Hungary and Soviet
intervention; the degree of 'peaceful coexistence', including exchange of visits and Paris
summit
• Cold War rivalries: the extension of the arms race including ICBMs; the space race; sputnik
and space flight; the Berlin Crisis and the U2 affair; the significance and impact of the Berlin
Wall
• Conflict in Asia: Indo-China under Ho Chi-Minh in the North and Diem in the South; formation
of NLF; Kennedy's policies towards Indo-China and Diem's assassination
• Confrontation between the superpowers: US attitudes to Cuba and developments leading to
the missile crisis; the 13 days; the significance of the crisis
Part two: from Détente to the end of the Cold War, c1963–1991 (A-
level only)
Confrontation and cooperation, c1963–1972 (A-level only)
• Confrontation in the Vietnam War: Johnson's policy in Vietnam; the Gulf of Tonkin resolution;
escalation; tactics and relative strengths of the two sides; the Tet Offensive
• Nixon's policies in Vietnam: Vietnamisation; extension into Cambodia and Laos; relations
with China; the beginning of the Paris peace talks
• Cooperation: attitudes of Khrushchev and Kennedy; Hot-line; Moscow Test Ban Treaty;
nuclear non-proliferation treaty; cut back in materials for nuclear weapons
• Pressures on USSR: the crisis in Czechoslovakia and the Brezhnev doctrine; relations with
China
The Brezhnev era, 1972–1985 (A-level only)

• The USA and SE Asia: Paris peace talks; Northern victory; continuing problems in
Cambodia; costs of war
• The extent of Détente up to 1979: the SALT talks; Ostpolitik and Helsinki accords; arms race;
relations with China
• The Second Cold War: the reasons for renewed hostilities and developments, including the
Soviet invasion of Afghanistan; new personalities, including Reagan, Thatcher and Pope
John Paul II; the crushing of Solidarity in Poland; the shooting down of KAL 007
• Developments in Africa and the Americas: the impact of Cuban intervention in Angola and
Ethiopia; the impact of US intervention in Latin America and the Caribbean including Chile,
Grenada and Nicaragua
The ending of the Cold War, 1985–1991 (A-level only)
• Gorbachev and the ending of the Cold War: pressures on and significance of Gorbachev as
Soviet leader; new thinking and practicalities: the importance of Soviet economic problems;
• The summits between the USA and the USSR, including Geneva, Reykjavik, Washington
and Moscow; Reagan; star wars; Bush and the US response
• The collapse of Communism in the Eastern European soviet satellite states; the end of the
Brezhnev Doctrine and significance of events of 1989
• The ending of Cold War tensions in Asia: Afghanistan; the Americas: Cuba, Nicaragua and El
Salvador; Africa: Angola and Ethiopia; the end of the Cold War: the Malta summit and its
aftermath, including the reunification of Germany; the collapse of the USSR and resignation
of Gorbachev

This option provides for the study in depth of the key political, economic, social and international
changes which helped to mould Britain in the second half of the 20th century. It explores concepts
such as government and opposition, class, social division and cultural change. It encourages
students to reflect on Britain’s changing place in the world as well as the interrelationship between
political policies, economic developments and political survival.
Part one: building a new Britain, 1951–1979

The Affluent Society, 1951–1964
• Conservative governments and reasons for political dominance: Churchill, Eden, Macmillan
and Home as political leaders; domestic policies; internal Labour divisions; reasons for
Conservatives' fall from power
• Economic developments: post-war boom; balance of payments issues and 'stop-go' policies
• Social developments: rising living standards; the impact of affluence and consumerism;
changing social attitudes and tensions; class and 'the Establishment'; the position of women;
attitudes to immigration; racial violence; the emergence of the 'teenager' and youth culture
• Foreign relations: EFTA and attempts to join the EEC; relations with and policies towards
USA and USSR; debates over the nuclear deterrent; Korean War; Suez; the ‘Winds of
Change' and decolonisation
The Sixties, 1964–1970

• Wilson and the Labour governments: Wilson's ideology and leadership; economic policies
and problems; devaluation; industrial relations; the trade unions; other domestic policies;
Labour divisions; the beginning of the 'troubles' in Northern Ireland; the end of post-war
consensus; loss of 1970 election
• Liberal reforming legislation: private members' bills and the end of capital punishment;
divorce reform; the legalisation of abortion; the legalisation of homosexual relations;
educational reform
• Social and cultural change: the expansion of the mass media; growth in leisure activities; the
impact of scientific developments; the reduction in censorship; progress towards female
equality; changes in moral attitudes; youth culture and the 'permissive society'; anti-Vietnam
war riots; issues of immigration and race
• Relations with and policies towards USA, particularly issue of Vietnam; response to world
affairs and relations with Europe; decolonisation including 'withdrawal East of Suez' and
Rhodesia.
The end of Post-War Consensus, 1970–1979

• Heath’s government: Heath as leader; political and economic policies; industrial relations and
the miners' strikes; the 'troubles' in Northern Ireland, including the Sunningdale Agreement
• Labour governments of Wilson and Callaghan: political, economic and industrial problems
and policies; problems of Northern Ireland
• Society in the 1970s: progress of feminism; the Sex Discrimination Act; race and immigration;
youth; environmentalism
• Britain's entry into and relations with Europe; the state of the 'special relationship' with USA;
attitudes to USSR and China
Part two: Modern Britain, 1979–2007 (A-level only)

The impact of Thatcherism, 1979–1987 (A-level only)
• The Thatcher governments: Thatcher as leader, character and ideology; ministers; support
and opposition; electoral success; internal Labour divisions and the formation of the SDP;
Northern Ireland and the troubles
• Thatcher's economic policies and their impact: monetarism; privatisation; deregulation;
issues of inflation, unemployment and economic realignment
• Impact of Thatcherism on society: sale of council houses; miners' strike and other industrial
disputes; poll tax; extra-parliamentary opposition
• Foreign Affairs: the Falklands; the 'special relationship' with USA; moves to end the Cold
War; Thatcher as an international figure; attitudes to Europe, including Thatcher's policies;
divisions within the Conservative Party
Towards a new Consensus, 1987–1997 (A-level only)

• Fall of Thatcher and her legacy; Major as leader; economic developments, including 'Black
Wednesday' and its impact; political sleaze, scandals and satire; political policies; approach
to Northern Ireland; Conservative divisions
• Realignment of the Labour Party under Kinnock, Smith and Blair; reasons for Labour victory
in 1997
• Social issues: the extent of 'social liberalism'; anti-establishment culture; the position of
women and race-relations
• Foreign affairs: relations with Europe, including the impact of the Single European Act and
Maastricht Treaty; interventions in the Balkans; contribution and attitude to the end of the
Cold War
The Era of New Labour, 1997–2007 (A-level only)

• The Labour governments: Blair as leader, character and ideology; constitutional change;
domestic policies; Brown and economic policy; Northern Ireland and the Good Friday
Agreement
• The Conservative Party: leaders and reason for divisions; reason for electoral failures in
2001 and 2005
• Social issues: workers, women and youth; the extent to which Britain had become a
multicultural society
• Foreign affairs: attitudes to Europe; the 'special relationship' with USA; military interventions
and the 'war on terror'; Britain's position in the world by 2007
2T The Crisis of Communism: The USSR and the Soviet
Empire, 1953–2000
This option provides for the study in depth of the practice and demise of Soviet Communism. It
explores concepts such as de-Stalinisation, Glasnost, Perestroika and ‘people power’ and
encourages students to reflect on issues of authority, leadership and legitimacy as well as the
problems of communism in practice. Furthermore, this option will help students to understand
issues surrounding Russia and Eastern Europe in the present day.
Part one: Crisis in the Soviet Union, 1953–2000

De-Stalinisation, 1953–1964
• The USSR in 1953: the Stalinist legacy; terror and paranoia; economic centralisation; the
power vacuum and contenders: Malenkov, Beria, Molotov and Khrushchev; Khrushchev's
success
• Khrushchev as leader: character; ideology and aims; style of leadership; political and legal
reforms: the Secret Speech and de-Stalinisation within the USSR; changes to party
organisation
• Economic and social developments: the reasons for and results of reform of industry and
agriculture, including partial decentralisation and the virgin lands scheme; social conditions
and living standards; the extent of the 'thaw' culturally
• Soviet foreign and international policies: split with China; peaceful coexistence with the West;
the Cuban Missile Crisis; negotiations with the West over Berlin; the space programme
Years of Stagnation, 1964–1985

• Brezhnev as leader: reasons for Khrushchev's removal from power and Brezhnev's
ascendancy; character, views and aims of Brezhnev and his associates in government; the
nomenklatura system and corruption
• Economic and social policies and problems under Brezhnev: attempted reforms of Kosygin;
the 10th Five Year Plan; agriculture; defence spending; consumer goods, living standards
and life-styles for the elite and the workers
• Foreign and international policies: détente with the West; the invasion of Afghanistan and the
impact on USSR; the Second Cold War
• Pressures for change and the reaction of the regime: political dissidents and protest,
including Andrei Sakharov and Alexander Solzhenitsyn; the effect of the Helsinki accords;
nationalist unrest; new leaders and political developments: Andropov; limited political and
economic reform; Chernenko as leader and stagnation; the reformers and position of
Gorbachev
The Gorbachev Revolution, 1985–2000

• Gorbachev as leader: personality, aims and power base; reasons for perestroika, glasnost
and demokratizatsiya; withdrawal from Afghanistan and readiness to end the Cold War;
summit meetings leading to the Malta Agreement
• Economic, political and social policies under Gorbachev: impact of Chernobyl; attempts at
economic restructuring and the outcome; the attempt to democratise the Soviet political
system and its outcome; main political reforms
• Revolution and counter-revolution in the USSR: opposition to Gorbachev's policies;
nationalist unrest; deepening economic and political crises; the coup of August 1991 and
Yeltsin's counter-attack; Gorbachev's resignation as president; the collapse of the USSR;

reasons for Gorbachev's apparent failure
• Yeltsin as leader: personality and aims; style of rule; economic and political problems and
policies; political unrest; re-election and resignation; Putin as leader; the state of Russia
politically, economically and socially by 2000
Part two: Crisis in the Soviet Empire, 1953–2000 (A-level only)

Soviet Satellites, 1953–1968 (A-level only)
• The political and economic condition of the satellite states of central Europe: Poland and the
leadership of Gomulka; Czechoslovakia and the leadership of Novotny; Hungary and the
leadership of Nagy; Rakosi, Gero and Kadar; East Germany and the leadership of Ulbricht;
the political organisation and influence of the Communist Party; economic organisation, state
of collectivisation and the centrally planned economy; political and economic strengths and
weaknesses of states
• Life in the Soviet satellite states: enforced Sovietisation; the use of propaganda; living
standards; education; state organisations; benefits and problems
• Repression in the Soviet satellite states: state security; secret police systems; censorship;
legal systems; the Church; emigration restrictions and defections
• Threats to stability in the Soviet satellite states: risings in East Germany, Poland and
Hungary; issues over Berlin and the Berlin Wall; Dubcek and the Prague Spring in
Czechoslovakia; reasons for the threats, their development and outcome for the state and for
its relations with USSR
'Real existing Socialism', 1968–1980 (A-level only)

• Political developments in the satellite states of central Europe: Poland and the leadership of
Gierek; Czechoslovakia and the leadership of Husak; Hungary and the leadership of Kadar;
the GDR and the leadership of Honecker; policy changes and the extent of reform
• Economic and social developments in the Soviet satellite states: economic reforms; strengths
and weaknesses; the influence of the West, economically and socially
• Challenges to Soviet control in the Soviet satellite states: Western influence and the media;
the impact of the Helsinki accords; political activism including Charter 77 and KOR
(Czechoslovakia); Church organisations (Poland and GDR); contested elections (Hungary)
• Strikes and demonstrations in Poland; the emergence of Solidarity in 1980 and the reaction
of the Polish government and USSR
The Collapse of the Soviet Empire, 1980–2000 (A-level only)

• Political developments and activism within the satellite states before 1989: Jaruzelski and
attempts to restrain Solidarity in Poland; pressure groups in Czechoslovakia and electoral
contests in Hungary; regional peace workshops; the IFN and environmental groups in GDR
• The state of Communism in the satellite states of Romania and Bulgaria by 1989: leadership
of Ceausescu in Romania and Zhivkov in Bulgaria; political and economic problems
• The collapse of Communism within the satellite states in 1989: reasons for and results of
demonstrations and peaceful revolution in East Germany, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia,
Bulgaria and violent change in Romania
• The new national states of Eastern and Central Europe: political issues; problems of creating
united and stable governments, including the separation of Czech and Slovak republics; the
restoration of capitalism; closer ties with the West; political, economic and social progress
and continuing difficulties by 2000
Component 3: Historical investigation (non-exam
assessment) (A-level only)
Purpose of the Historical investigation
The purpose of the Historical Investigation is to enable students to develop the skills, knowledge
and historical understanding acquired through the study of the examined components of the
specification.
Through undertaking the Historical Investigation students will develop an enhanced understanding
of the nature and purpose of history as a discipline and how historians work.
The Historical Investigation contributes towards meeting the aims and objectives of the A-level
specification. In particular it encourages students to:
• ask relevant and significant questions about the past and undertake research
• develop as independent learners and critical and reflective thinkers
• acquire an understanding of the nature of historical study
• organise and communicate their knowledge and understanding in a piece of sustained writing
Introduction
Students will be required to submit a Historical Investigation based on a development or issue
which has been subject to different historical interpretations.
The Historical Investigation must:
• be independently researched and written by the student
• be presented in the form of a piece of extended writing of between 3000 and 3500 words in
length
• draw upon the student's investigation of sources (both primary and secondary) which relate
to the development or issue chosen and the differing interpretations that have been placed
on this
• place the issue to be investigated within a context of approximately 100 years
• be an issue which does not duplicate the content of Components 1 and 2.
The Historical Investigation must be supervised in accordance with the requirements of Section 5.1
of this specification.
The centre must complete a non-examined assessment (NEA) proposal form no later than 12
months before the intended completion of the A-level course. The form must detail the topic and
date range of the proposed historical investigation for each student. The teacher must state which
examined components will be studied. This form must be submitted to AQA for review. AQA will
check that the proposed historical investigation, when combined with the examined components,
meets the following requirements:
• the proposed topic is set in the context of approximately 100 years
• there is no overlap with the content of the options studied for the examined components
• all three components together cover a chronological range of at least 200 years
AQA will inform the centre if any historical investigation does not meet the requirements and the
focus for the non-examined assessment will need to be changed.
Failure to comply with these requirements will invalidate the student’s entry and no A-level
result will be issued.
It is therefore vital that the teacher ensures that all requirements are met. If a student changes the
topic chosen for their investigation, a new form should be completed.
On completion of the NEA, each student must also complete a Candidate Record Form (CRF)
detailing the options studied for the examined components. The student must sign this form. The
teacher must counter sign the CRF and this declaration will confirm that the historical investigation
complies with the NEA proposal form and has adhered to all requirements.
The CRF must be sent to the moderator at the same time as marks for the NEA are submitted. The
moderator will check that all course requirements have been met.
If the requirements have not been met, then the entry will be invalid and no result issued.
Copies of all the documentation, including the NEA proposal form and guidance on submission
procedures are available from the AQA website at www.aqa.org.uk/history
Further guidance is available from the History subject team: history@aqa.org.uk
Choice of issue and question to be studied

Students will be required to identify an issue or topic they wish to study and develop a question
from this issue or topic as the focus of the Historical Investigation. The issue or topic to be studied
and the question which stems from it must place the issue or topic in the context of approximately
100 years of history. The question could be based on British history or non-British history or could
be a multi-country issue. However, it must not duplicate content studied in Components 1 and 2.
The Historical Investigation could identify an issue and a related question which traces a
development over approximately 100 years. Alternatively, it could focus on a narrower issue, but
place it the context of approximately 100 years.
Examples of possible approaches:
• A broad issue and related question which analyses its development over approximately 100
years, for example: assessing how Puritanism changed during the Seventeenth Century; or
assessing the extent to which the condition of the Russian peasant improved over the period
1850–1950
• A more specific issue in the context of approximately 100 years, for example: assessing the
extent to which the Glorious Revolution successfully settled relations between Crown and
Parliament in the context of the Stuart period; or assessing the extent to which Tsar Nicholas
I changed the nature of Tsarist rule set against the period of Catherine the Great, Alexander
and Nicholas I.
Issues which relate to international, national or local developments are appropriate, as are
investigations which adopt specific historical perspectives such as cultural, social or technological.
However, in choosing the issue, students need to take the following into account:
• Is there a range of primary sources and primary material available to support individual
investigation?
• Is the issue and related question one which has promoted debate and differences of
interpretation amongst historians?
When framing the question to be answered, students must ensure that it enables them to
demonstrate skills of historical analysis, evaluation and judgement, to appraise the views of
historians and to evaluate primary sources.
Students are advised to use the type of question formulations seen in examinations such as the
use of questions which begin ‘To what extent’ or a quotation in the form of a judgement followed by
‘Assess the validity of this view’.
The A-level subject content for history requires that students carry out a Historical Investigation
that is independently researched. It is acceptable that students within a centre base their Historical
Investigations around the same topic. However, the essential pre-requisite of non-exam
assessment and the principal purpose of the Historical Investigation both require that the Historical
Investigation is the work of individual students each developing a question to investigate and each
evaluating individually, primary sources and historical interpretations. Where students in a centre
are studying a similar topic or topics, there may be only a limited number of primary sources and,
more so, a limited number of historical interpretations. However, the centre must ensure that
students assess and evaluate sources individually, even where sources used are similar. It is not
permitted for centres to direct students to the same sources as this fundamentally undermines the
need for the Historical Investigation to be the work of an individual student.
Further guidance and exemplar material are available via the AQA website.
The skills and qualities to be demonstrated and assessed

The skills and qualities of all three Assessment Objectives must be demonstrated in the Historical
Investigation. These are:
AO1: demonstrate, organise and communicate knowledge and understanding to analyse and
evaluate the key features related to the periods studied, making substantiated judgements and
exploring concepts, as relevant, of cause, consequence, change, continuity, similarity, difference
and significance.
AO2: analyse and evaluate appropriate source material, primary and/or contemporary to the
period, within the historical context.
AO3: analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, different ways in which aspects of
the past have been interpreted.
The task required of students in responding to AO3 will be different from that in the examined
components in that students will be expected to:
• show an understanding of the limitations placed on historians
• show an understanding of the significance of the time and/or context in which an historian
writes
• compare and evaluate differing historical interpretations.
Students must base their analysis and evaluation of historical interpretations on the work of
academic historians. It is not acceptable that the analysis and evaluation is based on textbook
historians or course books.
Students are expected to use short quotations, paraphrase and/or footnotes to show the source of
their interpretations. Lengthy extracts are not required.
In developing their response to a chosen issue to investigate, students are expected to consult a
range of resources, which may include textbooks, course books and work of academic historians.
Within the Historical Investigation, however, there must be explicit analysis and evaluation of two
differing interpretations by academic historians where students analyse and evaluate the
differences between the interpretations, show an awareness of the time and/or context of the
interpretations and demonstrate an understanding of the limitations placed on historians.
The Historical Investigation must be written with the qualities of all three objectives integrated
within the body of the work. For example, students will analyse, evaluate and reach judgements
about the question chosen (AO1) and within this analysis and evaluation, appraise the views of
historians (AO3) and analyse and evaluate primary source material and the extent to which it is
useful in supporting arguments or conclusions (AO2).
Completion of the Historical investigation

The Investigation should be completed in approximately 3000-3500 words, excluding bibliography
and footnotes. However, there is no penalty for failure to adhere to these guidelines, although
students who produce overlong pieces will disadvantage themselves in AO1, by demonstrating
poor organisational skills.
The Investigation must contain an evaluation of at least three primary sources. At least two
different types of primary source should be evaluated. These may be different types of written
primary sources, for example: official publications; reports; diaries; speeches; letters; chronicles;
observations of elite or ‘ordinary’ people (from the inside or from the outside). Other appropriate
sources may include artefacts, archaeological or visual sources.
The Investigation must also demonstrate an understanding of differing interpretations presented by
two academic historians about the issue.
Students are advised to avoid extensive, verbatim copying from sources and to ensure that the
Investigation is written in their own words. Extensive verbatim copying can lead to malpractice.
The use of footnotes is strongly advised in order to demonstrate the range of evidence consulted
and validate the bibliography. Additionally, footnotes alleviate concerns about plagiarism, as the
source of comments, views, detail or others' judgements is acknowledged. Skill in the use of
footnotes is also highly valued by Higher Education. A bibliography should be provided, listing the
sources that have been consulted.
The role of the teacher

Teachers have a number of significant roles:
• to explain the requirements of the Historical Investigation to students
• to ensure that students do not duplicate content already covered in Components 1 and 2 and
to ensure that the question which forms the focus of the Historical Investigation is placed in
the context of approximately 100 years
• to provide appropriate supervision of students, offering general guidance about the issue and
question chosen for investigation
• to monitor the progress of the Investigation
• to submit to AQA, at least 12 months before intended A-level certification, an NEA proposal
form. This form will require that options from Components 1 and 2 are identified, along with
the focus of Component 3 and its chronological range for each student
• to sign a declaration that the Investigation is the work of the individual working independently
• to inform AQA where there are concerns about malpractice, such as plagiarism or the
submission of work that is not that of the student
Assessment and moderation

The Historical Investigation will be marked by centres and moderated by AQA. It is most important
that centres establish rigorous internal standardisation to ensure that the rank order of the students
is fair, accurate and appropriate. This is particularly important in larger centres where more than
one teacher has prepared and assessed students.
The work of students is to be assessed by a levels of response mark scheme which addresses
each of the following assessment objectives, with the weighting as indicated:
Assessment Objective Max Mark
AO1: Demonstrate, organise and communicate knowledge and understanding 20
to analyse and evaluate the key features related to the periods studied, making
substantiated judgements and exploring concepts, as relevant, of cause,
consequence, change, continuity, similarity, difference and significance
AO2: Analyse and evaluate appropriate source material, primary and/or 10
contemporary to the period, within the historical context.
AO3: Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, different ways 10
in which aspects of the past have been interpreted.
Mark Scheme to be used when assessing the Historical investigation

AO1: 20 marks
Demonstrate, organise and communicate knowledge and understanding to analyse and evaluate
the key features related to the periods studied, making substantiated judgements and exploring
concepts, as relevant, of cause, consequence, change, continuity, similarity and significance.
NOTE: An Historical investigation which fails to show an understanding of change and
continuity within the context of approximately 100 years cannot be placed above Level 2 in
AO1 (maximum 8 marks)
Level 5: 17–20 The response demonstrates a very good understanding of change and continuity
within the context of approximately 100 years and meets the full demands of the chosen question.
It is very well organised and effectively delivered. The supporting information is well-selected,
specific and precise. It shows a very good understanding of key features, issues and concepts.
The answer is fully analytical with a balanced argument and well-substantiated judgement.
Level 4: 13–16 The response demonstrates a good understanding of change and continuity within
the context of approximately 100 years and meets the demands of the chosen question. It is well-
organised and effectively communicated. There is a range of clear and specific supporting
information, showing a good understanding of key features and issues, together with some
conceptual awareness. The response is predominantly analytical in style with a range of direct
comment relating to the question. The response is well-balanced with some judgement, which may,
however, be only partially substantiated.
Level 3: 9–12 The response demonstrates an understanding of change and continuity within the
context of approximately 100 years and shows an understanding of the chosen question. It
provides a range of largely accurate information which shows an awareness of some of the key
issues. This information may, however, be unspecific or lack precision of detail in parts. The
response is effectively organised and shows adequate communication skills. There is a good deal
of comment in relation to the chosen question, although some of this may be generalised. The
response demonstrates some analytical qualities and balance of argument.
Level 2: 5–8 The response demonstrates some understanding of change and continuity but may
have limitations in its coverage of a context of approximately 100 years. The response may be
either descriptive or partial, showing some awareness of the chosen question but a failure to grasp
its full demands. There is some attempt to convey material in an organised way although
communication skills may be limited. The response contains some appropriate information and
shows an understanding of some aspects of the investigation, but there may be some inaccuracy
and irrelevance. There is some comment in relation to the question but comments may be
unsupported and generalised.
Level 1: 1–4 The response demonstrates limited understanding of change and continuity and
makes little reference to a context of approximately 100 years. The chosen question has been
imperfectly understood and the response shows limited organisational and communication skills.
The information conveyed is extremely limited in scope and parts may be irrelevant. There may be
some unsupported, vague or generalised comment.
AO2: 10 marks
Analyse and evaluate appropriate source material, primary and/or contemporary to the period,
within the historical context.
Level 5: 9–10 Provides a range of relevant and well-supported comments on the value of at least
three sources of two or more different types used in the investigation to provide a balanced and
convincing judgement on their merits in relation to the topic under investigation.
Level 4: 7–8 Provides relevant and well-supported comments on the value of three or more
sources of two or more different types used in the investigation, to produce a balanced assessment
on their merits in relation to the topic under investigation. Judgements may, however, be partial or
limited in substantiation.
Level 3: 5–6 Provides some relevant comment on the value of three sources of at least two
different types used in the Investigation. Some of the commentary is, however, of limited scope, not
fully convincing or has only limited direction to the topic under investigation.
Level 2: 3–4 Either: provides some comment on the value of more than one source used in the
investigation but may not address three sources in equal measure or refers to sources of the same
'type'. Or: provides some comment on the value of three sources of at least two types used in the
investigation but the comment is excessively generalised and not well directed to the topic of the
investigation.
Level 1: 1–2 Provides some comment on the value of at least one source used in the Investigation
but the response is very limited and may be partially inaccurate. Comments are likely to be
unsupported, vague or generalised.
In commenting and making judgements on the value of the sources, students will be expected to
apply their own contextual knowledge and perspectives of time and place in order to assess the
value and limitations of their sources as evidence. They will be expected to comment on, as
appropriate to the investigation and chosen sources:
• the differing perspectives of the sources chosen
• the social, political, intellectual, religious and/or economic contexts in which the sources were
written
• the credibility, authority, authenticity, consistency and comprehensiveness of the sources
• the bias, distortion or propagandist elements found in the sources
AO3: 10 marks
Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, different ways in which aspects of the
past have been interpreted.
Level 5: 9–10 Shows a very good understanding of the differing historical interpretations raised by
the question. There is a strong, well-substantiated and convincing evaluation of two interpretations
with reference to the time and/or context and the limitations placed on the historians.
Level 4: 7–8 Shows a good understanding of the differing historical interpretations raised by the
question. There is some good evaluation of the two interpretations with reference to the time
and/or context and the limitations placed on historians, although not all comments are
substantiated or convincing.
Level 3: 5–6 Shows an understanding of differing historical interpretations raised by the question.
There is some supported comment on two interpretations with reference to the time and/or context
and the limitations placed on historians, but the comments are limited in depth and/or
substantiation.
Level 2: 3–4 Shows some understanding of the differing historical interpretations raised by the
question. They may refer to either the time and/or context or to the limitations placed on the
historians, or to both in an unconvincing way.
Level 1: 1–2 Shows limited understanding of the differing historical interpretations raised by the
question. Comment on historical interpretations is generalised and vague.
In showing an understanding of historical interpretations and evaluating historical interpretations,
students will be expected to apply their own contextual knowledge.
They will be expected, as appropriate to the investigation:
• to show an understanding of the limitations placed on historians
• to show an understanding of the significance of the time and/or context in which an historian
writes
• to compare and evaluate differing historical interpretations.
4 Scheme of assessment
Find past papers and mark schemes, and specimen papers for new courses, on our website at
aqa.org.uk/pastpapers
The AS specification is designed to be taken over one or two years with all assessments taken at
the end of the course. The A-level specification is designed to be taken over two years with all
assessments taken at the end of the course.
Assessments and certification for the AS specification are available for the first time in May/June
2016 and then every May/June for the life of the specification.
Assessments and certification for the A-level specification are available for the first time in May/
June 2017 and then every May/June for the life of the specification.
These are linear qualifications. In order to achieve the award, students must complete all exams in
May/June in a single year. All assessments must be taken in the same series.
Assessment is designed to elicit extended responses and offers the opportunity for students to
draw together and demonstrate their understanding of historical terms, concepts and the skills of
analysis and evaluation, developed across the full course of study.
All materials are available in English only.
4.1 Aims
Courses based on these specifications should encourage students to:
• develop their interest in, and enthusiasm for, history and an understanding of its intrinsic
value and significance
• acquire an understanding of different identities within society and an appreciation of aspects
such as social, cultural, religious and ethnic diversity, as appropriate
• build on their understanding of the past through experiencing a broad and balanced course of
study
• improve as effective and independent students and as critical and reflective thinkers with
curious and enquiring minds
• develop the ability to ask relevant and significant questions about the past and to research
them
• acquire an understanding of the nature of historical study, for example that history is
concerned with judgements based on available evidence and that historical judgements are
provisional
• develop their use and understanding of historical terms, concepts and skills
• make links and draw comparisons within and/or across different periods and aspects of the
past
• organise and communicate their historical knowledge and understanding in different ways,
arguing a case and reaching substantiated judgements.
4.2 Assessment objectives
Assessment objectives (AOs) are set by Ofqual and are the same across all AS and A-level History
specifications and all exam boards.
The exams will measure how students have achieved the following assessment objectives:
AO1 Demonstrate, organise and communicate knowledge and understanding to analyse and
evaluate the key features related to the periods studied, making substantiated
judgements and exploring concepts, as relevant, of cause, consequence, change,
continuity, similarity, difference and significance.
AO2 Analyse and evaluate appropriate source material, primary and/or contemporary to the
period, within its historical context.
AO3 Analyse and evaluate, in relation to the historical context, different ways in which aspects
of the past have been interpreted.
Weighting of assessment objectives for AS History

Assessment objectives Component weightings (approx %) Overall
(AOs) weighting
Paper 1 (Breadth Study) Paper 2 (Depth Study)
(approx %)
AO1 25 25 50
AO2 0 25 25
AO3 25 0 25
Overall weighting of 50 50 100
components
Weighting of assessment objectives for A-level History

Assessment objectives (AOs) Component weightings (approx %) Overall weighting
(approx %)
Component Component Component
1 2 3
AO1 25 25 10 60
AO2 0 15 5 20
AO3 15 0 5 20
Overall weighting of components 40 40 20 100
4.3 Assessment weightings

The marks awarded on the papers will be scaled to meet the weighting of the components.
Students' final marks will be calculated by adding together the scaled marks for each component.
Grade boundaries will be set using this total scaled mark. The scaling and total scaled marks are
shown in the table below.
AS
Component Maximum raw mark Scaling factor Maximum scaled mark
Breadth Study 50 x1 50
Depth Study 50 x1 50
Total scaled mark: 100
A-level
Component Maximum raw mark Scaling factor Maximum scaled mark
Breadth Study 80 x1 80
Depth Study 80 x1 80
Historical Investigation 40 x1 40
Total scaled mark: 200
4.4 Structure of question papers

AS
There are two components of assessment in this AS History specification. Component 1 assesses
candidates’ understanding of breadth and of historical interpretations. Component 2 assesses
understanding of depth and of the value of primary sources.
Component 1
The examination paper for this component is designed to test students’ ability in relation to AO1
and AO3. There are two sections to the paper.
In Section A there will be a compulsory question which tests students’ ability to analyse and
evaluate the views of historians (AO3). Two extracts will be provided, containing contrasting
historical interpretations linked to a broad issue or development. In response to the question
students will be required to assess and arrive at a judgement about which interpretation is more
convincing. In doing so, they must apply knowledge and understanding of the historical context to
these arguments and interpretations; deployment of knowledge that does not relate to the extracts
will, however, not be credited. The question is worth 25 marks.
In Section B, two questions will be set of which students answer one. Either question tests AO1
and is designed to test historical understanding over an extended period. The focus of these
questions will be, as appropriate, on causation, change, continuity, similarity and significance over
time. Either question will be in the form of a judgement about an issue or development and
students are required to analyse and evaluate the judgement. The question carries 25 marks.
Component 2
and AO2. There are two sections to the examination paper.
In Section A there will be a compulsory question which tests students’ ability to analyse and
evaluate the value of primary sources (AO2). Two primary sources will be provided. In response to
the question, candidates will be required to make an assessment of the value of the sources in
relation to an event or issue. The question is worth 25 marks.
In Section B, two questions will be set of which students answer one. Either question tests AO1
and is designed to test historical understanding in depth. The focus of these questions will be, as
appropriate, on causation, change, continuity, similarity and significance in relation to a narrow
issue or development. Either question will be in the form of a judgement about an issue or
development and students are required to analyse and evaluate the judgement. The question
carries 25 marks.
The questions in Section B, in order to test AO1 in its entirety, will have a range of foci both in any
one paper and over time. Thus, in addition to targeting the generic qualities of organisation,
analysis, evaluation and judgement, questions will also test the range of foci in the AO: cause,
consequence, change, continuity, similarity, difference and significance. Consistent with the nature
of historical analysis, a single question may require students to demonstrate understanding of
more than one of these perspectives.
The knowledge, understanding, skills and abilities tested at AS reflect those tested at A-level, but
are at a standard that reflects what can be expected from students at the end of the one year of
study and comprises the first part of the equivalent specified A-level content. In this way co-
teachability of the AS specification alongside the A-level specification is facilitated.
A-level
At A-level, there are three assessment components. Component 1 assesses students’
understanding of breadth and of historical interpretations. Component 2 assesses understanding of
depth and of the value of primary sources. Component 3 is a Historical Investigation (non-exam
assessment).
Component 1
and AO3. There are two sections to the paper.
There will be a compulsory question in Section A testing students’ ability to analyse and evaluate
the views of historians (AO3). Three extracts will be provided, containing historical interpretations
linked to a broad issue or development. Students will be required to identify the arguments and
evaluate them. In doing so, they must apply knowledge and understanding of the historical context
to these arguments and interpretations; deployment of knowledge that does not relate to the
extracts will receive no credit. This question carries 30 marks.
Section B will contain three essay questions of which students are required to answer two. Each
essay tests AO1 and assesses historical understanding of developments and issues within a broad
and coherent chronology, covering a minimum of 20 years. The focus of these questions will be, as
appropriate, on understanding causation, change, continuity, similarity, difference and significance
over time. Thus, questions with a narrow focus, such as those focused on specific events, will not
be set. Each question in this section carries 25 marks.
It is advised that students should spend one hour on the compulsory question and 45 minutes on
each of the essay questions.
In order to ensure that students demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the breadth
component over the whole period, the balance of questions on the breadth paper will be as follows:
• Where the compulsory question is based on Part 1 of the content, Section B will contain one
essay on Part 1 of the content, or one which overlaps Parts 1 and 2 and two questions on
Part 2 of the content.
• Where the compulsory question is based on Part 2 of the content, Section B will contain one
essay on Part 2 of the content, or one which overlaps Parts 1 and 2 and two questions on
Part 1 of the content.
• Where the compulsory question overlaps Parts 1 and 2 of the content, Section B will contain
one question on Part 1 of the content, one question on Part 2 of the content and one from
either Part 1 or 2 depending on the overall balance of the paper.
The essay questions in Section B, in order to test AO1 in its entirety, will have a range of foci both
in any one paper and over time. Thus, in addition to targeting the generic qualities of organisation,
Component 2
and AO2. There are two sections to the examination paper.
In Section A there will be a compulsory question testing students’ ability to analyse and evaluate
the value of primary sources to an historian studying a particular issue or development (AO2).
Three sources will be set for evaluation. In their assessments, students are expected to evaluate
the sources, considering, for example, provenance, style and emphasis and the content of the
sources. Students must deploy knowledge and understanding of the historical context when
making their assessments and, in doing so, must avoid generalised comment about the value of
sources without reference to context. Deployment of knowledge that does not relate to the sources
will receive no credit. This question carries 30 marks.
Section B will contain three essay questions of which students are required to answer two. Each
essay tests AO1 and is designed to test historical understanding in depth, by a focus on events,
issues and developments and the interrelationships of various perspectives as they apply to the
question. Each question in this section carries 25 marks.
It is advised that students should spend one hour on the compulsory question and 45 minutes on
each of the essay questions.
The questions in Section B, in order to test AO1 in its entirety, will have a range of foci both in any
one paper and over time. Thus, in addition to targeting the generic qualities of organisation,
Component 3
Students must complete a Historical Investigation. This tests AO1, AO2 and AO3. The Historical
Investigation must:
• be independently researched and written by the student
• take the form of a question in the context of approximately 100 years that does not duplicate
content within option chosen for Components 1 and 2
• be presented in the form of a piece of extended writing of between 3000 and 3500 words in
length
• draw upon the student's investigation of sources (both primary and secondary) which relate
to the development or issue chosen and the differing interpretations that have been placed
on this.
The Historical Investigation carries 40 marks.
The centre must complete a non-examined assessment (NEA) proposal form no later than 12
months before the intended completion of the A-level course. The form must detail the topic and
date range of the proposed historical investigation for each student. The teacher must state which
examined components will be studied. This form must be submitted to AQA for review. AQA will
check that the proposed historical investigation, when combined with the examined components,
meets the following requirements:
• the proposed topic is set in the context of approximately 100 years
• there is no overlap with the content of the options studied for the examined components
• all three components together cover a chronological range of at least 200 years
AQA will inform the centre if any historical investigation does not meet the requirements and the
focus for the non-examined assessment will need to be changed.
Failure to comply with these requirements will invalidate the student’s entry and no A-level
result will be issued.
It is therefore vital that the teacher ensures that all requirements are met. If a student changes the
topic chosen for their investigation, a new form should be completed.
On completion of the NEA, each student must also complete a Candidate Record Form (CRF)
detailing the options studied for the examined components. The student must sign this form. The
teacher must counter sign the CRF and this declaration will confirm that the historical investigation
complies with the NEA proposal form and has adhered to all requirements.
The CRF must be sent to the moderator at the same time as marks for the NEA are submitted. The
moderator will check that all course requirements have been met.
If the requirements have not been met, then the entry will be invalid and no result issued.
Copies of all the documentation, including the NEA proposal form and guidance on submission
procedures are available from the AQA website at www.aqa.org.uk/history
Further guidance is available from the History subject team: history@aqa.org.uk
5 Non-exam assessment
administration
The non-exam assessment (NEA) for the A-level specification only is a Historical Investigation.
Visit aqa.org.uk/7042 for detailed information about all aspects of NEA administration.
The head of the school or college is responsible for making sure that NEA is conducted in line with
our instructions and Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) instructions.
5.1 Supervising and authenticating

To meet Ofqual's qualification and subject criteria:
• students must sign the Candidate record form to confirm that the work submitted is their own
• all teachers who have marked a student’s work must sign the declaration of authentication
on the Candidate record form. This is to confirm that the work is solely that of the student
concerned and was conducted under the conditions laid down by this specification
• teachers must ensure that a Candidate record form is attached to each student’s work.
Students must have sufficient direct supervision to ensure that the work submitted can be
confidently authenticated as their own. This means that you must review the progress of the work
during research, planning and throughout its production to see how it evolves.
You may provide guidance and support to students so that they are clear about the requirements of
the task they need to undertake and the marking criteria on which the work will be judged. You may
also provide guidance to students on the suitability of their proposed task, particularly if it means
they will not meet the requirements of the marking criteria.
When checking drafts of a student’s work, you must not comment or provide suggestions on how
they could improve it. However, you can ask questions about the way they are approaching their
work and you can highlight the requirements of the marking criteria.
Please note that you should sign the authentication statement on the Candidate record form. If the
statement is not signed, we cannot accept the student’s work for assessment.
Once a student submits work for marking and it has been marked, you cannot return it to the
student for improvement, even if they have not received any feedback or are unaware of the marks
awarded.
Further guidance on setting, supervising, authenticating and marking work is available on the
subject pages of our website and through teacher standardisation.
5.2 Avoiding malpractice

Please inform your students of the AQA regulations concerning malpractice. They must not:
• submit work that is not their own
• lend work to other students
• allow other students access to, or use of, their own independently-sourced source material
• include work copied directly from books, the internet or other sources without
acknowledgement
• submit work that is word-processed by a third person without acknowledgement
• include inappropriate, offensive or obscene material.
These actions constitute malpractice and a penalty will be given (for example, disqualification).
If you identify malpractice before the student signs the declaration of authentication, you don’t
need to report it to us. Please deal with it in accordance with your school or college’s internal
procedures. We expect schools and colleges to treat such cases very seriously.
If you identify malpractice after the student has signed the declaration of authentication, the head
of your school or college must submit full details of the case to us at the earliest opportunity.
Please complete the form JCQ/M1, available from the JCQ website at jcq.org.uk
You must record details of any work which is not the student’s own on the Candidate record form or
other appropriate place.
You should consult your exams officer about these procedures.
5.3 Teacher standardisation

We will provide support for using the marking criteria and developing appropriate tasks through
teacher standardisation.
For further information about teacher standardisation visit our website at aqa.org.uk/7042
In the following situations teacher standardisation is essential. We will send you an invitation to
complete teacher standardisation if:
• moderation from the previous year indicates a serious misinterpretation of the requirements
• a significant adjustment was made to the marks in the previous year
• your school or college is new to this specification.
For further support and advice please speak to your adviser. Email your subject team at
history@aqa.org.uk for details of your adviser.
5.4 Internal standardisation

You must ensure that you have consistent marking standards for all students. One person must
manage this process and they must sign the Centre declaration sheet to confirm that internal
standardisation has taken place.
Internal standardisation may involve:
• all teachers marking some sample pieces of work to identify differences in marking standards
• discussing any differences in marking at a training meeting for all teachers involved
• referring to reference and archive material, such as previous work or examples from our
teacher standardisation.
5.5 Annotation
To meet Ofqual’s qualification and subject criteria, you must show clearly how marks have been
awarded against the marking criteria in this specification.
Your annotation will help the moderator see, as precisely as possible, where you think the students
have met the marking criteria.
Work can be annotated using either or both of the following methods:
• flagging evidence in the margins or in the text
• summative comments, referencing precise sections in the work.
5.6 Submitting marks

You should check that the correct marks for each of the marking criteria are written on the
Candidate record form and that the total mark is correct.
The deadline for submitting the total mark for each student is given at aqa.org.uk/keydates
5.7 Factors affecting individual students

For advice and guidance about arrangements for any of your students, please email us as early as
possible at eos@aqa.org.uk
Occasional absence: you should be able to accept the occasional absence of students by making
sure they have the chance to make up what they have missed. You may organise an alternative
supervised session for students who were absent at the time you originally arranged.
Lost work: if work is lost you must tell us how and when it was lost and who was responsible,
using our special consideration online service at aqa.org.uk/eaqa
Special help: where students need special help which goes beyond normal learning support,
please use the Candidate record form to tell us so that this help can be taken into account during
moderation.
Students who move schools: students who move from one school or college to another during
the course sometimes need additional help to meet the requirements. How you deal with this
depends on when the move takes place. If it happens early in the course, the new school or
college should be responsible for the work. If it happens late in the course, it may be possible to
arrange for the moderator to assess the work as a student who was ‘Educated Elsewhere’.
5.8 Keeping students' work

Students’ work must be kept under secure conditions from the time that it is marked, with
Candidate record forms attached. After the moderation period and the deadline for Enquiries about
Results (or once any enquiry is resolved) you may return the work to students.
5.9 Moderation
An AQA moderator will check a sample of your students’ work. Your moderator will contact you to
let you know which students’ work to send to them. If you are entering fewer than 20 students (or
submitting work electronically) it will be the work of all your students. Otherwise it will be a
percentage of your students’ work.
The moderator re-marks the work and compares this with the marks you have provided to check
whether any changes are needed to bring the marking in line with our agreed standards. In some
cases the moderator will ask you to send in more work. Any changes to marks will normally keep
your rank order but, where major inconsistencies are found, we reserve the right to change the
rank order.
5.9.1 School and college consortia

If you are in a consortium of schools or colleges with joint teaching arrangements (where students
from different schools and colleges have been taught together but entered through the school or
college at which they are on roll), you must let us know by:
• filling in the Application for Centre Consortium Arrangements for centre-assessed work,
which is available from the JCQ website jcq.org.uk
• appointing a consortium co-ordinator who can speak to us on behalf of all schools and
colleges in the consortium. If there are different co-ordinators for different specifications, a
copy of the form must be sent in for each specification.
We will allocate the same moderator to all schools and colleges in the consortium and treat the
students as a single group for moderation.
5.10 After moderation

We will return your students’ work to you after the exams. You will also receive a report when the
results are issued, which will give feedback on the appropriateness of the tasks set, interpretation
of the marking criteria and how students performed in general.
We will give you the final marks when the results are issued.
To meet Ofqual requirements, as well as for awarding, archiving or standardisation purposes, we
may need to keep some of your students’ work. We will let you know if we need to do this.
6 General administration
You can find information about all aspects of administration, as well as all the forms you need, at
aqa.org.uk/examsadmin
6.1 Entries and codes

You only need to make one entry for each qualification – this will cover all the question papers,
non-exam assessment and certification.
Every specification is given a national discount (classification) code by the Department for
Education (DfE), which indicates its subject area.
If a student takes two specifications with the same discount code, Further and Higher Education
providers are likely to take the view that they have only achieved one of the two qualifications.
Please check this before your students start their course.
Qualification title AQA entry code DfE discount code

AQA Advanced Subsidiary GCE in History 7041 + letters for 4010 (Post 16),
components 1 DB (KS4)
and 2 (see below)
AQA Advanced Level GCE in History 7042 + letters for 4010
components 1
and 2 (see below)
The entry codes for History are dependent on the components studied by the student. They can be
determined using the following rules.
For AS, the first part of the code is 7041.
The next letter is the component 1 option (A to L).
The next letter is the component 2 option (A to T).
For example, the entry code for AS Component 1A The Age of the Crusades c1071-1149 and AS
Component 2E The English Revolution 1625-1642 would be 7041AE.
For A-level, the first part of the code is 7042.
The next letter is the component 1 option (A to L).
The next letter is the component 2 option (A to T).
For example, the entry code for A-level Component 1A The Age of the Crusades c1071–1204 and
Component 2E The English Revolution 1625–1660 would be 7042AE.
See aqa.org.uk/entries for a full list of all possible entry codes. Please also look at the prohibited
combinations in Specification at a glance.
These specifications comply with Ofqual’s:
• General conditions of recognition that apply to all regulated qualifications
• GCE qualification level conditions that apply to all GCEs
• GCE subject level conditions that apply to all GCEs in this subject
• all relevant regulatory documents.
Ofqual has accredited these specifications. The qualification accreditation number (QAN) for the
AS is 601/4974/7. The QAN for the A-level is 601/4973/5.
6.2 Overlaps with other qualifications

There is overlapping content in the AS and A-level History specifications. This helps you teach the
AS and A-level together.
6.3 Awarding grades and reporting results

The AS qualification will be graded on a five-point scale: A, B, C, D and E.
The A-level qualification will be graded on a six-point scale: A*, A, B, C, D and E.
Students who fail to reach the minimum standard for grade E will be recorded as U (unclassified)
and will not receive a qualification certificate.
6.4 Re-sits and shelf life

Students can re-sit the qualifications as many times as they wish, within the shelf life of the
qualifications.
6.5 Previous learning and prerequisites

There are no previous learning requirements. Any requirements for entry to a course based on
these specifications are at the discretion of schools and colleges.
However, we recommend that students should have the skills and knowledge associated with a
GCSE History course or equivalent.
6.6 Access to assessment: diversity and inclusion

General qualifications are designed to prepare students for a wide range of occupations and
further study. Therefore our qualifications must assess a wide range of competences.
The subject criteria have been assessed to see if any of the skills or knowledge required present
any possible difficulty to any students, whatever their ethnic background, religion, sex, age,
disability or sexuality. If any difficulties were encountered, the criteria were reviewed again to make
sure that tests of specific competences were only included if they were important to the subject.
As members of the Joint Council for Qualifications (JCQ) we participate in the production of the
JCQ document Access Arrangements and Reasonable Adjustments: General and Vocational
qualifications. We follow these guidelines when assessing the needs of individual students who
may require an access arrangement or reasonable adjustment. This document is published on the
JCQ website at jcq.org.uk
Students with disabilities and special needs

We can make arrangements for disabled students and students with special needs to help them
access the assessments, as long as the competences being tested are not changed. Access
arrangements must be agreed before the assessment. For example, a Braille paper would be a
reasonable adjustment for a Braille reader but not for a student who does not read Braille.
We are required by the Equality Act 2010 to make reasonable adjustments to remove or lessen
any disadvantage that affects a disabled student.
If you have students who need access arrangements or reasonable adjustments, you can apply
using the Access arrangements online service at aqa.org.uk/eaqa
Special consideration
We can give special consideration to students who have been disadvantaged at the time of the
assessment through no fault of their own – for example a temporary illness, injury or serious
problem such as the death of a relative. We can only do this after the assessment.
Your exams officer should apply online for special consideration at aqa.org.uk/eaqa
For more information and advice about access arrangements, reasonable adjustments and special
consideration please see aqa.org.uk/access or email accessarrangementsqueries@aqa.org.uk
6.7 Working with AQA for the first time

If your school or college has not previously offered any AQA specification, you need to register as
an AQA centre to offer our specifications to your students. Find out how at aqa.org.uk/
becomeacentre
If your school or college is new to these specifications, please let us know by completing an
Intention to enter form. The easiest way to do this is via e-AQA at aqa.org.uk/eaqa
6.8 Private candidates

A private candidate is someone who enters for exams through an AQA-approved school or college
but is not enrolled as a student there.
If you are a private candidate you may be self-taught, home-schooled or have private tuition, either
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Version 1.1 8 March 2018

5 Non-exam assessment administration 79

Are you using the latest version of this specification?

Well-resourced and popular topics

Teach AS and A-level together

1.2 Support and resources to help you teach

Preparing for exams

Analyse your students' results with Enhanced Results Analysis (ERA)

Keep your skills up to date with professional development

Get help and support

2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–2007 (page 62)

2S The Making of Modern Britain, 1951–1979

Component 3: Historical investigation

• Through the topics studied in Components 1, 2 and 3 (Historical investigation), A-level

Component 1: Breadth study

Component 2: Depth study

Component 3: Historical investigation – non-exam assessment (A-level only)

1A The Age of the Crusades, c1071–1204

Part one: the Crusader states and Outremer, c1071–1149

The foundation of new states and the Second Crusade, c1099–1149

The Third and Fourth Crusades, 1187–1204 (A-level only)

1B Spain in the Age of Discovery, 1469–1598

Part one: the establishment of a 'New Monarchy', 1469–1556

The drive to 'Great Power' status, 1516–1556

Spain: The 'Great Power', 1556–1598 (A-level only)

1C The Tudors: England, 1485–1603

Part one: consolidation of the Tudor Dynasty: England, 1485–1547

Henry VIII, 1509–1547

Part two: England: turmoil and triumph, 1547–1603 (A-level only)

The triumph of Elizabeth, 1563–1603 (A-level only)

1D Stuart Britain and the Crisis of Monarchy, 1603–1702

Part two: Monarchy restored and restrained: Britain, 1649–1702 (A-

The establishment of constitutional monarchy, 1678–1702 (A-level only)

1E Russia in the Age of Absolutism and Enlightenment,

Part one: Peter the Great and Russia, 1682–1725

Increasing the glory of Russia, 1707–1725

Part two: Enlightenment Russia, 1725–1796 (A-level only)

Catherine the Great and Russia, 1762–1796 (A-level only)

1F Industrialisation and the people: Britain, c1783–1885

Part one: the impact of industrialisation: Britain, c1783–1832

Government and a changing society, 1812–1832

Part two: the Age of Reform: Britain, 1832–1885 (A-level only)

1G Challenge and transformation: Britain, c1851–1964

Part one: Victorian and Edwardian Britain, c1851–1914

Challenges to the status quo, c1886–1914

Transformation and change, 1939–1964 (A-level only)

Part one: Autocracy, Reform and Revolution: Russia, 1855–1917

The collapse of autocracy, 1894–1917

Part two: the Soviet Union, 1917–1964 (A-level only)

The Stalinist dictatorship and reaction, 1941–1964 (A-level only)

1J The British Empire, c1857–1967

Imperial consolidation and Liberal rule, c1890–1914

Part two: Imperial retreat, 1914–1967 (A-level only)

The winds of change, 1947–1967 (A-level only)

1K The making of a Superpower: USA, 1865–1975

Part one: from Civil War to World War, 1865–1920

Populism, progressivism and imperialism, 1890–1920

The Superpower, 1945–1975 (A-level only)