INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

an organ system composed of the skin (as an organ) and its derivatives the outer covering
of the body
Functions:
Covering and protection from bacterial invasion, dehydration, radiation, chemicals
Temperature regulation – e.g. homoeothermic animals can regulate body temperature
by conserving body heat; sweating cools off body temperature.
Secretion – e.g. cutaneous glands
Excretion – e.g. sweat
Sensation – e.g. the presence of nerve endings and tactile receptor cells.
Respiration – e.g. frogs’ skin with blood capillaries
Absorption – e.g. frogs’ skin can absorb O2
Pigmentation – e.g. presence of pigment cells to camouflage
Skin Adaptations
In aquatic vertebrates (cyclostomes, fishes, tailed amphibians) - epidermis of the skin is
relatively thin containing numerous mucous gland cells, instead of keratinized surface layer; the
secretions keep the skin moist and slimy, which seals out water and prevents invasion by
ectoparasites and fungus
Skin Adaptations
Types of Fish Scales
Cycloid scale--thin bony scale having a smooth surface and rounded margins
Ctenoid scale--thin bony scale having comblike processes on its outer part and a serrate margin
Placoid scale--scaly outgrowth of the skin, that is thicker and more embedded in the skin
Cosmoid scale--thick bony plates that are embedded into the, skin, that act more like a bony
armor
Skin Adaptations
In land vertebrates (exemplified by frog) - outer
layer of epidermis undergo “keratinization”
(converted into a dead, hard and horny material
as protection against drying)
Example:
flattening and hardening of the epidermis into a horny stratum, which is shed
continuously in small bits or at intervals as a whole (molting)
unicellular gland cells are replaced by multicellular glands (may be hollow or solid,
flask-shaped or tubular bodies opening to the surface);
epidermis is continuously replenished by cell proliferations below
Amphibians mark the transition between the aquatic and terrestrial environment. The skin, therefore, remains similar to its aquatic
roots, and resembles the skin of the fish, however, scales are not present.
Reptilian integument is highly keratinized and modified into horny scales in snakes and lizards
Skin Adaptations
• In snakes, the scales on the ventral surface can be further modified into scutes, which can be used in locomotion. In turtles,
the epidermis is strongly modified into plates that cover the shell (because they increase in diameter each year, they can be
used to determine age)
• In birds, the integument reflects some reptilian ancestry and some new developments of the class. Scales are present on the
legs and feet of most birds, and the bill is covered in a tough skin that is highly keratinized. The remaining skin is relatively
thin. The defining characteristic of bird integument is feathers, which are derived originally from scales, so that scales and
feathers are homologous.
Function in flight (flight feathers)
Temperature regulation (contour feathers)
• Hair is the distinctive characteristic of mammals, and it provides insulation as well as some additional protection to the
animal.
THE HUMAN INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Epidermis – made up of stratified layer of squamous cells
Layers of the Epidermis (in man):
Stratum corneum – outermost layer; cornified
Stratum lucidum – in thick skin it is clear layer next to stratum
corneum
Stratum granulosum – granular layer
Stratum germinativum / malphighi – a layer composed of actively
dividing cells that replaces the surface layer upon desquamation.
Epidermal Derivatives:
- hair, nails, claws, hoofs, beaks, bills, horns, feathers, spines,
enamel of the teeth, glands (sweat glands) and scutes
-scales found in reptiles, snakes and lizards
Dermis – the thicker inner layer associated with connective
tissue fibers, smooth muscles, blood vessels, pigment cells,
 nerve endings, and receptor cells for touch pain and temperature sensation; skin pigments like that of melanin is responsible of the
skin color
*Importance: subcutaneous tissues are made into commercial leathers
Layers of the Dermis:
Stratum spongiosum – loose connective tissue
Stratum compactum – compact connective tissue
Dermal Derivatives:
Scales – found in fish Anthlers – found in deers Dentine – of the tooth Bony plates – of the turtles
Glands Present in the Dermis of Human Skin
Sebaceous glands – found all over the surface except in the palm
and sole; opens in the hair follicles
Meibomian gland – found in the eyelids
Zeis gland – found in the eyelids
Sweat gland – found in the skin except in the lips, glans penis
Ceruminous glands – with waxy secretion found in the external
auditory meatus
Sudoriferous/sweat gland – all over the body surfaces and opens
into the sores of the skin
Mammary gland – for milk secretion
Uropygial gland - located at the base of the tail of birds;it secretes a
waxy substance that is used to waterproof and clean feathers
Types of glands according to method and place of secretion:
o Merocrine glands – e.g. sweat gland
o Apocrine glands – e.g. mammary gland
o Holocrine glands – e.g. oil or sebaceous gland
Chromatophores are usually found in the dermis of the skin
Integument Coloration
 Chromatophores are usually found in the dermis of the skin
The most familiar chromatophore is probably the melanophore, which is responsible for producing dark melanin pigment. Melanin
may be concentrated in the cell, or dispersed into the rest of the dermis; can act as protection against UV radiation, such that much of
the melanin is found surrounding the nucleus of skin cells
Other special pigment cells that occur in other vertebrates are:
o Iridophores:produce reflective, silvery coloration
o Xanthophores:produce yellow color
o Erythrophores:produce red color

Coloration can be of many types, including cryptic (providing blend into the environment) and aposematic (warning coloration, that
occurs in some snakes)
Disorders / Abnormalities of the Skin
Hyperhydrosis – profuse sweating in the hands, feet, or brow due to nervous tension or
fear, hot weather or physical exertion
Seborrhea – hyperactivity of the sebaceous glands
Bacterial infection
o Pimples/Acne (vulgaris) – “scourge of adolescence” an inflammatory disease affecting
skin of the face, neck, shoulders, chest and upper back (Staphylococcus aureus)
o Leprosy (Mycobacterium leprae)
o Boils (carbuncles)
Fungal infection
o Eczema – (ap-ap, white spots)
o Ringworm (Tinea corporis)
o Athlete’s foot (Tinea pedis)
Viral infection - chicken pox, small pox
o Warts – overgrowth of skin structure
o Mite and tick infection
o Scabies – mites bores beneath the skin surface forming burrows and cause
intense itching
Unusual Skin Conditions
Hemangioma / birthmark – vascular tumors showing blood blisters.
Mole (Neyus) – displaced melanocytes
Keloid – abundant growth of fibrous connective tissue e.g. scar
Bromidrosis – with accompanying body odor
White/black heads – clogged pores by oil secretion
Skin cancer – uncontrolled cell division caused by UV radiation, etc.
Burns:
1st degree – there is swelling, redness and pain but no blisters
2nd degree – severe burn but can still heal without extensive scar
3rd degree – skin destroyed including underlying muscle tissue. Skin grafting is needed otherwise.
SKELETAL SYSTEM
 an organ system which includes all the bones and cartilages of the body
 framework of the body
Types of Skeleton
 Endoskeleton - internal skeleton; derived chiefly from inner wall of
epimere and constituting a support and framework for the body and a
place of attachment of voluntary muscles
 Exoskeleton - external skeleton; derived from skin and forming a
covering and protective layer on the outside of the body; i.e. carapace of
turtles
Functions of the Skeleton:
Provides framework of the body for support and rigidity
Protection of vital organs - e.g. skull (brain), vertebrae (spinal cord), ribs
(heart, lungs)
Muscle attachment
Leverage for locomotion
RBC (red blood cell) production - e.g. in red bone marrow
 Prevent loss of body fluids
 Hydrostatic Skeletons
 A hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment
 This is the main type of skeleton
in most cnidarians, flatworms, nematodes, and annelids
Cartilage
- a tissue composed of chondrocytes
(cartilage cells)
Functions of the Cartilage
1. Covers the ends of bones at
joints
2. Supports the flexible portion of
nose and external ears
3. Connects the ribs to the sternum
4. Provides framework for the larynx
5. Forms tough pads that act as shock
absorber. Found in bone joints and
intervertebral discs in the vertebra/spinal
column.
Bones - most rigid of the connective
tissues
Two Parts:
Spongy bone (interior) - a highly porous
portion and rich with blood vessels, where
bone marrow is located.
Compact bone - dense, strong and provides
Bone Cells
o Osteoblasts - bone-forming cells. Secretes bone matrix
o Osteoclasts - for resorption
o Osteocytes - mature bone cells embedded in the rigid bone matrix
Ossification - process of bone formation
Formation of the bone
Bone tissue can be formed directly from deposition of bone matrix by osteoblast cells a process called membranous ossification
and are called membrane bones.
While some other bones of the body develop first as cartilaginous structures and later it is replaced by a bony structure by a
process called endonchondral ossification and this bones are called replacement bones.
Bone Remodelling
Each year, 5%-10% of all bone in the human body is remodeled. It involves the dissolution of bones by osteoclasts and is replaced
by bony matrix from the secretions of the osteoblasts.
Bones that are subjected to heavy load (extra stress) become thicker to provide needed strength and support. Conversely bone
that are not used (immobilized or being cast) and protected from stress rapidly loss significant amount of calcium.
Types of Endoskeleton According to Position on the Body:
Axial - found along the body axis
Examples:
a. Skull - houses the brain
b. Vertebral column - houses spinal cord and gives body support for erect posture
c. Ribs - protects the internal organs like the heart, liver, lungs
d. Sternum
Appendicular - located lateral or along the side of the axis of the body
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 an organ system which makes possible of movement and locomotion
 it is composed of muscle tissues
 Myology - study of muscles
 Vertebrate skeletal muscle is characterized by a hierarchy of smaller and smaller
units
 Anatomy of Muscle
 A muscle is composed of millions of individual muscle fiber which in turn is
composed of thousands of smaller units called myofibrils. The myofibrils are the
actual working units of a muscle. One contractile unit of a myofibril is the
sarcomere. It is composed of muscle proteins called actin (thin filaments) and
myosin (thick filaments). These proteins are arranged in a characteristic manner
so as to affect contraction. Each muscle fiber is supplied with nerve fiber.
• A skeletal muscle consists of a bundle of long fibers running parallel to the length
of the muscle
• A muscle fiber is itself a bundle of smaller myofibrils arranged longitudinally
*myofibrils are composed to two kinds of myofilaments
o Thin filaments, consisting of two strands of actin and one strand of
regulatory protein
o Thick filaments, staggered arrays of myosin molecules
o Skeletal muscle is also called striated muscle because the regular arrangement of the myofilaments creates a pattern of light
and dark bands
Three Types of Muscles:
 Skeletal (striated or voluntary) muscles
- are attached to the skeletons causing the bones to move. They make up the large part of the arms, legs, chest, abdomen neck
and face.
 Smooth (nonstriated or involuntary) muscles
- composed the walls of the stomach and intestines, and in our blood vessels.
 Cardiac (heart) muscles
-composed the heart
Structure of Muscle: Muscles are attached to bones by tendons. They are usually spindle-shaped and bundled by connective tissues.

 Relaxation follows after contraction. Relaxation means the return to the original length of the sarcomere. The cross-bridges
are severed, the myosin and actin filaments separate.
 Smooth muscles are stimulated with hormones and special set nerves of the autonomic nervous system.
 The rhythmic contraction of the heart is due to the impulses that come from a structure within the heart itself called as the
sino-atrial node.
 When muscles work, they produce wastes called lactic acid which may accumulate as a result of hard work.
 Muscle fibers lose some of their ability to contract due top lactic acid accumulation and depletion of ATP. These results to
muscle fatigue which just needed rest for these wastes to be removed and to gain or produce more ATP.
 Locomotion requires energy to overcome friction and gravity.
Movement is a hallmark of all animals and usually necessary for finding food or evading predators. Locomotion is active travel
from place to place.
Types of Locomotions
Swimming: Overcoming friction is a major problem for swimmers. Overcoming gravity is less of a problem for swimmers than
for animals that move on land or fly.
Locomotion on Land: walking, running, hopping, or crawling on land. These requires an animal to support itself and move
against gravity.
Flight requires that wings develop enough lift to overcome the downward force of gravity

Disorders / Abnormalities
Cramps – prolonged / severe muscular contractions
Fatigue – lactic acid accumulation
Spasms – result of strong involuntary muscular contractions due to impairment of blood supply or lack of oxygen; muscles
become susceptible to nerve stimuli and constrict with maximal vigor in response to a weak discharge.
Contusions – injury of soft tissues due to kicks / falls; hemorrhage in the injured part resulting to skin discoloration.
Muscular dystrophy – progressive weakness of the muscle. Genetic disease due to some breakdown in metabolism or
probably to hormonal function breakdown.
Myasthenia gravis – progressive muscular paralysis, abnormal exhaustibility of voluntary muscles; involves face, lips,
tongue, throat and neck; accounts for the expressionless face and drooping eyelids.
Rheumatism – general term for diseases that cause pain in the muscle, joints, tendon, bone, fibrous tissue resulting to
discomfort and disability.
Muscle fibrillation – rapid contractionand quivering of myofibrils.
Rigor mortis – stiffness and rigidity of the body (skeletal and cardiac) after death due to muscle plasma (protein coagulation
or precipitation).