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143 views

Sample 7780

Book

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Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning

Artificial Intelligence and


Machine Learning

VINOD CHANDRA S.S.


Director, Computer Centre
University of Kerala
Thiruvananthapuram

ANAND HAREENDRAN S.
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
College of Engineering
Trivandrum

Delhi-110092
2014
ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND MACHINE LEARNING
Vinod Chandra S.S. and Anand Hareendran S.

© 2014 by PHI Learning Private Limited, Delhi. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be
reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without permission in writing from the
publisher.

ISBN-978-81-203-4934-6

The export rights of this book are vested solely with the publisher.

Published by Asoke K. Ghosh, PHI Learning Private Limited, Rimjhim House, 111, Patparganj
Industrial Estate, Delhi-110092 and Printed by Mohan Makhijani at Rekha Printers Private Limited,
New Delhi-110020.
Contents

Preface xi
Acknowledgements xiii

1. INTRODUCTION 1–31
1.1 Definitions of Artificial Intelligence 2
1.2 Artificial Intelligence Problems 4
1.3 Topics of Artificial Intelligence 6
1.3.1 Learning Systems 6
1.3.2 Knowledge Representation and Reasoning 6
1.3.3 Planning 7
1.3.4 Knowledge Acquisition 7
1.3.5 Intelligent Search 7
1.3.6 Logic Programming 7
1.3.7 Soft Computing 8
1.3.8 Management of Imprecision and Uncertainty 8
1.4 Timelines of Artificial Intelligence 9
1.5 Production Systems 14
1.5.1 Travelling Salesman Problem 16
1.5.2 Water-Jug Problem 17
1.5.3 The Knight’s Tour Problem 18
1.6 State Space Representation 19
1.6.1 State Space Search 19
1.6.2 Tic-Tac-Toe as a State Space 20
1.6.3 The Missionaries and Cannibals Problem 20
1.7 Branches of Artificial Intelligence 21
1.8 Applications of Artificial Intelligence 23
1.8.1 Game Playing 23
1.8.2 Expert Systems 23
1.8.3 Natural Language Processing 24
1.8.4 Image Understanding 24
1.8.5 Robotics 25
1.8.6 Machine Learning 25
1.8.7 Pattern Recognition 27

v
vi Contents

1.8.8 Virtual Reality 27


1.8.9 Computer Vision 28
1.8.10 Nature Inspired Computing 29
1.8.11 Intelligent Control 30
1.9 Exercises 30

2. HEURISTIC SEARCH TECHNIQUES 32–55


2.1 Generate-and-Test 32
2.2 Hill Climbing 33
2.2.1 Simulated Annealing 34
2.3 Search Techniques 37
2.3.1 Depth First Search 38
2.3.2 Breadth First Search 38
2.3.3 Greedy Method 40
2.3.4 Best First Search Algorithm 41
2.3.5 A* Algorithm 42
2.4 Problem Reduction 45
2.4.1 AND–OR Graphs 45
2.4.2 The AO* Algorithm 45
2.4.3 Towers of Hanoi Problem 47
2.5 Constraints Satisfaction 48
2.6 Means-ends Analysis 50
2.7 Exercises 52

3. GAME PLAYING 56–69


3.1 MINIMAX Procedure 57
3.2 Alpha-Beta Pruning 60
3.3 Combined Approach 63
3.4 Exercises 67

4. KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION 70–81


4.1 Knowledge Management 71
4.1.1 Value of Knowledge Management 72
4.1.2 Categories of Knowledge 73
4.2 Types of Knowledge 74
4.2.1 Declarative Knowledge 74
4.2.2 Procedural Knowledge 76
4.3 Knowledge Representation 76
4.4 Approaches to Knowledge Representation 77
4.5 Issues in Knowledge Representation 78
4.6 Knowledge Base 79
4.7 Exercises 80

5. KNOWLEDGE REPRESENTATION STRUCTURES 82–107


5.1 First-order Logic 84
5.1.1 Basic Predicate Representations 86
5.1.2 Conversion of WFF to Clause Form 87
Contents vii

5.1.3 Resolution 89
5.1.4 Resolution Examples 90
5.1.5 Issues with Resolution 92
5.2 Frames 92
5.3 Conceptual Dependency 95
5.4 Scripts 97
5.5 Semantic Network 100
5.6 Exercises 103

6. REASONING 108–124
6.1 Types of Reasoning 108
6.2 Non-monotonic Inference Methods 113
6.3 Non-monotonic Reasoning 114
6.4 Truth Maintenance Systems 114
6.5 Reasoning with Fuzzy Logic 116
6.5.1 Fuzzy Sets 116
6.5.2 Fuzzy Reasoning 116
6.6 Rule-based Reasoning 117
6.6.1 Backward Reasoning 118
6.6.2 Forward Reasoning 119
6.7 Diagnosis Reasoning 121
6.7.1 Case-based Reasoning Systems 121
6.7.2 Model-based Reasoning Systems 123
6.8 Exercises 123

7. LEARNING 125–145
7.1 Types of Learning 126
7.1.1 Rote Learning 126
7.1.2 Learning by Parameter Adjustment 127
7.1.3 Learning by General Problem Solving 127
7.1.4 Concept Learning 128
7.1.5 Learning by Analogy 128
7.2 Machine Learning 129
7.2.1 Why Machine Learning? 129
7.2.2 Types of Problems in Machine Learning 131
7.2.3 History of Machine Learning 133
7.2.4 Aspects of Inputs to Training 134
7.2.5 Learning Systems 136
7.2.6 Machine Learning Applications 137
7.2.7 Quantification of Classification 137
7.3 Intelligent Agents 139
7.4 Exercises 144

8. ASSOCIATION LEARNING 146–166


8.1 Basics of Association 146
8.2 Apriori Algorithm 147
8.3 Eclat Algorithm 150
viii Contents

8.4 FP Growth Algorithm 152


8.5 Tertius Algorithm 157
8.6 Case Studies 157
8.6.1 Customer Sequence: Apriori Algorithm 158
8.6.2 Bank Loan Status: Association Rule Formation 158
8.6.3 Comparison of Associate Rule Algorithms 161
8.7 SCADA Application by FP Growth Algorithm 163
8.8 Exercises 164

9. CLUSTERING 167–185
9.1 k-Means Clustering 168
9.2 Fuzzy Clustering 173
9.3 Hierarchical Clustering 175
9.3.1 Agglomerative and Divisive Clustering (ADC) 178
9.3.2 Hierarchical Agglomerative Clustering (HAC) 178
9.4 Cluster Similarity 179
9.5 Case Studies 180
9.5.1 Clustering Cancerous Cells 180
9.5.2 Document Clustering 182
9.6 Exercises 185

10. REINFORCEMENT LEARNING 186–200


10.1 Markov Decision Problem 188
10.2 Q-learning 191
10.2.1 Q-Learning Algorithm 191
10.3 Temporal Difference Learning 194
10.3.1 On-policy and Off-policy Learning 195
10.3.2 Advantages of TD Prediction Methods 195
10.4 Learning Automata 196
10.5 Case Studies 198
10.5.1 Super Mario: Reinforced Learning 198
10.6 Exercises 199

11. STATISTICAL LEARNING 201–249


11.1 Hidden Markov Models 202
11.1.1 Stochastic Processes 202
11.1.2 Markov Process 203
11.1.3 Hidden Markov Models 207
11.1.4 Three Basic Problems for HMMs 213
11.1.5 Forward–Backward Procedure 214
11.1.6 Viterbi Algorithm 216
11.1.7 Baum–Welch Algorithm 217
11.2 Linear Classifiers 219
11.3 Quadratic Classifiers 221
11.4 Decision Trees 223
11.4.1 C4.5 Algorithm 225
11.4.2 ID3 Algorithm 227
11.4.3 Random Forest 230
Contents ix

11.5 Bayesian Networks 232


11.5.1 Bayesian Networks Learning 235
11.5.2 Limitation of Bayesian Networks 235
11.6 Case Studies 236
11.6.1 The Dishonest Casino: HMM 236
11.6.2 Two Letter Word Model: HMM 237
11.6.3 Linguistic Colouring: HMM 240
11.6.4 Education Loans: Decision Trees 243
11.7 Exercises 247

12. ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETS 250–269


12.1 ANN Basics 251
12.2 ANN—Learning Process 253
12.3 Types of Networks 254
12.4 Perceptron 256
12.4.1 Multilayer Perceptron 257
12.4.2 Error Back-propagation Algorithm 258
12.5 RBF Networks 261
12.6 ANN Summary 263
12.7 Case Studies 264
12.7.1 Character Recognition: ANN 264
12.7.2 Weight Balancing: Back Propagation Algorithm 265
12.8 Exercises 268

13. SUPERVISED LEARNING 270–296


13.1 Support Vector Machines 270
13.2 Inductive Logic Programming 273
13.2.1 Generic ILP Algorithm 274
13.2.2 Principal Approaches to ILP 275
13.2.3 Characteristics of ILP System 277
13.3 Case-based Reasoning 278
13.3.1 How does CBR Work? 278
13.3.2 Case Base and Case Representation 279
13.3.3 Where to use CBR? 280
13.3.4 CBR Issues 281
13.4 Ensemble Classifiers 281
13.4.1 AdaBoost 283
13.4.2 Bayes Optimal Classifier 284
13.5 Nearest Neighbourhood 285
13.6 Fuzzy Network 287
13.6.1 Fuzzy Systems 288
13.6.2 Info Fuzzy Networks 289
13.6.3 Fuzzy Neural Systems 289
13.7 Case Studies 291
13.7.1 Word Model: SVM 291
13.7.2 Education Loans: k-Nearest Neighbours 293
13.7.3 Personal Scheduler: ILP 293
13.8 Exercises 296
Artificial Intelligence And Machine
Learning

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