Shale

fluid system system guidelines
guidelines
section 11
roles and responsibilities
section 11a
roles and responsibilities 01
Section 11a
roles and responsibilities – mud engineers
The drilling fluids engineer is the KMC Oiltools representative and
therefore responsible for the day-to-day operations at the wellsite.
The lead / senior drilling fluids engineer and the second / junior engineer
are responsible for the daily running of the mud and all activities associated
with the operation, including but not limited to: fluid testing, logistics,
inventory control and communication with the drill crew, the mud loggers,
other members of the mud team and primarily the operators drilling
representative.
The drilling fluids engineers are responsible for all mixing and
maintenance of the drilling fluid, at the wellsite, as per the drilling fluids
programme and amendments. They will also suggest changes to the
operators drilling supervisor as conditions dictate preferably including
discussion with the KMC Oiltools operations manager / co-ordinator
beforehand when possible.
The drilling fluids engineers will comply with all of the operators and
rig contractor’s HSE plans, and carry out their specific HSE drilling
fluid responsibilities.
The roles and responsibilities for the drilling fluid engineers may vary
depending on the particular job and operator, e.g. onshore / offshore,
drilling with WBM / OBM / SBM, deepwater, ERD, HPHT etc., and in many
cases the following list will be considerably more expansive and detailed
than shown here:-
Role Responsibility
HSE ✓ Attend operators / contractors safety meetings and
advise on all matters pertaining to KMC Oiltools HS&E
and products. The requirements for drilling fluids
engineers is not only to attend but to contribute to
safety meetings onsite is also important, including
giving presentations on the fluids and chemicals
being used.
✓ Give toolbox / pre tour talks on chemical safety.
✓ Take part in risk assessments relevant to fluids in
particular for first use of new systems e.g. SBM/OBM etc.,
02 roles and responsibilities
Section 11a
Role Responsibility
✓ Ensure correct and updated safety posters are in place
in the mud and sack rooms or mixing areas for land
rigs.
✓ Ensure MSDS are up to date and easy to locate.
✓ Use rig specific HSE observation system e.g. STOP.
Daily ✓ Maintain safe & tidy mud laboratory.
✓ Be familiar with all aspects of the drilling unit and
Mud it’s equipment including limitations and bottlenecks
Maintenance that may impact the efficiency of the drilling fluid
and service.
Performance ✓ Ensure that all drilling fluid systems are correctly
formulated to fully meet the company’s fluid
specifications prior to displacement into the well.
✓ Ensure that clear written instructions are provided
to all relevant rig crew working in the pit room,
mixing area, shaker house and rig floor to cover
all planned fluid transfers, chemical additions and
solids control equipment utilisation.
✓ Ensure that mud logging and drilling personnel are
informed of all transfers or changes of pit utilisation.
✓ Ensure that all drilling fluid properties are
maintained, as specified in the drilling fluid
programme.
✓ Perform all necessary API mud checks for mud report
– minimum 3 times daily while drilling. Mud test
results that deviate sharply from established mud
property trends must be re-run before treatments
commence to reverse apparent negative trends.
✓ Run pilot tests as required to diagnose drilling fluid
problems, identify their solutions and/or optimise
chemical treatment levels.
✓ Calibrate, maintain and monitor certification of mud
testing equipment.
✓ Closely monitor the condition, i.e. shape, size and
integrity, and volume of cuttings at the shale shakers
to assess the adequacy of:-
Section 11a
Role Responsibility
✓ Formation inhibition (water based mud)
✓ Salinity levels (synthetic based mud)
✓ Hole stability (mud weight)
✓ Hole cleaning efficiency
✓ Reconcile circulating volumes on a continuous basis
in particular with OBM / SBM.
✓ Optimise solids control equipment performance
to minimise the build up of low gravity solids and
therefore maintain plastic viscosity values as low as
possible.
✓ Select and monitor shaker screen sizes and usage.
Order new screens.
✓ Closely monitor, control and minimise surface drilling
fluid losses.
✓ Ensure that the rig crews monitor and record pit
volumes, density and marsh funnel viscosity as
required, i.e. minimum 30 minute intervals during
drilling / circulating operations.
✓ 7-day sample rota:-collect a 1-litre mud sample
every day and store this sample for 7 days. This can
be done by having seven 1-litre bottles, one for each
day. When all 7 bottles are full, the bottle from day
one shall be emptied and filled with a sample from
the present day. The mud sample has to match a mud
check, preferably the last mud check for the day. (You
have to notify the laboratory which mud check this is
on the daily report, if you have to send the samples to
the lab.).
✓ Carry out mud pit management, including;
identifying fluid interfaces, spacers, pills, cement and
divert.
✓ Prepare pit management plans for upcoming
operations e.g. intervals displacements, spotting
pills / LCM, well clean up etc.
Daily ✓ Call operations manager / co-ordinator.
✓ Attend operators morning meeting as required.
Meetings / ✓ Attend operators / contractors safety meetings /
Section 11a
Role Responsibility
Calls per tour safety meetings, advise on all matters
pertaining to KMC Oiltools HS&E and products.
✓ Report unscheduled events in operators specific
system, attend meeting if required.
Daily ✓ Prepare and distribute drilling fluids report.
Reporting ✓ Complete all sections of the daily mud report.
✓ If drilling fluid properties are out of specification a
comment should be put on the daily drilling fluid
report explaining the reason for the nonconformity
and the plan for bringing the properties back into
specification.
✓ If the well conditions or other operational
circumstances dictate the properties to be out of
specification this should also be stated as a comment
on the report.
✓ All mud treatments should be commented on in the
daily report.
✓ Update all end of well reports / graphs for fluid
trends, volumes, inventory, discharge etc.
✓ Update end of well written report.
✓ Update volume reports, transport loss,
concentration sheets and other contract specific
reports for signatures by KMC Oiltools and
operator.
✓ Write handover to night / second engineer to be
completed thoroughly.
✓ Maintain discharge / environmental reports.
✓ Update shaker screen usage sheet.
End of Hitch ✓ Compile end of hitch report.
Paperwork ✓ Complete timesheet / service voucher signed by
engineer and operator.
End of ✓ Complete – and send to town - all end of well
Section reports / graphs for fluid trends/, volumes, inventory,
Reporting discharge etc. as required for the well.
End of Well ✓ Complete all aspects of end of well report with
reporting emphasis on performance measures achievement,
lessons learned and conclusions / recommendations
for future wells.
✓ Update rig information manual / rig drilling fluids
audit / rig induction manual.
Section 11a
Role Responsibility
Logistics ✓ Order chemicals / bulk (drill water if applicable) in a
timely manner.
✓ Order laboratory chemicals and equipment.
✓ Advise on the loading / unloading of bulk fluids &
chemical containers.
✓ Advise rig crews to ensure cargo is securely fastened
e.g. cargo nets in containers.
✓ Chemicals and fluids are to be ordered and
accounted for in units according to contract.
✓ Ensure that all materials received at the rig site and
handled for shipment to shore or land warehouse
are correctly stored, handled and used according
to guidelines given in quality plans and materials
safety data sheets. Maintain a rig site chemical and
container inventory sheet including; chemical name,
container number, amount and location of items.
Update on a regular basis for information purposes.
✓ Perform QA / QC checks on received dry bulk and
liquid muds / brines as specified by the operator.
✓ Take samples for and send to office as requested for
QA / QC testing.
✓ Update chemical inventory and container list –
offshore.
✓ With any backload of chemicals, mud, laboratory
equipment, copies of the Backload manifest to be
sent. Ensure that bulk barite stocks are maintained
above government / company’s minimum stipulated
levels.
✓ Ensure that pipe freeing agents are available and
accessible for immediate displacement.
✓ Ensure that stock levels of lost circulation materials
are maintained above minimum specified levels.
✓ Ensure that all materials and equipment orders
for the next hole section or operation are carefully
prepared in advance.
✓ Order and maintain an adequate inventory for
supplies of PC, testing equipment and testing
chemicals.
Section 11a
Role Responsibility
End of job ✓ Last engineer on rig due to down-manning etc., to
and or prepare full chemical, liquid mud, and equipment
Demanning inventory. This sheet must be signed by drilling
supervisor and sent to the office.
water base drilling fluids
section 11b
water base drilling fluids
Section 11b
contents
spud muds .............................................................................................................................1
hydro-foil ................................................................................................................................6
hydro-foil gen 1 ..................................................................................................................13
hydro-foil S8 .......................................................................................................................18
salt polymer ........................................................................................................................26
opta-flo .................................................................................................................................30
rheo-plex ..............................................................................................................................36
dispersed and calcium muds .......................................................................................41
01 water base drilling fluids
Section 11b
spud muds
This system consists of water which has been viscosified with DRILL-
GEL (Bentonite) or guar gum. This system is normally used to spud a
well and to drill top hole sections, often being pumped as sweeps when
drilling blind. The basic system has little inhibitive characteristics and
as it is usually used where the primary concern is hole cleaning, there is
little or zero need for inhibition or fluid loss control.
When drilling top hole sections, the operational practice may require
displacing the hole to a weighted spud mud before running casing. This
displacement mud may be engineered to fulfil more specific requirements
and will be addressed in well specific planning.
Benefits of the DRILL-GEL Spud Mud System

ƒ Fluid has high carrying capacity
ƒ Simple to formulate
ƒ Highly flexible can be converted into different systems
ƒ Low costs
ƒ Simple to use
ƒ Environmentally benign
Limitations of the DRILL-GEL Spud Mud System

ƒ May have logistical restrictions on fresh water availability in
remote locations
ƒ Requires time to mix
ƒ In complex spuds, logistics are difficult
ƒ Requires high quality water, with low chlorides and low
hardness
ƒ Easily contaminated
Formulation
An example of a basic Spud Mud formulation is shown in Table 1.
PRODUCT Function CONCENTRATION

drill water Base Fluid +0.95 bbl/bbl
soda ash Total Hardness Reducer To Ca++ <100 mg/l
water base drilling fluids 02
Section 11b
DRILL-GEL Viscosifier 20 - 30 lb/bbl
caustic soda pH modifier To pH 9+
PROPERTY TYPICAL VALUE UNITS
Mud Weight 8.8 lb/gal
PV 20 cP
YP 20 - 60 lbs / 100ft2
6 RPM 10 + dial reading
Gel 11/20 lbs / 100ft2
API No control ml / 30 min
Table 1 – Indicative DRILL-GEL spud mud formulation
The normal method is to prehydrate DRILL-GEL (PHB) at concentrations
of 35 - 40 lb/bbl in drill (fresh) water, allowing the gel to hydrate as
long as operationally possible. The fluid is then diluted to give a final
bentonite concentration of + 20 lb/bbl with water.
To maximise the yield of the DRILL-GEL high quality water is

recommended throughout, however, due to logistical / operational
restraints the initial prehydration should be performed in high
quality drill water then diluted with seawater or lower quality water e.g.
brackish water.
To optimise the hydration, 6 – 8 hours minimum is required for the

DRILL-GEL to fully yield.
While the basic formulation detailed in Table 1 is very simple,

operational needs may dictate the addition of other products to ensure
the integrity of the hole and the security of the operations. Typical
contingency / supplementary products and reasons for addition to the
basic bentonite system are detailed in Table 2.
Chemical Function Operational Concentration

HYDRO-PAC Viscosity and Enhanced 1.0 – 5.0 lb/bbl
Filtration filtration control
in displacement
mud and sweeps
CMC Viscosity and Enhanced 1.0 – 5.0 lb/bbl
in displacement
mud and sweeps
Section 11b

KMC-STARCH Viscosity and Enhanced 1.0 – 5.0 lb/bbl
in displacement
mud and sweeps
HYDRO-CIDE Biocide Prevention of 500 -1000 ppm
microbiological
action
DRILL-BAR Barite To build spud As required
mud and
displacement
mud where
density is greater
than 8.8 lb/gal
Table 2 –Supplementary Products
Engineering Guidelines
The primary concern while drilling and casing the top hole is to ensure
that it is performed safely, quickly because the integrity of the hole may
be time dependant, and economically.
When drilling with a spud mud the major concern is to ensure there is
always sufficient volume available to complete the operation. Thus a
high level emphasis should be placed on ensuring the availability of
bentonite, drill water and other required chemicals. As there may also be
requirements for displacement and cementing fluids as well as the spud
mud, a pit management is a major consideration during the planning and
execution of the operations.
Offshore
On an offshore rig the normal approach is to drill riserless, with no
returns to surface. The rig pumps are used to continuously pump
seawater down hole. The bentonite is then pumped as sweeps to clean
the hole. These sweeps are pumped according to operational needs,
usually at every connection and every 30 ft. The volume of these sweeps
vary according to needs of the operation but are normally in the range
of 50 - 100 bbl, depending on hole size, pump capability and rate of
penetration.
Section 11b
At the end of the section the hole is normally swept with a large spud
mud pill, generally 100 - 200 bbl, to ensure that the hole is clean. In order
to ensure the integrity of the hole during the casing and cementing,
operations the hole is then displaced to a fluid which may be weighted,
may contain some filtration control polymers, fine LCM and or inhibitors
such as KCl. An excess volume, usually 50% over the gauge hole volume,
is pumped to ensure that the hole is full.
Onshore
The approach is normally to circulate water from the water pit, taking
returns to the cellar pit and recirculating. Sweeps can then be pumped to
ensure the hole is cleaned.
Once the conductor (the top hole casing string) is set, normally ± 50 - 100
ft, the spud mud can be circulated from the pits taking returns via the
flow line and through the solids control equipment.
Mixing Spud Mud

ƒ Treat out the hardness of the water with soda ash. Ensure
hardness value is less than 200 mg/l
ƒ Mix in the required DRILL-GEL
ƒ Leave gel to hydrate for as long as possible
ƒ Cut back the prehydrated bentonite with the required volume of
water
ƒ Added the required caustic soda
As mentioned above displacement fluids for top holes may be, diluted
spud mud, neat PHB or spud mud / PHB containing polymers, lost
circulation materials and may also be weighted. This will be mixed as
described above with the addition of the required products.
Cementing
Bentonite spud mud is sensitive to cement contamination. The effect of
cement is to flocculate the bentonite, increase the pH. If the fluid is to
be salvaged to drill another section, pre-treatment with sodium
bicarbonate should be considered and at the end of the cement job, the
contamination treated out by use of SAPP and /or dumping and diluting.
Section 11b
If salvaging the fluid is not required, it is suggested that the fluid is kept
to drill out the rat hole and the shoe, provided this is operationally
feasible. This will prevent the contamination of more expensive fluids by
the cement.
Alternative Spud System – GUAR GUM

The logistical limitations to the use of DRILL-GEL sweeps may require
the use of an alternative system particularly in the offshore environment.
The most common and economically effective alternative is guar gum
which can be mixed directly with seawater. The concentration of guar gum
is normally in the range 3.0 - 5.0 lb/bbl.
PRODUCT Function
sea water Required
citric acid Only if necessary to reduce the pH <8.0
guar gum 4.0 lb/bbl
HYDRO-CIDE Only if fluid is to be stored more than 24 hours.
Recommended Mixing Procedure:

1. Ensure the chosen pit is clean and free of any hydroxyl bearing fluid
e.g. lime, caustic soda or biocide. Guar Gum will not hydrate in the
presence of hydroxyl ions. pH <8.0 is recommended. If necessary treat
the mixing water with citric acid to lower the pH prior to mixing the
guar gum.
2. Fill the pit to the required level with sea water.
3. Mix guar gum slowly through the hopper to avoid “Fish Eyes” and
then circulate through the shearing unit. Do not over shear as this
will eventually degrade the polymer chain and result in lowering the
viscosity.
4. Add biocide if the guar gum slurry is to be left for more than 24 hours.
This should only be added after the guar gum has been completely
dispersed and hydrated.
It should be noted that although guar gum sweeps have high viscosity,
they have little gel structure giving minimal suspension characteristics.
They should be used as ‘sweeps’ only.
Section 11b
hydro-foil
HYDRO-FOIL is a KCl / PHPA low solids, non dispersed drilling fluid
system that is used primarily to drill moderately reactive shales. It can be
used effectively at temperatures up to 275˚ F – 300˚ F.
The primary shale inhibition mechanisms in the HYDRO-FOIL system are:
1. The cation exchange of potassium ions with the clay to reduce

hydration and swelling in conjunction with;
2. ENCAPSUL-8 a partially hydrolysed polyacrylamide (PHPA) which
adheres to the surface of the drilled cuttings, encapsulating them,
and also coating the well bore reducing the hydration of clays in the
formation.
Potassium chloride is the primary source of the potassium ions in the

HYDRO-FOIL system. However due to restriction on the use of chloride
ions, in some areas, the potassium Ion may also be supplied by:-
ƒ potassium sulphate ƒ potassium formate

ƒ potassium carbonate ƒ potassium acetate
The HYDRO-FOIL system can be used in any salinity from freshwater

to near NaCl saturation, although in the higher salt content systems
increased polymer concentrations will be required as the polymer does
not fully uncoil and hydrate.
When using a HYDRO-FOIL system formulated with potassium

carbonate a third mechanism of inhibition is speculated. The calcium
ions in the interstitial (pore) fluids will cause the carbonate ions in the
filtrate to precipitate, plugging the pore throats and reducing the pore
pressure transmission effect.
Benefits of the HYDRO-FOIL system include
• Effective inhibition
• Environmentally acceptable in most areas
• Highly lubricious fluid
• Simple to use
Section 11b
• Readily upgradeable to more advanced systems such as HYDRO-

FOIL GEN 1
Formulation
An example of a HYDRO-FOIL formulation and mud properties is shown in
Table 3.
Product Function Concentration

drill water Base Fluid 0.85 bbl/bbl
Salt (KCl) Water activity + 30 lb/bbl
and density
caustic soda / pH modifier To pH 9.0
potassium hydroxide
XC-EED / XC-EED RD Viscosifier 0.75 -1.0 lb/bbl
HYDRO-PAC Filtration Control 1 - 3 lb/bbl
HYDRO-STAR Filtration Control 4 - 8 lb/bbl
CMS, HT or NF)
DRILL-BAR Barite As required
Property Typical Value Units
PV 20 cP
YP 30 lbs / 100ft2
6 RPM 11 dial reading
Gel 7 / 10 / 12 lbs / 100ft2
API <5 ml / 30 min
HTHP (@ Bottom <12 ml / 30 min
Hole Temp °F)
Table 3 – Indicative HYDRO-FOIL formulation

In addition to the basic products supplementary products can be used to
optimise the system for specific use as detailed in Table 4.
Chemical Function Concentration

OX-SCAV Oxygen scavenger to 120 ppm
extend usage in high
temperature and salinity
sodium To increase inhibition and To 110 lb/bbl
chloride to drill in salt environment
Section 11b
OX-SCAV Oxygen scavenger to 0.85 bbl/bbl
extend usage in high
temperature and salinity
ENCAPSUL-8 SC Low Molecular Weight 1 -1.5 lb/bbl
PHPA
ENCAPSUL-8 RD Readily dispersible -- 1 -1.5 lb/bbl
high-molecular weight
PHPA
HYDRO-CIDE Biocide 500 -1000 ppm
DRILL-GEL Viscosifier. Used in initial 5 lb/bbl
make up
HYDRO-THIN Deflocculant 0.5 - 1 lb/bbl
SULPHO-PLAST High Temperature 2 - 8 lb/bbl
Filtration Controller
SLICKEN-8 ROP Enhancer 0.5 - 5%
Table 4 –Supplementary products for HYDRO-FOIL System
Maintain a minimum of 1 lb/bbl of excess PHPA in the system as determined
by a materials balance calculation.
The ENCAPSUL-8 concentration in the system will deplete while drilling

as the PHPA encapsulates the cutting and coats the wellbore. The
ENCAPSUL-8 concentration must be maintained by regular treatments,
ideally in the form of ENCAPSUL-8 rich pre-mixes.
The PHPA concentration may be measured using the test described in

Section 3 of this Handbook, Mud Testing Procedures.
Field experience has determined that as a general rule the PHPA

depletes at a rate of 2 – 8 lb/bbl of cuttings removed depending on the
reactivity of the formation:-
Typical Depletion Factors
Highly reactive shales 6 - 8 lb/bbl

Moderately reactive shales 4 - 6 lb/bbl
Low reactivity shales 2 – 4 lb/bbl
Actual depletion factors should be determined on a formation by

formation and field by field basis.
Section 11b
e.g.
Drilled 100m of 12 _” Hole ( 0.4783 bbl/m) - moderately reactive shale -
depletion factor = 5 lb/bbl
Total depletion = 100 x .4783 * 5 = 239 lbs of PHPA
Required to add to maintain > 1 lb/bbl excess = 5 x 25 kg sacks (275 lbs)
NB. Liquid PHPA , ENCAPSUL-8 L, is 35% active PHPA so 14 x 25 kg pails

of liquid PHPA would be required to maintain the 1 lb/bbl excess
Mixing HYDRO-FOIL
While mixing the HYDRO-FOIL system the shearing of the fluid has to
be maximised. It is recommended that a shearing unit be used and
that shearing is maximised by circulating through the gun lines. However
once the polymers are mixed it is recommended that high pressure
shearing is stopped, as the long chain encapsulating polymer will be
physically degraded.
ƒ Treat out the hardness with soda ash. Ensure hardness value is less
than 200 mg/l.
ƒ Blend the brine (KCl, NaCl or alternative).
ƒ Add the ENCAPSUL-8 polymer. If possible use the SHOTGUN
(described below) method.
ƒ Add the remaining polymers. Care must be taken so as not to mix
these so fast that fish eyes will form.
ƒ Add the required amounts of bridging material.
ƒ Add the pH modifiers.
ƒ Weight up the system.
ƒ Just prior to circulating, add the polymer extenders if required.
A limitation with a PHPA system is the difficulty of mixing the dry

polymer since, if the polymer is mixed too quickly into the fluid it will
very easily form fish eyes. Alternative mixing solutions include:-
1. Have the polymer solubilised into the brine and shipped from town
for offshore locations.
2. Have a stock of ENCAPSUL-8 L. Note however that this is 35 % active.
3. Reduce the pH of the brine with citric acid to 6. Then mix in the
polymer. Raise the pH to 8 with caustic after all the polymers is
mixed in.
Section 11b
4. If the initial viscosity is too high and there are mixing limitations,
mix only half of the required PHPA in the initial mix and add the
remainder after displacement while drilling.
5. Mix the PHPA by the SHOTGUN method.
ƒ Have the total volume to be treated in one pit and an empty pity
pit ready.
ƒ Have all the sacks of ENCAPSUL-8 by the hopper.
ƒ Transfer the volume from the pit to be treated to the empty pit.
ƒ Add the sacked ENCAPSUL-8 via the hopper to the transfer
stream approximately 1 sack every 1 minute. Ensure that the
hopper does not become blocked.
In some cases the product specified for particular application might

be ENCAPSUL-8 SC a low molecular weight, short chain, PHPA or
ENCAPSUL-8 RD a PHPA treated to make it easier to mix and disperse.
In both cases mixing will be easier as initial fluid viscosities from these
products will be reduced.
Hardness
It is recommended that the hardness level is minimised. Prior to mixing
the system treat out hardness with soda ash. The efficiency of the
polymers is improved when the calcium concentration is less than 200
mg/l.
Fluid Loss Control

Maintain filtrate as per requirements by the use of HYDRO-PAC and
or HYDRO-STAR. The type of HYDRO-PAC (R or UL) will be decided
by the operational requirements. Ideally it is recommended that
HYDRO-PAC UL is used in the initial formulation as this has minimal
impact on the rheology compared with the use of HYDRO-PAC R.
Rheology
While the ENCAPSUL-8 will add considerable initial rheology to the
mud this will eventually shear thin with circulation and temperature.
Xanthan Gum, XC-EED or XC-EED RD, is recommended to achieve the
desired rheological properties as this product delivers improved low
end rheology and shear thinning characteristics. The shear thinning
Section 11b
rheology from XC-EED is preferred to the rheology achieved with the

use of products such as HYDRO-PAC R.
pH
This should be maintained at 8.5 – 9.5. High pH will result in hydrolysing
of the polymer, at pH above 10.0 hydrolysis of the PHPA will start
resulting in the release of ammonia gas (NH3 ) which is very evident on
the rig even at low concentrations. In the event that the system is over
treated, treat immediately with citric acid to reduce to the specified
level. To prevent pH hot spots, pH modifiers should be pre-solubilised
before addition to the system.
Due to the hydrolysis of the PHPA at high pH it is not recommended to

drill cement with the HYDRO-FOIL system unless it is unavoidable. If
cement has to be drilled then the mud should be pre-treated with using
a low molecular weight polyacrylate thinner such as HYDRO-THIN.
Subsequent treatment with and additional ENCAPSUL-8 and other
products should be made as required to achieve specifications.
Density
Density is provided from DRILL-BAR and or DRILL-CARB. If higher
densities or flatter rheological profiles are required, the HYDRO-FOIL
system can be formulated with HAEMATITE.
Temperature Limitation and Treatment

The HYDRO-FOIL system is effective in a range of temperatures from
275˚ - 300˚ F. Thermal stability being dependent on the type and
concentration of salt in the formulation, the use of oxygen scavengers.
Fluid loss, in particular the HPHT, can be controlled with the addition of
HYDRO-THERM Amps/Co-polymers.
Cementing
HYDRO-FOIL is particularly sensitive to cement contamination. Cement
contamination increases the calcium ion content and the pH of a fluid
which has the effect of hydrolysing the PHPA polymers, thus increasing
filter loss and reducing rheology.
ƒ When cementing it is recommended a large sacrificial spacer is

used to protect the fluid system.
Section 11b
ƒ When cementing a liner ensure that all the excess cement and
spacer is reverse circulated out of hole.
ƒ If possible on the first circulation after a conventional cement job
is over it is recommended that an attempt is made to isolate any
preflush and excess cement.
ƒ Prior to a cement job consideration needs to be made whether
to pre-treat the system to deal with bicarbonate to treat out
possible contamination. However be aware of the possibility of
over treatment.
ƒ To prevent the contamination of the HYDRO-FOIL system it is
recommended that the old fluid, which will be displaced from the
hole, is used to drill out the cement and shoe.
It is worth noting that although the high pH from cement

contamination will degrade the ENCAPSUL-8 polymer the residue will
contain some acrylate polymer which has significant encapsulating
properties. It may therefore be possible to isolate the contaminated
fluid, treat out the cement contamination then reuse as a base fluid.
Section 11b
hydro-foil gen 1
HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 is a KCl / PHPA system which has been enhanced
by increasing the inhibition of the fluid with the inclusion of cloud point
glycol(s).
Mechanism of Shale Stabilisation

The 2 methods of shale inhibition from the HYDRO-FOIL system,
potassium and PHPA encapsulation are enhanced by the clouding
effect of the glycol which prevents pore pressure transmission. The
stabilisation mechanisms combine synergistically to provide inhibition
close to that of non aqueous fluids.
At a specific temperature (cloud point) a water soluble glycol starts

to change from soluble to insoluble, forming a thermally activated
emulsion (TAME). As the temperature increases the glycol starts to come
out of solution and the liquid begins clouding. Eventually the single
phase liquid separates into two separate phases.
A B
Figure 1 Visualisation of Glycol Behaviour as a

Function of Temperature
Section 11b
A: Glycol and water together – at ambient temperature the glycol is 100%
water soluble
B: Solution is heated until the glycol reaches ‘cloud point’ and becomes
insoluble.
Cloud point is a function of the following variables:

ƒ Salinity of the solution ƒ Molecular weight and type
ƒ Type of electrolyte ƒ Concentration of the glycol
Figure 2. Cloud Points for Various Glycols in KCl Solutions
Research has concluded that the glycol is associated by hydrogen

bonding to the reactive sites of clays. During this adsorption process,
water is displaced and ordered structures of glycols are formed. There
is little depletion of the glycol from the fluid when drilling, the glycol
returning to solution as the cutting moves up the wellbore and the fluid
temperature drops below the cloud point. This supports the theory that
the bonding between the clay and the glycol is transitory, and there is
some mechanism for association and disassociation due to changes in the
environment.
Section 11b
It can be concluded that the shale inhibition and formation protection

will be achieved by one or both of the following mechanisms:
ƒ The glycol displaces water from adsorption sites on the clay

minerals present in shales, especially in the presence of potassium
Ions.
ƒ Blocking the formation pores, preventing further ingress of
invasive fluids by clouding out preventing pore pressure
transmission.
The HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 is compatible with and used with the same
range of salts as the HYDRO-FOIL system.
Benefits of the HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 system include
ƒ Effective inhibition ƒ Extension of polymeric

ƒ Environmentally acceptable efficiency at high
in most areas temperatures
ƒ High lubricity fluid ƒ Enhance drill solid
ƒ Ease of mixing and maintenance tolerance
ƒ Low dilution rates ƒ Enhanced solids control
ƒ Drilling depleted sands where efficiency
differential sticking is a ƒ Some protection against
potential problem corrosion by acid gasses
ƒ Increase protection against ƒ High flexibility
stuck pipe ƒ Possibility of recycling
ƒ Minimisation of bit and the fluid
BHA balling ƒ Simple to use
In order to cover the range of operational conditions KMC Oiltools has

developed a family of inhibitive clouding glycols:-
PPRODUCT Application
CIRRUS CPG Low to medium temperature applications
STRATUS CPG Medium temperature applications
CUMULUS CPG Moderate to high salinity brines or higher temperatures
NIMBUS CPG Saturated salt systems
Table 5. KMC-Oiltools Glycol Product Range
Section 11b
Glycol and Salt Selection
The quantity and type of glycol used will depend both on the quantity
and type of salt in the system as well as on the temperature range over
which the product is required to cloud out.
Normal glycol operational concentrations are in the range 0.5% to 5%.
Note although normal formulation usually contains only one type of

glycol, the glycols are all compatible and the use of a blend of two or
more glycols, e.g. CIRRUS and STRATUS, is possible, should this be
required to fulfil operational needs.
Formulation
An example of a HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 formulation and mud properties is
shown in Table 6.
salt Water activity and density 5 - 200 lb/bbl
caustic soda / pH modifier To pH 9.0
potassium hydroxide
ENCAPSUL-8 PHPA 0.75 -1.5lb/bbl
XC-EED / XC-EED RD Viscosifier 0.75 -1.0 lb/bbl
HYDRO-PAC Filtration Control 1 - 2 lb/bbl
HYDRO-STAR (CMS, Filtration Control 4 - 8 lb/bbl
HT, NF)
GLYCOL (CUMULUS GLYCOL 0.5 - 5% by
CPG, STRATUS CPG, volume
NIMBUS CPG, CIRRUS
CPG)
Mud Weight 8.4 - 18.8 lb/gal
PV ALAP cP
YP 30 lbs/100ft2
6 RPM 8 - 20 dial reading
Gel 7 / 10 / 12 lbs/100ft2
API <5 ml/30 min
HTHP (@ Bottom <12 ml/30 min
Hole Temp° F)
Table 6. Indicative HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 formulation
Section 11b
In addition to the basic products supplementary products can be used

to optimise the system for specific use as detailed in Table 4 –
Supplementary products for HYDRO-FOIL System
The HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 system is engineered in the same manner as
the HYDRO-FOIL system described in the previous section with the
exception of the addition of the glycol.
Glycol Concentration
The glycol concentration is measured using the method described in

Section 3 of this Handbook, Mud Testing Procedures.
Closely monitor the concentration, replacing lost product as required.

Field evidence shows that the rate of depletion is quite low as the product
returns to solution with reduced wellbore temperature.
If 2 glycols are used during a section closely follow the mud program
instructions on the relative concentration of each product with depth.
Section 11b
hydro-foil S8
HYDRO-FOIL S8 is a salt/polymer system which has been enhanced by
increasing the inhibition of the system with the inclusion in the formulation
of 5 -15% of sodium (SILIC-8 L) or potassium silicate. The silicate is used
to enhance inhibition and mechanical wellbore stability particularly in
highly fractured and unconsolidated formations. HYDRO-FOIL S8 can be
used effectively with temperatures to 250 0 F.
The primary shale inhibition mechanisms in the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system

are:
1. The cation exchange of ions, most commonly potassium, with the

clay to reduce hydration and swelling in conjunction with
2. The prevention of pore pressure transmission by the precipitation
of soluble silicates in the pore spaces
3. The use of cloud point glycols such as CIRRUS CPG which also
minimise the pore pressure transmission

As the soluble silicate laden filtrate comes into contact with or
penetrates the low pH formation the pH of the mud filtrate drops.
The drop in pH combined with a reaction with divalent cations such as
Mg ++ and Ca ++ present in the interstitial formation water results in the
formation of a silica gel which precipitates in the pore spaces blocking
further penetration by the drilling fluid.
The gel and the precipitate will quickly form an impenetrable layer
which prevents further fluid invasion thus retarding the transmission
of pressure from the hydrostatic mud column to the rock matrix. The
wellbore and the shale are effectively “pressure isolated” and Pore
Pressure Transmission is minimised. This latter phenomena is critical in
tectonically stressed and fractured shales, which require sufficient over
balance mud pressure to support the bore hole from collapsing.
The presence of solutes such as NaCl and KCl is synergetic and will
balance the mud and the shale activities to reduce the net flow of ions
into the shale. The presence of K + is useful as it will exchange for Ca ++ and
Mg ++ making these ions available to form precipitates.
Section 11b
Figure 3 Sealing of micro fractured shales by silicates

It should be noted that oil and synthetic based fluids cannot stabilise
such fractured shales, as their filtrates are restricted from entering or
invading the shales due to capillary threshold pressures, which are
significant for intact shales with small pores. Soluble silicates however
have the ability to fill small cracks and seal them.
Benefits of the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system include

ƒ Effective inhibition ƒ Enhanced solids control
ƒ Environmentally acceptable efficiency
in most areas ƒ Some protection against
ƒ Ease of mixing and maintenance corrosion by acid gasses
ƒ Increase protection against ƒ Possibility of recycling
stuck pipe the fluid
ƒ Minimisation of bit and ƒ Simple to use
BHA balling
The principal advantage of the HYDRO-FOIL S8 is that it is a very

inhibitive water base system. However this must be considered along the
limitations of the system which are:
ƒ Not highly lubricous when ƒ High dilution rates

compared to bentonite mud required making logistics
ƒ High pH system challenging
Section 11b
ƒ High plastic viscosities ƒ Temperature limited
(Low tolerance of drill solids) to 250 F
ƒ Incompatible with ester based ƒ Density limited to
and natural oil type lubricants 15 lb/bbl
Formulation
Two example formulations and properties of the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system are
detailed in Table 8.

drill water Base Fluid 0.74 bbl/bbl 0.65 bbl/bbl
salt (KCl) Water activity 30 lb/bbl 25 lb/bbl
and density
caustic soda pH modifier To pH 12 - 12.5 To pH 12 -12.5
soda ash Hardness Control <400 mg/l <400 mg/l
XC-EED Viscosifier 0.75 - 1.0 lb/bbl 0.75 -1.25 lb/bbl
HYDRO-PAC Filtration 2.5 lb/bbl 2.5 lb/bbl
UL Controller
HYDRO-STAR Filtration 2.0 lb/bbl 2.0 lb/bbl
(CMS ) Controller
SILIC-8 L Shale 11 % volume 9.0 % volume
Stabilisation
OX-SCAV * Oxygen 1.0 - 1.5 lb/bbl 1.0 - 1.5 lb/bbl
Scavenger
DRILL-BAR Weighting Agent 155 lb/bbl 340 lb/bbl
Property Units Typical Value Typical Value
Mud Weight lb/gal 12 15
PV cP 20 - 30 25 -35
YP lbs/100ft2 15 - 25 20 - 30
6 rpm dial reading 10 11
Gel lbs/100ft2 6 / 11 9 / 14
API ml/30 min <6 <6
pH 12 - 12.5 12 - 12.5
Table 8 – Indicative HYDRO-FOIL S8 formulation
Section 11b
*Note that an oxygen scavenger is included as part of the standard

formulation. This is an integral part of the system.
In addition to the basic products additional products can be used to optimise

the system for specific use as detailed in Table 9.

sodium chloride To increase inhibition and Up to 110 lb/bbl
to drill in Salt environment
HYDRO-CIDE Biocide 500-1000 ppm
HYDRO-LUBE SL Lubricity 0 – 3%
CUMULUS CPG, Cloud Point Glycol 0.5- 3%
NIMBUS CPG, CIRRUS
CPG, STRATUS CPG
SLICKEN-8 ROP Enhancer 0.5-5%
Table 9 Supplementary products
The silicates used for drilling fluids are solutions of water soluble glasses
primarily sodium silicates. A key element in their use for inhibition is the
molecular ratio between the silica and the sodium, the range from 2.1
– 2.65 proving most effect. Activity of sodium silicates generally ranges
from 35 – 50% with an density of 1.5 SG.
While drilling the silicate concentration should ideally be maintained

above 30 g/l SiO2 by frequent testing and addition of SILIC-8 L. The
depletion of silicate will increase when drilling reactive claystones. It is
recommended that the initial fluid is made up to 50 g/l SiO2. It is also
imperative that that all premixes are mixed at this concentration.
The SILIC-8 L concentration in the system will deplete while drilling as

the silicate interacts with the cutting and inhibits the wellbore. The
SILIC-8 L concentration must be maintained by regular treatments, ideally
in the form of SILIC-8 L rich pre-mixes.
The state of the cuttings on the shakers is a good indication of the

effectiveness of the system inhibition, with the ideal cutting being
firm and dry. Should the cuttings turn into “toothpaste”, this a good
indication that the silicate is depleting. The Silicate concentration may
Section 11b
be measured using the test described in Section 3 of this Handbook, Mud
Testing Procedures.
Mixing HYDRO-FOIL S8
ƒ Treat out the hardness with soda ash. Ensure hardness value is
less than 100 mg/l
ƒ Blend the brine (KCl, NaCl or alternative)
ƒ Add the remaining polymers. Care must be taken so as not to mix
these so fast that fish eyes will form
ƒ Add the pH modifiers
ƒ Add the required volume of SILIC-8 L
ƒ Add the required amounts of bridging material
ƒ Weight up the system
ƒ Just prior to circulating, add the oxygen scavengers
Hardness
It is recommended that the hardness level is minimised. Prior to mixing
the system treat out Mg ++ and Ca ++ with soda ash and caustic soda, both
to improve the efficiency of the polymers and to ensure that the silicate is
not precipitated.
Fluid Loss Control

Maintain filtrate as per requirements by the use of HYDRO-PAC and / or
HYDRO-STAR. The type of HYDRO-PAC (R or UL) will be decided by the
operational requirements. Ideally it is recommended that HYDRO-PAC UL
is used in the initial formulation as this has minimal impact on the rheology
compared with the use of HYDRO-PAC R.
Rheology
Xanthan Gum, XC-EED or XC-EED RD, is recommended to achieve the
desired rheological properties as this product delivers improved low
end rheology and shear thinning characteristics. The shear thinning
rheology from XC-EED is preferred to the rheology achieved with the use
of products such as HYDRO-PAC R.
Section 11b
pH
It is imperative that the pH is maintained in the range specified i.e. above
11.5. The silicates are only soluble above a pH of 10.4 and when divalent
cations are absent.
This system is pH sensitive and lowering the pH will cause the silicates to
begin precipitating thus increasing the plastic viscosity. By maintaining
the concentration of the silicate, the pH will be maintained. However
if required the pH can be maintained by the use of caustic additions
provided the silicate concentration is at the required concentration.
Due to the fact that high calcium will precipitate out the soluble silicates
causing a fall in pH and a thickening of the mud it is not recommended to
drill cement with the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system unless it is unavoidable. If
cement has to be drilled then the mud should be pre-treated with using
a low molecular weight polyacrylate thinner such as HYDRO-THIN. Once
the cement is drilled it will be necessary to treat the system to rebuild the
concentration of the SILIC-8 L
Density
Density is provided with DRILL-BAR and or DRILL-CARB.
Temperature Limitation and Treatment

The HYDRO-FOIL S8 system is effective up to temperatures of 250˚ F.
Thermal stability being dependent on the type and concentration of salt
in the formulation and the use of oxygen scavengers.
Lubricity
A characteristic of this system is its relatively high co-efficient of
friction. Maintaining a low drill solids content will prevent increasing
in torque. However the high pH makes the system incompatible with
conventional lubricants based on esters and natural oils. Specifically
designed lubricants such as HYDRO-LUBE SL can be used.
Glycols
The addition of cloud point glycols, such as CIRRUS CPG, further
enhances well bore inhibitions and lubricity as well as extending the
thermal stability of the system to 250˚ F.
Section 11b
CO2 Contamination:
The silicate concentration will be depleted by contamination with CO2
resulting in a fall in pH, an increase in filter loss and gelation problems.
Treat out any such contamination with caustic and soda ash as well as
maintain a the pH and silicate species at the required level.
Reservoir Drilling
It must be highlighted that the silicate mechanism for inhibition will
block pores in the reservoir thus the use of HYDRO-FOIL S8 in the
reservoir must be carefully considered. If the method for completion
involves the by passing of any potential damage by perforation then
formation damage is not an issue.
Cementing
HYDRO-FOIL S8 is sensitive to cement contamination. Cement
contamination increases the calcium ion content which will cause the
precipitation of the silicate species. Thus increasing filter loss, increase
gels, and rheology.
• When cementing it is recommended a large sacrificial spacer is

used to protect the fluid system.
• If possible on the first circulation after a conventional cement job
is over it is recommended that an attempt is made to isolate any
preflush and excess cement.
• Prior to a cement job consideration needs to be made whether
to pre-treat the system to deal with bicarbonate to treat out
possible contamination. However be aware of the possibility of over
treatment.
• To prevent the contamination of the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system it is
recommended that when displacing to the system, the old fluid
being displaced is used to drill out the cement and shoe.
Post HYDRO-FOIL S8
After the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system has been used ensure that the pits are
effectively cleaned especially if subsequent operations involve the use of
prehydrated bentonite as the presence of silicate will prevent the hydration of
bentonite.
Section 11b
Solids Control Equipment

During displacements to HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 the shakers should be
dressed with relatively coarse screens to prevent polymer blinding of
the screens and subsequent loss of fluid. The shakers should be quickly
dressed with finer screens as the fluid warms up and become fully
sheared.
As previously mentioned this system is not solids tolerant. It is imperative

that the drill solids are maintained below 5%. This should be done by
optimisation of the available solids control and the use of dilution with
pre-mixes.
Section 11b
salt polymer
System Description
Salt-based muds are muds containing varying amounts of predominantly
sodium chloride ranging from 10,000 mg/l of NaCl up to saturation.
Salt muds maybe be classified as:
1. Saturated Salt Muds 315,000
2. Saltwater Muds 25,000 - 315,000
3. Brackish-Water Muds 10,000 -25,000
Saturated Salt Muds are primarily used to prevent excessive hole

enlargement while drilling massive salt beds. They can also be used to
reduce dispersion and hydration of shales and clays.
Saltwater muds are often prepared from fresh water or bentonite-water

muds. These muds normally contain low solids concentrations, have low
densities, have minimal chemical treatment, and possess low viscosities
and high fluid losses. Saltwater muds may be prepared intentionally
with salt to drill troublesome shale sections. They are used as an
inhibitive mud to decrease dispersion and viscosity build-up from drilled
solids.
In many areas, because of economics or lack of sufficient fresh water,

brackish water often is used as the makeup water for drilling fluids.
These muds generally are termed brackish-water if their salt content is
between 10,000 to 15,000 mg/l. They are usually found in inland bay
areas or marshes.
The polymers and products used for the salt systems are the same as those
used for the HYDRO-FOIL systems.
A typical formulation for a salt saturated system is shown in Table 10.

Section 11b

sodium chloride Water activity and density +110 lb/bbl
caustic soda pH modifier 10.5 - 12
soda ash Hardness Control <400 mg/l
DRILL-GEL – Viscosifier 10 – 30 lb/bbl
(prehydrated)
XC-EED Viscosifier 0.75 - 1.0 lb/bbl
HYDRO-PAC UL Filtration Control 0. 5 - 2.5 lb/bbl
HYDRO-STAR / Filtration Control 2.0 lb/bbl
KMC STARCH /
HYDRO-STAR CMS
LIG-SPERSE Deflocculant 1 – 6 lb/bbl
NO-FOAM Defoamer As required
OX-SCAV Oxygen Scavenger 1.0 - 1.5 lb/bbl
DRILL-BAR Weighting Agent As required
Property Units Typical Value
Mud Weight lb/gal 10.2 - 18
PV cP 20 - 40
YP lbs/100ft2 15 - 25
Gel lbs/100ft2 5 / 10
API ml/30 min <6
pH 10.5 - 12
Table 10 – Typical saturated salt formulation
For the saltwater and brackish water systems the product concentrations
will vary with the salt concentration, the higher salt systems generally
requiring increased concentrations.
Supplementary products which are used with salt muds include:-

HYDRO-CIDE Biocide 500 -1000 ppm
HYDRO-LUBE / Lubricity 0 – 3%
CONFI-LUBE
Section 11b
ENCAPSUL-8 Shale encapsulation
CUMULUS CPG, Cloud Point Glycol 0.5- 3%
NIMBUS CPG,
CIRRUS CPG,
STRATUS CPG
SLICKEN-8 ROP Enhancer 0.5-5%
Table 11 Supplementary products
Engineering guidelines
The chloride content of saturated salt muds is 192,000 mg/l (315,000 mg/
l NaCl) at saturation. As the temperature of the mud increases, more salt
is able to go into solution. This means that a fluid which is saturated
under surface conditions may not be saturated at downhole
temperatures and can cause substantial washout in a salt zone due to
increased salt solubility.
Mixing salt muds

ƒ Prehydrate DRILL-GEL at 20 – 30 lb/bbl in freshwater
ƒ Mix the salt brine to the required concentration
ƒ Treat out the calcium from the mix water with the required
amount of soda ash
ƒ Raise the pH of the water with caustic soda to above 10.5 as this
will precipitate any magnesium and other divalent ions
ƒ Mix in the required amount of PREHYDRATED DRILL-GEL
ƒ Add the required fluid loss control agent e.g. HYDRO-STAR
ƒ Add defoamer as required
ƒ Weight up the system with DRILL-BAR
If the system is converted from an existing mud it is recommended that

the following treatment levels are determined by pilot testing.
ƒ Break over will require a minimum of three circulations (two to add

all the chemicals evenly and one to ensure that the fluid is thin)
Adjust pH to > 10.5 and treat out hardness with caustic soda
and soda ash
ƒ Reduce the MBT to 10 -15 lb/bbl by dilution and if dumping
necessary
ƒ Add deflocculant – LIG-SPERSE as required
ƒ Add sodium chloride at + 110 lb/bbl to saturation
ƒ Adjust fluid loss with HYDRO-STAR OR HYDRO-PAC UL
ƒ Adjust rheology with prehydrated DRILL-GEL or XC-EED
Section 11b
pH
These muds do not require pH to function however it is a common
practice to maintain the pH of the mud from 10.5 – 12.0 with additions of
caustic soda. Saturated salt muds require larger additions of caustic soda
to maintain a higher pH than do freshwater muds. Maintaining a 10.5 -
12 pH offers several advantages:
ƒ Deflocculants are more effective

ƒ Corrosion is reduced
ƒ Lower concentrations of filtration control additives are required
when Ca ++ and Mg ++ solubility is reduced
ƒ Foaming tendency is lessened
ƒ Mud is generally more stable
Hardness
Saturated salt muds will normally contain soluble calcium due to the
formations penetrated and the type of makeup water used. Generally,
the presence of calcium does not produce detrimental effects on the
mud; except when the pH is increased beyond 12.0 when the fluid loss
will be difficult to control.
Foaming
Saturated salt muds are characterised by foaming. Foaming is generally
restricted to surface foam and is not troublesome unless aggravated by
mechanical agitation. The degree of foaming may sometimes be decreased
by increasing the alkalinity of the mud (Pm). A defoaming agent may be
necessary.
Temperature Stability
The temperature limitation of saturated salt muds is around 250° F and is
normally dictated by the filtration control additives used.
Fluid Loss Control

Ca ++ and Mg ++ hardness do not adversely affect filtration control in
Saturated Salt Muds when using KMC STARCH however, when HYDRO-
PAC is used, hardness should be below 400 mg/l.
Section 11b
opta-flo
System Description
OPTA-FLO is a water based DRILL-IN fluid designed to provide minimal
reservoir damage over a wide range of porosities and permeabilities,
whilst laying down an filter cake readily removable on draw down. OPTA-
FLO is designed not to required breakers, enzymes or acid clean ups,
though these may be used to enhance the clean-up process.
The system is custom designed for each individual reservoir and uses a
range of high quality components and design tools to facilitate the
design process including the SYNTHE-SIZER program which allows the
concentration and particle size of the bridging agent to be optimised to
ensure solids are deposited across the pore throat with minimal invasion
while sealing off the reservoir with a thin and resilient filter cake.
OPTA-FLO may be formulated in a wide range of brine types including:

chlorides, bromides and formates with higher density brines selected to
enable continued use of a low solids system in higher pressured reservoirs.
Formation Damage
Why do we want to avoid formation damage?
ƒ An undamaged reservoir gives maximum information

ƒ An undamaged reservoir is the most profitable one!
ƒ High levels of damage may make some fields uneconomic
ƒ Remedial treatments are expensive & not always successful
Various damage mechanisms occur due to the drilling process and drilling
fluids. The most common are:-
Reduction in pore (throat) size

ƒ Mud solids invasion
ƒ Filter cake plugging
ƒ Formation fines migration
Section 11b
ƒ Clay swelling
ƒ Polymer adsorption/ precipitation
ƒ Scale formation
Relative permeability reduction

ƒ Wettability change
ƒ Fluid saturation change (blocking)
ƒ mulsion formation
OPTA-FLO is a high performance, non-damaging drill-in fluid which

optimises production rates across a wide range of completion methods:
ƒ Open hole gravel pack or non gravel pack completions.
ƒ Expandable slotted screen completions.
ƒ Slotted or perforated liner completions.
ƒ Cased hole completions where hole cleaning or minimised
fluid invasion is critical.
The benefit of the OPTA-FLO system is that the combination of the

viscosifying polymer, OPTA-VIS OR OPTA-ZAN, and the filtration control
agent, OPTA-STAR in conjunction with an engineered sized calcium
carbonate, OPTA-CARB / OPTA-CARB M allows the bridging material to
be produced back in discrete particles, as opposed to the consolidated
sheets common in most water based drill-in fluids when the well is placed
on production. The OPTA-FLO system can be flowed through complex
completion systems without impeding production.
The OPTA-FLO system can be used to drill overbalanced by optimising

the concentration of the bridging material to effectively seal new virgin
formation as it is exposed by the bit, thus preventing losses.
OPTA-FLO can also be used as a non damaging loss control pill while
working over wells.
Benefits of the OPTA-FLO system include:-
ƒ Non damaging- low skin values, high return permeabilities

ƒ Low lift off pressure ensures ease of cleanup.
ƒ Can be back produced through most completion strings without
the need to perform remedial cleanups delivering savings on cost
and time before production begins.
Section 11b
ƒ Ultra low permeability filter cakes which minimise the possibility
of differential sticking.
ƒ Can be used for overbalanced drilling in the reservoir without
the fear of getting stuck.
ƒ Relative low friction rates. The ground calcium carbonate in the
bridging material acts as ball bearings and the inherent lubricity
of the brine coupled with the low solids content gives this fluid
low friction factors.
ƒ Environmentally compliant, in particular as the brine can be
selected to met local criteria.
Formulation
An example of an OPTA-FLO formulation and associated properties is

shown in Table 12. All formulations must be engineered specifically for
each reservoirs individual characteristics.

drill water Base Fluid 0.92
salt (KCl) * Water activity and density 22
caustic soda / pH modifier To 8.5 - 9.0
potash hydroxide /
magnesium oxide
OPTA-VIS Viscosifier 1.0 - 5 lb/bbl
OPTA-STAR Filtration Control 3.0 – 5.0 lb/bbl
OPTA-CARB Bridging 30 – 50 lb/bbl
HYDRO-CIDE Biocide 500 – 1000 ppm
OX-SCAV Oxygen Scavenger 1 - 2 lb/bbl
OPTA-CARB 10 ** Bridging Agent 10 - 30 lb/bbl
OPTA-CARB 50 ** Bridging Agent 10 - 30 lb/bbl
PV 18 cP
YP 14 lbs/100 ft2
10 minute gel 9 lbs/100 ft2
API <3 ml/30 min
HTHP (@ Bottom Hole <9 ml/30 min
Temp °F)
Section 11b
* The salt density and type can be varied to provide a variety of

densities
** The type and quantity of OPTA-CARB can be varied to provide a
wide range of bridging.
Inhibition
While some inhibition, sufficient for most reservoirs, will be provided
by the salt selected for the system, many reservoirs which have shales
present in the formation may require additional inhibition from
the fluid.
The OPTA-FLO system is compatible with the inhibitive cloud point

glycols CIRRUS, STRATUS NIMBUS and CUMULUS as well as the amine
inhibitor, IMMUNE-8. These products will increase the inhibitive nature of
the fluid and will have minimal impact on the fluids properties. However
it is recommended that these products are only added to the OPTA-FLO
after their effects on the reservoir have been confirmed.
Lubricity
The increasing complexity of reservoir drilling including extended
reach, multi-lateral and complex reservoir trajectories has increased the
necessity for additional lubricity in many cases.
Lubricants such as LUBRI-GREEN and LUBRI-GREEN II may be used

with the OPTA-FLO system. All lubricants must be tested for
compatibility both with the drilling fluid and the reservoir characteristics.
API / HPHT
The rapid mechanism for laying down filter cake ensures that there is
a low spurt loss and low filtrate invasion. Despite the relative low
concentration of polymer filtration controllers this fluid system has tight
filter loss due to the synergetic relationship between the polymers and
the bridging materials.
Density
Density of the system is principally provided by the brine. However the
bridging materials will increase the density of the fluid from 0.2 – 0.5 lb/
bbl depending on the amounts added.
Section 11b
Rheology
Rheology is provided by OPTA-VIS or OPT-ZAN which will provide an
excellent low shear rate rheological profile.
pH
Caustic soda or potassium hydroxide may be replaced by magnesium
oxide to buffer the pH and provide more stable performance.
Temperature
The OPTA-FLO system is effective at temperatures up to 250˚ F. This
temperature limit will depend on the type and concentration of salt in
the formulation and may be extended by the use of oxygen scavengers.
Drill Solids
Drill solids in the circulating system must be eliminated or maintained
at the lowest possible level as these solids will negatively impact the
fluid properties and the filter cake formation reducing the non damaging
nature of the system. Closely monitor the MBT and maintain it below 10
lb/bbl.
As there is no barite in the system there are no high gravity solids. The
bridging material, calcium carbonate, is the same density of drill solids. It
is therefore imperative that the solids content be monitored and the drill
solids content differentiated from that of calcium carbonate.
Non Standard Testing

As the primary method of preventing damage is the use of bridging
materials. The quantity and quality (particle size distribution) needs to be
monitored and maintained. A number of additional testing regimes may
be required. These include:-
Test Reason Equipment / Test

Pore Plug Test Bridging Efficiency PPA apparatus
Calcium Carbonate Determine the quantity of Non Standard Test
Concentration bridging material
Section 11b

Particle Size Determine the size of the Malvern Particle
Distribution particles in the fluid Size tester
These tests will determine the rate of depletion of bridging material in

terms of quantity and quality which will allow addition of the required
bridging material to the system while drilling ahead.
Mixing OPTA-FLO
ƒ Blend the brine.
ƒ Add the polymers, OPTA-VIS, OPTA-ZAN & OPTA-STAR slowly
to ensure that they fully hydrate. Care must be taken so as not to
mix these so fast that fish eyes will form.
ƒ Shear the fluid as required.
ƒ Add the required amounts of bridging materials.
ƒ Once the bridging material is added it is advisable that the shear
is minimised so as to prevent the grinding of the bridging
material. This could compromise the effectiveness of the bridging.
(It is recommended that if logistically possible the bridging
materials are not added to the fluid until it is needed).
ƒ Add the pH modifiers.
Solids Control
It must be highlighted that while the primarily purpose of solids
control equipment is to remove drill solids, bridging materials will also be
removed negating the non damaging nature of the fluids. A balance has
to be struck between solids removal and controlling the effects of drill
solids contamination by dilution.
Fresh bridging agents are frequently added on a continuous basis to

replace material lost through solids control.
Section 11b
rheo-plex
System Description
RHEO-PLEX is a mixed metal oxide system, MMO, providing a highly
thixotropic water based fluid that is both environmentally friendly
and cost effective. The system shear thins, provides exceptional hole
cleaning, is stable above 300˚ F and delivers an enhanced rheology
profile and stability that is easy to design, mix and maintain.
When RHEO-PLEX is added to the bentonite suspension the species

displace the resident cations and forms a bond on the surface of the
bentonite platelets. The system is based on the unique interaction
between the MMO cationic specie and the bentonite platelet. The
anionic specie bonds to the negative charged sites of the bentonite
forming a complex which structures the fluid and provides its unique
gels and viscosity profile. The system is viscous at rest and once shear
stress is applied it thins, only to regain its viscosity once the stress is
removed.
The chemical inhibition of the RHEO-PLEX system is relatively low as

it is formulated with little or no salts provides a level of inhibition by
non movement of fluid at the wall of the wellbore and minimal
filtration. It is also suspected that any filtrate that enters the formation
will contain MMO and will inhibit by cationic exchange.
RHEO-PLEX applications include drilling deviated hole sections, milling,

depleted reservoirs and unconsolidated formations. It must be noted
that the fluid can provide chemical inhibition if used with 3% KCl.
The mechanism for interactions between the individual MMO –

bentonite complex is weakly electrostatic. This electrostatic interaction
is readily broken by mechanical means and reforms once the stress is
removed which explains the extreme thixotropic behaviour, i.e. why
the RHEO-PLEX fluid instantly shear thins with the application of
mechanical agitation.
This chemistry gives the RHEO-PLEX fluid a unique rheological profile

that exhibits high flat gels which are fragile and easily broken with the
start of circulation, but reform immediately when the fluid is static giving
very effective cuttings suspension.
Section 11b
During circulation the fluid has a inverted U shaped velocity profile in

the wellbore with high annular velocity in linear flow at the centre of
the well and zero movement at the wellbore wall. This flow profile
leads to the effect of negative lag times whereby cuttings appear to
reach surface faster than the calculated time as only part of the fluid
system is moving at velocity. This low velocity at the well bore subjects
the formation to zero shear stress.
Benefits of this system include:
ƒ Exceptional hole cleaning

ƒ Excellent suspension properties
ƒ Low torque and drag
ƒ Low ECD
ƒ Efficient solids removal
ƒ Proactive lost circulation remedy
ƒ Universal environmental approvals
ƒ High cost efficiency
Pre-System Checks
Prior to utilising the system on the rig, the rig site drilling fluids
representative must become familiar with system and well information
which includes but is not limited to:
ƒ Ensure that all non fresh water or seawater pipes are blanked off
and locked.
ƒ Clean all pits and circulating systems with drill water.
ƒ Ensuring that the rig contractor and other service companies are
aware that the system will be used.
ƒ Pilot check all products prior to building at the rig site.
Formulation
An example formulation and associated properties is detailed in Table 13.
soda ash Alkalinity Control <400 mg/l hardness
DRILL-GEL UA Viscosifier 8 -12 lb/bbl
caustic soda pH control 9.5 -10.0
Section 11b
RHEO-PLEX Complexing Agent 0.80 -1.2 lb/bbl
HYDRO-STAR CMS Fluid Loss control 3.0 - 5.0 lb/bbl
DRILL-BAR Weighting Agent 192 lb/bbl
PROPERTY UNITS TYPICAL VALUE
Mud Weight lb/gal 12
PV cP 4
YP lb/100ft2 25 - 30
6 RPM dial reading 20
Gel lb/100ft2 30 / 36
API ml/ 30 min <8
pH 9.5 -10
Table 13. Example RHEO-PLEX formulation
It is imperative that all materials are pilot tested. The system cannot be
formulated using PAC, CMC or charged polymers.
Hardness
It is recommended that the hardness be minimised. Prior to mixing
treat out any hardness by the use of soda ash. The interaction of the
between the MMO and the bentonite is enhanced if the hardness is below
400 mg/l.
API
Filtration control is provided by the use of HYDRO-STAR CMS, a non
ionic starch. PAC or CMC materials are incompatible with the MMO /
bentonite complex.
Rheology
A characteristic of the RHEO-PLEX system is that the 3 rpm rheometer
reading is about 20% lower than the 600 RPM reading. The rheology
of the system is based on RHEO-PLEX- DRILL-GEL UA complex. In
the event that the rheology is too high do not treat the system with
polymeric deflocculants or lignosulphonate thinners. Correct high
rheology with dilution.
Section 11b
Density
Density is provided from DRILL-BAR and or DRILL-CARB.
pH
It is imperative that the pH is maintained in the range specified 9.5-10. The
interaction between the RHEO-PLEX and the bentonite is optimised in
this pH range.
Solids Tolerance:
This system is not solids tolerant and the drill solids must be maintained
below 5%.
Contamination
All common contaminants, plus the drilling of lignitic and anhydritic
formations, have a disruptive effect on the RHEO-PLEX- DRILL-GEL UA
complex which will cause a rapid loss of rheology. If this occurs the only
effective solution is to rebuild the system.
Reserve Volume:
Ensure that there is always sufficient RHEO-PLEX- DRILL-GEL UA blend on
surface to rebuild the circulating system.
Mixing RHEO-PLEX
When building the RHEO-PLEX particular care has to be taken. The
following method is suggested.
• Pilot test with the actual products

• Ensure that the water being used has hardness below 200 mg/l
• Ensure the bentonite being used is high quality untreated bentonite
• Prehydrate bentonite, ensuring that the gel is fully yielded
• Adjust the pH of the bentonite to pH range of 9.5 -10 using caustic soda
• Add the RHEO-PLEX
• Add the filtration control agent. (HYDRO-STAR CMS)
• If necessary dilute with sea or drill water
• Weight up to required density
Section 11b
Cementing
RHEO-PLEX is highly sensitive to divalent and polyvalent cations. Cement
should not be drilled with the system.
Displacement
Drill out the cement with the fluid that is to be displaced out of hole,
prior to displacing to the RHEO-PLEX fluid.
• Displacement out of hole: If displacing with a lighter water

based fluid, pump ahead a 50 bbl brine spacer between the
RHEO-PLEX system as well as a high viscosity water based pill,
6 lb/bbl XC-EED.
Section 11b
dispersed and calcium muds

System Description
A bentonite water based mud system which has been chemically
deflocculated and the end charges neutralised can be described as a
dispersed system. The most common dispersants are lignosuphonates,
acylamide copolymers and phosphates. These systems have low
inhibitive qualities and are used to drill low reactivity shales. Bentonite
systems are made more inhibitive by being converted to calcium based
systems with lime or gypsum.
These systems have lower filtration loss, higher pHs and more stabilised
rheology than conventional non dispersed bentonite system.
Systems which can be described as dispersed include:
ƒ LIG-SPERSE (Lignosulphonate)
ƒ TAN-SPERSE (Tannin)
ƒ Phosphate (SAPP)
ƒ Calcium Muds (lime and gypsum muds)
Benefits of Dispersed Bentonite Mud System

ƒ Fluid has high carrying capacity
ƒ Simple to formulate
ƒ Highly flexible and can be converted into inhibitive systems
ƒ Low fluid cost
ƒ High temperature tolerance
ƒ Simple to use
Limitations of Dispersed Bentonite Mud System

ƒ Requires time to mix
ƒ High dilution rates
ƒ Relatively thick filter cakes
ƒ May have environmental restrictions on the use of some of the
lignosulphonates
Section 11b
LIG-SPERSE (Lignosulphonate Muds)
LIG-SPERSE muds are used to drill well sections which have high
bentonitic clay sections. The system can be formulated with fresh and
brackish water. However bentonite should be prehydrated with water
that is of a good quality containing low hardness and chlorides. LIG-
SPERSE provides good filtration control and stabilises the rheology. An
example formulation is detailed in table 14. The system may be further
treated with the supplementary products detailed in Table 15.

soda ash Calcium Reducer To Ca++ <100 mg/l
DRILL-GEL Viscosifier / Filtration 10 - 25 lb/bbl
Control
caustic soda pH modifier To pH 10 -11
LIG-SPERSE Thinner / Filtration 2 - 8 lb/bbl
controller
DRILL-BAR Weighting Agent 35 lb/bbl
Mud Weight 9.2 lbs/gal
PV 20 cP
YP 12- 15 lbs / 100ft2
Gel 11/20 lbs / 100ft2
API 6-8 ml / 30 min
Table 14. Example lignosulphonate system formulation
Order of Mixing
amount of soda ash
ƒ Raise the pH of the water with caustic soda to above 9.5 to
precipitate any magnesium and other divalent ions
ƒ Mix in the required amount of DRILL-GEL
ƒ Add the required LIG-SPERSE
ƒ Add supplementary filtration controller if required
If the system is formulated using a previous bentonite mud as a base

then:
ƒ Reduce the MBT to 10 -15 lb/bbl by dilution and if necessary dumping

Section 11b
amount of soda ash
ƒ Raise the pH of the water to above 10.5 as this will precipitate any
magnesium and other divalent ions
ƒ Although the system can be formulated with sea and brackish
water, DRILL-GEL should be hydrated with fresh water with low
chloride content (< 5000 mg/l)
Maintenance of LIG-SPERSE fluids:

ƒ Regular treatments with LIG-SPERSE are required to maintain the
rheology while drilling.
ƒ The efficiency of the products are enhanced by maintaining low
concentrations of Cl-, Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions.
ƒ Ensure that the solids control equipment is optimised and control
the solids content by dumping and diluting as required.
ƒ To ensure optimal drilling fluid performance and costs maintain
the MBT below 20 lb/bbl. It may be necessary to maintain the
density and plastic viscosity by means of premixes.
ƒ Treatments with HYDRO-THIN will stabilise rheology and
enhance filtration control.
ƒ Polymers such as HYDRO-PAC, HYDRO-STAR and CMC can be
used to provide supplementary filtration control.
ƒ In order to ensure the efficiency of the LIG-SPERSE ensure that
the system pH is maintained in the range of 9 – 9.5.
Calcium Treated Muds

Lime muds are more inhibitive than LIG-SPERSE fluids, due to the
presence of soluble calcium, and can be used to drill sections that have
formations where shale reactivity may result in hole instability and
sections that have anhydrite formations and stringers. By increasing the
concentration of soluble calcium in the fluid, the inhibitiveness of the
fluid is increased.
The lime system may be viewed as a LIG-SPERSE system that has been
treated with soluble calcium ions.
Section 11b
Example formulations and properties as well as supplementary product are
shown in Tables 15 and 16.
PRODUCT Function Concentration Concentration

Lime Mud Gypsum
drill water Base Fluid 0.90 0.90 bbl/bbl
DRILL-GEL Viscosifier / 10 -25 lb/bbl 10 - 25 lb/bbl
Filtration Control
LIG-SPERSE Thinner / 1 - 4 lb/bbl 3 - 6 lb/bbl
Filtration
controller
lime Calcium 1 - 8 lb/bbl
Generator
gypsum Calcium 4 - 8 lb/bbl
Generator
LIG-TROL Filtration 2 -4 lb/bbl 2 – 4 lb/bbl
Controller
caustic soda pH modifier To pH 10 -11 To pH 10 -11
HYDRO-PAC or Filtration 1 lb/bbl 1 lb/bbl
HYDRO-STAR controller
NF
DRILL-BAR Weighting Agent 35 lb/bbl 35 lb/bbl
PROPERTY Units Typical Value Typical Value
Mud Weight lb/gal 9.2 9.2
PV cP 18 18
YP lb /100ft2 6-7 7 -8
6 RPM dial reading 2 3
Gel lb /100ft2 3/13 2/18
Pf ml 1 – 2.5 0.15- 0.8
mF 5 -10 3-5
Excess calcium lb/bbl 1 - 10 2-5
calcium in mg/l
filtrate
pH 10.5 – 11.5 9.5 - 10
API ml / 30 min 5 - 11 4–8
Table 15. Formulation and properties of calcium treated muds.
Section 11b
Supplementary Products

HYDRO-PAC Viscosity and Enhanced 1.0 – 5.0 lb/bbl
Filtration filtration control in
displacement mud
and sweeps
CMC Viscosity and Enhanced 1.0 – 5.0 lb/bbl
displacement mud
and sweeps
LIG-TROL Viscosity and Enhanced 1.0 – 5.0 lb/bbl
displacement mud
and sweeps
HYDRO-CIDE Biocide Prevention of 500 -1000 ppm
microbiological action
SAPP Stuck pipe Is used as a stuck 2.0 - 5.0 lb/bbl
freeing agent/ pipe freeing agent
bit balling when disrupting
preventor the filter cake when
placed over the
sticking zone
SULPHO- High Enhanced filtration 2 - 8 lb/bbl
PLAST Temperature control
Filtration
Controller
XC-EED Shear thinning As a rheology 0.25 -1.00

Viscosifier enhancer for lb/bbl
operations where
poor water quality
prevents DRILL-GEL
from fully yielding.
SLICKEN-8 ROP Enhancer Minimising bit 0. 5 - 5%
balling
Table 16. Supplementary products for dispersed systems
Section 11b
Note lime muds can be classified as:
ƒ low lime when the mud contains 1- 2.5 lb/bbl of excess lime and
ƒ high lime when the excess lime content of the mud is 5 – 15 lb/bbl
Excess Lime Calculation
Excess lime (lb/ bbl) is estimated by the following formulae
Lime Content = PM – PF
4
Or
Lime Content = 0.26 (PM - % water fraction x PF)
Excess Gypsum Calculation
Excess Gypsum (lb/ bbl) is estimated by the following formula
Gypsum Content = VM – VF
4
VM is the ml of versanate from the hardness test on the whole mud

VF is the ml of versanate from the hardness test on the filtrate
Order of Mixing
amount of soda ash
ƒ Raise the pH of the water with caustic soda to above 10.5 as this
will precipitate any magnesium and other divalent ions
Section 11b
ƒ Add the required lime or gypsum

ƒ Add the required filtration controller
ƒ Note the fluid may have a viscosity hump; this should disappear
with shear thinning. However that it does thin by agitation on the
Hamilton beach mixer. Confirm that the pH is correct. Pilot test
with higher caustic then more LIG-SPERSE
If the system is formulated using a previous bentonite mud as a base then:
ƒ Break over will require a minimum of three circulations (two to add

all the chemicals evenly and one to ensure that the fluid is thin).
ƒ There will be a viscosity hump, during which there will be high
filtration loss that will thin on circulation. It is advisable to perform
the break over inside casing.
ƒ Reduce the MBT to 10 -15 lb/bbl by dilution and if necessary
dumping.
ƒ Treat out the calcium from the mix water with the required amount
of soda ash.
ƒ Raise the pH of the water to above 10.5 as this will precipitate any
magnesium and other divalent ions.
ƒ Although the system can be formulated with sea and brackish
water, the DRILL-GEL should be hydrated with fresh water with
low chloride content (< 1000 mg/l).
ƒ Mix in the required amount of DRILL-GEL.
ƒ Add the required LIG-SPERSE.
ƒ Add the required lime or gypsum.
ƒ Weight up the system with DRILL-BAR.
ƒ Add the require supplementary filtration control.
Section 11b
Maintenance of calcium muds:
ƒ While drilling with calcium fluids regular treatments with LIG-
SPERSE, gypsum / lime / caustic soda are required to maintain
the rheology and filtration control.
ƒ Ideally all additions should be in the form of premixes.
ƒ Maintain the calcium concentration in the filtrate.
ƒ Avoid mixing of lime / gypsum and polymeric filtration controllers
at the same time.
ƒ Avoid over treatment with caustic soda as the higher the pH the
lower the solubility of the calcium.
ƒ Maintain drill solids content as low as possible. Ensure that the
solids control equipment are optimised and control the solids
content by dumping and diluting as required.
ƒ To ensure optimal drilling fluid performance and cost, maintain
the MBT below 20 lb/bbl.
ƒ It may be necessary to maintain the density and plastic viscosity
by means of premixes.
ƒ Treatments with HYDRO-THIN will stabilise rheology and
enhance filtration control.
ƒ If after three circulations the viscosity hump is still present,
check the pH. Treatment with caustic may be required to ensure
that the LIG-SPERSE becomes effective .
Tannin dispersed fluids are prepared in the same manner as LIG-SPERSE

muds substituting TAN-SPERSE for LIG-SPERSE.
non aqueous drilling fluids
section 11c
non aqueous drilling fluids
Section 11c
contents
confi-drill ................................................................................................................................1
confi-dense ............................................................................................................................9
extra-vert .............................................................................................................................12
opta-vert ..............................................................................................................................17
01 non aqueous drilling fluids
Section 11c
confi-drill
CONFI-DRILL is an invert emulsion drilling fluid system which can be
tailored to meet environmental and performance criteria. The system has
excellent rheological and filtration characteristics easily modified to meet
changing pressure and temperature conditions,
The system consist of three phases; non aqueous, brine and solid.
The key to the system is the emulsifying chemicals designed to create and
maintain the invert emulsion. The system can be formulated with a range
of base fluids including low toxic mineral oil (LMO), linear paraffin (LP),
linear alpha olefin (LAO) and internal olefin (IO).
The designation of the system is defined by the type of base fluid utilised
as listed in Table 1.
Base Fluid System Designation

Low toxic mineral oil CONFI-DRILL (LTMO)
Linear paraffin CONFI-DRILL (LP)
Linear alpha olefin CONFI-DRILL (LAO)
Internal olefin CONFI-DRILL (IO)
Table 1. Base fluids for CONFI systems
Invert emulsion drilling fluids provide the highest level of shale inhibition
by a drilling fluid. An invert emulsion consists of two liquid phases:-
ƒ A hydrophilic brine internal phase.

ƒ A hydrophobic non polar continuous phase.
The internal phase is emulsified into the continuous phase with the use of
emulsifiers.
As the hydrophobic continuous phase will not solvate or swell exposed

shales, it makes the fluid system ideal for drilling hydratable shales.
This characteristic is the basis for the use invert emulsions as non-
reactive, inert drilling fluids. As water contamination of the drilling fluid
is unavoidable from drilled formation, the drilling fluid system must be
formulated to tolerate this additional water.
non aqueous drilling fluids 02
Section 11c
To prevent the internal hydrophilic phase from reacting with the
formations, the system is formulated with high salinity brine,
usually calcium chloride. If the salinity of the brine is maintained at a
concentration higher than the formation salinity, water will flow by a
process of reverse osmosis from the formation into the fluid, stabilising
reactive formations.
Benefits of the invert emulsion system include:-
ƒ Inhibition ƒ Fluid properties are

ƒ Low filter loss tolerant of solids
ƒ Re-use ƒ Resistant to contamination
ƒ Can be engineered to ƒ Protection against corrosion
any specific requirement ƒ Low dilution rates
ƒ Thin, slick filter cake ƒ Can be formulated to
ƒ Can be engineered with relatively low densities
environmentally friendly ƒ Highly lubricious
base fluids
ƒ Simple to use
The advantages of the system must be considered along with the

limitations:-
ƒ High cost of losses ƒ May require complex clean

ƒ High initial make up costs up procedures
ƒ May have environmental ƒ Cost of remediation
restrictions ƒ Re use may lead to build up
of low gravity solids
Formulation
An example of a CONFI-DRILL formulation and associated properties is
detailed in Table 2. It must be highlighted that product concentration will
vary depending not only due to the density, temperature and product
ratio’s but also with the type of base oil utilised.

Base Oil, LP Base fluid 0.68 bbl/bbl
CONFI-MUL P Primary emulsifier 6 lb/bbl
Section 11c

CONFI-MUL S Secondary emulsifier 2.5 lb/ bbl
CONFI-GEL HT Viscosifier 6 lb/bbl
CONFI-MOD Rheology modifier 1 lb/bbl
CONFI-TROL / CONFI- Filtration controller 2 - 8 lb/bbl
TROL HT
drillwater Liquid phase 0.175 bbl/bbl
calcium chloride Water phase salinity 22 lb/bbl
lime Emulsifier activator 8 lb/bbl
DRILL-BAR Weight material 120 lb/bbl
Table 2. Example CONFI-DRILL formulation

PV 15 cP
YP 12 lbs/100ft2
6 rpm 8 dial reading
10 minute Gel 10 lbs/100ft2
HTHP (@ 250° F) 2.0 ml /30 min
Table 3. Example CONFI-DRILL properties
optimise the system for specific use. These supplementary products and
their function and concentration are listed in Table 4.

CONFI-COAT Oil wetting agent 0.5 -2 lb/bbl
CONFI-LUBE Lubricant for OBM 1 – 3%
CONFI-PLEX LSR modifier 1 – 3 lb/bbl
CONFI-THIN Oil wetting agent 0.5 -2 lb/bbl
CONFI-TROL Solid fluid loss control 2 – 8 lb/bbl
additive
CONFI-TROL LP Liquid fluid loss 1 – 5 lb/bbl
control additive
CONFI-WET Oil wetting agent 0.5 -2 lb/bbl
Table 4. Supplementary products for CONFI-DRILL systems
Section 11c
In general the following guidelines and mixing procedures apply to all
non-aqueous fluids except where indicated in system specific sections
of this handbook.
Mixing CONFI-DRILL
When mixing an invert emulsion system the amount of shear in the

mixing system has to be maximised. It is recommended that a shearing
unit is used and the fluid shear is maximised by circulating through the
gun lines.
1. Add the required quantity of base fluid to the mixing tank.

2. Add the primary emulsifier, CONFI-MUL P, and secondary emulsifier,
CONFI-MUL S, as required.
3. Add organophilic viscosifier, CONFI-GEL / CONFI-GEL HT, as
required.
4. Add required amount of water to the above mixture. If brine is to
be used, then add brine after the lime additions.
5. Add rheology modifier e.g. CONFI-MOD or CONFI-RM as required.
6. Add lime as required.
7. Add filtration control additives, CONFI-TROL, CONFI-TROL HT, CONFI-
SEAL or CONFI-TROL LP, as required.
8. Add calcium chloride powder if brine is not used. If calcium chloride
powder is not available, then mix the calcium chloride flakes into
the water and add as a brine.
9. Mix above for several hours to ensure a good emulsion is formed.
10. Add weighting material as required for the desired density.
The shear available on most rigs is rarely sufficient to ensure that the
organophilic clays have fully yielded. Once the fluid is sheared through
the bit, and heated, the rheology profile should increase.
Emulsifier
Emulsifier ensures that the invert emulsion is stabilised and provides
initial filtration control with zero water breakthrough. The measurement
of emulsion stability gives an indication of the condition of the
emulsion. Optimisation of the emulsifier concentration will ensure that
there is good temperature stability, stabilised rheology and optimised
lubricity.
Section 11c
Filter Loss
Filtration controllers are used to maintain filtration control. They act
in conjunction with the emulsifier package. KMC OIL TOOLS have a
proprietary family of powdered filtration controllers including, CONFI-
TROL, CONFI-TROL HT and CONFI-TROL LP, specifically formulated to
act synergistically with emulsifier package. The effect of these products
is specific to the emulsifier, oil water ratio, temperature of test, density of
the fluid and type of base fluid.
It is recommended that the HPHT filtration test is run at 25˚ F higher than
the maximum expected bottom hole temperature.
Density
DRILL-BAR is used to provide density. If higher densities or flatter
rheological profiles are required then HAEMATITE or HYDRO-MAX can
be used in the formulation.
In some cases additional density may be achieved by replacing the

calcium chloride brine with calcium or sodium bromide brine or by
maintaining lower oil: brine ratios using either calcium chloride or
alternatives including sodium formate, in particular where a low solids
content of the fluid is required.
Rheology
It must be highlighted that while drilling ahead there will be an
increase in rheology as the organophilic clay yields. This is particularly
true when new fresh mud is delivered to or mixed on the rig. Ensure
that this increase in rheology does not become an operational problem,
it must be controlled.
The two principal methods of imparting rheology are the use of

the Organophilic clay, CONFI-GEL / CONFI-GEL HT and or low end
rheological modifiers. Optimise the effectiveness of organophilic clays,
with the addition of CONFI-MOD and/or CONFI-RM. The use of these
modifiers will provide a flatter rheology profile minimising the ECD.
Note that overuse of rheology modifiers without sufficient underlying
organophilic clay structure can promote barite sag, which is detailed in
section 6b of this handbook, barite sag.
Oil Wetting Agents

The use of oil wetting agents, CONFI-WET and thinners, CONFI-COAT,
Section 11c
should be avoided as the difference between product effectiveness
and over treatment can be a very fine balance. The thinners act on the
organophilic agents and destroy their effectiveness. Once a system is over
treated it becomes difficult to re gain the rheology and the danger of sag
becomes more pronounced. If a treatment of oil wetting agents is to be
made to the circulating system, it is advisable that the treatment is pilot
tested extensively beforehand to determine the correct treatment level.
Lime
Lime is required to activate the emulsifiers; therefore, it is imperative
the lime concentration be maintained in excess as the efficacy of the
emulsifiers is optimised. Experience demonstrates while drilling ahead
the excess lime concentration is steadily depleted. This is particularly
noticeable while drilling reservoir sections and or higher temperature
zones. Lime will also be removed by acid gases.
Water Phase Salinity

The activity coefficient of the water, or brine phase, Aw, should be
maintained lower than the activity of the formation fluids. The water
phase salinity ensures that the drilling fluid exerts a reverse osmotic
pressure on the formation, the activity level being determined by the type
and concentration of the salt.
The Aw is maintained with a salt most commonly calcium chloride. The

determining factor for the concentration of salt used is the status of
the shale cuttings which should be firm and discrete. Any sign of hydration
of cuttings indicates that the water phase salinity level must be increased.
For reservoir drilling the brine phase may be provided by alternative salts
including sodium bromide, sodium formate and calcium bromide.
Temperature
A characteristic of invert emulsion systems is high temperature stability.
The limiting factors being the effectiveness of the emulsifiers, viscosifiers,
rheological modifiers and filtration control, agents at the elevated
temperature. At elevated temperatures there will be a more rapid
depletion of the emulsifiers. This will also vary with density and type of
base fluid.
Section 11c
Cementing
The primary effects of cement contamination are increases in the excess
lime and water contents.
However the pre-flush pills used prior to cementing are designed to

change the wettability of surfaces which they achieve by attacking the
emulsion package of the fluid. To minimise contamination of the drilling
fluid the volume of preflush pills should be minimised. Contamination of
the mud by the preflush results in a fall in emulsion stability, an increase
in the HPHT filtrate and a decrease in the base fluid/brine ratio. This
contamination may be treated by increasing the oil/brine ratio with an
base fluid rich premix that contains an excess of emulsifiers.
If possible any excess pre flush that reaches surface should be isolated
from the system on the first circulation, though in most cases it is so
entrained into the mud it is impossible to isolate. When cementing liners,
however, the excess cement and preflush may be reversed out and it
should be possible to readily isolate the contamination in this case.

During displacements or after a trip, the shakers should be dressed with
relatively coarse screens. The size of the screen should be reduced as the
fluid warms up and the viscosity of the mud decreases.
Gas Solubility
Gas is soluble in NAF which has major consequences for well control as
gas will stay in solution until close to surface and for deepwater wells
expansion may not occur until the influx is in the riser. Kick detection
may be severely compromised and the ability to detect and react to very
minor volume changes is highly significant. This is especially true for H2S
which is 40 times more soluble than methane.
It should also be noted that solution gas, including trip gas, will be
detected, in decreasing quantity, at the same spot in the circulating system
for several circulations until it is finally released from the mud.
Section 11c
Gas solubility is a function of temperature and pressure and will vary
with base fluid type e.g. for internal olefins and mineral oils the response
of both base fluids is similar to 4,000 psi. Above 4,000 psi the effects of
pressure dominate the solubility for mineral oils with methane being
completely miscible above 7,000 psi and effects of temperature are not
significant.
On the other hand temperature has a pronounced affect on gas

miscibility in internal olefins above 4,000 psi, higher temperatures
significantly reducing the pressure at which methane is fully miscible,
from + 11,000 psi at 150˚ F to + 8,500 psi at 300˚ F.
If condensate is either present or the main component of a ‘kick’ there

may be differences in behaviour compared to methane alone in solution:
1. Kick detection may be delayed for condensate kicks relative to

methane kicks.
2. As the kick / base fluid mixture becomes heavier there is a
corresponding decrease in volatility and bubblepoint pressure, i.e.
rapid expansion happens closer to surface.
3. Significant expansion of a kick occurs nearer to surface for
ondensates than for methane and, when it does occur because of
gas evolution, it is more rapid. The rise in surface pressure shows
the same trend. The heavier the condensate and, for SBM, the lower
the concentration, the nearer the surface the rapid expansion and
pressure rise occur as the bubblepoint pressure is lower.
4. When a condensate kick occurs in SBM contamination of the mud
with condensate occurs as only the volatile components are released
at surface. This may have consequences for discharge and or
disposal of contaminated mud.
Section 11c
confi-dense
System Description
CONFI-DENSE is base oil or synthetic fluid based drilling fluid
specifically engineered to provide emulsion stability for high density
and high temperature applications beyond the range of the
standard CONFI-DRILL system. The CONFI-DENSE system is stable to
temperatures in excess of 400˚ F, exhibiting minimal density
differentiation under both dynamic and static conditions. The system
can be weighted to above 18.5 lb/gal with barite, or alternative weight
materials such as HAEMATITE and is run with higher oil:brine ratios
of 85/15 to 90/10+. The system has excellent rheological and filtration
characteristics which are easily modified to meet changing pressure
and temperature conditions.
Formulation
An example of a CONFI-DENSE formulation and properties is detailed in
Tables 5 and 6

Base Oil LP Base fluid 0.46 bbl/bbl
CONFI-MUL S Secondary emulsifier 5.5 lb/bbl
CONFI-GEL HT Viscosifier 3.0 lb/bbl
CONFI-MOD Rheology modifier 1.5 lb/bbl
CONFI-TROL HT Filtration controller 3.0 lb/bbl
CONFI- TROL XHT Filtration controller 4.0 lb/bbl
Drillwater 0.09 bbl/bbl
CONFI-COAT Oil wetting agent 2.0 lb/bbl
lime Emulsifier activator 1.0 lb/bbl
DRILL-BAR Weighting agent 558 lb/bbl
Table 5. Example CONFI-Dense formulation

Mud Weight 18 lb/gal
PV 55 cP
YP 12 lbs/100ft2
Section 11c
Sag Factor 0.50 - 51 dial reading
OWR 84/16
HTHP (@ 250° F) <4.0 ml/ 30 min
Table 6. Example CONFI-Dense properties
In addition to the basic products supplementary products can be used
to optimise the system for specific use. These supplementary products
and their function and concentration are listed below

control additive
Table 7. Supplementary products for CONFI-DENSE systems
A number of key aspects of the CONFI-DENSE system are;
ƒ Both polymeric and organophilic clay viscosifiers are used to

provide optimum rheology with a high base fluid:brine ratio.
ƒ Formulations are engineered specifically to each project.
ƒ Several filtration control additives are used to ensure the efficacy
of the system at elevated temperature.
ƒ The system is formulated such that the parameters are
independent of base oil type.
ƒ Due to the high solids content the system requires higher base
fluid:brine ratios.
See guidelines under CONFI-DRILL.
Pressure and Temperature Effects for HTHP fluids

Drilling fluid density and rheology are functions of temperature and
pressure encountered in the well. Higher pressures will increase rheology
and density; higher temperatures will decrease them.
Section 11c
Note: The temperature effects on NAF are much higher than WBM as
base oils have a much lower specific heat capacity and lower thermal
conductivity than water.
Fann 35 rheology readings at surface conditions do not reflect the

rheology of the fluid at elevated pressures and pressures therefore it is
very important to regularly run the rheology on a Fann 75 and measure
the rheology at bottom hole conditions. Rheological modelling, e.g.
ECD calculations, using only Fann 35 data will we inaccurate.
The volume of the fluid will increase and decrease while drilling and
tripping as the fluid heats and cools. This normal volume variation can
lead to the interpretation that the well is flowing or losing. To fully
establish the effects of pressure and temperature and establish a
‘fingerprint’ of the fluid behaviour to provide information to distinguish
between “normal losses”, “down hole losses”, or “gains” the following
steps should be taken.
When the mud has reached equilibrium operating temperatures for

each interval establish and record the normal changes in surface
volume due to:-
1. operation / shut down of mud pumps,

2. Running mud pumps at different rates,
3. Operation / shut down of mix pumps and solids control
equipment.
Mud Coolers
To lower both the surface and downhole circulating temperatures a
mud cooler may frequently be used on HTHP wells. This surface
cooling can lead to a reduction of > 30˚ F+ in the maximum flowline
and circulating downhole temperature. This is of particular benefit for
extending the range and life of downhole tools.
Section 11c
extra-vert
System Description
EXTRA-VERT is an ester based invert emulsion drilling fluid system,
which meets many strict environmental performance criteria. The system
has excellent rheological and filtration characteristics which are easily
modified to meet changing pressure and temperature conditions. The
system conforms to current legislation for the majority of worldwide
locations including the North Sea (UK and Norwegian sectors) and the
Gulf of Mexico.
The system base fluid is produced specifically for drilling fluid

application as a more environmentally benign alternative to traditional
oil and synthetic based systems. Esters have higher kinematic viscosities
than other base fluids thereby producing drilling fluids with higher
viscosities especially under cold temperature conditions.
OMC 596 has a kinematic viscosity of +5.5 mm2 /s at 40˚ C compared with
a range of + 1.7 – 3.5 for olefins, paraffin and mineral oils
EXTRA-VERT is a viable alternative where traditional invert emulsion

systems are precluded from use by environmental regulations and
operators wish to forgo the expense and logistical costs associated with
alternative cuttings disposal technologies such as shipping to shore or
cuttings re-injection.
EXTRA-VERT can be formulated for densities to16 lb/gal and

temperatures to 320˚ F.
Formulation
An example of an EXTRA-VERT formulation and properties is detailed in

Table 8 and 9.

OMC 586 Ester 0.58 bbl/bbl
CONFI-MUL P(IO) Primary emulsifier 7 - 10 lb/bbl
CONFI-MUL S(IO) Secondary emulsifier 2 - 4 lb/ bbl
CONFI-GEL HT Viscosifier 3 – 5 lb/bbl
CONFI-MOD Rheology modifier 1 – 3 lb/bbl
drillwater Water phase 0.26 bbl/bbl
Section 11c
PRODUCT Function Concentration

lime Emulsifier activator 0.5 lb/bbl
DRILL-BAR Barite 88 lb/bbl
Table 8. Example EXTRA-VERT formulation

Density 10.2 lb/gal
PV + 20 cP
YP + 20 lbs/100ft2
Gels + 6/8 lbs/100ft2
Ester:Brine ratio 70:30 N/A
HTHP (@ 250° F) < 3.0 ml/30 min
Table 9. Typical EXTRA-VERT properties

optimise the system for specific use. These supplementary products and
their function and concentration are listed below

control additive
CONFI-TROL Solid fluid loss 2 – 8 lb/bbl
controller
CONFI-COAT Oil wetting agent 0.5 -2 lb/bbl
CONFI-TROL HT HT gilsonite 2 – 8 lb/bbl
Table 10. Supplementary products for EXTRA-VERT systems
A number of key aspects of the EXTRA-VERT system are:-
ƒ An ester:brine ratio higher than the equivalent oil:brine ratio

for a CONFI system of similar density. As EXTRA-VERT is
formulated with an ester which has a higher kinematic viscosity
than other base fluids the system will have higher plastic
viscosities. In order to manage this property a high ester:brine
ratio is required.
Section 11c
ƒ Fluids formulated with esters require greater emulsifier
concentrations because the systems have a higher fluid loss.
The higher emulsifier concentrations lower the fluid loss and
stabilise the rheology through improved oil wetting.
ƒ Esters are sensitive to lime. However lime is required to activate
the emulsifiers. When running EXTRA-VERT the optimum lime
content is 0.5 lb/bbl excess.
Rheology
Due to the higher kinematic viscosity of the ester base fluids, EXTRA-
VERT systems will have higher inherent rheology than other invert
emulsion systems with a similar formulation. The system is mixed with
lower concentrations of both organophilic and polymeric viscosifiers in
addition to maintaining higher ester:brine ratios.
Oil Wetting Agents

As drill solids content increases there will be corresponding build up in
rheology and it may be necessary to use wetting agents, CONFI-WET,
and thinners, CONFI-COAT to stabilise the rheology.
The difference between product effectiveness and over treatment with

these products is a very fine balance. The thinners act on the organophilic
agents destroying their effectiveness. Once a system is over treated it
becomes difficult to regain the rheology and the danger of sag becomes
more pronounced. If a treatment of oil wetting / thinning agents is to be
made to the circulating system, treatment levels must be determined by
pilot testing.
Lime
A characteristic of esters is that in the presence of calcium, hydroxyl
ions and temperature they will saponify to form the carboxylic salt of
the ester. This saponification will show with an increase in rheology
and fluid loss. Lime is required to activate the emulsifier, therefore to
avoid potential saponification a low concentration of excess lime is use,
concentrations not exceeding 0.5 lb/bbl excess.
Section 11c
Temperature
When exposed to high temperatures esters break down limiting their use
to wells with a maximum temperature of with 320˚ F.
Retorting Esters
Esters degrade at high temperatures which makes the traditional
methodology of solids content determination by retort inaccurate.
Retorting results in the thermal decomposition of the ester base fluid as
well as “waxing” of the retort condenser. If necessary a slight modification
of the retorting methodology, described below, will compensate for this
characteristic.
1. Pre-heat a 50 ml retort chamber to 700 F.
2. Ensure that the cell and condenser are cleaned and free from
obstructions. (One method to ensure this is to retort 50 ml of
distilled water through the retort system then ensuring that the
retort equipment is dry.
3. Weight the retort cell empty. (W1)
4. Fill the retort cell with mud and weigh. (W2)
5. Weigh the empty collection cylinder. (W3)
6. Run the retort as per normal.
7. When the retort is finished, cool the retort cell.
8. Weigh the filled collection cylinder (W4)
9. Record the volume of water in the collection cylinder (V1)
10. Record the volume of ester in the retort (V2)
11. Re-weigh the cooled retorted retort cell (W5)
12. Determine the Volume of ester in the mud the following formula
steps.
Mass of Mud Retorted (W3) = W2 - W1

Volume mud retorted (Vm) = W3 / density of the mud
Mass of liquid received from retorting (W6) = W4 – W3
Mass of Solids in mud (W7) = W5 - W1
WT 100 % Liquid in mud (W8) = W3 - W7
Mass of Ester in Mud (W9) = W8 - V1
Volume r (Ve) = W9 / density of ester
Percentage Ester in retort = Ve / Vm*100
Percentage Water in retort = V1 / Vm*100
Section 11c
This method is based on the following assumptions.
1. All the ester that is destroyed by heating is vaporised, or is in wax

remaining in the retort condenser.
2. All volumes are in ml and mass are in grams.
3. 1 ml of retorted water has a mass of 1g.
Cementing
Lime has an adverse effect on the ester system therefore to mitigate
the effects of cement a larger than normal water based spacer should be
pumped ahead of and behind the cement. A more proactive approach
is to pre-treat the system with additional emulsifiers and wetting agents.
Care however must be taken to ensure that the rheological profile is not
destroyed by such pre-treatment.
Post-cement job there may be an increase in rheology, lime content

and waxing during retorting. However the increase in waxing and lime
content will slowly deplete as drilling continues.
Section 11c
opta-vert
System Description
OPTA-VERT is an invert emulsion DRILL-IN fluid that has been custom
designed to provide minimal reservoir damage across of a wide range
of porosities and permeabilities whilst laying down a filter cake readily
removable on draw down.
The system is custom designed for each individual reservoir and uses
a range of high quality components and design tools to facilitate the
design process including the SYNTHE-SIZER program which allows the
concentration and particle size of the bridging agent to be optimised to
ensure solids are deposited across the pore throat with minimal invasion
while sealing off the reservoir with a thin and resilient filter cake.
OPTA-VERT is recommended for reservoir drill-in applications with the

raised potential for problems such as emulsion blocking associated with
water based drilling fluids.
Problems which OPTA-VERT minimises include:
ƒ Wellbore instability caused by hydratable shales above or inter-

bedded in the reservoir sands.
ƒ Fluid instability due to high bottom hole temperatures.
ƒ Excessive torque and drag related to high angle and extended
reach drilling.
The result is a system that provides strong benefits as a high performance,

non-damaging drill-in fluid optimising production rates across a wide
range of completion methods:
ƒ Open hole gravel pack or non gravel pack completions.

ƒ Expandable slotted screen completions.
ƒ Slotted or perforated liner completions.
ƒ Cased hole completions where hole cleaning or minimised
fluid invasion is critical.
The system is highly inhibitive and ideally suited to drilling reservoirs

with shale interbeds.
Section 11c
The OPTA-VERT system can be used to drill overbalanced by
optimising the concentration of the bridging material to effectively seal
new virgin formation as it is exposed by the bit, thus preventing losses.
Benefits of the OPTA-VERT System include:
ƒ Highly inhibitive ƒ Re-use

ƒ Low filter loss ƒ Can be engineered with
ƒ Re-use environmentally friendly
ƒ Can be engineered on base fluids
reservoir specific basis ƒ Simple to use
ƒ Rapid bridging ƒ Fluid properties are
ƒ Easily removable filter cake tolerant of solids
ƒ Filter cake has low lift ƒ Resistant to contamination
off pressure ƒ Protection against corrosion
ƒ Filter cake can be back ƒ Low dilution rates
produced through ƒ Can be formulated to
slotted liners relatively low densities
ƒ Acid soluble filter cake
The advantages of the system must be considered along with the

limitations:
ƒ High cost of losses ƒ May require complex clean

ƒ High initial make up costs up procedures
ƒ May have environmental ƒ Cost of remediation
restrictions ƒ Re use may lead to build
up of drill solids content
Formulation
An example of an OPTA- formulation and associated properties
is shown in Table 11. All formulations must be engineered specifically
for each reservoirs individual characteristics.

Base Oil LP Base Fluid 0.64 bbl/bbl
CONFI-MUL S Secondary emulsifier 2.5 lb/bbl
CONFI-GEL Viscosifier 6.0 lb/bbl
CONFI-MOD Rheology modifier 1.5 lb/bbl
Section 11c

calcium chloride Brine phase 29 lb/bbl
drillwater 0.17 bbl/bbl
lime Lime 2.5 lb/bbl
OPTA-CARB 10 Bridging & density 30 lb/bbl
OPTA-CARB 50 Bridging & density 30 lb/bbl
Table 11. Example OPTA-VERT formulation

PV 18 cP
YP 14 lbs/100ft2
HTHP (@ Bottom <3.0 ml/30 min
Hole Temp °F)
Table 12. Typical OPTA-VERT properties
A number of aspects of this formulation need to be highlighted.
ƒ Note the relatively low concentration of emulsifier. The system

is run with little or no excess emulsifier to minimise emulsion
blockage in the formation. However, must be emphasised that
the amount of emulsifier must be sufficient to ensure emulsion
stability.
ƒ Filtration control additives maybe restricted to prevent
formation damage. In that case filtration control is provided by
the emulsion and the concentration of bridging material.
ƒ The concentration, particle size distribution and type of the
OPTA-CARB bridging material, will be project and well specific.
Ensure that the emulsion remains stable, with low filter loss and no
water break through. It is also imperative that there is sufficient
bridging material of the correct size to ensure that the non damaging
nature of the fluid. The drilling process will degrade the bridging
material and some of the material will be removed by the shale shakers.
New bridging material should be added to regularly to the circulating
system to maintain the correct particle size distribution.
Section 11c
Mixing OPTA-VERT
1. Add the required quantity of base fluid to the mixing tank.
2. Add the primary emulsifier, CONFI-MUL P, and secondary emulsifier,
CONFI-MUL S, as required.
3. Add organophilic viscosifier, CONFI-GEL / CONFI-GEL HT, as
required.
4. Add required amount of water to the above mixture. If brine is to be
used, then add brine after the lime additions.
5. Add rheology modifier e.g. CONFI-MOD or CONFI-RM as required.
6. Add lime as required.
7. Add filtration control additives, CONFI-TROL, CONFI-TROL HT,
CONFI-SEAL or CONFI-TROL LP, as required.
8. Add calcium chloride powder if brine is not used. If calcium chloride
powder is not available, then mix the calcium chloride flakes into the
water and add as a brine.
9. Mix above for several hours to ensure a good emulsion is formed.
10. If the formulation requires barite add the required amount.
11. Add the bridging material e.g. OPTA-CARB as the final product.
12. After the bridging material has been added it is advisable that shear
in the mixing system is minimised to prevent the grinding of the
bridging material. It is recommended that if logistically possible the
bridging materials are not added to the fluid until it is needed e.g.
immediately before entering the reservoir or after the casing / liner
is drilled out.
The shear available on most rigs is rarely sufficient to ensure that the
organophilic clays have fully yielded. Once the fluid is sheared through
the bit the rheology profile may increase.
Filter Loss
The HPHT should be run at the maximum expected bottom hole
temperature. As there is a minimal concentration of emulsifiers in the
fluid, the HPHT test should be run several times on each shift to ensure
that the fluid remains within the required parameters.
Density
Initial density is provided by the OPTA-CARB in the system. Barite
should be added only if the engineered bridging material is not
sufficient to provide the required density.
Section 11c
In order to minimise the amount of solids, alternative weight materials

such as HAEMATITE, or for specialist applications, HYDRO-MAX, may
be used. These weight materials will deliver fluids which have lower
plastic viscosities than systems formulated with conventional barite.
Rheology
It must be highlighted that while drilling ahead there will be an increase
in rheology as the organophilic clay yields. This is particularly true when
new fresh mud is delivered to or mixed on the rig. Ensure that this
increase in rheology does not become an operational problem, it must be
controlled.
The two principal methods of imparting rheology is by the use of

the Organophilic clay, CONFI-GEL / CONFI-GEL HT and or low end
rheological modifiers. Optimise the effectiveness of organophilic clays,
with the addition of CONFI-MOD and/or CONFI-RM. The use of these
modifiers will provide a flatter rheology profile minimising the ECD.
Note that overuse of rheology modifiers without sufficient underlying
organophilic clay structure can promote barite sag, which is detailed in
section 6b of this handbook, barite sag.
Oil Wetting Agents

The use of oil wetting agents, CONFI-WET, and thinners, CONFI-COAT,
should be avoided as the difference between product effectiveness
and over treatment can be a very fine balance. The thinners act on the
organophilic agents and destroy their effectiveness. Once a system is
over treated it becomes difficult to re gain the rheology and the
dangerof sag becomes more pronounced. If a treatment of oil wetting
agents is to be made to the circulating system, it is advisable that the
treatment is pilot tested extensively beforehand to determine the
correct treatment level.
Emulsifier
Emulsifier ensures that the invert emulsion is stabilised and aid in
filtration control. The measurement of emulsion stability gives an
indication of the condition of the emulsion. While drilling with the
OPTA-VERT system the emulsifier concentration is minimised to prevent
formation damage.
Section 11c
Filtration Controllers
The use of filtration controllers may be restricted when using the OPTA
–VERT system. However, depending on fluid loss requirements OPTA-
VERT systems may be formulated with the CONFI-TROL product range or
blend of these products.
Water Phase Salinity

Refer to CONFI-DRILL.
Non Standard Rig Site Testing

The primary method of preventing damage is the use of bridging
materials. The quantity and quality (particle size distribution) needs to
be monitored. A number of additional testing regimes may be required.
These include

Pore Plug Test Bridging Efficiency PPA apparatus
Calcium Carbonate Determine the quantity Non Standard Test
Concentration of bridging material
Particle Size Determine the size of Malvern Particle Size
Distribution the particles in the fluid tester
These tests will determine the rate of depletion of bridging material in

terms of quantity and quality which will allow addition of the required
bridging material to the system while drilling ahead.

It must be highlighted that while the primarily purpose of solids
control equipment is to remove drill solids, bridging materials will also
be removed negating the non damaging nature of the fluids. A balance
has to be struck between solids removal and controlling the effects of
drill solids contamination by dilution.
Fresh bridging agents are frequently added on a continuous basis to

replace material lost through solids control equipment.
completion fluids
section 11d
completion fluids
Section 11d
contents
clear brines ............................................................................................................................1
density .....................................................................................................................................2
crystallisation point ...........................................................................................................6
environmental concerns ...................................................................................................7
brine / formation water compatibility .........................................................................7
cost ...........................................................................................................................................8
brine testing procedures ..................................................................................................8
hse .........................................................................................................................................10
engineering guide lines ..................................................................................................12
filtration ................................................................................................................................14
corrosion inhibition ..........................................................................................................14
wellbore clean up and displacement ........................................................................15
losses during completion ..............................................................................................16
01 completion fluids
Section 11d
Clear brines are use to provide hydrostatic pressure control barrier both
during the running of completion strings and during work over operations
and are generally selected for non formation damaging characteristics.
clear brines
The ideal fluid should be free from solids, polymers and compatible with
the formation therefore clear brines are the preferred option.
The selection of brine will be dependent on the following criteria:
ƒ Brine density range

ƒ Brine crystallisation point
ƒ Fluid / formation compatibility
ƒ Corrosion
ƒ Local environmental rules
ƒ Cost
ƒ Availability
Brines are classified by the valency of the cation into monovalent and
divalent brines.
Monovalent brines include:
ƒ Potassium chloride
ƒ Potassium formate
ƒ Potassium nitrate
ƒ Potassium bromide
ƒ Sodium chloride
ƒ Sodium bromide
ƒ Sodium formate
ƒ Sodium nitrate
ƒ Caesium formate
ƒ Caesium acetate
Divalent brines include:
ƒ Calcium chloride
ƒ Calcium bromide
ƒ Zinc bromide
ƒ Zinc chloride
ƒ Magnesium chloride
completion fluids 02
Section 11d
Brines may be made from blends of these salts, however, divalent
and monovalent brines should not be mixed, as this will result in co-
precipitation. Typical blends are Sodium / Potassium Chloride and
Calcium Chloride / Calcium Bromide.
density
The density of brine depends both on the type and quantity of salt
dissolved in the water and all brines a have a maximum concentration of
salt (saturation) after which the salt no longer goes into solution. Brine
densities vary as detailed in Table 1 below:
Brine Max Density (lb/gal)

Potassium chloride 9.7
Magnesium chloride 9.9
Sodium chloride and Sodium chloride 10.0
Potassium chloride blend
Calcium nitrate 10.5
Sodium formate 11.1
Potassium bromide and Potassium bromide / 11.5
Potassium chloride blend
Calcium chloride 11.7
Potassium carbonate 12.8
Sodium bromide and Sodium bromide/ 12.7
Sodium chloride blend
Potassium carbonate 12.8
Calcium nitrate 12.9
Potassium formate 13.3
Calcium bromide and Calcium chloride / 15.4
Calcium bromide blend
Caesium formate / Caesium acetate 19.7
Zinc bromide and Calcium bromide Zinc 20.5
bromide Blend
Table 1 Brine density
To determine the relationship between density and salt concentration

a brine table must be consulted, as the mass balance equation does not
apply to brines that are not fully saturated. Brine tables are detailed in
Section 18, Salt Tables.
Section 11d
It is imperative that the maximum temperature requirement (usually

BHT) is quoted when specifying the fluid density requirements as there
is significant volume, therefore density, variation with temperature in
clear brines. As the temperature increases the fluid density decreases e.g.
Calcium Chloride with a density of 11.0 lb/gal at 60˚ F has a density of 10.5
lb/gal at 220˚ F.
It is also important to know the minimum surface temperature the brine

will be exposed to as high concentrations of some salts e.g. Potassium
Chloride having crystallisation points (see below) > freezing point. In cold
climates / winter conditions the maximum density achievable with the
brine might be reduced.
Brine selection for any application will be dependent initially on the ability
to meet the density requirements at the maximum temperature in the
wellbore.
Factors to consider when calculate drilling fluid density include:
ƒ type of fluid in use

ƒ fluid column properties - dynamic or static
ƒ if mud is circulating in well, has temperature and density steady state
been achieved
ƒ temperature gradient of well - uniform or variable
Calculation of hydrostatic pressure at any point in the well is affected by the

gradient of temperature increase to which the fluid is exposed in the earth.
However in deep-water wells the gradient of temperature decrease to which
the mud is exposed in the riser extending through the column of seawater
must also be considered. When circulation is broken before or after a trip a
near steady state may be interrupted and temperatures and pressures begin
to change minute by minute. For this reason the following expressions can
provide only serviceable estimates which may not apply when maintaining
bottom hole pressure is critical to well control or circulating losses.
Specific comments important to understanding the significance of the

following equation include:
ƒ In a circulating well which has not reached a near steady state the fluid
temperatures are in flux.
ƒ As a near equilibrium or steady state temperature gradient is achieved
during continuous circulation the flow line temperature will generally
be significantly above ambient conditions. Fluid temperature in the
wellbore will be less than BHT.
Section 11d
ƒ Actual surface density and temperature at flowline should be used in
the calculations.
ƒ If BHT is used results will be conservative. If estimated BHCT is applied,
calculated pressure will be increased.
ƒ This simple mathematical treatment assumes a linear temperature
gradient which may not reflect the actual well conditions.
ƒ When drilling in cold water (deepwater Gulf of Mexico or in arctic
waters for example) the cooling effect on riser may reduce flowline
temperature to near 32˚ F. In these examples a separate calculation
should be performed on the mud column contained by the riser.
ƒ A carefully described computer model which considers temperature
transfer across the tubulars, thermal conductivity of cased and open
hole, thermal conductivity of the fluid, allows for changing temperature
gradients when applicable, flow rate, and temperature change of
fluid at bit nozzles will provide a more accurate estimate of pressure.
The following expressions yield approximate corrections for density gain

or loss.
To calculate an average well temperature is straight-forward

(BHT + ST)
= AT
2
Where
BHT = bottom hole temperature (˚F)
ST = surface temperature (˚F)
AT = average well temperature (˚F)
Using the previous calculation an average temperature increase can be

calculated
AT - ST = ATI
Where
AT = average well temperature (˚F)
ST = surface temperature (˚F)
ATI = average temperature increase (˚F)
Section 11d
From the temperature increase and an estimated correction factor

constant (Table 2) can be calculated change in density
ATI x Cft = ΔDt
Where
ATI = average temperature increase (˚F)
Cft = temperature correction factor
ΔDt = change in density (lb/gal) due to temperature
From previous calculations can be calculated average hydrostatic

pressure
(SD - ΔDT) x 0.052 x TVD
= AHP
2
Where
SD = surface density (lb/gal)
TVD = true vertical depth of well (ft)
AHP = average hydrostatic pressure (lb/in2 )
0.052 = hydraulic constant
From previous calculations can be calculated density change due to

increase in pressure
AHP x Cfp = ΔDP
Where
AHP = average hydrostatic pressure (lb/in2 )
Cfp = correction factor for pressure
ΔDp = density change (lb/gal) due to hydrostatic pressure
The average wellbore density resulting from the temperature gradient

and hydrostatic pressure can then be estimated using the following
equation:
SD + ΔDt + ΔDp= DP
Where
SD = surface density (lb/gal)
ΔDp = density change (lb/gal) due to hydrostatic pressure
Section 11d
Correction Factors
Fluid Type Temp Pressure
NaCl or KCl 0.0024 0.000019
CaCl2 0.0027 0.000017
NaBr 0.0033 0.000021
NaBr / NaCl blend 0.0033 0.000021
CaBr2 0.0033 0.000023
CaCl2 / CaBr2 blend 0.0033 0.000023
ZnBr2 / CaBr2 / CaCl2 - 14 to 17.5 lb/gal 0.0036 0.000024
ZnB2 / CaBr2 / CaCl2 - > 17.5 lb/gal to 0.0048 to 0.000031
Table 2 Brine correction Factors

crystallisation point
As the temperature of brine is reduced the solubility of the salt is
reduced and at a specific temperature salt crystals will begin to
precipitate. The point at which the salt begins to precipitate is described
as the crystallisation point. The precipitation of these solid salts will
result not only in a density drop, with an impact on safe well control, but
may also cause plugging in pumps and lines as the salt settles out.
Four temperatures values are used to describe the crystallisation point:
ƒ First crystal to appear (FCTA)

ƒ True crystallisation temperature (TCT)
ƒ Last Crystal to dissolve (LCTD)
ƒ Pressure Crystallisation Temperature (PCT)
The crystallisation point is also a determining factor in brine selection.

For instance in cold environments and / or offshore operation, the
temperature may be too low to allow particular brine or brine blend
to be used as the operation temperature is below the crystallisation
temperature. To provide a safe operating margin allow a 10˚ F margin
below the lowest crystallisation temperature of the brine.
Section 11d
Crystallisation - TCT for NaCl, KCl & CaCl2

70
60
50
40 KCl CaCl2
30
CP (deg F)
20
NaCl
10
-10
7
0
7
2
7
4
8
.2
9
.1
4
.3
0
3
8
8
6
3
0
4
2
.6
.5
.4
.8
.1
.9
8.8
9.6
9.9
8.9
9.2
8.5
9.1
8.7
9.4
8.4
10
9.7
10
11
10
11
10
10
11
10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
Density (ppg)
Figure 1: TCT GRAPH
environmental concerns
In some locations the selection of brines may be limited due to
environmental regulations on the use and / or disposal of the brine. These
regulations may prevent the use of particular brines and / or limit the
discharge to below a certain threshold concentration. In case of discharge
restrictions, the use of the brine may be allowed if there is a remedial
method such as total containment at the rig site.
brine / formation water compatibility

Completion and work over brines will come into contact with the
formation solids, fluids and gasses raising the possibility of chemical
incompatibility, which will interfere with the passage of fluids to and
from the well bore during production or injection activities.
The most common incompatibilities include:
ƒ Reaction of the brine with the shale formation causing shale swelling.
Section 11d
ƒ Precipitation of iron compounds in the formation from iron dissolved
in the brine.
ƒ Formation of emulsions between the brine and hydrocarbon liquids
in the formation.
ƒ Scale formation from the reaction between the brines and dissolved
solutes in the formation e.g. calcium brines with dissolved carbon
dioxide.
ƒ Co precipitation of salts when divalent ions in the formation mix with
monovalent ions from the brine and vice versa.
In order to ensure the compatibility of completion fluid the following

tests can be used to evaluate compatibility.
ƒ Return Permeability
ƒ Brine and formation water compatibility test
ƒ Formation mineralogy
ƒ Chemical Analysis of formation water
ƒ Produced fluid brine compatibility tests
It should be noted that in order for these tests to be valid, core and
produced fluids from the nearest offset wells should be used for the test.
cost
Cost may be a limiting factor as to the selection of clear brines, there
being a considerable cost variation for brine types in particular the high
density brines. If a brine can cover the density range, has a high enough
crystallisation point, fulfils all the environmental regulatory requirements,
is non corrosive, its selection may be precluded in the event that the cost
is too high to make the project financially viable.
brine testing procedures

Brine Density
Although density of brine can be determined using a mud balance, a
more accurate way to determine the density is by the use of a hydrometer.
Section 11d
The density of an aqueous solutions is

measured with a hydrometer. A hydrometer
consists of a leaded weight encased in a
long glass bulb and a calibrated scale on
the top end of the bulb. When placed in
an aqueous solution, the hydrometer
sinks to a level that corresponds to the
Figure 2 Hydrometer Set density of the solution.
Crystallisation Point
The true crystallisation point can be determined using a Brine
Crystallisation Kit.
Corrosion
Rate of corrosion can be determined by the use of corrosion coupons.
See section 12, Corrosion.
pH
It is recommended that pH be tested using strips as opposed to the
use of an electrode type pH meter as the high electrolyte concentration
in brines interferes with the meters accuracy.
Solids Content
Clear brines are free from solids; however they will pick up
contamination when they are circulated down hole. To determine the
level of solids contamination there are two test methods
ƒ Centrifuge
The sample is placed in a cell and the centrifuge is spun. Solids are
reported as % solids.
ƒ Turbidity Meter
The brine is placed in a sample tube and tested on a standardised

turbidity meter. The result is reported in Nephelometric Turbidity
Units (NTU) and acceptable values will vary, generally being in the range
of 40 – 200 NTU
Section 11d
It should however be highlighted that some dissolved ions will
increase the turbidity of the fluid while not affecting the solids content.
It is recommended that when the Turbidity is suspected to be due to
dissolved ions, that the turbidity is tested after the brine is treated
with concentrated hydrochloric acid.
hse
It is important that the HSE issues associated with the use of brines
are communicated to the rig crew and service personnel before the
beginning of brine handling operations.
High density brines have unique chemical properties and consequently

should be handled in a different manner from conventional muds,
especially for safety reasons. Personnel safety when handling these brine
systems involves two basic aspects:
1. Education of all personnel

2. Proper Personnel Protective Equipment (PPE)
Each person involved with the well site project must be aware of
brine properties and how to handle these systems before brines are used
on the rig site. People working with these brine systems must be aware
of brine properties before the drill-in, completion, or workover actually
begins. At the rigsite, they should wear the necessary safety equipment
to perform the job. Proper preparation and teamwork during the job
will ensure a safe effective operation.
Toolbox talks should be given to all people that will be involved with the
project. The topics should include:
ƒ A description of the brine system and fluid properties that affect

safety.
ƒ Safety equipment on the rig, the reason it’s there, its location, when to
use it and how to use it.
ƒ Personal wearing apparel, why, when and how to use it, and how to
maintain it.
ƒ Specific safety procedures.
Section 11d
Pre-spud meetings should be held between the operating company

and all service companies involved. The service company personnel,
as well as the regular crews, should be made aware of all the safety
procedures and equipment needed.
Safety and knowledge go hand in hand. Personnel armed with correct

information, will be comfortable with the system, aware of the correct
procedures, alert to any situation, and able to avoid potential pitfalls.
Exposure To Skin
As a general rule, brine solutions become more irritating to the skin as
the density of the fluid is increased and/or the pH of the fluid becomes
more acidic. Brines such as CaCI2 and CaBr2 can be extremely irritating
to the skin and if not washed off and if contaminated clothing is not
removed, skin burns can result. Monovalent brines are much less
irritating to skin
Brines should be washed off using soap and water as soon as possible
especially as the more irritating brines will pull the moisture directly
from the skin due to their hygroscopic properties.
Remove contaminated clothing from the body as this will continue to

cause irritation.
Report all incidents of exposure and get qualified medical attention if

the irritation is not relieved.
Exposure To Eyes Or Mucous Membranes

Always wear appropriate eye protection. Heavy brines immediately
irritate the eyes, mucous membranes and any cuts or scratches that are
contaminated. Wash the affected area, immediately
immediately, with large amounts
of water for a minimum of 15 minutes. Get qualified medical attention.
Ingestion
Consult the MSDS for response information. Induce vomiting if the
victim is conscious. Do not induce vomiting if the victim is unconscious.
Section 11d
PPE
The type and amount of safety apparel to be worn will vary with the
specific task being done. The following are the minimum recommended
requirements:-
ƒ Use chemical splash goggles to seal against the skin around both
eyes and protect the wearer from splashing at almost any angle as
safety glasses with side shields and full face do not provide this full
protection.
ƒ Use plastic or rubber gloves, preferably with long arms, that will
protect the hands. Cotton gloves should be worn over this type of
glove to prevent the glove from tearing.
ƒ Ensure that barrier and moisturising creams containing lanolin and/
or glycerine. Barrier creams should be rubbed on the hands before
putting on gloves. They are not a substitute for gloves.
ƒ Wear steel toe rubber boots as leather boots will become stiff
and shrink when saturated with heavy brines.
ƒ Wear rubber or plastic aprons when lifting sacks of dry salt or other
additives.
ƒ The use of slicker suits or disposable coveralls is recommended
for activities when splashing is probable, such as tripping pipe.
ƒ Use disposable dust/mist respirators when mixing dry additives
or salts.
Rig Safety Equipment

Ensure that eye wash fountains and drench showers are near to and
working at each area of high activity.
engineering guide lines

Completion / clean-up programs detail the requirements and pumping
sequences for completion fluids including timing sequence and
volumes of each specific fluid being pumped and any contingency pill
requirements.
Transport of Brine
On occasion it may be possible to prepare the brine in town at a brine
plant. Ensure the following:
Section 11d
ƒ Tanks that the brine is to be mixed in are clean and dry.

ƒ In order to reduced the cost of transport brine may be delivered
as concentrated higher density liquor, and cut back at the rig
site to the required density.
ƒ Ensure the tanks are closed securely during transport.
ƒ If possible it is suggested that the brine is pre-filtered prior to loading.
This will reduce time at the rig site for filtration.
ƒ Ensure all hoses used in the transfer are in good condition.
ƒ Ensure that the transport personnel are aware of brine safety issues.
Rig Preparation
Prior to mixing the brine or receiving the brine at the rig site the rig fluid
system has to be clean. The degree of cleanliness will depend on the
operational needs. It should be noted, pit and line cleaning can take as
long as 20 – 30 hours of dedicated cleaning. Pits may be cleaned with
water with soap or surfactant pills pumped through all lines and pumps.
Ensure that the following areas are cleaned, dried and free from
contamination.
ƒ Flow line / return lines

ƒ Process pits
ƒ Pits
ƒ Trip Tank
ƒ Mud pits
ƒ Mixing lines
ƒ Transfer lines
ƒ Area under the solids control equipment
Other rig preparations considerations are:
ƒ It is advisable that the pits be covered to prevent contamination

of the brine by debris and or rain water.
ƒ Ensure that the pits are not leaking. (Hydro testing is suggested).
ƒ All gates should be sealed shut.
ƒ Blank off all water pipes, to ensure that there is no inadvertent
contamination of brine with water.
ƒ If possible in order to prevent cross contamination of brine, it is
advisable to only have brine on the rig during completion operations.
Section 11d
ƒ Hold planning meetings to discuss the safety and operational issues
where brine is concerned.
ƒ Ensure hoses are in good condition and compatible with the brine.
ƒ Ensure that other service personnel are aware of the type of brine to
be used in order to ensure that their equipment is compatible.
filtration
To ensure the non damaging nature of the brine after mixing or
receiving brine it may be necessary to remove solids particles and or dirt.
The most common method is to filter the brine.
The two most common filtration mediums are:
1. Diatomaceous earth filter (DE)

2. Cartridge type filter.
The two systems can be used in series with, initial filtration by the
diatomaceous earth filter then a final polish through the cartridge type
filter. Filters come in a range of sizes and can filter as low as 2 microns.
Note filtration can reduce the density by as much as 0.2 lb/gal as solids
and contaminants are removed. If higher density brine liquor has been
supplied then It is advisable to filter the brine before dilution with water
to the required density.
corrosion inhibition
In order to reduce the possibility contamination due to corrosion of the
metal surfaces on the tubular and the completion string the fluid may be
treated with a variety of corrosion inhibitors as listed below:
Function Product Name Typical Concentration

Biocide HYDRO-CIDE 500 – 1000 ppm
Corrosion Inhibitor CORREL-8 2 – 4 gal / 100 bbl
3 in 1 corrosion COR-MUSCLE 3 – 7 gal / 100 bbl
inhibitor
Section 11d
Function Product Name Typical Concentration

Oxygen Scavenger OX-SCAV 0.5 – 1 lb/bbl
Oxygen Scavenger for OX-SCAV CA 0.5 – 1 lb/bbl
divalent brines
pH Modifier Caustic Soda As required
Prior to treatment it is imperative that the compatibility of the

products with the brine is confirmed. It is recommended that should
filtration of the brine be needed then the inhibitor treatment is done
after filtration as treatments may destroy the filtering mediums causing
contamination of the brine.
wellbore clean up and displacement

After the well has been drilled, and cased the standard procedure
is to clean the casing with a sequence of clean up pills. If possible
consideration should be given to cleaning the well before mixing or
receiving brine. Care should also be taken not to contaminate any brine
with the clean up pills.
Clean up procedures and requirements vary depending on

completion type and operator specifications. Clean up procedures can
include the use of:
ƒ Thinning pills
ƒ Flocculating pills
ƒ Wettability changing pills
ƒ Surfactant pills (to clean up the well)
ƒ Scrub pills
ƒ High viscosity pills
ƒ Low viscosity pills.
These pills may be combined in sequence, usually in combination with

scrapers, brushes and magnets installed in the drill-string. The pills
are usually displaced at high pump rates with large volumes of water
until the specified cleanliness level (NTU) is achieved and may include
displacement to the completion brine as part of the clean-up circulating
process.
Section 11d
The following procedure outlines some requirements for brine
displacement
ƒ Develop a logistic and pit plan. Ensure there is enough volume
available to fill the hole, process and active pits. Determine the
number of stokes required for each part of the displacement.
ƒ Discuss the plan with derrick man / pump man prior to operation.
ƒ By pass the shakers.
ƒ Hold a pre–job tool box talk with every one involved with operation.
Discuss and highlight safety aspects of the operations and distribute
a copy of the logistic plan.
ƒ the drilling fluids engineer must monitor the displacement and
trouble shoot any problems.
ƒ If weighted fluid is being displaced out of the well with a
lower density brine or water it is recommended that a 50 bbl
displacement pill weighted to 2.0 lb/gal above the density
of the brine system is pumped between the fluids.
ƒ Pump as fast as operationally possible.
ƒ Once the brine is 150 ft above the bit begin rotating and reciprocating
the drill string.
ƒ When the interface is at surface divert the returns until the
correct density is received at the flow-line.
It should be noted that the interface can use up 50 % of the hole

volume depending on the well geometry and porosity. Ensure that
this is taken into account in planning required volumes and pit space
requirements.
losses during completion

Down hole losses may occur during completion or workover operations
such as perforation, pulling of tubing, pulling of completion, injectivity
tests and during cycling of pumps to set balls or close valves. As
clear fluids are solids free the loss rates may be larger than with fluids
containing solids.
Ensure that there is a loss circulation plan developed and included in the
operation plan, if losses are a potential hazard. This plan should include
what loss rate and loss of time is acceptable before remedial action
becomes necessary as well as which technique should be used.
Section 11d
Technique to cure down hole losses include
ƒ The lowering of the hydrostatic over burden

ƒ The use of viscosified solids free loss circulation pills
ƒ The use of pills containing sized solids
ƒ The closure of down hole valves
ƒ Setting of packers
The type and cause of loss will determine which method is used to cure
the losses.
When using a loss circulation pill during completion and work over
operations it is imperative that the pill is non-damaging and formulated
from material which can be produced back or broken down by a wash
treatment e.g. Perchlorate or acid and alkali washes.
Solids Free Viscosified LCM Pill
A pill may be formulated by blending 1- 5 lb/bbl of HEC-TOR in brine.
LCM Pills
It is recommended that an optimised OPTA-FLO pill is used as a lost

circulation pill. A typical pill consists of a viscosified brine with a sized
calcium carbonate or marble.

OPTA-ZAN Viscosifying Polymer 1 – 2 lb/bbl
OPTA-CARB , 5, 25, 50 & 100 Bridging Agents 30 – 50 lb/bbl

OPTA-CARB M , 5, 25, 50 & 100 Bridging Agents 30 – 50 lb/bbl

DRILL-CARB F, M & C Bridging Agents 30 – 50 lb/bbl
Other bridging agents that may be used include Sized Salts and Oil
Soluble Resin.

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fluid system system guidelines

Beneﬁts of the DRILL-GEL Spud Mud System

Limitations of the DRILL-GEL Spud Mud System

PRODUCT Function CONCENTRATION

To maximise the yield of the DRILL-GEL high quality water is

To optimise the hydration, 6 – 8 hours minimum is required for the

While the basic formulation detailed in Table 1 is very simple,

Chemical Function Operational Concentration

Chemical Function Operational Concentration

Mixing Spud Mud

Alternative Spud System – GUAR GUM

Recommended Mixing Procedure:

The primary shale inhibition mechanisms in the HYDRO-FOIL system are:

1. The cation exchange of potassium ions with the clay to reduce

Potassium chloride is the primary source of the potassium ions in the

ƒ potassium sulphate ƒ potassium formate

The HYDRO-FOIL system can be used in any salinity from freshwater

When using a HYDRO-FOIL system formulated with potassium

Beneﬁts of the HYDRO-FOIL system include

• Readily upgradeable to more advanced systems such as HYDRO-

Product Function Concentration

Table 3 – Indicative HYDRO-FOIL formulation

Chemical Function Concentration

The ENCAPSUL-8 concentration in the system will deplete while drilling

The PHPA concentration may be measured using the test described in

Field experience has determined that as a general rule the PHPA

Typical Depletion Factors

Highly reactive shales 6 - 8 lb/bbl

Actual depletion factors should be determined on a formation by

Total depletion = 100 x .4783 * 5 = 239 lbs of PHPA

Required to add to maintain > 1 lb/bbl excess = 5 x 25 kg sacks (275 lbs)

NB. Liquid PHPA , ENCAPSUL-8 L, is 35% active PHPA so 14 x 25 kg pails

A limitation with a PHPA system is the difﬁculty of mixing the dry

2. Have a stock of ENCAPSUL-8 L. Note however that this is 35 % active.

5. Mix the PHPA by the SHOTGUN method.

In some cases the product speciﬁed for particular application might

Fluid Loss Control

rheology from XC-EED is preferred to the rheology achieved with the

Due to the hydrolysis of the PHPA at high pH it is not recommended to

Temperature Limitation and Treatment

ƒ When cementing it is recommended a large sacriﬁcial spacer is

It is worth noting that although the high pH from cement

Mechanism of Shale Stabilisation

At a speciﬁc temperature (cloud point) a water soluble glycol starts

Figure 1 Visualisation of Glycol Behaviour as a

Cloud point is a function of the following variables:

Figure 2. Cloud Points for Various Glycols in KCl Solutions

Research has concluded that the glycol is associated by hydrogen

It can be concluded that the shale inhibition and formation protection

ƒ The glycol displaces water from adsorption sites on the clay

Beneﬁts of the HYDRO-FOIL GEN 1 system include

ƒ Effective inhibition ƒ Extension of polymeric

In order to cover the range of operational conditions KMC Oiltools has

Normal glycol operational concentrations are in the range 0.5% to 5%.

Note although normal formulation usually contains only one type of

In addition to the basic products supplementary products can be used

The glycol concentration is measured using the method described in

Closely monitor the concentration, replacing lost product as required.

The primary shale inhibition mechanisms in the HYDRO-FOIL S8 system