INDEX

Introduction 3

SQL Server 2008(Overview) 12

Structured Query Language (SQL) 20

Databases 22

Tables 32

Data Types 42

Constraints 47

Rules and Defaults 57

Joins 61

SubQueries 68

Built-in Functions 74

Operators 80

Views 85

Indexes 90

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Synonyms 93

Normalization 95

T-SQL Programming 103

Stored procedures 108

Triggers 113

User Defined Functions (UDF) 120

Transactions 125

Locks 128

Cursors 133

Security 136

Back-up and recovery of Databases 140

Case Study 144

More Practical Examples 154

Frequently Asked Questions 166

2
 INTRODUCTION

SQL Server is a Client/Server Relational Database Management System

(RDBMS) that uses Transact-SQL to send request between a client and SQL
Server.

Client/Server Architecture:

SQL Server is designed to be a client/server system. Client/server systems

are constructed so that the database can reside on a central computer, know as a
Server, and be shared among several users. When users want to access the data
in SQL Server, they run an application on their local computer, known as a Client
that connects over a network to the server running SQL Server.
SQL Server can work with thousands of client application simultaneously.
The server has features to prevent the logical problems that occur if a user tries
to read or modify data currently used by others.

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 While SQL Server is designed to work as a sever in a Client/Server
network, it is also capable of working as a stand-alone database directly on the
client. The scalability and easy-to-use features of SQL Server allow it to work
efficiently on a client without consuming too many resources.
To begin with, a brief overview of the relational database model is
provided as the SQL Server database is based on this model.

Database Management System:

A Database Management System (DBMS) is a set of computer
programs that controls the creation, maintenance, and the use of a database. It
allows organizations to place control of database development in the hands of
database administrators (DBAs) and other specialists.
A DBMS is a system software package that helps the use of integrated
collection of data records and files known as databases. It allows different user
application programs to easily access the same database.
DBMSs may use any of a variety of database models, such as the
Hierarchical model, network model or relational model.
In large systems, a DBMS allows users and other software to store and
retrieve data in a structured way. Instead of having to write computer programs
to extract information, user can ask simple questions in a query language. Thus,
many DBMS packages provide Fourth-generation programming language (4GLs)
and other application development features. It helps to specify the logical
organization for a database and access and use the information within a
database. It provides facilities for controlling data access, enforcing data
integrity, managing concurrency, and restoring the database from backups. A
DBMS also provides the ability to logically present database information to users.
Database Management systems offers the following services.
Data Definition:
It is a method of data storage
Data Maintenance:
It checks whether each record has fields containing all information about
one particular item. For example, in an employee table, all information about the
employee like name, address, designation, salary, dept-name.
Data Manipulation:
This method helps in viewing and manipulating data.
Data Integrity:
This ensures accuracy of data.

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Entity-Relational Model (E-R Model):
Database design representation will be done using E-R model.
Entity:
An entity is a any object, place, person, concept or activity about which an
enterprise records data.
Ex:
Name Price Description
Keyboard 800 Computer Accessories
Mouse 200 Computer Accessories

Attributes:
An attribute is the characteristic property of an existing entity. Attribute
type is the property of entity type, and attribute instance is the property of entity
instance.
An ellipse always represents the attribute.
Ex:

Relationship among data:

A relationship is defined as “an association among entities”. A relationship
type is an association of entity types. While a relationship instance is an
association of entity instances.
A relationship may associate an entity with itself. Several relationships
may exist between the same entities.

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 The three different types of relationships recognized among various data
stored in the database are:
 One-to-one
 One-to-Many( or Many-to-One)
 Many-to-Many

One-to-One:
Consider for example a set of students in a class. Each student can have
only one Roll number. Similarly each role number can be associated with on
student. This is the case of a one-to-one relationship.

Student1 Assigned Rollno1

Student2 Assigned Rollno2

Many-to-One:
One student can register for only one particular course at a time, whereas
a number of students could register for the same course.

Student1

Student2 Register Course

Student3

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Many-to-Many:
A vendor can sell a number of items and many vendors can sell a
particular item.

Vendor1 Item1

Vendor2 Item2

Database models:
A database model is a theory or specification describing how a database is
structured and used. Several such models have been suggested.
Common models include:
 File Management System model
 Hierarchical model
 Network model
 Relational model
 Object-relational model

File Management System Model:

The File Management model was the first method used to store data in a
computerized database. The data item is stored sequentially in one large file. A
particular relationship cannot be drawn between the items other than the
sequence in which it is stored. If a particular data item has to be located, the
search starts at beginning and items are checked sequentially till the required
item is found.
Disadvantages:
Locating and retrieving a record is a very tedious process because of its
sequential access method. Altering the file structure such as updating a record is
also cumbersome. To do this task the entire file has to be read and rewritten. It
involves writing the new data item into a temporary file, adding this item as a
last filed of each record, deleting the original file and renaming the temporary
file.

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Hierarchical model:
In this model data storage is in the form of a parent-child relationship. The
origin of a data tree is the root. Data located at different levels along a particular
branch from the root is called the node. The last node in the leaf is called the
leaf. This model supports One-to-Many relationship.
Hierarchical structures were widely used in the early mainframe database
management systems, such as the Information Management System (IMS) by
IBM, and now describe the structure of XML documents.

Suppose information is required, say 2.1. It is not necessary for the DBMS
to search the entire file to locate the data. Instead, it first follows the level2
branch and fetches the data.
Disadvantages:

It is not possible to enter a new level into the system. As and when such a
need arises the entire structure has to be revamped. Another disadvantage is
that this model does not support Many-to-Many relationship.

Network model:
The network model (defined by the CODASYL specification) organizes data
using two fundamental constructs, called records and sets. Records contain fields
(which may be organized hierarchically, as in the programming
language COBOL). Sets (not to be confused with mathematical sets) define one-
to-many relationships between records: one owner, many members. A record
may be an owner in any number of sets, and a member in any number of sets.

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 The network model is a variation on the hierarchical model, to the extent
that it is built on the concept of multiple branches (lower-level structures)
emanating from one or more nodes (higher-level structures), while the model
differs from the hierarchical model in that branches can be connected to multiple
nodes. The network model is able to represent redundancy in data more
efficiently than in the hierarchical model.
The operations of the network model are navigational in style: a program
maintains a current position, and navigates from one record to another by
following the relationships in which the record participates. Records can also be
located by supplying key values.
Although it is not an essential feature of the model, network databases
generally implement the set relationships by means of pointers that directly
address the location of a record on disk. This gives excellent retrieval
performance, at the expense of operations such as database loading and
reorganization.

Disadvantages:

The use of pointers leads to complexity in the structure. As a result of the

increased complexity mapping of related data becomes very difficult.

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Relational model:
The relational model was introduced by E.F.Codd in 1970 as a way to
make database management systems more independent of any particular
application. It is a mathematical model defined in terms of predicate logic and set
theory.
The products that are generally referred to as relational databases in fact
implement a model that is only an approximation to the mathematical model
defined by Codd.
Three key terms are used extensively in relational database
models: relations, attributes, and domains.
A relation is a table with columns and rows. The named columns of the
relation are called attributes, and the domain is the set of values the attributes
are allowed to take.
The basic data structure of the relational model is the table, where
information about a particular entity (say, an employee) is represented in rows
(also called tuples) and columns. Thus, the "relation" in "relational database"
refers to the various tables in the database; a relation is a set of tuples. The
columns enumerate the various attributes of the entity (the employee's name,
address or phone number, for example), and a row is an actual instance of the
entity (a specific employee) that is represented by the relation. As a result, each
tuple of the employee table represents various attributes of a single employee.
All relations (and, thus, tables) in a relational database have to
adhere to some basic rules to qualify as relations. First, the ordering of
columns is immaterial in a table. Second, there can't be identical tuples
or rows in a table. And third, each tuple will contain a single value for
each of its attributes.
A relational database contains multiple tables, each similar to the one in
the "flat" database model. One of the strengths of the relational model is that, in
principle, any value occurring in two different records (belonging to the same
table or to different tables), implies a relationship among those two records. Yet,
in order to enforce explicit integrity constraints, relationships between records in
tables can also be defined explicitly, by identifying or non-identifying parent-child
relationships characterized by assigning cardinality (1:1, (0)1:M, M:M). Tables
can also have a designated single attribute or a set of attributes that can act as a
"key", which can be used to uniquely identify each tuple in the table.
A key that can be used to uniquely identify a row in a table is called a
primary key. Keys are commonly used to join or combine data from two or more
tables. For example, an Employee table may contain a column
named Location which contains a value that matches the key of a Location table.
Keys are also critical in the creation of indexes, which facilitate fast retrieval of
data from large tables. Any column can be a key, or multiple columns can be

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grouped together into a compound key. It is not necessary to define all the keys
in advance; a column can be used as a key even if it was not originally intended
to be one.

Object-Relational Model:
An object-relational database (ORD), or object-relational database
management system (ORDBMS), is a database management system (DBMS)
similar to a relational database, but with an object-oriented database model:
objects, classes and inheritance are directly supported in database schemas and
in the query language. In addition, it supports extension of the data model with
custom data-types and methods.

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 SQL SERVER 2008

SQL Server 2008 aims to make data management self-tuning, self

organizing, and self maintaining with the development of SQL Server Always
On technologies, to provide near-zero downtime. SQL Server 2008 also includes
support for structured and semi-structured data, including digital media formats
for pictures, audio, video and other multimedia data. In current versions, such
multimedia data can be stored as BLOBs (binary large objects), but they are
generic bitstreams. Intrinsic awareness of multimedia data will allow specialized
functions to be performed on them.
SQL Server 2008 can be a data storage backend for different varieties of
data: XML, email, time/calendar, file, document, spatial, etc as well as
perform search, query, analysis, sharing, and synchronization across all data
types.
Other new data types include specialized date and time types and
a Spatial data type for location-dependent data.
Better support for unstructured and semi-structured data is provided using
the new FILESTREAM data type, which can be used to reference any file stored on
the file system.
Structured data and metadata about the file is stored in SQL Server
database, whereas the unstructured component is stored in the file system. Such
files can be accessed both via Win32 file handling APIs as well as via SQL Server
using T-SQL;
The Full-Text Search functionality has been integrated with the database
engine, which simplifies management and improves performance.
SQL Server includes better compression features, which also helps in
improving scalability.
SQL Server 2008 supports the ADO.NET Entity Framework and the
reporting tools, replication, and data definition will be built around the Entity Data
Model. SQL Server Reporting Services will gain charting capabilities from the
integration of the data visualization.
The version of SQL Server Management Studio included with SQL Server
2008 supports IntelliSense for SQL queries against a SQL Server 2008 Database
Engine.

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SQL Server 2008 R2:
SQL Server 2008 R2 (formerly codenamed SQL Server "Kilimanjaro") was
announced at TechEd 2009, and was released to manufacturing on April 21,
2010. SQL Server 2008 R2 adds certain features to SQL Server 2008
including master data management system branded as Master Data Services,
a centralized console to manage multiple SQL Server instances, and support for
more than 64 logical processors.
SQL Server 2008 R2 boasts a number of new services, including
PowerPivot for Excel and SharePoint, Master Data Services, StreamInsight,
ReportBuilder 3.0, Reporting Services Add-in for SharePoint, a Data-tier function
in Visual Studio that enables packaging of tiered databases as part of an
application, and a SQL Server Utility named UC (Utility Control POint), part of
AMSM (Application and Multi-Server Management) that is used to manage
multiple SQL Servers.

Editions of SQL Server 2008:

Microsoft makes SQL Server available in multiple editions, with different
feature sets and targeting different users. These editions are:

SQL Server Compact Edition (SQL CE):

The compact edition is an embedded database engine. Unlike the other
editions of SQL Server, the SQL CE engine is based on SQL Mobile (initially
designed for use with hand-held devices) and does not share the same
binaries. The 3.5 version includes considerable work that supports
ADO.NET Synchronization Services.
SQL Server Evaluation Edition:
SQL Server Evaluation Edition, also known as the Trial Edition, has all the
features of the Enterprise Edition, but is limited to 180 days, after which
the tools will continue to run, but the server services will stop. [24]
SQL Server Express Edition:
SQL Server Express Edition is a scaled down, free edition of SQL Server,
which includes the core database engine. While there are no limitations on
the number of databases or users supported, it is limited to using one
processor, 1 GB memory and 4 GB database files (10 GB database files
from SQL Server Express 2008 R2).

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SQL Server Fast Track:
SQL Server Fast Track is specifically for enterprise-scale data warehousing
storage and business intelligence processing, and runs on reference-
architecture hardware that is optimized for Fast Track.

SQL Server Standard Edition:

SQL Server Standard edition includes the core database engine, along with
the stand-alone services. It differs from Enterprise edition in that it
supports fewer active instances (number of nodes in a cluster) and does
not include some high-availability functions such as hot-add memory
(allowing memory to be added while the server is still running), and
parallel indexes.

SQL Server Developer Edition:

SQL Server Developer Edition includes the same features as SQL Server
Enterprise Edition, but is limited by the license to be only used as a
development and test system, and not as production server. This edition is
available to download by students free of charge as a part
of Microsoft's Dreams park program.

SQL Server Enterprise Edition:

SQL Server Enterprise Edition is the full-featured edition of SQL Server,
including both the core database engine and add-on services, while
including a range of tools for creating and managing a SQL Server cluster.

SQL Server Web Edition:

SQL Server Web Edition is a low-TCO option for Web hosting.

SQL Server Workgroup Edition:

SQL Server Workgroup Edition includes the core database functionality but
does not include the additional services.

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Tools:

SQLCMD:
SQLCMD is a command line application that comes with Microsoft SQL
Server, and exposes the management features of SQL Server. It allows SQL
queries to be written and executed from the command prompt. It can also act as
a scripting language to create and run a set of SQL statements as a script. Such
scripts are stored as a .sql file, and are used either for management of databases
or to create the database schema during the deployment of a database.
SQLCMD was introduced with SQL Server 2005 and this continues with
SQL Server 2008. Its predecessor for earlier versions was OSQL and ISQL, which
is functionally equivalent as it pertains to TSQL execution, and many of the
command line parameters are identical, although SQLCMD adds extra versatility.

Visual Studio:
Microsoft Visual Studio includes native support for data programming with
Microsoft SQL Server. It can be used to write and debug code to be executed by
SQL CLR. It also includes a data designer that can be used to graphically create,
view or edit database schemas. Queries can be created either visually or using
code. SSMS 2008 onwards, provides intellisense for SQL queries as well.

SQL Server Management Studio:

SQL Server Management Studio is a GUI tool included with SQL Server 2005
and later for configuring, managing, and administering all components within
Microsoft SQL Server. The tool includes both script editors and graphical tools
that work with objects and features of the server.
SQL Server Management Studio replaces Enterprise Manager as the
primary management interface for Microsoft SQL Server since SQL Server 2005.
A version of SQL Server Management Studio is also available for SQL Server
Express Edition, for which it is known as SQL Server Management Studio
Express (SSMSE).
A central feature of SQL Server Management Studio is the Object Explorer,
which allows the user to browse, select, and act upon any of the objects within
the server.[56] It can be used to visually observe and analyze query plans and
optimize the database performance, among others.
SQL Server Management Studio can also be used to create a new
database, alter any existing database schema by adding or modifying tables and

15
indexes, or analyze performance. It includes the query windows which provide a
GUI based interface to write and execute queries.
Business Intelligence Development Studio:
Business Intelligence Development Studio (BIDS) is the IDE from Microsoft used
for developing data analysis and Business Intelligence solutions utilizing the
Microsoft SQL Server Analysis Services, Reporting Services and Integration
Services. It is based on the Microsoft Visual Studio development environment but
customizes with the SQL Server services-specific extensions and project types,
including tools, controls and projects for reports (using Reporting
Services), Cubes and data mining structures (using Analysis Services).

SQL Server Services:

SQL Server also includes an assortment of add-on services. While these

are not essential for the operation of the database system, they provide value
added services on top of the core database management system. These services
either run as a part of some SQL Server component or out-of-process
as Windows Service and presents their own API to control and interact with them.

Service Broker:
Used inside an instance, it is used to provide an asynchronous
programming environment. For cross instance applications, Service Broker
communicates The Service Broker, which runs as a part of the database engine,
provides a reliable messaging and message queuing platform for SQL Server
applications.

Replication Services:
SQL Server Replication Services are used by SQL Server to replicate and
synchronize database objects, either in entirety or a subset of the objects
present, across replication agents, which might be other database servers across
the network, or database caches on the client side. Replication follows a
publisher/subscriber model, i.e., the changes are sent out by one database server
("publisher") and are received by others ("subscribers"). SQL Server supports
three different types of replication:
Transaction replication
Each transaction made to the publisher database (master
database) is synced out to subscribers, who update their databases with

16
 the transaction. Transactional replication synchronizes databases in near
real time.
Merge replication
Changes made at both the publisher and subscriber databases are
tracked, and periodically the changes are synchronized bi-directionally
between the publisher and the subscribers. If the same data has been
modified differently in both the publisher and the subscriber databases,
synchronization will result in a conflict which has to be resolved - either
manually or by using pre-defined policies.
Snapshot replication
Snapshot replication published a copy of the entire database (the
then-snapshot of the data) and replicates out to the subscribers. Further
changes to the snapshot are not tracked.

Analysis Services:
SQL Server Analysis Services adds OLAP and data mining capabilities for SQL
Server databases. The OLAP engine supports MOLAP, ROLAP and HOLAP storage
modes for data. Analysis Services supports the XML for Analysis standard as the
underlying communication protocol. The cube data can be accessed
using MDX queries. Data mining specific functionality is exposed via
the DMX query language.

Reporting Services:
SQL Server Reporting Services is a report generation environment for data
gathered from SQL Server databases. It is administered via a web interface.
Reporting services features a web services interface to support the development
of custom reporting applications. Reports are created as RDL files.
Reports can be designed using recent versions of Microsoft Visual
Studio (Visual Studio.NET 2003, 2005, and 2008) with Business Intelligence
Development Studio, installed or with the included Report Builder. Once created,
RDL files can be rendered in a variety of formats including
Excel, PDF, CSV, XML, TIFF (and other image formats), and HTML Web Archive.

Notification Services:
Originally introduced as a post-release add-on for SQL Server
2000, Notification Services was bundled as part of the Microsoft SQL Server
platform for the first and only time with SQL Server 2005. With Sql Server 2005,
SQL Server Notification Services is a mechanism for generating data-driven

17
notifications, which are sent to Notification Services subscribers. A subscriber
registers for a specific event or transaction (which is registered on the database
server as a trigger); when the event occurs, Notification Services can use one of
three methods to send a message to the subscriber informing about the
occurrence of the event. These methods include SMTP, SOAP, or by writing to a
file in the file system. Notification Services was discontinued by Microsoft with the
release of SQL Server 2008 in August 2008, and is no longer an officially
supported component of the SQL Server database platform.

Integration Services:
SQL Server Integration Services is used to integrate data from different
data sources. It is used for the ETL capabilities for SQL Server for data
warehousing needs. Integration Services includes GUI tools to build data
extraction workflows integration various functionality such as extracting data
from various sources, querying data, transforming data including aggregating,
duplication and merging data, and then loading the transformed data onto other
sources, or sending e-mails detailing the status of the operation as defined by the
user.

Full Text Search Service:

SQL Server Full Text Search service is a specialized indexing and querying
service for unstructured text stored in SQL Server databases. The full text search
index can be created on any column with character based text data. It allows for
words to be searched for in the text columns. While it can be performed with the
SQL LIKE operator, using SQL Server Full Text Search service can be more
efficient. Full Text Search (FTS) allows for inexact matching of the source string,
indicated by a Rank value which can range from 0 to 1000 - a higher rank means
a more accurate match. T-SQL exposes special operators that can be used to
access the FTS capabilities.
The Full Text Search engine is divided into two processes - the Filter
Daemon process (msftefd.exe) and the Search process (msftesql.exe). These
processes interact with the SQL Server. The Search process includes the indexer
(that creates the full text indexes) and the full text query processor. The indexer
scans through text columns in the database.
When a full text query is received by the SQL Server query
processor, it is handed over to the FTS query processor in the Search process.
The FTS query processor breaks up the query into the constituent words, filters
out the noise words, and uses an inbuilt thesaurus to find out the linguistic
variants for each word. The words are then queried against the inverted index
and a rank of their accurateness is computed. The results are returned to the
client via the SQL Server process.

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Programmability:

T-SQL:
T-SQL (Transact-SQL) is the primary means of programming and
managing SQL Server. It exposes keywords for the operations that can be
performed on SQL Server, including creating and altering database schemas,
entering and editing data in the database as well as monitoring and managing the
server itself. Client applications, both which consume data or manage the server,
leverage SQL Server functionality by sending T-SQL queries and statements
which are then processed by the server and results (or errors) returned to the
client application. SQL Server allows it to be managed using T-SQL. For this it
exposes read only tables from which server statistics can be read. Management
functionality is exposed via system-defined stored procedures which can be
invoked from T-SQL queries to perform the management operation. It is also
possible to create linked Server using T-SQL. Linked server allows operation to
multiple server as one query.

SQL Native Client:

SQL Native Client is the native client side data access library for Microsoft
SQL Server, version 2005 onwards. It natively implements support for the SQL
Server features including the Tabular Data Stream implementation, support for
mirrored SQL Server databases, full support for all data types supported by SQL
Server, asynchronous operations, query notifications, encryption support, as well
as receiving multiple result sets in a single database session. SQL Native Client is
used under the hood by SQL Server plug-ins for other data access technologies,
including ADO or OLE DB. The SQL Native Client can also be directly used,
bypassing the generic data access layers.

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 STRUCTURED QUERY LANGUAGE

SQL is a standard that every database should follow. That means all the
SQL commands should work in all databases. Based on the type of operations we
are performing on the database, SQL is divided into the following types:

 Data Definition Language (DDL)

 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
 Transaction Control Language (TCL)
 Data Control Language (DCL)

Data Definition Language:

It is used to create an object (e.g. table), alter the structure of an object
and also to delete the object from the server. All these commands will effect only
the structure of the database object. The commands contained by this language
are:
 CREATE - used to create an object
 ALTER - used to modify an existing object
 DROP - used to delete the object
 TRUNCATE - used to delete only the data of an object

Note: DDL commands are AUTO COMMIT. i.e., with the execution of these
commands, the results will be stored directly into the database.

Data Manipulation Language:

The DML commands are most frequently used SQL commands. They are
used to query and manipulate existing objects like tables. They should affect only
the data of an existing structure. The commands existing in this language are:
 SELECT - used to query the object data
 INSERT - used to enter the data into the object
 UPDATE - used to modify existing objects data
 DELETE - used to delete the data of an object.

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Transaction Control Language:

A transaction is a logical unit of work. All changes made to the database

can be referred to as a transaction.
Whenever, we perform a DML operation, results will be stored in the buffer
not in the database. The user can control Transaction changes with the use of
this language commands. They are:
 COMMIT - used to make the changes permanent
 ROLLBACK - used to undo the changes

Database Buffer

Commit
Commit

Query Editor

DDL

DML
L

Data Control Language:

In general to access an object which was created by another user, at first,
we must get the permission from the owner of the object. To provide the
permission or remove the permission, we use this language commands. They
are:
 GRANT - Used to provide Permission
 REVOKE - Used to remove the Permission

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 DATABASES

A database in Microsoft SQL Server consists of a collection of tables that

contain data and other objects, such as views, indexes, stored procedures, and
triggers, defined to support activities performed with the data. The data stored in
a database is usually related to a particular subject or process, such as inventory
information for a manufacturing warehouse.
SQL Server can support many databases. Each database can store either
interrelated or unrelated data from other databases. For example, a server can
have one database that stores personnel data and another that stores product-
related data. Alternatively, one database can store current customer order data,
and another related database can store historical customer orders used for yearly
reporting.

Database Architecture:
Microsoft SQL Server 2000 data is stored in databases. The data in a
database is organized into the logical components visible to users. A database is
also physically implemented as two or more files on disk.
When using a database, you work primarily with the logical components
such as tables, views, procedures, and users. The physical implementation of files
is largely transparent. Typically, only the database administrator needs to work
with the physical implementation.

22
 Each instance of SQL Server has four system databases (master, model,
tempdb, and msdb) and one or more user databases. Some organizations have
only one user database, containing all the data for their organization. Some
organizations have different databases for each group in their organization, and
sometimes a database used by a single application. For example, an organization
could have one database for sales, one for payroll, one for a document
management application, and so on. Sometimes an application uses only one
database; other applications may access several databases.

It is not necessary to run multiple copies of the SQL Server database

engine to allow multiple users to access the databases on a server. An instance of
the SQL Server Standard or Enterprise Edition is capable of handling thousands of
users working in multiple databases at the same time. Each instance of SQL
Server makes all databases in the instance available to all users that connect to
the instance, subject to the defined security permissions.

Types of Databases:
SQL Server provides two types of Databases.
 System Databases
 User Defined Databases

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System Databases:
Along with the installation of SQL Server FOUR databases will be created
automatically called as system databases. They can be used by any user
anywhere from SQL Server.
The System Databases are:
 master
The master database records all of the system level information for a SQL
Server system. It records all login accounts and all system configuration
settings. master is the database that records the existence of all other
databases, including the location of the database files. master records the
initialization information for SQL Server; always have a recent backup of
master available.
 model
The model database is used as the template for all databases created on
a system. When a CREATE DATABASE statement is issued, the first part of
the database is created by copying in the contents of the model database,
then the remainder of the new database is filled with empty pages.
Because tempdb is created every time SQL Server is started, the model
database must always exist on a SQL Server system.
 msdb
The msdb database is used by SQL Server Agent for scheduling alerts and
jobs, and recording operators.
 tempdb
tempdb holds all temporary tables and temporary stored procedures. It
also fills any other temporary storage needs such as work tables
generated by SQL Server. tempdb is a global resource; the temporary
tables and stored procedures for all users connected to the system are
stored there. tempdb is re-created every time SQL Server is started so
the system starts with a clean copy of the database

User Defined Databases:

The databases that are created by the users are called as user defined
databases.
While creating a database, the user has to specify a name to the database
and the details of data files, which are used to specify the location, where the
database data is to be stored.

24
Files and Filegroups:
Microsoft® SQL Server™ 2000 maps a database using a set of operating-system
files. All data and objects in the database, such as tables, stored procedures,
triggers, and views, are stored within these operating-system files:
 Primary Data File (.mdf)
This file contains the startup information for the database and is used to
store data. Every database has one primary data file.
 Secondary Data File (.ndf)
These files hold all of the data that does not fit in the primary data file. If
the primary file can hold all of the data in the database, databases do not
need to have secondary data files. Some databases may be large enough
to need multiple secondary data files or to use secondary files on separate
disk drives to spread data across multiple disks.
 Transaction Log File (.ldf)
These files hold the log information used to recover the database. There
must be at least one log file for each database.
Filegroups allow files to be grouped together for administrative and data
allocation/placement purposes. For example, three files (Data1.ndf, Data2.ndf,
and Data3.ndf) can be created on three disk drives, respectively, and assigned to
the filegroup fgroup1. A table can then be created specifically on the filegroup
fgroup1. Queries for data from the table will be spread across the three disks,
thereby improving performance. Files and filegroups, however, allow you to easily
add new files on new disks. Additionally, if your database exceeds the maximum
size for a single Microsoft Windows NT® file, you can use secondary data files to
allow your database to continue to grow.

Creating a Database:
To create a database, determine the name of the database, its owner (the
user who creates the database), its size, and the files and filegroups used to
store it.
Before creating a database, consider that:
 Permission to create a database defaults to members of the sysadmin
and dbcreator fixed server roles.
 The user who creates the database becomes the owner of the database.
 A maximum of 32,767 databases can be created on a server.
 The name of the database must follow the rules for identifiers.

25
Creating Database using Navigation:
1. Open the 'Management Studio’ tool and connect to the required
instance of SQL Server with desired authentication.

2. Expand ‘Databases’ Item. It displays list of already existing databases.

26
3. Right Click on the ‘Databases’ item and select ‘New Database’ option.

4. Provide a name to the Database and specify the details of primary and log file
and ‘Database Files’ section.

27
Creating a Database Using a Query:

Once the Query Analyzer is opened, in the command window we can write
any command that has to be executed.
Syntax:

CREATE DATABASE databasename

[ON]
(NAME=<logical file name>,
FILENAME=<os-filename>,
SIZE=<in mb’s>,MAXSIZE=<in mb’s>,FILEGROWTH=<in mb’s>)]
[LOG ON
(NAME=<logical file name>,
FILENAME=<os-filename>,
SIZE=<in mb’s>,MAXSIZE=<in mb’s>,FILEGROWTH=<in mb’s>)]

Note: ‘Logicalfilename’ is used to identity the file for further modifications and
‘os-filename’ refers the original location where the file is stored in the hard disk.

Example: 1. Creating a database without specifying Data Files

CREATE DATABASE dbNew

Note: Creates a database called ‘dbNew’ with a size of 1.68MB. It internally

contains a default primary file of 1216KB and log file of 504KB.

Example: 2. Creating a database Data Files

CREATE DATABASE dbSample

ON
(NAME=’dbSampleData,
FILENAME=’d:\backup\data\dbSample_data.mdf’,
SIZE=20,MAXSIZE=50,FILEGROWTH=5)
LOG ON
(NAME=dbSampleLog’,
FILENAME=’d:\backup\log\dbSample_log.ldf’,
SIZE=10,MAXSIZE=25,FILEGROWTH=5)
28
Modifying the Database:
The changes that can be made to existing database are
 The data and log files can be added or removed.
 The database can be made to expand or shrink
 File groups can be added and removed from the database.
 The configuration settings for the database can be changed

The database can be expanded by allocating additional space to the existing

database file or by allocating space to a new file. The size of the database must
be increased by at least 1mb.

A maximum size should be specified using the MAXSIZE parameter of the ALTER
DATABASE statement. This prevents the file from growing until the disk space is
exhausted.
Syntax:

ALTER DATABASE <database Name>

ADD FILE <file specifications>
|ADD LOG FILE <file specifications>
|REMOVE FILE <file name>
|ADD FILEGROUP <file group name>
|REMOVE FILEGROUP <file group name>
|MODIFY FILE <file specifications>
|MODIFY FILEGROUP <file group name>

Example:

ALTER DATABASE dbSample

ADD FILE
(NAME= ‘dbSampledata1’,
FILE NAME=’d:\backup\data\dbSample_data1.ndf’,
SIZE=10mb,
MAXSIZE=30mb,
FILEGROWTH=1mb)

29
To add a file group:

ALTER DATABASE dbSample

ADD
To FILEGROUP
attach frgp1
new files to new file group:

To add a secondary file in the file group:

ALTER DATABASE dbSample

ADD FILE
(NAME= ‘dbsample2_dat’,
FILE NAME=’d:\backup\data\dbSample2_dat.mdf’,
SIZE=4mb,MAXSIZE=30mb,FILEGROWTH=1mb)
TO FILEGROUP frgp1

Viewing The Database:

The information regarding the database such as owner, size, date and
time of creation, status can be viewed using the following System Stored
Procedure:
Syntax:

Sp_helpdb ‘database name’

NOTE: The sp_helpdb system stored procedure without a database name reports
Example:
information
sp_helpdbabout
empall the databases in the system.

Database options can be changed or displayed using:

Syntax:

Sp_dboption ‘database name’, ‘option name’, TRUE/FALSE

30
Different options that can be set to database are:
Dbuseonly – only owner of the database can use it.

Offline – the database is offline when this option is set.

Readonly – data can only read in the database

Select into/bulk copy – faster bulk copy

Single user – only one user can use it

Example:

sp_dboption ‘dbSample’, ‘readonly’, TRUE

Renaming the database:

The name of the database can be changed as:
Syntax:

sp_renamedb ‘old name’, ‘new name’

Example:
sp_renamedb ‘dbSample ’, ’SampleDB’

Deleting the database:

Syntax:

DROP DATABASE <database name>

Example:
TABLES
DROP DATABASE dbSample

31
 TABLES
Tables are database objects that contain all the data in a database. A table
definition is a collection of columns. In tables, data is organized in a row-and-
column format similar to a spreadsheet. Each row represents a unique record,
and each column represents a field within the record.
After you have designed the database, the tables that will store the data
in the database can be created. The data is usually stored in permanent tables.
Tables are stored in the database files until they are deleted and are available to
any user who has the appropriate permissions.
Types of Tables:
Corresponding to the type of data we are storing inside the tables, they
are divided into the following ways:
 System Tables
 User Tables
 Temporary Tables
System Tables:
These are the tables that will come along with the SQL Server database
installation. All these tables will be stored under Master database. They will
provide System level information. Ex: sysobjects, sysusers etc.,

User Tables:
These are the tables that are created by a user. The user who creates the
table will be the owner for that table. In order to get an access to that table,
other users must get corresponding permission from the owner of the table.
Temporary Tables
You can also create temporary tables. Temporary tables are similar to permanent
tables, except temporary tables are stored in tempdb and are deleted
automatically when no longer in use. They will be identified by “#” symbol.
Table Properties
You can define up to 1,024 columns per table. Table and column names must
follow the rules for identifiers; they must be unique within a given table, but you
can use the same column name in different tables in the same database. You
must also define a data type for each column.
Although table names must be unique for each owner within a database, you can
create multiple tables with the same name if you specify different owners for
each.

32
Creating a Table using Navigation:
1. Open the ‘Management Studio’ tool and navigate up to the database
where we want to create the table.
2. Expand ‘Tables’ item that displays list of existing tables.
3. Right click on ‘Tables’ item and select ‘New Table’ option.

4. In the ‘Data Grid’ displayed enter the details of columns such as – column
name, data type, size.

5. Click on the ‘Save’ icon of the toolbar to provide tablename.

33
Creating a Table using Query:
We can make use of the following syntax to create a table:

CREATE TABLE tablename

(colname datatype (size) [NOT NULL | DEFAULT <constant
value> | IDENTITY(seed,increment)], colname2 ……..)

NULL | NOT NULL:

Are keywords that determine if null values are allowed in the column. NULL is not
strictly a constraint but can be specified in the same manner as NOT NULL.
DEFAULT:
Specifies the value to be provided for the column when a value is not explicitly
supplied during an insert.
constant_expression
Is a constant, NULL, or a system function used as the default value for the
column.
IDENTITY:
Indicates that the new column is an identity column. When a new row is added to
the table, Microsoft® SQL Server™ provides a unique, incremental value for the
column. The IDENTITY property can be assigned to tinyint, smallint, int,
bigint, decimal(p,0), or numeric(p,0) columns. Only one identity column can
be created per table. Bound defaults and DEFAULT constraints cannot be used
with an identity column. You must specify both the seed and increment or
neither. If neither is specified, the default is (1,1).
seed
Is the value used for the very first row loaded into the table.
increment
Is the incremental value added to the identity value of the previous row loaded.
 A table can have only one column defined with the IDENTITY property
 The seed and increment can be specified. The default for both is 1
 The identifier column must not allow NULL values and must not contain
DEFAULT definition
 In order to insert the values explicitly into the identity column , SET
IDENTITY_INSERT option is used.

34
Example:

1. Select the corresponding database in which we want to create the table

from the available drop down button.
2. Type the following command in the query window.

CREATE TABLE employee

( empid VARCHAR(5),
Ename char(10), basic_sal int DEFAULT 10000
)

3. click on Execute button to run the command.

Example 2: Crating a table with identity column

CREATE TABLE dept

( dno int identity (10,1),
dept_name varchar(20)
)
When an IDENTITY property to define an identifier column, consider that:

Syntax:

SET IDENTITY_INSERT tablename ON | OFF

Modifying Tables:
After a table is created, you can change many of the options that were defined
for the table when it was originally created, including:
 Columns can be added, modified, or deleted. For example, the column
name, length, data type, precision, scale, and nullability can all be
changed, although some restrictions exist. For more information.
 PRIMARY KEY and FOREIGN KEY constraints can be added or deleted.
 UNIQUE and CHECK constraints and DEFAULT definitions (and objects) can
be added or deleted.
 An identifier column can be added or deleted using the IDENTITY or
ROWGUIDCOL property.

35
Renaming a Table:

Syntax:
SP_RENAME <old_tableName>,<new_tableName>

Example:
SP_RENAME employee.emp

Renaming a Column:
Syntax:
SP_RENAME <’ tableName.columnname’>,<’newcolName’>

Example:
SP_RENAME ‘emp.basic_salary’,’sal’

Syntax for ALTER TABLE command:

ALTER TABLE tablename

ADD columnName datatype [not null |identity|default…]
|ALTER COLUMN <column specifications>
|DROP COLUMN columnName
|ADD CONSTRAINT constraintName {CHECK(..) | UNIQUE | PRIMARY
KEY..}
|DROP CONSTRAINT constraintName

Examples:

Changing datatype

ALTER TABLE emp ALTER COLUMN empid int

Changing NULLs

ALTER TABLE emp ALTER COLUMN empid int NOT NULL

36
Adding Columns

ALTER TABLE emp ADD dno int

Sp_help:
This System Stored Procedure is used to provide description about the
table structure.
Example:

SP_HELP emp

Entering Table Data:

The Insert command is used to add rows to a table. If we are entering
entire table data then it is optional to specify the column list. Where as if we are
entering only particular column details or the order of columns then we must
specify the column list.

Syntax:

INSERT INTO <table_name>[ (column_list)] VALUES (data_list)

Example:

1. INSERT INTO emp (empid,ename,sal,dno)

VALUES(1,’E1’,25000,20)
2. INSERT INTO emp values(2,’E2’,30000,10)
 If we want to insert only certain columns data into the table, the column
names have to be specified.
Example:

3. INSERT INTO emp ( empid,ename,dno) VALUES(3,’E3’,20)

 It is also possible to enter multiple records at a time into the table.

4. INSERT INTO emp
Select 4,’E4’,15000,10 UNION ALL
Select 5,’E5’,30000,30

37
Retrieving Table Data:
The SELECT statement is used to retrieve the data from the table. It is
possible to retrieve all the table data or particular column data. In order to
retrieve complex data from the tables, we can add extra optional clauses to the
select statement.
Note: A maximum of 4096 columns can be specified in a select statement.
Syn:

SELECT <column list> FROM <tablename>

[WHERE <condition>
[GROUP BY <column name>]
[HAVING <Condition based on the grouped data>]
[ORDER BY <column name> [ASC | DESC] ]

Ex:

1. Select * from emp

2. Select empid,ename,sal,dno from emp
3. Select count(*) from emp

WHERE Clause:
It is used to provide a condition in the select statement. Only those
records that satisfy the condition will be displayed as output. The condition can
be specified based on any column of the table.

Ex:

Q: Get the details of employees who belongs to the

department
20 and also having more than 20000 salary.
Sol:
Select * from emp
Where dno=20 AND sal>20000

Output:
Empid ename sal dno
1 E1 25000 20

38
GROUP BY Clause:
It is used to group the table data based on a column. After grouping the
table data, we can able to apply an aggregate function on each group
independently. The aggregations include: COUNT, MIN, MAX, AVG and SUM.
Ex:
Q.1: Get the no.of employees in each department.
Sol:
SELECT dno,count(*) from emp
GROUP BY dno

Output:

Q.2: Get the total amount paying to each department

Sol:
SELECT dno,SUM(sal) from emp
GROUP BY dno
Output:

HAVING Clause:
Like a ‘Where’ clause, HAVING clause is also used to provide condition
based on the grouped data. The difference between them is :
With WHERE clause, condition can be specified on entire column data at a
time. i.e., before grouping the table data. Whereas, with HAVING clause the
condition can be specified after grouping the table data on each group
independently.
When to use which clause depends on the criteria of the query. If the
criteria doesn’t require grouping, use where clause other wise use having clause.

39
Examples:

Q.1: Get the no.of employees in each department with

employees having more than 25000
Sol:
SELECT dno,Count(*) NoOfEmployees from emp
WHERE sal>25000 GROUP BY dno

Output:

Q.2: Get the department which are having more than one
employee
Sol:
SELECT dno,Count(*) NoOfEmployees from emp
GROUP BY dno HAVING count(dno)>1

Output:

Modifying Table Data:

To modify the values stored in a table, UPDATE statement is used. We can
able to modify either a single column or multiple column data and a single record
or multiple records data.
Syntax:

UPDATE <TableName> SET <col1>=Val1 [, Col2=val2,…..]

[WHERE <condition>]

Example: the employee name Samuel with the emp_no “E001” was wrongly
entered as ‘A’ in the table. To correct it, the following statement is used.

UPDATE emp
SET ename=’Samuel’
WHERE empid=1

40
Deleting data from a Table:
To remove rows from a table, DELETE or TRUNCATE statements can be used.
To delete a particular row from the table we have to use DELETE command.

Syntax:
DELETE FROM tablename WHERE condition

Example:
DELETE FROM emp WHERE emp_no=’E002’

To delete all rows from the table, TRUNCATE command can also be
used.

Syntax:
TRUNCATE TABLE tablename

Example:
TRUNCATE TABLE emp

The TRUNCATE statement removes the whole table at a time.

Whereas the delete table command removes each row from the table one by one.
This is much faster than a DELETE statement, especially on large tables.

Removing The Table:

To remove the table along with the structure, DROP statement is
used.

Syntax:
DROP TABLE tablename

Example:
DROP TABLE dept1

41
 DATATYPES

The choice of the datatype determines the kind of data that can be stored
in the column and the maximum length of data that can be stored in the column.
SQL Server provides different categories of data types. They are:
Exact numerics Unicode character strings
Approximate numerics Binary strings
Date and time Other data types
Character strings

In SQL Server, based on their storage characteristics, some data types are
designated as belonging to the following groups:
 Large value data types: varchar(max), nvarchar(max), and
varbinary(max)
 Large object data types: text, ntext, image, varchar(max),
nvarchar(max), varbinary(max), and xml

Exact Numeric Datatypes:

They will be used to store integer data.
Data
Range Storage
type
-2^63 (-9,223,372,036,854,775,808) to 2^63-1
bigint 8 Bytes
(9,223,372,036,854,775,807)
int -2^31 (-2,147,483,648) to 2^31-1 (2,147,483,647) 4 Bytes
smallint -2^15 (-32,768) to 2^15-1 (32,767) 2 Bytes
tinyint 0 to 255 1 Byte

Numeric data types that have fixed precision and scale.

decimal[ (p[ , s] )] and numeric[ (p[ , s] )]
Fixed precision and scale numbers. When maximum precision is used,
valid values are from - 10^38 +1 through 10^38 - 1. The ISO synonyms
for decimal are dec and dec(p, s). numeric is functionally equivalent to
decimal.

42
p (precision)
The maximum total number of decimal digits that can be stored, both to
the left and to the right of the decimal point. The precision must be a
value from 1 through the maximum precision of 38. The default precision
is 18.
s (scale)
The maximum number of decimal digits that can be stored to the right of
the decimal point. Scale must be a value from 0 through p. Scale can be
specified only if precision is specified. The default scale is 0; therefore, 0
<= s <= p. Maximum storage sizes vary, based on the precision.
Precision Storage bytes
1-9 5
10-19 9
20-28 13
29-38 17

Character Datatype:
There are three valid datatypes for storing strings. They are:
Char: this is used for storing fixed-length strings. Columns defined as char will
store blanks to fill out a fixed number of characters. The maximum length of a
character column is 8000 bytes.
Varchar: this is used for storing variable length strings. Columns defined as
varchar will truncate blanks to save space.
Text: this is used for storing of virtually unlimited size(upto 2 gigabytes of text
per row.

Binary Datatypes:
These datatypes store strings consisting of binary values.i.e, haxadecima
numbers instead of characters. They are:
Binary: Stores binary data of fixed lengh with a maximum lengh of 8,000 bytes
Varbinary: Stores variable lengh binary data with a maximum length of 8,000
bytes
Image: SQL Server provides a mechanism for storing binary data more than
8000 bytes using image datatypes. For Example, the photograph of the
employees can be stored.

43
DateTime Datatype:
SQL Server enables to store date and time values. Columns using
datetime or smalldatetime will store both date and time.
Unicode Datatype:
Unicode standard includes all the characters that are defined in the
various character sets. Using Unicode data types, a column can store any
character that is defined by the Unicode standard. Unicode data is stored using
nchar, nvarchar, ntext datatypes.

Special DataTypes:
Cursor:
This data type is used for variables or stored procedure OUTPUT parameters that
contain a reference to a cursor. Any variables created with the cursor data type
are nullable.
The operations that can reference variables and parameters having a cursor data
type are:
 The DECLARE @local_variable and SET @local_variable statements.
 The OPEN, FETCH, CLOSE, and DEALLOCATE cursor statements.
 Stored procedure output parameters.
 The CURSOR_STATUS function.
 The sp_cursor_list, sp_describe_cursor,
sp_describe_cursor_tables, and sp_describe_cursor_columns system
stored procedures.
NOTE: The cursor data type cannot be used for a column in a CREATE TABLE
statement
Sql_variant :.
sql_variant can be used in columns, parameters, variables, and the
return values of user-defined functions. sql_variant enables these database
objects to support values of other data types.
A column of type sql_variant may contain rows of different data types. For
example, a column defined as sql_variant can store int, binary, and char
values. The following table lists the types of values that cannot be stored by
using sql_variant:

44
varchar(max) varbinary(max)
nvarchar(max) xml
text ntext
image timestamp
sql_variant User-defined types
hierarchyid
sql_variant can have a maximum length of 8016 bytes. This includes both the
base type information and the base type value. The maximum length of the
actual base type value is 8,000 bytes.
A sql_variant data type must first be cast to its base data type value before
participating in operations such as addition and subtraction.
sql_variant can be assigned a default value. This data type can also have NULL
as its underlying value, but the NULL values will not have an associated base
type. Also, sql_variant cannot have another sql_variant as its base type.
A unique, primary, or foreign key may include columns of type sql_variant, but
the total length of the data values that make up the key of a specific row should
not be more than the maximum length of an index. This is 900 bytes.
A table can have any number of sql_variant columns.

Table:
Is a special data type that can be used to store a result set for processing
at a later time. table is primarily used is for temporary storage of a set of rows
returned as the result set of a table-valued function.
table variables provide the following benefits:
 A table variable behaves like a local variable. It has a well-defined scope.
This is the function, stored procedure, or batch that it is declared in.

Within its scope, a table variable can be used like a regular table. It may be
applied anywhere a table or table expression is used in SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE statements. However, table cannot be used in the
following statement:

SELECT select_list INTO table_variable

 table variables are automatically cleaned up at the end of the function,

stored procedure, or batch in which they are defined.

45
 CHECK constraints, DEFAULT values and computed columns in the table
type declaration cannot call user-defined functions.
 table variables used in stored procedures cause fewer recompilations of
the stored procedures than when temporary tables are used.
 Transactions involving table variables last only for the duration of an
update on the table variable. Therefore, table variables require less locking
and logging resources.

New Data Types

Data type Description

xml Used to store XML data.

Enhanced Data Types

Data types Description
Indicates that the maximum storage size for the varchar data
varchar(max)
type is 2^31-1 bytes.
Indicates that the maximum storage size for the nvarchar data
nvarchar(max)
type is 2^31-1 bytes.
Indicates that the maximum storage size for the varbinary data
varbinary(max)
type is 2^31-1 bytes.

46
 CONSTRAINTS

It is very important for the data in a database to be accurate, consistent

and reliable. This implies that it is very crucial to enforce data integrity.
Data integrity ensures the consistency and correctness of data stored in a
database. It is broadly classified into the following categories.
 Entity integrity – ensures that each row in a table is unique. It enforces
integrity of the data contained in the columns, which uniquely identify the
rows in a table.
 Domain integrity – ensures that only valid ranges of values are allowed
to be stored in a column. It can be enforced, by restricting the type of
data, the range of values and the format of the data.
 Referential integrity – ensures that the data in the database remains
uniformly consistent, accurate and usable even after the data in it has
been changed. It maintains the integrity of data by ensuring that the
changes made in the parent table are also reflected in all the dependent
tables.

Enforcing Data Integrity

Incorporating business rules and specifying the relevant constraints can
enforce data integrity.
Business rules refer to specific policies followed by an organization for the
smooth running of its business. Business rules ensure that the database stores
accurate data in relation to the business policies.
For example an organization may have a personnel policy, which states
that the minimum salary of an employee is $500. This is a business rule.
Constraints refer to rules, which restrict the values that are inserted in the
columns of a table.
A Constraint can either be created at the time of creating a table or can be
added later. When a constraint is created after table creation, it checks the
existing data. If the existing data does not conform to the rule being enforced by
the constraint, then the constraint is rejected.

47
A constraint can be created using either of the following statements:
 CREATE TABLE statement.
 ALTER TABLE statement.

Using CREATE TABLE statement:

A constraint can be defined on a column at the time of creating a table. It
can be created with the CREATE TABLE statement:
The syntax is :

CREATE TABLE table name

(ColumnName1 datatype CONSTRAINT contraint_name
constraint_type, Columnname2 data type ……….)

Using ALTER TABLE statement:

A constraint can also be defined on a column after a table has been
created. This can be done using the ALTER TABLE statement.
The syntax is:

ALTER TABLE table name

ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name constraint_type (fieldName)

CHECK CONSTRAINT:
A CHECK constraint enforces domain integrity by restricting the values to
be inserted in a column. It allows only valid values in a column.
It is possible to define multiple CHECK constraints on a single column.
Syntax:

CREATE TABLE table_name

(colName datatype [CONSTRAINT const_name] CHECK(<criteria>),
colName2 ………..)

48
Example:

Ex:
1. create table dept
(dno int,dname char(10),
Dsize int constraint ck_dept_dsize check(dsize>20))

2. insert into dept values(10,’HR’,30)

3. insert into dept values(20,’Admin’,15)

--Error, since dsize value is not greater than 20

The rules regarding the creation of CHECK constraint are as follows:

 It can be created at the column level as well as table level.
 It is used to limit the values that can be inserted into a column.
 It can contain user-specified search conditions.
 It cannot contain sub queries. A sub query is one or more select
statements embedded within another select statement.
 It does not check the existing data into the table if created with the No
Check Option.
 It can reference other columns of the same table.

A check constraint can also be added to an existing table by using the

following syntax.
Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD CONSTRAINT const_name
CHECK(<criteria>)

49
Examples:

1. insert into dept values(20,’Admin’,15)

--Correct, since we removed the restriction in the
previous example.

2. ALTER TABLE dept

ADD CONSTRAINT ck_dept_dsize
CHECK(dsize>20)
--Error, since one of the dsize value is not greater
than 20

3. update dept set dsize=25 where dsize<20

--Modifying the dsize value for those records which
are having dsize value less than 20.

4. Execute command.no.2 again. Now, it will execute

successfully.

UNIQUE CONSTRAINT:

UNIQUE constraints are used to enforce uniqueness on non-primary key

columns.
A primary key constraint column automatically includes a restriction for
uniqueness. However a unique constraint allows null values.
It is not advisable to have columns with null values, though these are
allowed. A null value is also validated, hence there can only be one record in the
table with a null value. The table can’t contain another row with null value.
A unique column does not allow duplicate values but allows one null value.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE table_name

(colName datatype CONSTRAINT <const_name> UNIQUE,
colName2 ………..)

50
Examples:

1. create table emp

(empid int constraint uk_emp_empid unique,
ename char(10))

2. insert into emp values(100,'A')

3. insert into emp values(100,'B')

--Error, duplicate value into empid column

4. insert into emp(ename) values('B')

5. insert into emp(ename) values('C')

--Error, duplicate NULL value into empid column

Adding a UNIQUE constraint to an existing table:

Syn: ALTER TABLE <tablename>

ADD CONSTRAINT <constraintName>
UNIQUE(<column Name>

Ex: Alter table emp

Add constraint uk_emp_empid unique(empid)

The rules regarding the creation of UNIQUE constraint are:

 It does not allow two rows to have the same non-null values in a table.
 It gets enforced automatically when a UNIQUE index is created.
 Multiple UNIQUE constraints can be placed on a table.

51
PRIMARY KEY constraint:
A primary key constraint is defined on a column or a set of columns whose
values uniquely identify the rows in a table. These columns are referred to as
primary key columns. A primary key column cannot contain NULL values since it
is used to uniquely identify rows in a table.
While defining a PK constraint, you need to specify a name for the
constraint. If no name is specified, SQL Server automatically assigns a unique
name to the constraint.
Any column or set of columns that uniquely identifies a row in a table can
be a candidate for the primary key. These set of columns are referred to as
candidate keys. One of the candidate keys is chosen to be the primary key, based
on familiarity and greater usage. The other key, which is not chosen as the
primary key is called as alternate key.
A table should contain only one primary key.
Creating a primary key is very much similar to the unique constraint. In
the syntax of unique, simply replace the keyword unique with a primary key.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE table name

(ColumnName1 datatype CONSTRAINT contraint_name Primary key,
Columnname2 data type ……….)

OR

ALTER TABLE table name

ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name PRIMARY KEY (field name)

52
Example:

1. create table dept

(dno int constraint pk_dept_dno primary key,
dname char(10),dsize int)

2. insert into dept values(10,'HR',30)

3. insert into dept values(10,'Admin',25)

--Error, duplicate dno value

4. insert into dept (dname,dsize) values('Tester',30)

--Error, cannot enter a null value into dno column.

Adding a Primary Key:

It is not possible to directly add a primary key to an existing table’s
column if it is having any data. At first, we must add a ‘NOT NULL’ option to that
column. Then only, we can add the primary key.

1. create table emp1

(eno int,ename char(10))

2. insert into emp1 values(100,'A')

3. insert into emp1 values(101,'B')

4. alter table emp1

add constraint pk_emp1_eno primary key(eno)
--Error, since there is no NOT NULL option for the
eno column

5. alter table emp1

alter column eno int not null
--Specifying the NOT NULL option to the eno column

6. Execute command no.4 again. Now, it will execute

successfully.

53
Composite Primary Key:
In some tables it is not possible to provide the primary key on any single
column of the table. Then check the table data to identify any column
combination, by using which, we can identify different records and other data of
the table. If it is found, make that column as the primary key called as
‘Composite Primary Key’. A maximum of 16 columns can be combined using this
constraint.

Ex:
CREATE TABLE OrderDetails
(ordid int, ino char(2),orddate datetime, cno int, ,
Quantity int, constraint pk_od_ordid_ino
Primary Key(ordid,ino))

FOREIGN KEY CONSTRAINT:

A foreign key is a column or combination of columns whose values match
the primary key of another table.
A foreign key does not have to be unique. However, foreign key values
must be copies of the primary key values of the master table.
The Foreign Key can be given on a column which is having the same data
type, size and data as of the primary key column. The table with foreign key is
called as ‘Referencing/child’ table and the table with primary key is called as
‘Referenced/parent’ table.
Once we apply a relation between the tables, lot of restrictions will be
applied to the table operations. Some of them are:
1. The data to be entered in a foreign key column must have a matching
value in the primary key column of the parent table.
2. It is not possible to delete the parent table record if it is having a
reference in the child table.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE <TableName>

(<ColName1> <Datatype> [(Size)]
[CONSTRAINT <ConstraintName>]
REFERENCES <ParentTable>(<PrimarykeyCol>)
[ON DELETE CASCADE], <ColName2>..............)

54
Example:

1. create table emp

(empid int,ename char(10),sal int,
dno int constraint fk_emp_dno references dept(dno))

2. insert into emp values(100,'A',50000,20)

3. insert into emp values(101,'B',45000,50)

--Error, dno 50 is not having any references in the
parent table.

4. insert into emp

select 101,'B',35000,10 union all
select 102,'C',40000,20 union all
select 103,'D',50000,30
--Enterring multiple values at a time into the table.

5. delete from dept where dno=20

--Error, since this record is having some references in
the child table.

The rules regarding the creation of a FOREIGN KEY constraint are as follows:
 The no.of columns specified in the foreign key statement must match the
no.of columns in the references clause and must be specified in the same
order.
 The foreign key can reference the primary key or a UNIQUE constraint of
another table.
 The foreign key constraint that is created using the WITH NOCHECK option
will prevent the foreign key constraint from validating existing data.

ON DELETE CASCADE:

In general it is not possible to delete a record from the parent table if it is

having any references in the child table. In this case, at first, we have to remove
the child table records and then the parent table record.
With the use of ‘ON DELETE CASCADE’, whenever, we remove the parent
table record, that record and all its child table records will be removed
automatically.

55
Adding a Foreign key:
Syn:

ALTER TABLE <TableName>

ADD CONSTRAINT <ConstraintName>
FOREIGN KEY(<ColName>)
REFERENCES <ParentTable>(<PKColumn>)
[ON DELETE CASCADE]

Ex:

alter table emp

drop constraint fk_emp_dno
--removing existing constraint

2. alter table emp

add constraint fk_emp_dno
foreign key(dno) references dept(dno)
on delete cascade
--adding the foreign key with new option

3. delete from dept where dno=20

--Deletes the records with dno 20 both from dept and emp
tables.

CONSTRAINTS vs TRIGGERS:
Each category of data integrity is best enforced through the following
constraints.
Entity integrity is best enforced through the PRIMARY KEY constraint, UNIQUE
constraint and the IDENTITY property.
The IDENTITY property creates an identity column in the table. An identity
column is a primary key column for which numeric values are generated
automatically. Each generated value is different from the previous value, thus
ensuring uniqueness of data in each row at the table. The IDENTITY property also
ensures that while inserting data, the user need not explicitly insert a value for
the identity column.
Domain integrity is best enforced through the DEFAULT constraint, CHECK
constraint and the FOREIGH KEY constraint.

56
 RULES AND DEFAULTS

Rules and defaults are objects, which help enforce the data integrity.
These objects are bound to columns or user defined data types to ensure that
only valid values are allowed to insert into the tables.

RULES:
A rule provides a mechanism for enforcing domain constraints for columns
or user defined data types. The rule is applied before any modification is to be
done on the table. In other words, a rule specifies the restriction on the values
for a column or a user defined data type.

The syntax of the CREATE RULE statement is:

Syn:
CREATE RULE rule_name
AS conditional_expression.

example:
CREATE RULE type_rule
AS @typerule IN(‘business’,’mod_cook’, ‘trad_cook’,
‘popular_comp’, ‘psychology’)

More Examples:

CREATE RULE dept_name_rule

AS @deptname NOT IN (‘accounts’,’stores’)

CREATE RULE max_price_rule

AS @maxprice >=$5000

CREATE RULE emp_code_rule

AS @empcode LIKE ‘[F-M][A-Z]

57
 Information on a rule can be obtained using the sp_help system stored
procedure. The text of a rule can be displayed using the sp_helptext system
stored procedure with the name of the rule as its parameter.

Binding Rules:-
A rule can be bound using the sp_bindrule system stored procedure.
Syntax:

Sp_bindrule rule_name, object_name.ColName

For example:
Sp_bindrule type_rule, ‘titles.type’

Binds the rule, type_rule,to the type column of the titles table
The restrictions on the use of the rules are as follows:

 Only one rule can be bound to a column or a user defined datatype.

 A rule cannot be bound to system datatypes.
 If a new rule is bound to a column or datatype that is already been
inserted in the table, the existing values in the tables do not have to meet
the criteria specified by the rule.
 A rule cannot be defined for a system-defined datatype

Unbinding Rules:
A rule can be unbound from a column or user-defined datatype using the
sp_unbindrule system stored procedure.

The syntax of the sp_unbindrule is:

Sp_unbindrule object_name

For example:
Sp_unbindingrule ‘titles.type’

58
DEFAULTS:
Default is a constant value assigned to a column, into which the user need
not insert values.A default can be bound to a column or a user-defined datatype.

The syntax of the CREATE DEFAULT statement is:

Syn:
CREATE DEFAULT default_name
As constant_expression

Any constant, built-in funtion, mathematical expression or a global

variable can be used in the constant expression. The character and date
constants must be included in single quotation marks (‘), whereas money,
integer, and floating-point constants can be specified without quotation marks.

Binding Defaults
The sp_bindefault system stored procedure is used for binding a default.
The syntax of sp_bindefault is:

Sp_bindefault default _name_, ‘object_name.ColName’

For example:
1.CREATE DEFAULT city_default AS ‘Oakland’
2. Sp_default city_default, ‘authors.city’

Creates a default, city_default, and binds the default value, Oakland, to city
column of the authors table.
The statement

Sp_bindefault city_default, city_datatype.

Binds the default city_default to the user-defined datatype, city_datatype.

59
Unbinding Defaults:
Defaults can be unbound from a column or user defined datatype using
the sp_unbindefault system stored procedure.
The syntax of sp_unbindefault is:

Sp_unbindefault object_name
For example:
Sp_unbindefault ‘authors.city’

Unbinds the default specified on the city column of the authors table.

Renaming Rules And Defaults:

The sp_rename system stored procedure can be used for renaming rules
and defaults.

The syntax of sp_rename is:

Sp_rename old_object_name, new_object_name

Dropping Rules And Defaults:

The DROP RULE and DROP DEFAULT statement can be used to drop a rule
and default respectively. A rule or default must be unbound from the column or
the user-defined data type before it is dropped.

The syntax for dropping a rule is:

DROP RULE rule_name

(Or)
DROP DEFAULT default_name

60
 JOINS

By using joins, you can retrieve data from two or more tables based on
logical relationships between the tables. Joins indicate how Microsoft SQL Server
should use data from one table to select the rows in another table.
A join condition defines the way two tables are related in a query by:
 Specifying the column from each table to be used for the join. A typical
join condition specifies a foreign key from one table and its associated key
in the other table.
 Specifying a logical operator (=, <>, and so on) to be used in comparing
values from the columns.
Joins can be specified in either the FROM or WHERE clauses. The join
conditions combine with the WHERE and HAVING search conditions to control the
rows that are selected from the base tables referenced in the FROM clause.
Specifying the join conditions in the FROM clause helps separate them from
any other search conditions that may be specified in a WHERE clause, and is the
recommended method for specifying joins. A simplified SQL-92 FROM clause join
Syntax:

SELECT columnList
FROM first_table join_type second_table [ON (join_condition)]

Join_type specifies what kind of join is performed: an inner, outer, or cross join.
join_condition defines the predicate to be evaluated for each pair of joined rows.
This is an example of a FROM clause join specification:
Although join conditions usually have equality comparisons (=), other
comparison or relational operators can be specified, as can other predicates
When SQL Server processes joins, the query engine chooses the most
efficient method (out of several possibilities) of processing the join. Although the
physical execution of various joins uses many different optimizations, the logical
sequence is:
 The join conditions in the FROM clause are applied.
 The join conditions and search conditions from the WHERE clause are
applied.
 The search conditions from the HAVING clause are applied.

61
Types of Joins:
Join conditions can be specified in either the FROM or WHERE clauses;
specifying them in the FROM clause is recommended. WHERE and HAVING
clauses can also contain search conditions to further filter the rows selected by
the join conditions.
Based on the way the select statements are provided and the records they
return, joins are categorized into the following ways.
1. Inner Join
2. Outer Join
 Left Outer Join
 Right Outer Join
 Full Outer Join
3. Cross Join
4. Self Join

Inner Join:
This join returns only the matching data between the tables. It is mainly
used to retrieve the related data between the tables.

Ex:Get the details of the students along with the class names from the following
student and class tables.

Class: Student:

CID CNAME CSIZE SID SNAME CID MARKS

100 MCA 30 1 A 101 300
101 MTECH 25 2 B 100 200
102 BTECH 40 3 C 101 150
4 D 102 150
5 E NULL 300

62
Sol:

SELECT sid,sname,s.cid stdCID,c.cid clsCID,cname

FROM Student s INNER JOIN Class c
ON s.cid=c.cid

Output:
sid sname stdCID clsCID cname
1 A 101 101 MTECH
2 B 100 100 MCA
3 C 101 101 MTECH
4 D 102 102 BTECH

Outer Joins:

This join returns the unmatched records between the tables. Which tables
unmatched data to be displayed, depends on the type of outer join we are using.
Sometimes the unmatched data will be displayed along with matched data and
some other times the unmatched data will be displayed alone.

Left Outer Join:

This join returns the unmatched data from the left table. The
corresponding values from the right table will be NULL.
Ex:
a. Get the details of all students along with classes if any student is having a
class.
Sol:

SELECT sid,sname,s.cid stdCID,c.cid clsCID,cname

FROM Student s LEFT OUTER JOIN Class c
ON s.cid=c.cid

63
Output:

sid sname stdCID clsCID cname

1 A 101 101 MTECH
2 B 100 100 MCA
3 C 101 101 MTECH
4 D 102 102 BTECH
5 E NULL NULL NULL

b. Get the details of students who are not assigned to any class.
Sol:

SELECT sid,sname
FROM Student s LEFT OUTER JOIN Class c
ON s.cid=c.cid WHERE c.cid IS NULL

Output:

sid sname
5 E

Right Outer Join:

This join returns the unmatched data from the right table. The
corresponding values from the left table will be null.
Ex:

a. Get the details of all classes along with students.

Sol:

SELECT sid,sname,s.cid stdCID,c.cid clsCID,cname

FROM Student s RIGHT OUTER JOIN Class c
ON s.cid=c.cid

64
Output:

sid sname stdCID clsCID cname

2 B 100 100 MCA
1 A 101 101 MTECH
3 C 101 101 MTECH
4 D 102 102 BTECH
NULL NULL NULL 103 BCA

b. Get the details of classes which are not having students.

Sol:

SELECT c.cid,cname
FROM Student s RIGHT OUTER JOIN Class c
ON s.cid=c.cid WHERE s.cid IS NULL

Output:

cid cname
103 BCA

Full Outer Join:

It is used to get the unmatched data both from the left table as well as
from the right table.

Cross Join:
A join without common column criteria is called as a cross join. This join is
used to find the different combinations of data between the tables. The output
will be the product of number of records between the tables.
Ex:Get the different possibilities how a student can be assigned to a class only
when they are having more than 200 marks
Sol:

Select sid,sname,c.cid,cname
From student s cross join class c
where marks>200

65
NOTE:
In case of ORACLE database, Inner join is called as EQUI/NATURAL Join
and Outer Join is called as Non-EQUI Join.

Self Join:
Joining a table to it is called as a self-join. In a self-join, since we are
using the same table twice, to distinguish the two copies of the table, we will
create to table aliases.
In the syntax of self join we never use the keyword ‘self’. Internally, we
perform an inner join only.
Ex: Get the employee details along with manager names from the EMP table. In
this table one the employee will be the manager for other employee.

Sol:

Select a.empid,a.ename,a.mgrid,b.ename mgrName

From emp a inner join emp b
On a.mgrid=b.empid

Output:

66
Internal Execution Process:

Joining more than two tables:

It is also possible to join more than two tables. In this case each table
must have a relation with other table.
Syn:

Select <column list>

FROM <table1> INNER JOIN <table2> ON <criteria>
INNER JOIN <table3> ON <criteria>
INNER JOIN <table4> ON <criteria>
…………………………
………………………..

Ex: Get the full details of the orders made by the customers.

select cu.customerid,companyname,o.orderid,orderdate,
od.productid,productname,od.unitprice,quantity
from customers cu inner join orders o
on cu.customerid=o.customerid
inner join [order details] od
on o.orderid=od.orderid
inner join products p
on od.productid=p.productid

67
 SUBQUERIES

A SubQuery is a SELECT statement containing another SELECT statement.

In these SubQueries, at first, the inner query will be executed and based on the
result next higher query will be executed. Whenever, it happened to compare a
column data with the output of another select statement then we use sub
queries.

Types Of SubQueries:

Based on the way the Select statements are provided and the way they
will execute, SQL Server provides the following types of subqueries.

 Simple SubQuery
 Nested SubQuery
 Multiple SubQuery
 Correlated SubQuery

Simple SubQuery:

It is a select statement containing another select statement. At first inner

query will be executed and based on the result next higher query will be
executed.

Ex: Get the Second maximum salary from the following EMP
table.
Sol:
SELECT max(Sal) FROM EMP
WHER sal<(SELECT max(Sal) FROM EMP)

Output: 39000

68
Neseted SubQueries:
A Nested SubQuery is a select statement, containing another select
statement, which contains another select statement and so on. Such type of
nesting nature of select statements is called as a nested subquery. In these
subqueries, at first, the innermost query will be executed and based on the result
next higher query will be executed and so on. A maximum of 32 select
statements can be combined in these nested subqueries.

Ex: Get the Third maximum salary from the emp table

Sol: SELECT max(sal) FROM EMP

WHERE sal<(SELECT max(sal) FROM EMP
WHERE sal<(SELECT max(sal) FROM EMP))

Output: 38000
Multiple SubQueries:
It is select statement containing different select statements at different
places.

Ex: List out the employees who are having salary less than
the maximum salary and also having hiredate greater than
the hiredate of an employee who is having the maximum
salary.

Sol:
SELECT empid,ename,sal,hiredate FROM EMP
WHERE sal<(SELECT max(sal) FROM EMP) AND
hiredate>(SELECT hiredate FROM EMP
WHERE sal=(SELECT max(Sal) FROM EMP))

Output:

Empid Ename Sal Hiredate

100 Anil 15000 1993-01-12
102 Avinash 39000 1993-02-05
105 Santosh 30000 1994-04-05
106 vivek 35000 2000-06-07

69
Correlated SubQueries:
In a normal subquery, at first, the inner query will be executed and only
once. Based on the result next higher query will be executed.
Whereas in a correlated subquery, the inner query will be executed for
each record of the parent statement table. The internal execution process of this
subquery will be as follows:
1. A record value from the parent table will be passed to the inner query.
2. The inner query execution will be done based on that value.
3. The result of the inner query will be sent back to the parent statement.
4. The parent statement finishes the processing for that record.
The above 4 steps will be executed for each record of the parent table.

Examples:

1. Get the nth maximum salary from the emp table.

Sol:

SELECT a.empid,a.ename,a.sal FROM EMP a

WHERE 2=(SELECT count(distinct(b.sal)) FROM EMP b
WHERE a.sal<b.sal)

Note: The above query is to calculate 3rd maximum salary. To calculate nth
maximum salary specify the number “n-1” in place of “2”.
2. Get the Top 3 maximum salaries from emp table.
Sol:

SELECT a.empid,a.ename,a.sal FROM EMP a

WHERE 3>(SELECT count(distinct(b.sal)) FROM EMP b
WHERE a.sal<b.sal)Order by a.sal desc

Output:

Empid Ename Sal

104 Chandu 50000
102 Avinash 39000
103 Sumit 38000

70
3. Get the details of employees who are not the managers
Sol:

SELECT a.empid,a.ename FROM EMP a

Where 0=(SELECT count(*) FROM EMP b WHERE a.empid=b.mgrid)

Output:

Empid Ename
102 Avinash
106 vivek

4. Get the details of employees who are the managers for more than one
employee
Sol:

SELECT a.empid,a.ename FROM EMP a

Where 1<(SELECT count(*) FROM EMP b WHERE a.empid=b.mgrid)

Output:

Empid Ename
103 Sumit

More Examples:

SubQueries With IN:

A subquery introduced with IN returns zero or more values. Consider the
following example where all author ID’S, from the TITLEAUTHOR table, are
displayed whose books are sold:

SELECT au_id
FROM titleauthor
WHERE title_id IN (SELECT title_id FROM sales)

71
 SQL Server returns a list of all title IDs to the main query then lists all the
authors, whose books are sold, in the result set.
Consider the following example where the server returns a list of publisher
IDs to the main query, and then determines whether each publisher’s pub_id is in
that list:

SELECT publisher=pub_name
FROM publishers
WHERE pub_id IN ( SELECT pub_id FROM titles WHERE
type=’business’)

The inner query is evaluated first and then the result set is sent to the outer
query.

Consider another subquery with the IN clause:

SELECT type=type, Average=AVG(ytd_sales)

FROM titles
WHERE type IN (SELECT type FROM titles
WHERE title=” the busy executive’s database guide” or
title=’Is Anger the Enemy?’) GROUUP BY type

The inner query is evaluated first and then the result set is sent to the outer
query.
The NOT IN clause is used in the same way as the IN clause. Consider the
following example.

SELECT pub_id, pub_name

FROM publishers
WHERE pub_id NOT IN (SELECT pub_id FROM titles
WHERE type=’mod_cook’)

72
Sub Queries with EXISTS:
The subquery, when used with the EXISTS clause, always returns data in
terms of TRUE OR FALSE and passes the status to the outer query to produce the
results set. The subquery returns a TRUE value if the result set contains any
rows.
The query introduced with the EXISTS keyword differs from other queries.
The EXISTS keyword is not preceded by any column name, constant or there
expression and it contains an asterisk (*) in the SELECT list.

1. SELECT pub_name
FROM publishers
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * FROM titles WHERE type=’business’)

2. SELECT pub_name
FROM publishers
Aggregate functions
WHERE EXISTScan(SELECT
also be * used
FROMin publishers
subqueries. Consider
WHERE the following
City=’Paris’)
example which displays the titles of all those books for which the advance is more
than the average advance of business related books.

SELECT Title=title
FROM titles
WHERE advance>(SELECT AVG (advance) from titles
WHERE type=’business’)

Subquery Restrictions:
The restrictions imposed are:
 The column list of the select statement of a subquery introduced with the
comparison operator can include only one column.
 The column used in the WHERE clause of the outer query should be
compatible with the column used in the select list of the inner query.
 The DISTINCT keyword cannot be used with the subqueries that include
the GROUP BY clause.
 The ORDER BY clause, GROUP BY clause and INTO keyword cannot be
used in a subquery, because a subquery cannot manipulate its result
internally.
 Do not specify more than one column name in the subquery introduced
with the EXISTS keyword.
 A view created with a subquery cannot be updated.

73
 BUILT IN FUNCTIONS

SQL Server provides a lot of functions, which can be used as calculated

fields as part of column lists in a SELECT statement. Such functions are called as
Built-in Functions.

Types of Built-in Functions:

Based on the type of data we are using inside the functions, built-in
functions are categorized into the following ways.
 Aggregate Functions
 Numeric Functions
 Date and Time Functions
 String Functions

Aggregate Functions:
Aggregate functions are used to produce summary data using tables.

Function Parameters Description

AVG (ALL/DISTINCT] expression Returns the average of values

specified in the expression,
either all records or distinct
records
SUM (ALL/DISTINCT] expression) Returns the sum of values
specified in the expression,
either all records or distinct
records.
MIN (expression) Returns the minimum of a
value specified in the
expression.
MAX (expression) Returns the maximum of a
value specified in the
expression.
COUNT (ALL| DISTINCT expression) Returns the number of unique
or all records specified in

74
 expression.

Examples of Aggregate functions

SELECT ‘Average Price”=AVG(price) Returns the average value of all the

FROM titles price values in the titles table with
user-defined heading.
SELECT ‘Sum’=SUM(DISTINCT Returns the sum value of all-the
advance) FROM titles unique advance values in the titles
table with user-defined heading.
SELECT ‘Minimum Ytd Returns the minimum value of
Sales’=MIN(ytd_sales) FROM titles ytd_sales value in the titles table with
user-defined heading.
SELECT ‘Maximum Ytd Returns the maximum value of
Sales’=MAX(ytd_sales) FROM titles ytd_sales in the titles table with user-
defined heading.
SELECT ‘Unique Price’= Returns the number of unique price
COUNT(DISTINCT price) FROM titles values in the titles table with user-
defined heading.
SELECT ‘Price=COUNT(price) FROM Returns the number of total number
titles of price values in the titles with user-
defined heading.

NUMERIC FUNCTIONS:

a. SQRT: Gets the square root of a number

EX: Select SQRT(25) --o/p: 5

b. SQUARE: Gets the square of a number

Ex: select SQUARE(4) --o/p: 16

c. POWER: Gets the power a number

Ex: select POWER(2,3) --o/p: 8

75
 d. ROUND: Used to round a floating point number to the required no.of
decimal places

Ex: 1. Select ROUND(12.347,2) --o/p: 12.35

2. select ROUND(12.343,2) --o/p: 12.34
e. CEILING:Returns the nearest higher integer value for the given number

Ex: select CEILING(12.345) --o/p:13

f. FLOOR:Returns the nearest smaller integer value for the given number

Ex: select FLOOR(12.345) --o/p:12

Date and Time Functions:

a. GETDATE: Returns system date and time

Ex: select GETDATE() --o/p: 2010-06-10 22:44:18.187

b. DATEPART: Returns the part of given date or time.

Syn: DATEPART(Format,Date)

Format Output Format Output

dd Days mi Minutes
mm Months ss Seconds
yy Years ms Milliseconds
hh Hours dw Day of Week
mi Minutes dy Day of Year
ss Seconds

ex: 1. select datepart(dd,getdate()) --10

2. select datepart(hh,getdate()) --22

76
c. DATENAME: It Returns the name of the corresponding datepart. If the
specified datepart is not having a name, this function will return
that value directly.

Syn: DATENAME(datepart,date)

Ex:
1. select datename(dw,getdate()) --Friday
2. select datename(mm,getdate()) --June
3. select datename(dd,getdate()) --10
4. select datename(dw,'10/21/77') --Friday
5. calculate how many employees joined in each
weekday from the emp table
select datename(dw,hiredate),count(*) from emp
group by datename(dw,hiredate)

d. DATEADD: It is used to add a number to a part of a date. If we specify a

negative value, the number will be subtracted from the given
datepart.

Syn: DATEADD(datepart,n,date)

Ex:
1. select dateadd(dd,3,getdate()) --2010-06-13

2. Getting the weekday name which was 10 days before

today's date
sol:-select datename(dw,dateadd(dd,-10,getdate()))
--o/p: Saturday

77
e. DATEDIFF: Returns the difference between two given dates. The output
will be the subtraction of date1 from date2. The difference can be in days
or months or years etc., based on the interval specified.

Syn: DATEDIFF(interval, data1, date2)

Ex: Get the experience of each employee from the employee table.

ex: Get the experience of each employee from the

employee table.
SOL: SELECT empid,ename,datediff(yy,hiredate,getdate())
FROM EMP

f. CONVERT: SQL server handles certain datatype conversion automatically.

If a character expression is compared with an int expression, SQL server
makes the conversion automatically for the comparison(implicit conversion).

The CONVERT function is used to change data from one type to another when
SQL server cannot implicitly perform a conversion. Using the CONVERT
function, data can be modified in variety of styles.

The syntax is:

CONVERT(datatype[(length), expression[,style])

Ex:
1. SELECT Ytd_Sales=CONVERT(char(10),ytd_sales)
FROM titles.

2. SELECT CONVERT(char,getdate(),101) --06/10/2010

78
STRING FUNCTIONS:

FUNCTION DESCRIPTION
CHARINDEX(‘pattern’, expression) Returns the starting position of
the specified pattern.
LOWER (character_expression) Converts two string and
evaluates the similarity between
them on a scale of 1 to 4.
LTRIM(character_expression) Returns the data without leading
brackets
REPLICATE(char_expression, Repeats a character expression a
integer_expression specified number of times.
REVERSE(character_expression) Returns the reverse of character
expression.
RIGHT(character_expression, Returns the part of the character
integer_expression) string from the right.
RTRIM(character_expression) Returns the data without tailing
blanks.
SPACE(numeric_expression) Returns a string of repeated
spaces. The number of spaces is
equal to the integer expression.

UPPER(character_expression) Converts the character

expression into upper case.

79
 OPERATORS

An operator is a symbol specifying an action that is performed on one or

more expressions. SQL Server provides few methods of searching rows in a table.
These methods can be broadly categorized into the following categories.

 Arithmetic Operators like +, -, /, * ,%

 Comparison operators like =, >, <, >=, <=, !=, !< and !>
 Range operators like BETWEEN and NOT BETWEEN.
 List operators line IN and NOT IN.
 String operators like LIKE and NOT LIKE.
 Unknown values like IS NULL and NOT NULL.
 Logical operators like AND , OR and NOT.

Arithmetic operators:

The arithmetic operators supported by SQL server are:

 + for addition
 - for subtraction
 / for division
 * for multiplication
 % for modulo

The modulo arithmetic operator is used to obtain the remainder of two divisible
numeric integer values. It cannot be used with money data type columns.

All the arithmetic operators can be used in the SELECT list with the column
names and numeric constants in a combination.

Example:

SELECT title_id, price, price+5, ytd_sales*5 FROM titles.

80
 When any arithmetic operation is performed on a NULL value, the result is
always NULL because NULL values have no explicitly assigned values. Arithmetic
operations can be performed on more than one column at a time. Consider the
following query code:

SELECT Title_Id=title_id, sValue=ytd_sales*price FROM tiles

The above query computes the product of ytd_sales and price from the titles
table and displays the output with the user-defined headings.

Some rules regarding the usage of arithmetic operators are:

 Arithmetic operations can be performed on numeric columns or numeric
constants.
 The modulo (%) operator cannot be used with columns of money,
smallmoney, float or real datatypes.

Comparison Operators:
The command syntax is:
SELECT column_list FROM table_name WHERE expression1
comparison_operator expression2

Valid Comparison operators

Operator Description
= Equal to
> Greater than
< Less than
>= Greater than or Equal to
<= Less than or Equal to
<>, != Not Equal to
!> Not Greater than
!< Not Less than
() Controls Precedence

81
Examples:

SELECT title FROM titles WHERE type=’business’

SELECT stor_id, ord_num, title_id FROM sales WHERE qty>20
SELECT type, title_id, price FROM titles WHERE price *
ytd_sales<advance.

Range Operator:

The range operator is used to retrieve data that can be extracted in

ranges. The range operations are:
 BETWEEN
 NOT BETWEEN
The syntax is:
SELECT column_list FROM table_name WHERE expression1
range_operator expression2 AND expression2

Examples:

1. SELECT title from titles

WHERE advance BETWEEN 2000 AND 5000
2. SELECT title FROM titles
WHERE advance NOT BETWEEN 4000 AND 5000

List Operator
The syntax is:

SELECT column_list FROM table_name WHERE expression

list_operator(‘value_list’)

Examples:

1. SELECT pub_name, city, state FROM publishers

WHERE state IN (‘MA’, ‘DC’)

2. SELECT pub_name, city, state FROM publishers

WHERE state NOT IN (‘MA’, ‘DC’)

82
LIKE Operator:

SQL Server provides a pattern-matching method for string expressions

using the LIKE keyword with the wildcard characters. The LIKE keyword is used
to select those rows that match the specified portion of character string. The LIKE
keyword allows wildcard characters that can be used as a part of an expression.

Wild card Description

% Represents any string of zero or more characters(s)
- Represents a single character
[] Represents any single character within the specified range.
[^] Represents any single character not within the specified
range.

Examples of the LIKE operator with wildcards.

Example Description
SELECT title FROM titles WHERE Returns all titles from titles table where first
type LIKE ‘bus%’ three characters of the column type are
‘bus’
SELECT * FROM publishers Returns all rows from publishers table where
WHERE country LIKE ‘US_’ country name is three characters long and
starts with US where the third character can
be anything.
SELECT title_id, price FROM titles Returns all columns from the titles table
WHERE title_id LIKE ‘P[SC]]%’ where title_id starts with the character P and
contains S or C in the second position
followed by any number of characters.
SELECT title_id, price FROM titles Returns all title_id and price from the titles
WHERE title_id, LIKE ‘P[^C]%’ table where title_id starts with P and does
not contain and S as the second character
and the third position onwards can contain
any characters.

83
Unknown Values:
Unknown values refer to the data entered in the form of the NULL
keyword. In SQL server terms, NULL is an unknown value or the value for which
data is not available. The rows containing the NULL values can be retrieved by
using the IS NULL keyword in the WHERE clause.

The Syntax is:

SELECT column_list FROM table_name
WHERE column_name unknown_value_operator.

SELECT title, ytd_sales FROM titles WHERE ytd_sales IS NULL

Logical Operator
 OR – Returns the result when any of the specified search
conditions is true.
 AND – returns the result when all of the specified search
conditions are true.
 NOT – Bnegates the expression that follows it.

SELECT column_list FROM table_name

WHERE conditional_expression{AND\OR}[NOT] conditional_expression.

Examples of Logical operators

Example Description
SELECT * FROM publishers WHERE Returns all the rows specific to the
city=’Boston’ OR city=’Paris’ conditions, even if any one of the
conditions is true.
SELECT publishers WHERE Returns all the rows specific to the
city=’Boston’ AND city=’MA’ conditions, when both the conditions
are true.
SELECT * FROM publishers WHERE Returns all the rows specific to the
city=’Boston’ OR NOT city=’Paris’ conditions, except the rows specified
with the condition after NOT operator.

84
 VIEWS

A view is a virtual table, which gives access to a subset of columns from

one or more tables. Hence, a view is an object that derives its data from one or
more tables. These tables are referred to as the base tables or the underlying
tables.
Views ensure security of data by restricting access to the following data:
 Specific rows of the table
 Specific columns of the table.
 Rows fetched by using joins.
 Statistical summary of data in a given table.
 Subsets of another view or a subset of views and tables
Common examples of views include:
 A subset of rows or columns of a base table.
 A union of two or more tables
 A join of two or more tables
 A statistical summary of a base tables
 A subset of another view, or some combination of views and base
tables.
Creating Views:
Using the CREATE VIEW statement we can create a view.

The syntax of the CREATE VIEW statement is:

CREATE VIEW view_name

[(column_name [,column_name]….)]
[WITH ENCRYPTION][WITH SCHEMABINDING]
AS select_statement[WITH CHECK OPTION]

85
The restrictions imposed on views are as follows:
 A view can be created only in the current database.
 A view can be created only if there is the SELECT permission on its base
table.
 The SELECT INTO statement cannot be used in a view declaration
statement.
 A view cannot derive its data from temporary tables.

Example:

USE NORTHWIND
GO

CREATE VIEW custview

AS
SELECT customerid, companyname, phone FROM customers
GO

The above statements create a view named custview, which contains the
custoemerid, companyname and the phone columns of the customer table.
The following statement can be used to execute a view:

SELECT * from custview

Getting View Information

SQL Server stores information in a view in the following system tables.
 Sysobjects-stores the name of the view
 Syscolumns-stores the names of the columns defined in the view.
 Sysdepends-stores information on the view dependencies
 Syscomments-stores the text of the view definition

86
Altering a view:
A view can be modified without dropping it. It ensures that the
permissions on the view are not lost. A view can be altered without affecting its
dependent objects, such as, triggers and stores procedures.

A view can be modified using the ALTER VIEW statement.

The syntax of ALTER VIEW statement is:

ALTER VIEW view_name([column_name])

[WITH ENCRYPTION]
AS
Select_statement
[WITH CHECK OPTION]

Example:
ALTER VIEW custview
AS
SELECT customerid, companyname, phone, fax
From customers
The statement generates the results:

SELECT * FROM custview

Dropping a View:
A view can be dropped from a database using the DROP VIEW statement.
When a view is dropped, it has no effect on the underlying table(s). Dropping a
view removes its definition and all permissions assigned to it. Further more if
users query any views that refer to a dropped view, they receive an error
message. However, dropping a table that refers to a view does not drop the view
automatically. You must drop it explicitly.
The syntax of DROP VIEW statement is:
DROP VIEW view_name
Where view_name is the name of the view to be dropped.

It is possible to drop multiple views with a single DROP VIEW. A comma in

the DROP statement separates each view that needs to be dropped.

87
Renaming a View:
A view can be renamed without dropping it. This also ensures that the
permissions on the view are not lost.
The guidelines to be followed for renaming a view as follows.
 The view must be in the current database.
 The new name for the view must follow the rules for renaming
identifiers.
 Only the owner of the view and the database in which view is
created can rename a view.
A view can be renamed by using the sp_rename system stored procedure.
The syntax of sp_rename is

Sp_rename old_viewname ,new_viewname

Example:
sp_rename custview,customerView

Note: All view are not modifiable. If the modification to the view is affecting
multiple base tables, then we can’t perform such modifications. If the
modification to the view is affecting a single base table, then we can perform that
modification

With Encryption:
Without this option in the view, the view design can be viewed by anybody
who have access on the view. In order to stop this we can encrypt the view with
this option. Once we encrypted the view we can’t decrypt again. So, it is
important to maintain a copy of the script.
Ex:

Create view vSample

WITH ENCRYPTION
AS
Select sid,sname,student.cid,cname
From student inner join class
On student.cid=class.cid

88
With SchemaBinding: (Materialized Views)

A view with an index is called a Materialized view. In order to create

an index on the view we must follow these points:
 View must be created using ‘WITH SCHEMABINDING’
 At first we must have a ‘UNIQUE CLUSTERED’ index on the view
 After that only we can create a ‘NONCLUSTERED’ index.

1. Create view vSample

WITH SCHEMABINDING
AS
Select sid,sname,student.cid,cname
From student inner join class
On student.cid=class.cid
2. CREATE UNIUQE NONCLUSTERED INDEX isid on vsample(sid)
3. CREATE INDEX iCid on vsample(cid)

With CheckOption:

In general even the modification on the view affects the view criteria,
we can perform that modification. To stop this we can use ‘WITH CHECK
OPTION’.

1. Create view vEmp

As
Select empid,ename,sal from emp
Where sal>35000
2. Update vemp set sal=25000 where empid=101
--no error, even empid 101 contains salary 35000.

3. alter view vemp

as
Select empid,ename,sal from emp
Where sal>35000 WITH CHECK OPTION
4. UPDATE vemp set sal=25000 where empid=104;
--error, since this employee salary is 39000. If we
modify this, it will violate the view condition

89
 INDEXES

Indexes in databases are similar to indexes in books. In a book, an index

allows you to find information quickly without reading the entire book. In a
database, an index allows the database program to find data in a table without
scanning the entire table. An index in a book is a list of words with the page
numbers that contain each word. An index in a database is a list of values in a
table with the storage locations of rows in the table that contain each value.
Indexes can be created on either a single column or a combination of columns in
a table and are implemented in the form of B-trees. An index contains an entry
with one or more columns (the search key) from each row in a table. A B-tree is
sorted on the search key, and can be searched efficiently on any leading subset
of the search key. For example, an index on columns A, B, C can be searched
efficiently on A, on A, B, and A, B, C.

Most books contain one general index of words, names, places, and so on.
Databases contain individual indexes for selected types or columns of data: this is
similar to a book that contains one index for names of people and another index
for places. When you create a database and tune it for performance, you should
create indexes for the columns used in queries to find data.

In the pubs sample database provided with Microsoft® SQL Server™

2000, the employee table has an index on the emp_id column. The following
illustration shows how the index stores each emp_id value and points to the
rows of data in the table with each value.

When SQL Server executes a statement to find data in the employee table
based on a specified emp_id value, it recognizes the index for the emp_id
column and uses the index to find the data. If the index is not present, it
performs a full table scan starting at the beginning of the table and stepping
through each row, searching for the specified emp_id value.

SQL Server automatically creates indexes for certain types of constraints

(for example, PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE constraints). You can further customize
the table definitions by creating indexes that are independent of constraints.

The performance benefits of indexes, however, do come with a cost.

Tables with indexes require more storage space in the database. Also, commands
that insert, update, or delete data can take longer and require more processing

90
time to maintain the indexes. When you design and create indexes, you should
ensure that the performance benefits outweigh the extra cost in storage space
and processing resources.

Table Indexes
Microsoft® SQL Server™ 2000 supports indexes defined on any column in a
table, including computed columns.
If a table is created with no indexes, the data rows are not stored in any
particular order. This structure is called a heap.

The two types of SQL Server indexes are:

 Clustered
Clustered indexes sort and store the data rows in the table based on their
key values. Because the data rows are stored in sorted order on the
clustered index key, clustered indexes are efficient for finding rows. There
can only be one clustered index per table, because the data rows
themselves can only be sorted in one order. The data rows themselves
from the lowest level of the clustered index.
The only time the data rows in a table are stored in sorted order is when
the table contains a clustered index. If a table has no clustered index, its
data rows are stored in a heap.
 Nonclustered
Nonclustered indexes have a structure completely separate from the data
rows. The lowest rows of a nonclustered index contain the nonclustered
index key values and each key value entry has pointers to the data rows
containing the key value. The data rows are not stored in order based on
the nonclustered key.
The pointer from an index row in a nonclustered index to a data row is
called a row locator. The structure of the row locator depends on whether
the data pages are stored in a heap or are clustered. For a heap, a row
locator is a pointer to the row. For a table with a clustered index, the row
locator is the clustered index key.
The only time the rows in a table are stored in any specific sequence is when a
clustered index is created on the table. The rows are then stored in sequence on
the clustered index key. If a table only has nonclustered indexes, its data rows
are stored in a unordered heap.

91
Indexes can be unique, which means no two rows can have the same value for
the index key. Otherwise, the index is not unique and multiple rows can share the
same key value.

There are two ways to define indexes in SQL Server. The CREATE INDEX
statement creates and names an index. The CREATE TABLE statement supports
the following constraints that create indexes:
 PRIMARY KEY creates a unique index to enforce the primary key.
 UNIQUE creates a unique index.
 CLUSTERED creates a clustered index.
 NONCLUSTERED creates a nonclustered index.

This example shows the Transact-SQL syntax for creating indexes on a table.

USE pubs
GO
CREATE TABLE emp_sample
(emp_id int PRIMARY KEY,
emp_name char(50),
emp_address char(50),
emp_title char(25) UNIQUE )
GO

CREATE NONCLUSTERED INDEX sample_nonclust ON

emp_sample(emp_name)
GO

92
 SYNONYMS

A synonym is a database object that serves the following purposes:

 It provides an alternative name for another database object, referred to as
the base object, that can exist on a local or remote server.
 It provides a layer of abstraction that protects a client application from
changes made to the name or location of the base object.

Synonyms can be created for the following types of objects:

Assembly (CLR) Stored

Assembly (CLR) Table-valued Function
Procedure
Assembly Aggregate (CLR) Aggregate
Assembly (CLR) Scalar Function
Functions
Replication-filter-procedure Extended Stored Procedure
SQL Scalar Function SQL Table-valued Function
SQL Inline-table-valued Function SQL Stored Procedure
View Table1 (User-defined)

Creating a Synonym:
Syn:

CREATE SYNONYM [ schema_name_1. ] synonym_name FOR < object >

< object > :: =
{
[ server_name.[ database_name ] . [ schema_name_2 ].|
database_name . [ schema_name_2 ].| schema_name_2. ]
object_name
}

93
Creating a synonym for a local object:
The following example first creates a synonym for the base object, Product in the
AdventureWorks database, and then queries the synonym.
USE tempdb;
GO
-- Create a synonym for the Product table in AdventureWorks.
CREATE SYNONYM MyProduct
FOR AdventureWorks.Production.Product;
GO

-- Query the Product table by using the synonym.

USE tempdb;
GO
SELECT ProductID, Name
FROM MyProduct
WHERE ProductID < 5;

94
 NORMALIZATION

Normalization is a technique for producing a set of relations with desirable

properties, given the data requirements of an enterprise.
The process of normalization is a formal method that identifies relations based
on their primary or candidate / foreign keys and the functional dependencies
among their attributes.

The Process of Normalization:

• Normalization is often executed as a series of steps. Each step
corresponds to a specific normal form that has known properties.
• As normalization proceeds, the relations become progressively more
restricted in format, and also less vulnerable to update anomalies.
• For the relational data model, it is important to recognize that it is only
first normal form (1NF) that is critical in creating relations. All the
subsequent normal forms are optional.
Basically 6 normal forms are avilable. They are:
• 1NF
• 2NF
• 3NF
• BCNF(Boyce-codd NF)
• 4NF
• 5NF
Mostly the realtime database designs ends with 3NF. It means, if we
satisfy the rules of 3NF.

Case Study:
There is a consulting company which acts a consultant for property owners
and clients who require property for rent.

Unnormalized form (UNF)

A table that contains one or more repeating groups

95
ClinetRental

ClientNo cName property pAddress rentStart rentFinish rent ownerNo oName

No

CR76 John PG4 6 lawrence 1-Jul-00 31-Aug-01 350 CO40 Tina

Murphy
kay St,Glasgow
PG16
Tony
5 Novar Dr, 1-Sep-02 1-Sep-02 450 CO93
Shaw
Glasgow

CR56 Aline PG4 6 lawrence 1-Sep-99 10-Jun-00 350 CO40 Tina

Murphy
Stewart St,Glasgow

Tony
PG36 2 Manor Rd, 10-Oct- 1-Dec-01 370 CO93
Shaw
00
Glasgow

Tony
PG16 5 Novar Dr, 1-Aug-03 450 CO93 Shaw
1-Nov-02
Glasgow

Definition of 1NF
First Normal Form is a relation in which the intersection of each row and
column contains one and only one value.
There are two approaches to removing repeating groups from unnormalized
tables:
1.Removes the repeating groups by entering appropriate data in the empty
columns of rows containing the repeating data.
2. Removes the repeating group by placing the repeating data, along with a
copy of the original key attribute(s), in a separate relation. A primary key is
identified for the new relation

96
1NF ClientRental relation with the first approach

With the first approach, we remove the repeating group (property rented details)
by entering the appropriate client data into each row.

The ClientRental relation is defined as follows,

ClientRental ( clientNo, propertyNo, cName, pAddress, rentStart,

rentFinish, rent, ownerNo, oName)

ClientNo Propery No CName PAddress RentStart RentFinish Rent OwnerNo oName

CR76 PG4 John 6 1-Jul-00 31-Aug-01 350 C040 Tina

Lawrence,
Kay Murphy
Glasgow
CR76 PG16 John 5 1-Sep-02 1-Sep-02 450 C093 Tony
Kay NovarDr, Shaw
Glasgow
CR56 PG4 Aline 6 1-Sep-99 10-Jun-00 350 C040 Tina
Lawrence,
Stewart Murphy
Glasgow
CR56 PG36 Aline 2 10-Oct-00 1-Dec-01 370 C093 Tony
Stewart ManorRd, Shaw
Glasgow
CR56 PG16 Aline 5 1-Nov-02 1-Aug-03 450 C093 Tony
Stewart NovarDr, Shaw
Glasgow

97
1NF ClientRental relation with the second approach
With the second approach, we remove the repeating group (property rented
details) by placing the repeating data along with a copy of the original key
attribute (clientNo) in a separte relation.

Client (clientNo, cName)

PropertyRentalOwner (clientNo, propertyNo, pAddress, rentStart, rentFinish,
rent, ownerNo, oName)

Client
ClientNo cName

CR76 PG4
CR76 PG16

PropertyRentalOwner
ClientNo ProperyNo PAddress RentStart RentFinish Rent OwnerNo oName

CR76 PG4 6 1-Jul-00 31-Aug-01 350 C040 Tina

Lawrence, Murphy
Glasgow
CR76 PG16 5 1-Sep-02 1-Sep-02 450 C093 Tony
NovarDr, Shaw
Glasgow
CR56 PG4 6 1-Sep-99 10-Jun-00 350 C040 Tina
Lawrence,
Murphy
Glasgow
CR56 PG36 2 10-Oct-00 1-Dec-01 370 C093 Tony
ManorRd,
Shaw
Glasgow
CR56 PG16 5 1-Nov-02 1-Aug-03 450 C093 Tony
NovarDr, Shaw
Glasgow

98
Second Normal Form (2NF)
Second normal form (2NF) is a relation that is in first normal form and
every non-primary-key attribute is fully functionally dependent on the primary
key.
The normalization of 1NF relations to 2NF involves the removal of partial
dependencies. If a partial dependency exists, we remove the function dependent
attributes from the relation by placing them in a new relation along with a copy of
their determinant.

The ClientRental relation has the following functional dependencies:

fd1 clientNo, propertyNo & rentStart, rentFinish (Primary Key)

fd2 clientNo & cName (Partial dependency)
fd3 propertyNo & pAddress, rent, ownerNo, oName (Partial dependency)
fd4 ownerNo & oName (Transitive Dependency)
fd5 clientNo, rentStart à propertyNo, pAddress,
rentFinish, rent, ownerNo, oName (Candidate key)
fd6 propertyNo, rentStart & clientNo, cName, rentFinish (Candidate key)

2NF ClientRental relation

After removing the partial dependencies, the creation of the three new
relations called Client, Rental, and PropertyOwner

Client (clientNo, cName)

Rental (clientNo, propertyNo, rentStart, rentFinish)
PropertyOwner (propertyNo, pAddress, rent, ownerNo, oName)

99
Client
ClientNo cName

CR76 PG4
CR76 PG16

Rental
ClientNo Propery No RentStart RentFinish

CR76 PG4 1-Jul-00 31-Aug-01

CR76 PG16 1-Sep-02 1-Sep-02
CR56 PG4 1-Sep-99 10-Jun-00
CR56 PG36 10-Oct-00 1-Dec-01
CR56 PG16 1-Nov-02 1-Aug-03

Property Owner
Propery No PAddress Rent OwnerNo oName

PG4 6 350 C040 Tina

Lawrence, Murphy
Glasgow
PG16 5 450 C093 Tony
NovarDr, Shaw
Glasgow
PG4 6 350 C040 Tina
Lawrence,
Murphy
Glasgow
PG36 2 ManorRd, 370 C093 Tony
Glasgow Shaw
PG16 5 450 C093 Tony
NovarDr, Shaw
Glasgow

100
Third Normal Form (3NF)

A Relation that is in first and second noraml form, and in which no non-
primary key attribute is Transitively dependent on the primary key

Transitive dependency A condition where A, B, and C are attributes of a

relation such that if A & B and B & C, then C is transitively dependent on A via B
(provided that A is not functionally dependent on B or C).

The normalization of 2NF relations to 3NF involves the removal of transitive

dependencies by placing the attribute(s) in a new relation along with a copy of
the determinant.

The functional dependencies for the Client, Rental and PropertyOwner relations
are as follows:
Client
fd2 clientNo cName (Primary Key)
Rental
fd1 clientNo, propertyNo & rentStart, rentFinish (Primary Key)
fd5 clientNo, rentStart & propertyNo, rentFinish (Candidate key)
fd6 propertyNo, rentStart & clientNo, rentFinish (Candidate key)
PropertyOwner
fd3 propertyNo & pAddress, rent, ownerNo, oName (Primary Key)
fd4 ownerNo & oName (Transitive Dependency)

3NF ClientRental relation

The resulting 3NF relations have the forms:

Client (clientNo, cName)
Rental (clientNo, propertyNo, rentStart, rentFinish)
PropertyOwner (propertyNo, pAddress, rent, ownerNo)
Owner (ownerNo, oName)

101
Client Owner
ClientNo cName OwnerNo OName

CR76 PG4 C040 Tina Murphy

CR76 PG16 C093 Tony Shaw

Rental
ClientNo Propery RentStart RentFinish
No

CR76 PG4 1-Jul-00 31-Aug-01

CR76 PG16 1-Sep-02 1-Sep-02
CR56 PG4 1-Sep-99 10-Jun-00
CR56 PG36 10-Oct-00 1-Dec-01
CR56 PG16 1-Nov-02 1-Aug-03

Property Owner
Propery No PAddress Rent OwnerNo oName

PG4 6 350 C040 Tina

Lawrence, Murphy
Glasgow
PG16 5 450 C093 Tony
NovarDr, Shaw
Glasgow
PG4 6 350 C040 Tina
Lawrence,
Murphy
Glasgow
PG36 2 ManorRd, 370 C093 Tony
Glasgow Shaw
PG16 5 450 C093 Tony
NovarDr, Shaw
Glasgow

102
 T-SQL Programming

T-SQL stands for TRANSACT-SQL. It is a programming language,

which can be used to develop logic on the database.
Whenever we are trying to execute a set of statements in the query
window, those statements will be executed independently. There will be no
relation between the statements. In order to have some kind of relation and
application logic to those statements, they can be specified under a T-SQL
program.
T-SQL is a procedural language which contains a set of SQL statements as
a unit. Like any other programming language, T-SQ L also follows a
predefined structure to develop the programs. This structure contains a
‘DECLARE’ block used to declare variables and ‘BEGIN…END’ block to specify the
statements or logic to be executed.

Syn:
DECLARE
<Varible Declarations>
BEGIN
------
<Executable Statements>
-----
END

T-SQL supports 2 types of variables. They are:

 Local Variables
 Global Variables

Local Variables:

A local variable can be created by using the DECLARE statement. An initial value
can be assigned to the variable with the help of the SELECT statement and can be
used within the trigger or procedure where it is created or assigned the value.

Global Variables:

Global variables are pre-defined and maintained by the system. The server
to track server-wide and session-specific information uses them. They cannot be
explicitly set or declared. Global variables cannot be defined by users and are not
used to pass information across processors by applications. Many of the global
variables report on system activity since the last time SQL server was started,
other report information about a connection.

103
Some common global variables are:

Global Description
Variable
@@rowcount Returns the number of rows processed by preceding
command.
@@error Returns the error number of the last error generated.
@@trancount Returns the transaction nesting level status.
@@servername Returns the name of the local SQL server.
@@version Returns the version of the SQL server using.
@@spid Returns the current process ID.
@@identity Returns the last identity value used in an insert.
@@nestlevel Returns the number of level nested in a stored
procedure/trigger.
@@fetch_status Returns a value corresponding to the status of the previous
fetch statement in a cursor

Declaring Variables:

The declare statement can be used to provide variable declaration by

specifying the name of the variable and its corresponding data type.
Even though we are declaring two variables of same type, each variable
must be declared independently.

Syn: DECLARE <varname> <datatype>

Ex:
1. Declare @i int
2. Declare @i,@j int --Error
3. Declare @i int,@j int

Initializing Variables:

We can make use of either SELECT or SET statements to initialize

variables.

Syntax:

SELECT @varname=value (or)

SET @varname=value

104
Example:

SELECT @name_variable=’AKINOVA KURENDIOL’, @age=22

PRINT Statement
The PRINT statement is used to pass a message to the client program’s message
handler. It is used to display user-defined messages.

The syntax is:

PRINT character_string|@local_variable|@@global_variable

The message to be displayed using PRINT statement can be up to 255 characters

long.

CONTROL-OF-FLOW LANGUAGE:

BEGIN…END

When series of statements need to be executed it is better to enclose them in

blocks. SQL server provides the BEGIN…END block for this purpose and the
statements enclosed between BEGIN and END block are known as statement
block. Statement blocks are used with IF…ELSE and WHILE control –of-flow
language. If BEGIN and END are not used, only the first statement that
immediately follows IF…ELSE or WHILE is executed.

The command syntax is:

BEGIN
{sql_statement | statement_block}
END

105
IF…ELSE Block

Statements to be executed conditionally are identified with the IF…ELSE

construct. The IF…ELSE block allows a statement or statement block to be
executed when a condition is TRUE or FALSE.

The command syntax is:

IF Boolean_expression
{sql_staement | statement_block}
[ELSE Boolean_expression
{sql_statement | statement_block}]

IF…ELSE constructs can be used in batches, in stored procedures and in ad hoc

queries. IF…ELSE constructs can be nested. There is no limit to the number of
nesting levels.

Consider the following example:

USE pubs
IF (SELECT SUM(price) FROM titles WHERE type='business') < 600
BEGIN
PRINT ' The sum of the following BUSINESS books is
less than 600
Dollars :'
PRINT ‘’
Select * FROM titles WHERE type='business'
END

CASE CONSTRUCT

SQL Server provides a CASE statement where you need a large number of
IF statements. The CASE statement enables multiple possible conditions to be
managed within a SELECT statement.

The syntax is:

CASE
WHEN Boolean_expression THEN expression1
[[WHEN Boolean_expression THEN expression][..]
[ELSE expression]
END

106
Example:

SELECT
CASE
WHEN type='BUSINESS' THEN 'BUSINESS BOOK'
WHEN type='mod_cook' THEN 'MODERN COOKING'
WHEN type='trad_cook' THEN 'TRADITIONAL COOKING'
WHEN type='psychology' THEN 'PSYCHOLOGY BOOK'
ELSE 'No category assigned as yet'
END
FROM titles
WHERE title_id LIKE 'bu%' OR title_id LIKE 'MC%' OR
title_id LIKE 'PC%' OR title_id LIKE 'PS%' group by type

WHILE CONSTRUCT

The WHILE construct is used for the repeated execution of SQL

Statements. The statements are executed repeatedly as long as the specified
condition is true.
SQL Server provides BREAK and CONTINUE statements to control the loop
from inside of the WHILE construct.

The command syntax is:

WHILE Boolean_expression
{sql_statement | statement_block}
[BREAK]
{sql_statement | statement_block}
[CONTINUE]

Example:

WHILE (SELECT AVG (price) FROM titles) < $60

BEGIN
SELECT title FROM titles
IF (SELECT MAX (price) FROM titles) > $20
BREAK
ELSE
CONTINUE
END

107
 STORED PROCEDURES

A stored procedure is a group of Transact-SQL statements compiled into a

single execution plan.
Stored procedures in SQL Server are similar to procedures in other programming
languages in that they can:
 Accept input parameters and return multiple values in the form of output
parameters to the calling procedure or batch.
 Contain programming statements that perform operations in the database,
including calling other procedures.
 Return a status value to a calling procedure or batch to indicate success or
failure (and the reason for failure).
You can use the Transact-SQL EXECUTE statement to run a stored procedure.
Stored procedures are different from functions in that they do not return values
in place of their names and they cannot be used directly in an expression.
The benefits of using stored procedures in SQL Server rather than Transact-SQL
programs stored locally on client computers are:
 They allow modular programming.
 They allow faster execution.
 They can reduce network traffic.
 They can be used as a security mechanism.

Type of Stored Procedures:

SQL Server supports five types of stored procedures. They are:
System Stored Procedures (sp_)
Many administrative and informational activities SQL Server can be
performed through system stored procedures. These system stored procedures
are stored in the Master database and are identified by the sp_prefix. They can
be executed from any database.

Local Stored Procedures

These procedures will be created in the user database. The user who
creates the procedure will become the owner for that procedure.

108
Temporary Stored Procedures

Temporary stored procedures are stored in tempdb database. They can

be used in the case where an application builds dynamic Transact-SQL
statements that are executed several times. Instead of recompiling the T-SQL
statements each time, a temporary stored procedure can be created and
compiled on the first execution, then execute the precompiled plan multiple
times. The temporary stored procedures can be local or global.

Remote Stored Procedures

They are legacy feature of SQL Server. Their functionality in T-SQL is

limited to executing a stored procedure on a remote SQL Server installation. The
distributed queries in SQL Server support this ability along with the ability to
access tables on linked OLEDB data sources directly from local T_SQL statements.

Extended Stored Procedures

These are dynamic link libraries (DLLs) that SQL Server can dynamically
load and execute. These procedures run directly in the address space of SQL
Server and are programmed using the SQL Server Open Data Services API. They
are identified by the xp_prefix.

Creating a Stored Procedure:

The stored procedures can be created using the CREATE PROCEDURE
statement.
Syntax:

CREATE PROCEDURE procedure_name

[( @parameter1 data_type [OUTPUT] [, @parameter2 …..])]
AS
BEGIN
SQL-Statements
[RETURN]
END

109
Types of Parameters:
SQL Server provides two types of parameters.
 Input parameters
 Output parameters
Input parameters will be used to pass a value using the procedure call.
Based on this value, the procedure execution will be done.
Output parameters will be used to assign a value inside the procedure
definition which can be used by the calling program. Before execution of the
stored procedure, output parameter doesn’t contain any value. Once the
procedure execution completes, now the output parameter gets some value.

Example: creating a procedure to insert values into Products table.

Create procedure pInsertProductst

(@pid int,@pn char(10),@pqty int)
AS
BEGIN
Insert into products values(@pid,@pn,@pqty)
END

Executing the Procedure:

We can execute a procedure with EXEC statement by specifying the
procedure name and parameters list.
If procedure call is only the statement to be executed, then no need to use
exec statement. We can directly use procedure name and parameter list.
Whereas, if we are calling the procedure from another procedure or T-SQL
program, then we must use the EXEC statement to call the procedure.

Syn: EXEC <Proc.Name> [val1,val2,var1 output,…]

Ex: exec pInsertProducts(1,’P1’,200)

110
Ex: using output parameters
Write a program to calculating the following details for a given employee
number.
 Basic Salary
 Benefits(Commission percentage on salary)
 Net Salary
Solution:
1. Creating a procedure to calculate Benefits

create procedure emp_benefits(@eno int,@add int output)

as
select @add=comm*sal*0.01 from emp where empid=@eno

2. Creating a procedure to calculate Net Salary

create procedure emp_netsalary(@eid int)

as
BEGIN
declare @bsal int,@add int,@nsal int
exec emp_benefits @eid,@add output
select @bsal=sal from emp
where empid=@eid
set @nsal=@bsal+@add
select Empid=@eid,BasicSalary=@bsal,
Benefits=@add,NetSalary=@nsal
END

Execution:
Exec emp_netsalary 100
Output:

111
Error Handling in Stored Procedures:
In order to not get any runtime errors it is important to handle errors in
the stored procedure. Using a ‘Begin Try’ and ‘Begin Catch’ blocks error handling
can be done in SQL Server.
Syn:

create procedure <procedurename> (Prameter1,….)

as
BEGIN
Begin Try
----
<Executable statements>
End Try
Begin Catch
--error handling
End Catch
END

Example:

Create procedure pInsertProductst

(@pid int,@pn char(10),@pqty int)
AS
BEGIN
Begin Try
Insert into products values(@pid,@pn,@pqty)
End Try
Begin Catch
If ERROR_NUMBER()=2627
PRINT ‘Duplicate product id value entered’
Else
PRINT ERROR_MESSAGE()
End Catch
END

112
 TRIGGERS

A trigger is a special type of stored procedure that automatically takes

effect when the data in a specified table is modified. Triggers are invoked in
response to an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement. A trigger can query other
tables and can include complex Transact-SQL statements. The trigger and the
statement that fires it are treated as a single transaction, which can be rolled
back from within the trigger. If a severe error is detected (for example,
insufficient disk space), the entire transaction automatically rolls back.
Triggers are useful in these ways:
 Triggers can cascade changes through related tables in the database;
however, these changes can be executed more efficiently using cascading
referential integrity constraints.
 Triggers can enforce restrictions that are more complex than those defined
with CHECK constraints.
Unlike CHECK constraints, triggers can reference columns in other tables.
For example, a trigger can use a SELECT from another table to compare to
the inserted or updated data and to perform additional actions, such as
modify the data or display a user-defined error message.
 Triggers can also evaluate the state of a table before and after a data
modification and take action(s) based on that difference.
 Multiple triggers of the same type (INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE) on a
table allow multiple, different actions to take place in response to the
same modification statement.
Creating a Trigger:

CREATE TRIGGER trigger_name

ON { table | view }
{
{ { FOR | AFTER | INSTEAD OF } { [ INSERT ] [ , ] [ UPDATE
] }
AS
sql_statement [ ...n ]
}
}

113
You can use the FOR clause to specify when a trigger is executed:
 AFTER
The trigger executes after the statement that triggered it completes. If the
statement fails with an error, such as a constraint violation or syntax
error, the trigger is not executed. AFTER triggers cannot be specified for
views, they can only be specified for tables. You can specify multiple
AFTER triggers for each triggering action (INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE). If
you have multiple AFTER triggers for a table, you can use
sp_settriggerorder to define which AFTER trigger fires first and which
fires last. All other AFTER triggers besides the first and last fire in an
undefined order which you cannot control.
AFTER is the default in SQL Server 2000. You could not specify AFTER or
INSTEAD OF in SQL Server version 7.0 or earlier, all triggers in those
versions operated as AFTER triggers.
 INSTEAD OF
The trigger executes in place of the triggering action. INSTEAD OF triggers
can be specified on both tables and views. You can define only one
INSTEAD OF trigger for each triggering action (INSERT, UPDATE, and
DELETE). INSTEAD OF triggers can be used to perform enhance integrity
checks on the data values supplied in INSERT and UPDATE statements.
INSTEAD OF triggers also let you specify actions that allow views, which
would normally not support updates, to be updatable.
Triggers Compared to Constraints
Constraints and triggers each have benefits that make them useful in special
situations. The primary benefit of triggers is that they can contain complex
processing logic that uses Transact-SQL code. Therefore, triggers can support all
of the functionality of constraints; however, triggers are not always the best
method for a given feature.
Entity integrity should always be enforced at the lowest level by indexes that are
part of PRIMARY KEY and UNIQUE constraints or are created independently of
constraints. Domain integrity should be enforced through CHECK constraints, and
referential integrity (RI) should be enforced through FOREIGN KEY constraints,
assuming their features meet the functional needs of the application.
Triggers are most useful when the features supported by constraints cannot meet
the functional needs of the application. For example:
 FOREIGN KEY constraints can validate a column value only with an exact
match to a value in another column, unless the REFERENCES clause
defines a cascading referential action.

114
  A CHECK constraint can validate a column value only against a logical
expression or another column in the same table. If your application
requires that a column value be validated against a column in another
table, you must use a trigger.
 Constraints can communicate about errors only through standardized
system error messages. If your application requires (or can benefit from)
customized messages and more complex error handling, you must use a
trigger.
Triggers can cascade changes through related tables in the database; however,
these changes can be executed more efficiently through cascading referential
integrity constraints.
 Triggers can disallow or roll back changes that violate referential integrity,
thereby canceling the attempted data modification. Such a trigger might
go into effect when you change a foreign key and the new value does not
match its primary key.
 If constraints exist on the trigger table, they are checked after the
INSTEAD OF trigger execution but prior to the AFTER trigger execution. If
the constraints are violated, the INSTEAD OF trigger actions are rolled
back and the AFTER trigger is not executed.
Example:
While entering the details of a new employee, the salary has to be entered
according to the grade. If the grade it changed, the basic salary should also be
changed accordingly. Instead of manually doing this, the HR manager wanted the
basic salary of the employees to be entered automatically whenever an employee
is added or grade is changed.

Solution: Create sal_info and emp tables as follows.

CREATE TABLE sal_info(grade char(1), bsal numeric(18,0))

Insert some values into the sal_info table:

INSERT INTO sal_info

SELECT ‘A’,1000 UNION ALL
SELECT ‘B’,2000 UNION ALL
SELECT ‘C’,3000

115
Now, create the emp table as follows:
CREATE TABLE emp(emp_no int,emp_name varchar(10),dept_no int,
grade char(1),bsal numeric(18,0),doj datetime)

Now, create the required trigger as follows:

CREATE TRIGGER tr_emp ON emp

FOR INSERT,UPDATE
AS
DECLARE @sal numeric(18,0)
SELECT @sal=sal_info.bsal from sal_info,inserted
Where inserted.grade=sal_info.grade

UPDATE emp set bsal=@sal from emp.inserted

Where emp.emp_no=inserted.emp_no

An insert/update is written for the table emp. Whenever a new record is inserted
or updated, the new grade is obtained from the inserted table. The corresponding
basic salary is obtained from the table sal_info and the basic salary in the emp
table is set to this value.
This trigger can be checked by inserting a record with a null value for the field
bsal. When a select statement is given, the value for bsal will also be present.

INSERT INTO emp VALUES(100,’Arvind’,30,’B’,null,getdate())

SELECT * FROM EMP

Emp_no emp_name dept_no grade bsal doj

100 Arvind 30 B 2000 2006-06-15

116
Programming DDL Triggers:
Syntax:

CREATE TRIGGER trigger_name

ON { ALL SERVER | DATABASE }
[ WITH <ddl_trigger_option> [ ,...n ] ]
{ FOR | AFTER } { event_type | event_group } [ ,...n ]
AS { sql_statement [ ; ] [ ...n ] | EXTERNAL NAME < method
specifier > [ ; ] }

Example:
The following example illustrates how a DDL trigger can be used to prevent any
table in a database from being modified or dropped:

CREATE TRIGGER safety

ON DATABASE
FOR DROP_TABLE, ALTER_TABLE
AS
PRINT ‘You must disable Trigger “Safety” to drop or alter tables!’
ROLLBACK;

Altering a Trigger:
The definition of an existing trigger can be altered without dropping it. The
altered definition replaces the definition of the existing trigger with the new
definition.
Syntax

ALTER TRIGGER trigger_name

ON { table | view }
{
{ { FOR | AFTER | INSTEAD OF } { [ INSERT ] [ , ] [ UPDATE
] }
AS
sql_statement [ ...n ]
}
}

117
Example:
This example creates a trigger that prints a user-defined message to the
client when a user tries to add or change data in the emp table. Then, the trigger
is altered using ALTER TRIGGER to apply the trigger only on INSERT activates.
This trigger is helpful because it reminds the user who updates or inserts rows
into this table.

CREATE TRIGGER trig1

ON emp
WITH ENCRYPTION
FOR INSERT, UPDATE
AS RAISERROR(40008,16,10)

ALTER TRIGGER trig1

ON emp
FOR INSERT
AS RAISERROR(40008,16,10)

Dropping a Trigger:
A trigger can be dropped by using, DROP TRIGGER statement. A trigger
gets dropped automatically when its associated table is dropped. Permissions to
drop a trigger defaults to the table owner. But the members of the system
administrators(sysadmin) and the database owner(db_owner) can drop any
object by specifying the owner in the DROP TRIGGER statement.

Syntax:

DROP TRIGGER trigger_name

Disabling or Enabling a Trigger:

Triggers can be enabled or disabled using ALTER TABLE statement. On
disabling a trigger, the actions in the trigger are not performed until the trigger is
re-enabled.
Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name

{ENABLE | DISABLE } TRIGGER
{ALL | trigger_name[, --n]
118
Setting the Trigger Order:
The ‘sp_settriggerorder’ is used to specify the order of firing the trigger.
The AFTER triggers that are fired between the first and last triggers are executed
in undefined order
Syntax:

sp_settriggerorder [ @triggername = ] '[ triggerschema. ]

triggername'
, [ @order = ] 'value'
, [ @stmttype = ] 'statement_type'
[ , [ @namespace = ] { 'DATABASE' | 'SERVER' | NULL
} ]

The following are the values for the order

Example:
1. Setting the order of DML triggers

USE AdventureWorks;
GO
sp_settriggerorder @triggername= 'Sales.uSalesOrderHeader',
@order='First', @stmttype = 'UPDATE';

2. Setting the order of DDL triggers

USE AdventureWorks;
GO
sp_settriggerorder @triggername= 'ddlDatabaseTriggerLog',
@order='First', @stmttype = 'ALTER_TABLE', @namespace =
'DATABASE';

119
 USER DEFINED FUNCTIONS

A User-Defined Function is, much like a Stored Procedure, an ordered set

of T-SQL statements that are pre-optimized and compiled and can be called to
work as a single unit. The primary difference between them is how results are
retuned.
With a Stored Procedure, you can pas parameters in, and also get values
in parameters passed back out. You can return a value, but that value is really
intended to indicate success or failure rather than return data. You can also
return result sets, but you can’t really use those result sets in a query without
first inserting them into some kind of table (usually a temporary table) to work
with them further.
With a UDF, however, you can pass parameters in, but not out. Instead,
the concept of output parameters has been replaced with a much more robust
return value. As with system functions, you can return a scalar value. Another
advantage is that this value is not limited to just the integer data type as it would
be for a Stored Procedure. Instead, you can return most SQL Server data types.

Types of UDF’s:

 Those that return a scalar value

 Those that return a table

General Syntax for creating a UDF:

CREATE FUNCTION function_name

(<@parameter name> <data type>[=default value>][,……n])
RETURNS {<data type>|TABLE}
AS
BEGIN
[<function statements>]
{RETURN <type as defined in RETURNS clause> |
RETURN (<SELECT statement>)}
END

120
UDFs Returning a Scalar Value:
Much like SQL Server’s own built-in functions, they will return a scalar
value to the calling script or procedure. One of the truly great things about a UDF
is that you are not limited to an integer for a return value – instead, it can be of
any valid SQL Server data type, except for BLOBs, cursors, and timestamps. Even
if you wanted to return an integer, a UDF should be advantage to you for two
different reasons:
1. Unlike Stored Procedures, the whole purpose of the return value is to
serve a meaningful piece of data – for Stored Procedures, a return value
is meant as an indication of success or failure, and, in the event of failure,
to provide some specific information about the nature of that failure.

2. You can perform functions in-line to your queries (for instances, include it
as part of your SELECT statement) – you can’t do that with a Stored
Procedure.

Case study:
Let’s create a table called ORDERS with 3 columns named as OrderID, CustID and
OrderDate as follows

CREATE TABLE orders(ordered int, custid int,orderdate datetime)

Lets insert some data into the table with the use of a simple T-SQL program.

DECLARE @Counter int

SET @Counter =1
WHILE @Counter <= 10
BEGIN
INSERT INTO Orders
VALUES(1,1,DATEADD(mi, @Counter, GETDATE()))
SET @Counter = @Counter + 1
END

121
 So, this gets us 10 rows inserted, with each row being inserted with
today’s date, but one minute apart from each other.
So, now we’re ready to run a simple query to see what orders we have
today. We might try something like:

SELECT *
FROM Orders
WHERE orderdate=GETDATE()

Unfortunately, this query will not get us anything back at all. This is
because GETDATE() gets the current time not just the day.
The solution is to convert the date to a string and back in order to
truncate the time information, then perform comparison.

SELECT *
FROM Orders
WHERE CONVERT(varchar(12), orderdate,
101)=CONVERT(varchar(12), GETDATE(),101)

This time, we will get back every row with today’s date in the OrderDate
column – regardless of what time of day the order was taken. Unfortunately, this
isn’t exactly the most readable code. Imagine you had a large series of dates you
needed to perform such comparisons against – it can get very ugly indeed.
So now let’s look at doing the same thing with a simple user-defined
function. First, we’ll need to create the actual function. This is done with the new
CREATE FUNCTION command, and it’s formatted much like a Stored Procedure.
For example, we might code this function like this:

CREATE FUNCTION dbo.DateOnly(@dt datetime)

RETURNS varchar(12)
AS
BEGIN
RETURN CONVERT(varchar(12), @dt, 101)
END

122
 Whether the date returned from GETDATE() is passed in as the parameter
and the task of converting the date is included in the function body and the
truncated date is returned.
To see this function in action, let’s reformat our query as follows:

SELECT *
FROM Orders
WHERE dbo.DateOnly(OrderDate) = dbo.DateOnly(GETDATE())

We get back the same set as with the stand-alone query. Even for a
simple query like this one, the new code is quite a bit more readable. There is,
however, one requirement for this type. The owner name is required in the
function call. SQL Server will, for some reason, not resolve functions the way it
does with other objects.

UDFs that Return a Table:

SQL Server’s new user-defined functions are not limited to just returning
scalar values. They can return something far more interesting – tables.
To make the change to using a table, as a return value is not hard at all –
a table is just like any other SQL Server data type as far as a UDF is concerned.
To illustrate this, we’ll build a relatively simple one:

USE pubs
GO

CREATE FUNCTION dbo.fnListOfAuthors()

RETURNS TABLE
AS
RETURN ( SELECT au_id,
au_lname + ‘, ‘ + au_fname AS au_name,
address AS address1,
City + ‘, ‘ + state + ‘ ‘ + zip AS address2
FROM authors)
GO

123
 This function returns a table of SELECTEed records and does a little
formatting: joining the last and first names, separating them with a comma, and
concatenating the three components to fill the address2 column.

At this point, we’re ready to use our function just as we would use a table
– the only exception is that as was discussed with scalar functions, we must use
the two-part naming convention:

SELECT *
FROM dbo.fnListOfAuthors()

124
 TRANSACTIONS

A transaction is a sequence of operations performed as a single logical unit

of work. A logical unit of work must exhibit four properties, called the ACID
(Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation, and Durability) properties, to qualify as a
transaction:
Atomicity
A transaction must be an atomic unit of work; either all of its data modifications
are performed, or none of them is performed.
Consistency
When completed, a transaction must leave all data in a consistent state. In a
relational database, all rules must be applied to the transaction's modifications to
maintain all data integrity. All internal data structures, such as B-tree indexes or
doubly-linked lists, must be correct at the end of the transaction.
Isolation
Modifications made by concurrent transactions must be isolated from the
modifications made by any other concurrent transactions. A transaction either
sees data in the state it was in before another concurrent transaction modified it,
or it sees the data after the second transaction has completed, but it does not
see an intermediate state. This is referred to as serializability because it results in
the ability to reload the starting data and replay a series of transactions to end up
with the data in the same state it was in after the original transactions were
performed.
Durability
After a transaction has completed, its effects are permanently in place in the
system. The modifications persist even in the event of a system failure.
Controlling Transactions
Applications control transactions mainly by specifying when a transaction starts
and ends. This can be specified using either Transact-SQL statements or database
API functions. The system must also be able to correctly handle errors that
terminate a transaction before it completes.
Transactions are managed at the connection level. When a transaction is started
on a connection, all Transact-SQL statements executed on that connection are
part of the transaction until the transaction ends.

125
Starting Transactions
You can start transactions in Microsoft® SQL Server™ as explicit, autocommit, or
implicit transactions.
Explicit transactions
Explicitly start a transaction by issuing a BEGIN TRANSACTION statement.
Autocommit transactions
This is the default mode for SQL Server. These transactions will contain only one
statement. Each individual Transact-SQL statement is committed when it
completes. You do not have to specify any statements to control transactions.
Implicit transactions
Set implicit transaction mode on through either an API function or the Transact-
SQL SET IMPLICIT_TRANSACTIONS ON statement. When that transaction is
completed either by using COMMIT / ROLLBACK, the next Transact-SQL
statement starts a new transaction.
Ending Transactions
You can end transactions with either a COMMIT or ROLLBACK statement.
COMMIT
If a transaction is successful, commit it. A COMMIT statement guarantees all of
the transaction's modifications are made a permanent part of the database. A
COMMIT also frees resources, such as locks, used by the transaction.
Syntax:

COMMIT TRAN[SACTION] transactionName

ROLLBACK
If an error occurs in a transaction, or if the user decides to cancel the transaction,
then roll the transaction back. A ROLLBACK statement backs out all modifications
made in the transaction by returning the data to the state it was in at the start of
the transaction. A ROLLBACK also frees resources held by the transaction.
Syntax:

ROLLBACK TRAN[SACTION] transactionName [savepointname]

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Savepoints
Savepoints offer a mechanism to roll back portions of transactions. You create a
savepoint using the SAVE TRANSACTION savepoint_name statement, and then
later execute a ROLLBACK TRANSACTION savepoint_name statement to roll back
to the savepoint instead of rolling back to the start of a transaction.
Example: Let us suppose emp table contains the following data.
Empid Ename Sal
100 Anil 1500
101 Balu 2000
102 Vivek 3500

1. BEGIN TRAN
2. SELECT * FROM emp
3. DELETE FROM emp WHERE empid=102
4. SELECT * FROM emp
5. SAVE TRAN sp1
6. UPDATE emp SET sal=4000 WHERE empid=101
7. SELECT * FROM emp
8. ROLLBACK TRAN sp1
9. SELECT
Output: The *result
FROMforemp
the above program is as given below. each block is the
10. of
result ROLLBACK TRAN
select statement.
11.SELECT * FROM emp
100 Anil 1500
101 Balu 2000
102 Vivek 3500
100 Anil 1500
101 Balu 2000
100 Anil 1500
101 Balu 4000
100 Anil 1500
101 Balu 2000
100 Anil 1500
101 Balu 2000
102 Vivek 3500

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 LOCKS

Microsoft® SQL Server™ 2000 has locking that allows different types of resources
to be locked by a transaction. To minimize the cost of locking, SQL Server locks
resources automatically at a level appropriate to the task. Locking at a smaller
granularity, such as rows, increases concurrency, but has a higher overhead
because more locks must be held if many rows are locked. Locking at a larger
granularity, such as tables, are expensive in terms of concurrency because
locking an entire table restricts access to any part of the table by other
transactions, but has a lower overhead because fewer locks are being
maintained.
SQL Server can lock these resources (listed in order of increasing granularity).

Resource Description

RID Row identifier. Used to lock a single row within a table.

Key Row lock within an index. Used to protect key ranges in

serializable transactions.

Page 8 kilobyte –(KB) data page or index page.

Extent Contiguous group of eight data pages or index pages.

Table Entire table, including all data and indexes.

DB Database.

SQL Server locks resources using different lock modes that determine how the
resources can be accessed by concurrent transactions.
SQL Server uses these resource lock modes.

Lock mode Description

Shared (S) Used for operations that do not change or update data (read-
only operations), such as a SELECT statement.

Update (U) Used on resources that can be updated. Prevents a common

form of deadlock that occurs when multiple sessions are reading,
locking, and potentially updating resources later.

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Exclusive (X) Used for data-modification operations, such as INSERT, UPDATE,
or DELETE. Ensures that multiple updates cannot be made to the
same resource at the same time.

Intent Used to establish a lock hierarchy. The types of intent locks are:
intent shared (IS), intent exclusive (IX), and shared with intent
exclusive (SIX).

Schema Used when an operation dependent on the schema of a table is

executing. The types of schema locks are: schema modification
(Sch-M) and schema stability (Sch-S).

Bulk Update (BU) Used when bulk-copying data into a table and the TABLOCK hint
is specified.

Shared Locks

Shared (S) locks allow concurrent transactions to read (SELECT) a resource. No

other transactions can modify the data while shared (S) locks exist on the
resource. Shared (S) locks on a resource are released as soon as the data has
been read, unless the transaction isolation level is set to repeatable read or
higher, or a locking hint is used to retain the shared (S) locks for the duration of
the transaction.

Update Locks

Update (U) locks prevent a common form of deadlock. A typical update pattern
consists of a transaction reading a record, acquiring a shared (S) lock on the
resource (page or row), and then modifying the row, which requires lock
conversion to an exclusive (X) lock. If two transactions acquire shared-mode
locks on a resource and then attempt to update data concurrently, one
transaction attempts the lock conversion to an exclusive (X) lock. The shared-
mode-to-exclusive lock conversion must wait because the exclusive lock for one
transaction is not compatible with the shared-mode lock of the other transaction;
a lock wait occurs. The second transaction attempts to acquire an exclusive (X)
lock for its update. Because both transactions are converting to exclusive (X)
locks, and they are each waiting for the other transaction to release its shared-
mode lock, a deadlock occurs.
To avoid this potential deadlock problem, update (U) locks are used. Only one
transaction can obtain an update (U) lock to a resource at a time. If a transaction

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modifies a resource, the update (U) lock is converted to an exclusive (X) lock.
Otherwise, the lock is converted to a shared-mode lock.

Exclusive Locks

Exclusive (X) locks prevent access to a resource by concurrent transactions. No

other transactions can read or modify data locked with an exclusive (X) lock.

Intent Locks

An intent lock indicates that SQL Server wants to acquire a shared (S) lock or
exclusive (X) lock on some of the resources lower down in the hierarchy. For
example, a shared intent lock placed at the table level means that a transaction
intends on placing shared (S) locks on pages or rows within that table. Setting an
intent lock at the table level prevents another transaction from subsequently
acquiring an exclusive (X) lock on the table containing that page. Intent locks
improve performance because SQL Server examines intent locks only at the table
level to determine if a transaction can safely acquire a lock on that table. This
removes the requirement to examine every row or page lock on the table to
determine if a transaction can lock the entire table.

Intent locks include intent shared (IS), intent exclusive (IX), and shared with
intent exclusive (SIX).

Lock mode Description

Intent shared (IS) Indicates the intention of a transaction to read some (but not
all) resources lower in the hierarchy by placing S locks on
those individual resources.

Intent exclusive (IX) Indicates the intention of a transaction to modify some (but
not all) resources lower in the hierarchy by placing X locks on
those individual resources. IX is a superset of IS.

Shared with intent Indicates the intention of the transaction to read all of the
exclusive (SIX) resources lower in the hierarchy and modify some (but not all)
resources lower in the hierarchy by placing IX locks on those

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 individual resources. Concurrent IS locks at the top-level
resource are allowed. For example, an SIX lock on a table
places an SIX lock on the table (allowing concurrent IS locks),
and IX locks on the pages being modified (and X locks on the
modified rows). There can be only one SIX lock per resource
at one time, preventing updates to the resource made by
other transactions, although other transactions can read
resources lower in the hierarchy by obtaining IS locks at the
table level.

Schema Locks

Schema modification (Sch-M) locks are used when a table data definition
language (DDL) operation (such as adding a column or dropping a table) is being
performed.
Schema stability (Sch-S) locks are used when compiling queries. Schema stability
(Sch-S) locks do not block any transactional locks, including exclusive (X) locks.
Therefore, other transactions can continue to run while a query is being compiled,
including transactions with exclusive (X) locks on a table. However, DDL
operations cannot be performed on the table.

Bulk Update Locks

Bulk update (BU) locks are used when bulk copying data into a table and either
the TABLOCK hint is specified or the table lock on bulk load table option is set
using sp_tableoption. Bulk update (BU) locks allow processes to bulk copy data
concurrently into the same table while preventing other processes that are not
bulk copying data from accessing the table.

Deadlocking

A deadlock occurs when there is a cyclic dependency between two or more

threads for some set of resources.
Deadlock is a condition that can occur on any system with multiple threads, not
just on a relational database management system. A thread in a multi-threaded
system may acquire one or more resources (for example, locks). If the resource
being acquired is currently owned by another thread, the first thread may have to

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wait for the owning thread to release the target resource. The waiting thread is
said to have a dependency on the owning thread for that particular resource.
If the owning thread wants to acquire another resource that is currently owned
by the waiting thread, the situation becomes a deadlock: both threads cannot
release the resources they own until their transactions are committed or rolled
back, and their transactions cannot be committed or rolled back because they are
waiting on resources the other owns. For example, thread T1 running transaction
1 has an exclusive lock on the Supplier table. Thread T2 running transaction 2
obtains an exclusive lock on the Part table, and then wants a lock on the
Supplier table. Transaction 2 cannot obtain the lock because transaction 1 has it.
Transaction 2 is blocked, waiting on transaction 1. Transaction 1 then wants a
lock on the Part table, but cannot obtain it because transaction 2 has it locked.
The transactions cannot release the locks held until the transaction is committed
or rolled back. The transactions cannot commit or roll back because they require
a lock held by the other transaction to continue.

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 CURSORS
A cursor is a pointer to the result of a SELECT statement. The following
are the features provided by a cursor.

 Allowing positioning at specific rows of the result set.

 Retrieving one row or block of rows from the current position in the
result set.

 Supporting data modifications to the rows at the current position in the

result set.

 Supporting different levels of visibility to changes made by other users

to the database data that is presented in the result set.

 Providing Transact-SQL statements in scripts, stored procedures, and

triggers access to the data in a result set.

Types of Cursors:

 Static cursors

 Dynamic cursors

 Forward-only cursors

 Keyset-driven cursors

Static cursors detect few or no changes but consume relatively few resources
while scrolling, although they store the entire cursor in tempdb. Dynamic
cursors detect all changes but consume more resources while scrolling,
although they make the lightest use of tempdb. Keyset-driven cursors lie in
between, detecting most changes but at less expense than dynamic cursors.

Cursor Statements:
We can control the records of a result set with the use of these cursor
statements. They are:
 DECLARE
 OPEN
 FETCH
 CLOSE
 DEALLOCATE

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 DECLARE Statement is used to provide cursor declarations such as name
Of the cursor, the select statement to which result set the cursor should point
etc.,

OPEN Statement starts using the cursor. It executes the select statement
in the cursor and points the cursor to the first record of the result set.

FETCH statement is used to retrieve the data in the current location and
navigate the cursor to the required position.

CLOSE statement stops using the cursor. But the resources used by the
cursor are still open.

DEALLOCATE statements removes entire resources that are used by the

cursor

@@FETCH_STATUS:Returns the status of the last cursor FETCH statement

issued against any cursor currently opened by the connection.

Return value Description

0 FETCH statement was successful.
-1 FETCH statement failed or the row was beyond the
result set.
-2 Row fetched is missing.

Example:
Suppose there is a table with some data and indexes. After the index
creation, if any modifications are performed on the table, those changes will not
reflect directly into the index structure. We have to refresh the index structure on
all table using the following statement.

DBCC DBREINDEX (<tablename>)

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 The above command should be executed for all tables of the database. To
perform this task we can make use of the following cursor program:

declare @tblname varchar(255)

declare tblcursor cursor

for select table_name from information_schema.tables
where table_type='base table'

open tblcursor

fetch next from tblcursor into @tblname

while @@fetch_status=0
begin
dbcc dbreindex(@tblname)
fetch next from tblcursor into @tblname
end

close tblcursor
deallocate tblcursor

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 SECURITY
SQL Server validates users at two levels of security on database
user accounts and roles.

 Login Authentication
 Permissions Validation

The authentication stage identifies the user using a login account and verifies
only the ability to connect with SQL Server. If the authentication is successful,
the user is connected to SQL Server. The user then needs permissions to access
database on the server, which is done by using an account in each database,
mapped to the user login.
The permission validation stage controls the activities the user is allowed to
perform in the SQL Server database.

Login Authentications:
A user must have a login account to connect to SQL Server. SQL
Server provides two types of Login Authentications.

 Windows NT Authentication
 SQL Server Authentication

Windows NT Authentication:

When using Windows NT Authentication, the user is not required to specify

a login ID or password to connect to SQL Server. The user’s access to SQL Server
is controlled by the Windows NT account, which is authenticated when he/she
logs on to the Windows Operating System.

SQL Server Authentication:

When using SQL Server authentication, the users must supply the SQL
Server login and password to connect to SQL Server. The users are identified in
SQL Server by their SQL Server login.

Authentication Modes:

SQL Server can operate in two security modes:

Windows NT Authentication Mode: Only Windows NT Authentication is

allowed. Users cannot specify SQL Server Authentication.

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Mixed Mode: It allows users to connect to SQL Server using Windows NT
Authentication or SQL Server Authentication.

Create a User Login:

 Expand the server

 Expand security
 Right click on “Logins” and select “New Login…”
 In the window displayed enter a name to the user under Name Textbox
 Click the SQL Server Authentication option button to provide the
password
 Enter “Password” and “Confirm Password”
 Uncheck “Enforce Password Policy” option.

 Click “OK”

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Providing access to a database for a user:

 Right click on the login name and select properties

 In the window displayed click on “User Mappings” tab
 Make a check mark on the database for which the access has to be given.
 Click “OK”

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Granting Permissions on a table:

 Right click on table name and select “Properties”

 In the window displayed click on “Permissions”
 In the window displayed click on “Add” button, “Browse” for the user, and
make a check mark for the required user name and click “ok”

 Make a check mark for the desired operation.

 Click “OK”

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 BACKING UP AND RESTORING DATABASES

The backup and restore component of Microsoft® SQL Server™ 2000

provides an important safeguard for protecting critical data stored in SQL Server
databases.
With proper planning, you can recover from many failures, including:
 Media failure.
 User errors.
 Permanent loss of a server.
Additionally, backing up and restoring databases is useful for other purposes,
such as copying a database from one server to another. By backing up a
database from one computer and restoring the database to another, a copy of a
database can be made quickly and easily.

Using the Enterprise Manager to take backup of database:

1. Open the Management Studio tool and expand “Databases” item.

2. Right click on the corresponding database and choose “Tasks ->
Backup…”

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3. In the window displayed click on ADD button and choose the location
where the backup to be stored along with name.

4. Click on “Options” tab and choose “Overwrite existing backup sets” option

5. Click “OK”

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Recovering Database :

1. Open Management Studio Tool

2. Right click on the “Databases” item and select “Restore Database…”
option.

3. In the window displayed enter a name to the database(ex: University)

under “To database”. Select “From Device” option button and choose
(browse) button

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4. Choose the file from the “Locate Backup file” window.
5. Select “ok”
6. Make a check mark under “Restore” item for the corresponding backup
database file.
7. Click on “Options” tab and choose “Overwrite Existing Database” option
8. Click “OK” button.
Note: If any error occurred regarding path, change the path under
“Restore As” to new path.

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 CASE STUDY

Create the following Tables:

LOCATION
Location_ID Regional_Group
122 NEW YORK
123 DALLAS
124 CHICAGO
167 BOSTON

DEPARTMENT
Department_ID Name Location_ID
10 ACCOUNTING 122
20 RESEARCH 124
30 SALES 123
40 OPERATIONS 167

JOB
Job_ID Function
667 CLERK
668 STAFF
669 ANALYST
670 SALESPERSON
671 MANAGER
672 PRESIDENT

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EMPLOYEE

EMPLO FIRST_ MIDDLE JOB MANAGER DEPART

LAST_NAME HIREDATE SALARY COMM
YEE_ID NAME _NAME _ID _ID MENT_ID

7369 SMITH JOHN Q 667 7902 17-DEC-84 800 NULL 20

7499 ALLEN KEVIN J 670 7698 20-FEB-85 1600 300 30

7505 DOYLE JEAN K 671 7839 04-APR-85 2850 NULL 30

7506 DENNIS LYNN S 671 7839 15-MAY-85 2750 NULL 30

7507 BAKER LESLIE D 671 7839 10-JUN-85 2200 NULL 40

CYNTHI
7521 WARK D 670 7698 22-FEB-85 1250 500 30
A

Queries based on the above tables:

Simple Queries:

1. List all the employee details

2. List all the department details
3. List all job details
4. List all the locations
5. List out first name,last name,salary, commission for all employees
6. List out employee_id,last name,department id for all employees and
rename employee id as “ID of the employee”, last name as “Name of the
employee”, department id as “department ID”
7. List out the employees anuual salary with their names only.

Where Conditions:
8. List the details about “SMITH”
9. List out the employees who are working in department 20
10. List out the employees who are earning salary between 3000 and 4500

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 11. List out the employees who are working in department 10 or 20
12. Find out the employees who are not working in department 10 or 30
13. List out the employees whose name starts with “S”
14. List out the employees whose name start with “S” and end with “H”
15. List out the employees whose name length is 4 and start with “S”
16. List out the employees who are working in department 10 and draw the
salaries more than 3500
17. list out the employees who are not receiving commission.

Order By Clause:
18. List out the employee id, last name in ascending order based on the
employee id.
19. List out the employee id, name in descending order based on salary
column
20. list out the employee details according to their last_name in ascending
order and salaries in descending order
21. list out the employee details according to their last_name in ascending
order and then on department_id in descending order.

Group By & Having Clause:

22. How many employees who are working in different departments wise in
the organization
23. List out the department wise maximum salary, minimum salary, average
salary of the employees
24. List out the job wise maximum salary, minimum salary, average salaries
of the employees.
25. List out the no.of employees joined in every month in ascending order.
26. List out the no.of employees for each month and year, in the ascending
order based on the year, month.
27. List out the department id having atleast four employees.
28. How many employees in January month.
29. How many employees who are joined in January or September month.
30. How many employees who are joined in 1985.

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 31. How many employees joined each month in 1985.
32. How many employees who are joined in March 1985.
33. Which is the department id, having greater than or equal to 3 employees
joined in April 1985.

Sub-Queries

34. Display the employee who got the maximum salary.

35. Display the employees who are working in Sales department
36. Display the employees who are working as “Clerk”.
37. Display the employees who are working in “New York”
38. Find out no.of employees working in “Sales” department.
39. Update the employees salaries, who are working as Clerk on the basis of
10%.
40. Delete the employees who are working in accounting department.
41. Display the second highest salary drawing employee details.
42. Display the Nth highest salary drawing employee details

Sub-Query operators: (ALL,ANY,SOME,EXISTS)

43. List out the employees who earn more than every employee in department
30.
44. List out the employees who earn more than the lowest salary in
department 30.
45. Find out whose department has not employees.
46. Find out which department does not have any employees.

Co-Related Sub Queries:

47. Find out the employees who earn greater than the average salary for their
department.

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 Joins
Simple join

48.List our employees with their department names

49.Display employees with their designations (jobs)
50.Display the employees with their department name and regional
groups.
51.How many employees who are working in different departments and
display with department name.
52.How many employees who are working in sales department.
53.Which is the department having greater than or equal to 5 employees and
display the department names in ascending order.
54.How many jobs in the organization with designations.
55.How many employees working in “New York”.

Non – Equi Join:

56.Display employee details with salary grades.

57.List out the no. of employees on grade wise.
58.Display the employ salary grades and no. of employees between 2000 to
5000 range of salary.

Self Join:

59.Display the employee details with their manager names.

60.Display the employee details who earn more than their managers salaries.
61.Show the no. of employees working under every manager.

Outer Join:

61.Display employee details with all departments.

62.Display all employees in sales or operation departments.

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Set Operators:

63.List out the distinct jobs in Sales and Accounting Departments.

64.List out the ALL jobs in Sales and Accounting Departments.
65.List out the common jobs in Research and Accounting Departments in
ascending order.

Solutions

1. Select * from employee;

2. Select * from department;
3. Select * from job;
4. Select * from loc;
5. Select first_name, last_name, salary, commission from employee;
6. Select employee_id “id of the employee”, last_name “name", department
id as “department id” from employee;
7. Select last_name, salary*12 “annual salary” from employee
8. Select * from employee where last_name=’SMITH’;
9. Select * from employee where department_id=20
10. Select * from employee where salary between 3000 and 4500
11. Select * from employee where department_id in (20,30)
12. Select last_name, salary, commission, department_id from employee
where department_id not in (10,30)
13. Select * from employee where last_name like ‘S%’
14. Select * from employee where last_name like ‘S%H’
15. Select * from employee where last_name like ‘S___’
16. Select * from employee where department_id=10 and salary>3500
17. Select * from employee where commission is Null
18. Select employee_id, last_name from employee order by employee_id

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19. Select employee_id, last_name, salary from employee order by salary
desc
20. Select employee_id, last_name, salary from employee order by
last_name, salary desc
21. Select employee_id, last_name, salary from employee order by
last_name, department_id desc
22. Select department_id, count(*), from employee group by department_id
23. Select department_id, count(*), max(salary), min(salary), avg(salary)
from employee group by department_id
24. Select job_id, count(*), max(salary), min(salary), avg(salary) from
employee group by job_id
25. select datepart(mm,hire_date) month,count(*) from employee
group by datepart(mm,hire_date) order by month
26. select datepart(yy,hire_date) year,datepart(mm,hire_date)
month,count(*) from employee group by datepart(yy,hire_date)
,datepart(mm,hire_date) order by year
27. Select department_id, count(*) from employee group by department_id
having count(*)>=4
28. select datename(mm,hire_date) month,count(*) NoOfEmployees from
employee group by datename(mm,hire_date) having
datename(mm,hire_date)='January'
29. select datename(mm,hire_date) month,count(*) NoOfEmployees from
employee group by datename(mm,hire_date) having
datename(mm,hire_date) in ('January','September')
30. select datename(yy,hire_date) year,count(*) NoOfEmployees from
employee
group by datename(yy,hire_date) having datename(yy,hire_date)=1985
31. Select datepart(yy,hire_date)Year, datepart(mm,hire_date) Month,
count(*) [No. of employees] from employee where
datepart(yy,hire_date)=1985
group by datepart(yy,hire_date),datepart(mm,hire_date)
32. Select datepart(yy,hire_date) Year, datename(mm,hire_date) Month,
count(*) [No. of employees] from employee
where datepart(yy,hire_date)=1993 and
datename(mm,hire_date)='March'
group by datepart(yy,hire_date),datename(mm,hire_date)

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33. Select department_id, count(*) [No. of employees] from employee
where datepart(yy,hire_date)=1985 and datename(mm,hire_date)='April'
group by datepart(yy,hire_date), datename(mm,hire_date),
department_id having count(*)>=3
34. Select * from employee where salary=(select max(salary) from
employee)
35. Select * from employee where department_id IN (select department_id
from department where name=’SALES’)
36. Select * from employee where job_id in (select job_id from job where
function=’CLERK’
37. Select * from employee where department_id=(select department_id
from department where location_id=(select location_id from location
where regional_group=’New York’))
38. Select * from employee where department_id=(select department_id
from department where name=’SALES’ group by department_id)
39. Update employee set salary=salary*10/100 where job_id=(select job_id
from job where function=’CLERK’)
40. delete from employee where department_id=(select department_id from
department where name=’ACCOUNTING’)
41. Select * from employee where salary=(select max(salary) from employee
where salary <(select max(salary) from employee))
42. Select distinct e.salary from employee where & no-1=(select
count(distinct salary) from employee where sal>e.salary)
43. Select * from employee where salary > all (Select salary from employee
where department_id=30)
44. Select * from employee where salary > any (Select salary from employee
where department_id=30)
45. Select employee_id, last_name, department_id from employee e where
not exists (select department_id from department d where
d.department_id=e.department_id)
46. Select name from department d where not exists (select last_name from
employee e where d.department_id=e.department_id)
47. Select employee_id, last_name, salary, department_id from employee e
where salary > (select avg(salary) from employee where
department_id=e.department_id)
48. Select employee_id, last_name, name from employee e, department d
where e.department_id=d.department_id

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49. Select employee_id, last_name, function from employee e, job j where
e.job_id=j.job_id
50. Select employee_id, last_name, name, regional_group from employee e,
department d, location l where e.department_id=d.department_id and
d.location_id=l.location_id
51. Select name, count(*) from employee e, department d where
d.department_id=e.department_id group by name
52. Select name, count(*) from employee e, department d where
d.department_id=e.department_id group by name having name=’SALES’
53. Select name, count(*) from employee e, department d where
d.department_id=e.department_id group by name having count (*)>=5
order by name
54. Select function, count(*) from employee e, job j where j.job_id=e.job_id
group by function
55. Select regional_group, count(*) from employee e, department d, location
l where e.department_id=d.department_id and d.location_id=l.location_id
and regional_group=’NEW YORK’ group by regional_group
56. Select employee_id, last_name, grade_id from employee e, salary_grade
s where salary between lower_bound and upper_bound order by
last_name
57. Select grade_id, count(*) from employee e, salary_grade s where salary
between lower_bound and upper_bound group by grade_id order by
grade_id desc
58. Select grade_id, count(*) from employee e, salary_grade s where salary
between lower_bound and upper_bound and lower_bound>=2000 and
lower_bound<=5000 group by grade_id order by grade_id desc
59. Select e.last_name emp_name, m.last_name, mgr_name from employee
e, employee m where e.manager_id=m.employee_id
60. Select e.last_name emp_name, e.salary emp_salary, m.last_name,
mgr_name, m.salary mgr_salary from employee e, employee m where
e.manager_id=m.employee_id and m.salary<e.salary
61. Select m.manager_id, count(*) from employee e, employee m where
e.employee_id=m.manager_id group by m.manager_id
62. Select last_name, d.department_id, d.name from employee e,
department d where e.department_id*=d.department_id

152
63. Select last_name, d.department_id, d.name from employee e,
department d where e.department_id*=d.department_id and
d.department_idin (select department_id from department where name IN
(‘SALES’,’OPERATIONS’))
64. Select function from job where job_id in (Select job_id from employee
where department_id=(select department_id from department where
name=’SALES’)) union Select function from job where job_id in (Select
job_id from employee where department_id=(select department_id from
department where name=’ACCOUNTING’))
65. Select function from job where job_id in (Select job_id from employee
where department_id=(select department_id from department where
name=’SALES’)) union all Select function from job where job_id in (Select
job_id from employee where department_id=(select department_id from
department where name=’ACCOUNTING’))
66. Select function from job where job_id in (Select job_id from employee
where department_id=(select department_id from department where
name=’RESEARCH’)) intersect Select function from job where job_id in
(Select job_id from employee where department_id=(select
department_id from department where name=’ACCOUNTING’)) order by
function

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 More Practical Examples
1. Assuming system date as current date, solve the following
i) Get the last day of week
ii) Get the first day of week
iii) Get the last day of the month
Note: The solution you provided should work for any given date.
2. In the Northwind database, get the customerid,companyname and no.of
orders made by each customer.
3. A table is having the following information-
id name Age
1 A 25
2 B 26
3 C 24
2 B 26
Write a query to delete duplicate records.(only one record with sid 2
should exist).
4. In my database I have a table with a column name ‘MyColumn1’. Write a
query to get the names of the tables that contains this column.

A department store has many sections such as Toys, Cosmetics, Clothing,

Household Items, and Electronics etc. Each section has many employees.
Employees can belong to only one section. In addition, each section also
has a head that is responsible for the section’s performance.

The department store also has many customers who purchase goods from
various sections. Customers can be of two types Regular and Ad-hoc.
Regular customers get credit at the department store. Maximum credit
limit allowed is Rs.10000.

The store procures goods from various suppliers. The goods are stored in
a warehouse and transferred to the store as and when requirement comes
up. Quantity of goods supplied cannot be less than 0 and cannot be
greater than 10000 for a particular supply.

The store has a computerized system for all its operations. Given below
are the tables in the database:

154
  Section ( SectionNo int, Description Varchar(30), Section_Head_EmpNo
int)
 Employees( EmpNo int, First_Name Varchar(30), Last_Name
Varchar(30), Address Varchar(30), Grade int, Salary Numeric(9,2),
SectionNo int, Date_Joined Datetime)
 Customers( CustNo int, First_Name Varchar(30), Last_Name
Varchar(30), CustType char(1) (with check constraint R/A), Credit_Limit
Numeric(9,2), Credit_Card_No bigint, Credit_Card_Type Varchar(8))
 Suppliers (SuppNo int,Name Varchar(30),Address Varchar(30), City
Varchar(30))
 Products (ProductNo int identity, Product_Category_Code
Char(3),Description Varchar(30), Price Numeric(9,2), Qty_On_Hand int)
 Product_CategoryMaster(Product_Category_Code Char(3),Description
Varchar(15))
 Suppliers_Products ( SuppNo int, ProductNo int, Date_Supplied
Datetime, Qty_Supplied int)
 Customers_Products( TransactionID int, CustNo int, ProductNo int,
Date_of_Purchase Datetime, Qty_Purchased int)
The column names which have been underlined are the primary keys for the
tables.

Create the tables with all appropriate constraints. Use the constraints
UNIQUE, NOT NULL, CHECK, PRIMARY KEY, FOREIGN KEY etc. wherever
necessary

5. Find all employees whose names begin with ‘A’ and end with ‘A’.
6. Find the total salary paid by each section to employees.
7. Display the section name and the name of the person who heads the
section.
8. Display supplier names and cities. If the city is null, display ‘LOCAL’.
9. Display the customer names and the customer type. If the customer type
is ‘R’ displays ‘Regular’, if the customer type is ‘A’ display ‘Ad-hoc’.
10. Try creating a view which when used, will display the supplier names,
product names , the quantity supplied and the date supplied for all records
in Supp_Products. The listing should be in alphabetical order of supplier
names.
11. List all suppliers who have not supplied any products. Use an outer join to
do this.
12. Display the average salary of employees in each section.
13. Display the customer no and the total number of products purchased by
him, for those customers who have purchased at least 2 or more different
products. Sort the listing in ascending order of customer number.

155
14. Display the customer name and product names which have been
purchased by him. The customer and product names should be in upper
case.
15. Display the products that have been supplied more than a month ago.
16. Display employee names and the date joined for employees. Date should
be in the format ‘DD-MMM-YYYY’.
17. Display employee names and the number of months between today’s date
and the joining date.
18. Display product names and the price rounded to the nearest integer.
19. Find the product which has the greatest price in each category.

T-SQL programming

20. Write a Procedure code which will let you insert a record into the Section
table. Use variables to represent the values of section_no,description and
section_head_empno. What happens if you try to insert a value of
section_no which already exists in the section table? Write proper error
handler.

21. Write a stored procedure to get the total quantity supplied for a particular
product. The procedure should total the quantity, and the calling block
should print the product no, product description and the total quantity
supplied. The procedure should raise an exception if the total quantity
supplied is 0, or the product does not exist.

22. Write a procedure to insert a new record into the Suppliers_Products

table, and also update the corresponding Qty_On_Hand for the product
using a trigger.

Assume an Employee and department tables with following description

Create table employee (empNo int,empName varchar(20),

empSalary numeric(8,2),grade char(1),location varchar(20))

create table department(deptno int,location varchar(20))

23. Write a procedure to display the following information to the given

employee number: Employee name (first_name + last_name) Employee
section no Employee Designation Obtain the designation as follows:

156
 Grade Designation
1 Vice President
2 Senior Manager
3 Assistant Manager
4 Section Supervisor
5 Sales Assistant
24. Whenever the location of the department changes, update the employee
location also. (Use an AFTER UPDATE trigger for this).

25. Add a new column called Performance_Measure Number(3,1) to the EMP

table. The column can take values between 1 and 10(Use a check
constraint to implement this). Whenever the performance measure of an
employee is 8 or more, insert a record into a table called
EXCEPTIONAL_EMPLOYEES, which contains the columns EMPNO and
PERFORMANCE_LINKED_BONUS. Write a [AFTER INSERT OR AFTER
UPDATE] trigger for this.

26. Write a Trigger that gets fired whenever employee salaries are updated for
a particular grade. The trigger inserts a record into the table
SALARY_UPDATE_LOG that contains the USERNAME, DATE OF UPDATION
of the user who updated the salary.
27. Using northwind database, create a view that gets the information about
orderid, orderdate, productid, proudctname , quantityorderd. Enter a new
order using the view.(used instead of insert trigger)

28. Write a user-defined function that gets the details of orders made by a
given customerid. Call this function from a t-SQL program.(function should
return a table).

Solutions:

1.
i) DECLARE @Date datetime
select @Date = GETDATE()
SELECT DATEADD(dd,-(DATEPART(dw, @Date) - 1),@Date) AS 'First day of the
week'

ii) SELECT DATEADD(dd,-(DATEPART(dw, @Date) - 7),@Date) AS 'Last day of the

week'

iii) SELECT DAY(DATEADD(d, -DAY(DATEADD(m,1,@Date)),

DATEADD(m,1,@Date))) AS 'Last day of the month'

157
2. select c.customerid,companyname,count(*) nooforderes from customers c
inner join orders o
on c.customerid=o.customerid
group by c.customerid,companyname

3.

create table t1
(id int,name char(10),age int)

insert into t1
select 1,'A',25 union all
select 2,'B',26 union all
select 3,'C',24 union all
select 2,'B',26

First, run the above GROUP BY query to determine how many sets of duplicate
PK values exist, and the count of duplicates for each set.

Select the duplicate key values into a holding table. For example:

SELECT id,name,count=count(*)
INTO holdkey
FROM t1
GROUP BY id,name
HAVING count(*) > 1

Select the duplicate rows into a holding table, eliminating duplicates in the
process. For example:

SELECT DISTINCT t1.*

INTO holddups
FROM t1, holdkey
WHERE t1.id = holdkey.id
AND t1.name = holdkey.name

158
At this point, the holddups table should have unique PKs, however, this will not
be the case if t1 had duplicate PKs, yet unique rows (as in the SSN example
above). Verify that each key in holddups is unique, and that you do not have
duplicate keys, yet unique rows. If so, you must stop here and reconcile which of
the rows you wish to keep for a given duplicate key value. For example, the
query:

SELECT id, name, count(*)

FROM holddups
GROUP BY id, name

should return a count of 1 for each row. If yes, proceed to step 5 below. If no,
you have duplicate keys, yet unique rows, and need to decide which rows to
save. This will usually entail either discarding a row, or creating a new unique key
value for this row. Take one of these two steps for each such duplicate PK in the
holddups table.

Delete the duplicate rows from the original table. For example:

DELETE t1
FROM t1, holdkey
WHERE t1.id = holdkey.id

Put the unique rows back in the original table. For example:

INSERT t1 SELECT * FROM holddups

4. select o.name from syscolumns c,sysobjects o where c.id=o.id and

c.name='MyColumn1'
(or)
select name from sysobjects where ID IN(select ID from syscolumns where
name='MyColumn1')

5. select empno,First_Name,Last_name from employees where first_name like

'A%A'

6. select sectionno,SUM(salary) TotalSal from employees group by sectionno

7. select sec.sectionno,description,e.empno,First_name from section sec

inner join employees e
on sec.section_head_empno=e.empno

159
8. select suppno,name,isnull(city,'Local') from suppliers

9. select Custno,First_name,Last_name,
case CustType
when 'R' then 'Regular'
when 'A' then 'Ad-hoc'
end from customers

10. create view vSupOrders

as
select Sup.suppno,Sup.name,Sp.productno,p.description,qty_supplied,
date_supplied from Suppliers sup inner join Suppliers_Products sp
on sup.SuppNo=sp.SuppNo
inner join Products p on sp.ProductNo=p.ProductNo
order by sup.Name

select * from vsuporders

11. select sup.suppno,Name from suppliers sup left outer join

suppliers_products sp
on sup.suppno=sp.suppno where sp.productno is null

12. select sectionno,avg(salary) from employees group by sectionno

13. select custno,productno,COUNT(productno) NoOfOrders from

customers_products group by custno,productno order by custno

14. select upper(first_name),upper(description) from customers cu inner join

customers_products cp on cu.custno=cp.custno
inner join products p on cp.productno=p.productno

15. select productno,date_supplied from suppliers_products where

date_supplied<DATEADD(mm,-1,getdate())

16. select first_name,last_name,convert(char,date_joined,105) from

employees

17. select first_name,last_name,DATEDIFF(mm,date_joined,getdate()) from

employees

18. select productno,description,ceiling(price) from products

160
19. select p.productno,p.product_category_code,p.price
from products p inner join (select product_category_code,max(price)
maxPrice from products group by product_category_code) a
on p.product_category_code=a.product_category_code and
p.Price=maxPrice order by p.Product_Category_Code

20. create procedure pInsertSection

(@sno int,@desc varchar(30),@shempno int)
as
begin
begin try
insert into Section values(@sno,@desc,@shempno)
end try
begin catch
if ERROR_NUMBER()=2627
print 'Duplicate SectionNo specified. Violated Primary key’'
else
print Convert(varchar(30),Error_Number()) + ' ' +
ERROR_MESSAGE()
end catch
end

exec pinsertsection 3,'Sports',2003

21.
alter procedure pGetProductQtySupplied(@pid int)
as
begin
declare @count int
select @count= COUNT(*) from Suppliers_Products where ProductNo=@pid
if @count=0
raiserror('Productno doenot exist',10,1)
else
select p.productno,p.description,sum(qty_supplied) from products
p,suppliers_products su
where p.productno=su.productno and su.productno=@pid group by
p.productno,p.description

end
exec pGetProductQtySupplied 10

161
22.
create procedure pInsertSupplierProducts(@sno int,@pid int,@dtSupp
datetime,@qtySupp int)
as
begin
insert into Suppliers_Products values(@sno,@pid,@dtSupp,@qtySupp)
end

create trigger tUpdateProdcutQty

on Suppliers_products
for insert
as
begin
declare @qSupp int,@pid int
select @qSupp=qty_supplied from inserted
select @pid=productno from inserted
update products set qty_on_hand=Qty_on_hand+@qsupp where
productno=@pid
end

exec pinsertsupplierproducts 102,1,'3/13/10',100

Assume an Employee and department tables with following description

Create table emp (empNo int,empName varchar(20),

empSalary numeric(8,2),grade char(1),location varchar(20))

create table department(deptno int,location varchar(20))

23.
select first_name + ' ' + last_name,sectionno,
case Grade
when 1 then 'Vice President'
when 2 then 'Senior Manager'
when 3 then 'Assistant Manager'
when 4 then 'Section Supervisor'
when 5 then 'Sales Assistant'
end Designation from employees

162
24.
create trigger trgUpdateLocation
on department
for update
as
begin
declare @oldloc varchar(20),@newloc varchar(20)
select @newloc=location from inserted
select @oldloc=location from deleted
update emp set location=@newloc where location=@oldloc
end

testing:
select * from emp
select * from department
update department set location='Sec' where location='Secunderabad'

25. alter table emp add Performance_measure numeric(3,1) constraint

ck_emp_pm check(performance_measure between 1 and 10)

create table EXCEPTIONAL_EMPLOYEES

(EMPNO int,PERFORMANCE_LINKED_BONUS numeric(7,2))

create trigger trgPeromance

on emp
for insert,update
as
begin
declare @eid int,@pm numeric(3,1)
select @eid=empno from inserted
select @pm=performance_measure from emp where empno=@eid
if @pm>=8
insert into exceptional_employees values(@eid,10000)
end

select * from emp

select * from EXCEPTIONAL_EMPLOYEES

update emp set performance_measure=9 where empno=100

163
26. create table SALARY_UPDATE_LOG
(username varchar(20),DateofUpdate datetime)

create trigger trgUpdateSalary

on emp
for update
as
begin
insert into SALARY_UPDATE_LOG values(System_user,getdate())
end

testing:
select * from emp
select * from SALARY_UPDATE_LOG
update emp set empsalary=empsalary+50000 where empNo=101

27.
CREATE VIEW Customerorders_vw
with schemabinding
as
select o.orderid,o.orderdate,oi.productid,oi.quantity,oi.unitprice
from dbo.orders o inner join dbo.[order details] oi
on o.orderid=oi.orderid
inner join dbo.products p on oi.productid=p.productid

select * from customerorders_vw

insert into customerorders_Vw values(1,GETDATE(),2,10,150)

create trigger trgCustOrdInsert on customerorders_vw

instead of insert
as
begin
if(select count(*) from inserted)>0
insert into dbo.[order details](orderid,productid,unitprice,quantity)
select i.orderid,i.productid,i.unitprice,i.quantity
from inserted i join orders o
on i.orderid=o.orderid

if @@rowcount=0
raiserror('no matching orders. cannot perform insert',10,1)
end
insert into customerorders_Vw values(1,GETDATE(),2,10,150)

164
28.
create function fnGetOrders(@cid NCHAR(5))
returns table
as
return(select Cu.Customerid,o.orderid,o.orderdate,od.productid,
p.productname, od.unitprice,od.quantity
from customers cu inner join orders o on cu.customerid=o.customerid
inner join [order details] od on o.orderid=od.orderid
inner join products p on od.productid=p.productid
where cu.customerid=@cid)

Testing:
select * from dbo.fnGetOrders('HANAR')

dbcc checkident('customers',reseed,30)

165
 FREQUENTLY ASKED QUESTIONS
1. What are the new data types in SQL Server?
2. How to get the version of SQL Server?
3. What are system Databases?
4. What happens if we delete any one of either Master or Model databases?
5. What are data files?
6. What is the Maximum number of databases that can be created for an
instance of SQL Server?
7. What is identity property?
8. How to insert explicit values into identity column?
9. What is the maximum size of data that can be entered in a single row of a
table?
10. How to get the table names in the database?
11. How to insert multiple rows using insert statement?
12. Difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE?
13. Difference between WHERE and HAVING clauses?
14. What are the types of Integrity Constraints?
15. Difference between UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY?
16. What is composite primary key?
17. How many columns can be given in a composite primary key?
18. What is ON DELETE CASCADE?
19. How many references can be given to a table?
20. What are Joins? Types of Joins?
21. What is a correlated sub query?
22. What is the difference between IN and ANY Operators?
23. What is a View?
24. What is an Index? What are the types of indexes?
25. How many Clustered Indexes can be created on a table?
26. How may NonClustered Indexes be able to be created on a table?
27. What is Normalization?
28. What are the Normal Forms?
29. What is Demoralization?
30. What is a cursor?
31. What are the types of cursors?
32. What is @@FETCH_STATUS?
33. What is a stored procedure?
34. How many stored procedures can be nested?
35. How to raise errors inside a stored procedure?
36. What is a trigger?
37. What are Instead of Triggers?
38. What is the difference between a Stored Procedure and a Trigger?
39. What is User Defined Function?

166
 40. What is the difference between Stored Procedure and User Defined
Function?
41. What are ACID properties?
42. What is Lock?
43. What is a Deadlock?
44. Write a query to get nth maximum salary?
45. How to delete duplicate rows from a table?
46. What is the use of DBCC commands
47. What are the authentications available in sql sever?
48. What are the authentication modes available?
49. How to increase the performance of a query?

Solutions

1. SQL Server 2000 introduces three new data types. bigint is an 8-byte
integer type. sql_variant is a type that allows the storage of data values
of different data types. table is a type that allows applications to store
results temporarily for later use. It is supported for variables, and as the
return type for user-defined functions.

2. The following 3 commands can be used to get the version of SQL Server
 Select @@Version
 EXEC sp_msgetversion
 Exec xp_msver

3. With the installation of SQL Server 4 databases will be created

automatically, called as System Databases. They are:
 MASTER
 MODEL
 MSDB
 TEMPDB

Master: The master database records all of the system level information
for a SQL Server system. It records all login accounts and all system
configuration settings. Master is the database that records the existence
of all other databases, including the location of the database files. Master
records the initialization information for SQL Server.

Model: The model database is used as the template for all databases
created on a system. When a CREATE DATABASE statement is issued, the
first part of the database is created by copying in the contents of the
model database, then the remainder of the new database is filled with
empty pages.

167
 MSDB: The msdb database is used by SQL Server Agent for scheduling
alerts and jobs, and recording operators.

TempDB: While performing some complex operations, sometimes, we

may need to store the results temporarily somewhere. To do this task we
use temporary tables. Whatever database we are using, if we create a
temporary table that will be created in tempdb database only. tempdb is
re-created every time SQL Server is started so the system starts with a
clean copy of the database.

4. SQL Server won’t work properly if we delete any one of Master or Model
databases.

5. Microsoft® SQL Server maps a database over a set of operating-system

files. There are the locations where the original database data will be
stored. Data and log information are never mixed on the same file, and
individual files are used only by one database.

SQL Server databases have three types of files:

 Primary data files

The primary data file is the starting point of the database and points to
the other files in the database. Every database has one primary data file.
The recommended file name extension for primary data files is .mdf.

 Secondary data files

Secondary data files comprise all of the data files other than the primary
data file. Some databases may not have any secondary data files, while
others have multiple secondary data files. The recommended file name
extension for secondary data files is .ndf.

 Log files

Log files hold all of the log information used to recover the database.
There must be at least one log file for each database, although there can
be more than one. The recommended file name extension for log files is
.ldf.

168
6. 32,767

7. Identity:
Auto number generated columns can be implemented using the
IDENTITY property, which allows the application developer to specify both
an identity number for the first row inserted into the table (Seed
property) and an increment (Increment property) to be added to the
seed to determine successive identity numbers. When inserting values into
a table with an identifier column, Microsoft® SQL Server™ 2000
automatically generates the next identity value by adding the increment to
the seed.

8. In general we can’t enter values into an identity column directly. To do

this we have to follow the two steps
 Set the IDENTITY_INSERT to ON for that table
 Specify the column list in the INSERT statement
EX: Suppose there is a table called STD with two columns SID
and SNAME. SID is an identity column.
 set IDENTITY_INSERT std ON
 Insert into std(Sid,sname) values (5,’Anil’)

9. 8060 bytes

10. To get the name of all the tables in a database you can use one of the
following 3 methods.
 SELECT * FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.TABLES
WHERE TABLE_TYPE=’BASE TABLE’
 SELECT NAME FROM SYSOBJECTS WHERE TYPE=’U’
 EXEC SP_TABLES returns all tables (system, user

 SELECT * FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.TABLES

WHERE TABLE_TYPE=’BASE TABLE’
 SELECT NAME FROM SYSOBJECTS WHERE TYPE=’U’
 EXEC SP_TABLES returns all tables (system, user

11. sample table: create table tName(firstName varchar(20))

INSERT INTO TNAME
SELECT ‘RAJ’ UNION ALL
SELECT ‘GOPI’ UNION ALL
SELECT ‘VIVEK’

169
12. Both TRUNCATE and DELETE commands are used to delete the data from
the table. The difference between them is :
 With TRUNCATE entire table data will be deleted. Whereas with
DELETE command we can delete entire table data as well as certain
row data, which is not possible with TRUNCATE.
 Even though, we are deleting entire table data, the deletion will be
done row by row. Where as, with TRUNCATE, the deletion will be
done at once.
 DELETE maintains log information about the deleted records.
Where as, TRUNCATE does not maintain log details. Instead of this,
it maintains deallocation of Data Pages.

13. Both WHERE and HAVING clauses are used to provide a restriction to the
result set. Only, those records, which satisfy the criteria, will be returned.
The difference between them is:
 With WHERE clause the condition can be provided based on any
column of table. Whereas, by using HAVING clause, the condition
can be specified either by using an Aggregate Function or a GROUP
BY column.
 Suppose, if the SELECT statement contains WHERE and GROUP BY
clauses, the WHERE clause should precede GROUP BY clause.
Whereas, if the SELECT statement contains GROUP BY and HAVING
clauses, the HAVING clause should come after GROUP BY clause.

14. Integrity Constraints are used to maintain Data Integrity in the database.
It is a restriction that can be applied on a column or a table. 3 types of
Integrity constraints are available
 DOMAIN INTEGRITY: They can be applied on a column of a table. It
ensures that a column should satisfy specified criteria. Ex: CHECK
 ENTITY INTEGRITY: they can be provided on a column or on a
table. It ensures that the column must have unique
(non=duplicate) values.
Ex. UNIQUE, PRIMARY KEY
 REFERENCIAL INTEGRITY: Referential integrity preserves the
defined relationships between tables when records are entered or
deleted. In Microsoft® SQL Server™ 2000, referential integrity is
based on relationships between foreign keys and primary keys or
between foreign keys and unique keys (through FOREIGN KEY and
CHECK constraints). Referential integrity ensures that key values
are consistent across tables. Such consistency requires that there
be no references to nonexistent values and that if a key value
changes, all references to it change consistently throughout the
database.

170
 When you enforce referential integrity, SQL Server prevents users
from:

 Adding records to a related table if there is no associated record in

the primary table.

 Deleting records from a primary table if there are matching related

records.

15. The differences between UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY are:

 UNIQUE allows NULL values whereas, a PRIMARY KEY does not
allow a NULL value.
 A table can contain more than one UNIQUE constraint whereas, a
table can have only one PRIMARY KEY.
 An UNIQUE constraint on a column by default creates a
NONCLUSTERED INDEX. Whereas, a PRIMARY KEY on a column by
default creates a CLUSTERED INDEX

16. In general a PRIMARY KEY can be given on a column by which we can

able to identity different rows of the table. Suppose, it is not possible to
identity different rows of the table based on a single column which can be
done with combination of columns, then we will make that combination as
the primary key which is called as COMPOSITE PRIMARY KEY.

17. 16 columns.

18. In general if the parent table record is having a reference In the child
table, we can’t delete the record directly. With the use of “ON DELETE
CASCADE”, when we delete the parent table record, that record and all
its child references will be deleted at once.

19. A table can have as many as 253 references.

20. A JOIN is a select statement used to get the data distributed among
different tables.
Types of Joins:
1. Inner Join: Returns only the matching records between the two
tables based on the criteria.
2. Outer Join: Returns left alone records along with matching
records.
 Left Outer Join: Returns all the matching records between
the two tables and all the left alone records from left table.

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  Right Outer Join: Returns all the matching records
between the two tables and all the left alone records from
Right table.
 Full Outer Join: Returns all the matching records between
the two tables and all the left alone data from left table as
well as all the left alone data from the right table.
3. Cross Join: A cross join that does not have a WHERE clause
produces the Cartesian product of the tables involved in the join.
The size of a Cartesian product result set is the number of rows in
the first table multiplied by the number of rows in the second table.
This is an example of a Transact-SQL cross join. Cross joins return
all rows from the left table, each row from the left table is
combined with all rows from the right table.
4. Self Join: Joining a table to itself is called as self Join. In a self join
we have to use two copies of the same table to join them. To
distinguish the two copies, we use duplicate names to the tables
called as ‘table aliases’.

21. Correlated Sub Query: In a normal sub query, at first the inner query
will be executed and based on the result the parent query will be
executed. Both queries will execute only once.
Whereas, in a Correlated Sub Query, the inner query will execute for each and
every row of the parent query. The internal process in the execution of a
correlated sub query is as follows.
 The outer query passes the value of the first record into the
inner query.
 The inner query then executes based on the values passed in.
and it passes the resultant values back to the parent query.
 The parent query uses those values to finish the processing.
The above 3 steps should be performed for each row of the parent query.

22. IN operator can be used to provide the list of values to checked, either
by using explicit list of values and also with the resultant values of a
SELECT statement, which is not possible with ANY operator, where we can
use only the SELECT statement to specify the list of values.

23. A view can be thought of as either a virtual table or a stored query. The
data accessible through a view is not stored in the database as a distinct
object. What is stored in the database is a SELECT statement. The result
set of the SELECT statement forms the virtual table returned by the view.
A user can use this virtual table by referencing the view name in Transact-
SQL statements the same way a table is referenced. A view is used to do
any or all of these functions:

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  Restrict a user to specific rows in a table.

For example, allow an employee to see only the rows recording his or her
work in a labor-tracking table.

 Restrict a user to specific columns.

For example, allow employees who do not work in payroll to see the
name, office, work phone, and department columns in an employee table,
but do not allow them to see any columns with salary information or
personal information.

 Join columns from multiple tables so that they look like a single table.

 Aggregate information instead of supplying details.

For example, present the sum of a column, or the maximum or minimum

value from a column.

Views are created by defining the SELECT statement that retrieves the
data to be presented by the view. The data tables referenced by the
SELECT statement are known as the base tables for the view

24. Indexes: In a database, an index allows the database program to find

data in a table without scanning the entire table. An index in a database is
a list of values in a table with the storage locations of rows in the table
that contain each value. Indexes can be created on either a single column
or a combination of columns in a table and are implemented in the form of
B-trees.
SQL Server provides two types of indexes.
 Clustered
 NonClustered
Clustered: In this case, the index structure will occupy the space in the
same data page where the original data is stored. The index structure
order is similar to the physical order of data in the data page.
NonClustered: This is the default index created by SQL Server. In this
case, the index structure will occupy space at one place and the data page
at other place. The order of index structure is not similar to the physical
order of data in the data page.

25. 1

26. 249

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 27. Normalization is the process of breaking up data into a logical non-
repetitive format that can easily be reassembled as a whole.

28.Normal Forms:
Basically there are 6 Normal Forms. A fully normalized database is the one that is
normalized to the Third Normal Form.

1NF: A table is said to be in 1NF if it satisfies the following rules.

 The table must not contain any redundant groups of data
 The table must contain atomic data (at the intersection of row and
column only one value should be specified

2NF: A table is said to be in 2NF if it satisfies the following rules.

 The table must be in 1NF
 All the non-key column must depend on Whole key (primary key)

3NF: A table is said to be in 3NF if it satisfies the following rules.

 The table must be in 2NF
 All the non-key columns must depend only on the whole key. They
should not depend on other non-key columns. (There should be no
TRANSITIVE DEPENDENCY)
 The data should not be derived further.

29.De-Normalization: It is the reverse process of Normalization.

Sometimes, by including just one de-normalized column in a table, you
can eliminate or significantly cut down the number of joins necessary to
retrieve information.

30. A cursor is a pointer to the result of a SELECT statement.

 Allowing positioning at specific rows of the result set.

 Retrieving one row or block of rows from the current position in the
result set.

 Supporting data modifications to the rows at the current position in the

result set.

 Supporting different levels of visibility to changes made by other users

to the database data that is presented in the result set.

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  Providing Transact-SQL statements in scripts, stored procedures, and
triggers access to the data in a result set.

31.Types of Cursors:

 Static cursors

 Dynamic cursors

 Forward-only cursors

 Keyset-driven cursors

Static cursors detect few or no changes but consume relatively few resources
while scrolling, although they store the entire cursor in tempdb. Dynamic
cursors detect all changes but consume more resources while scrolling,
although they make the lightest use of tempdb. Keyset-driven cursors lie in
between, detecting most changes but at less expense than dynamic cursors.

32.@@FETCH_STATUS:

Returns the status of the last cursor FETCH statement issued against any
cursor currently opened by the connection.

Return value Description

0 FETCH statement was successful.
-1 FETCH statement failed or the row was beyond the result set.
-2 Row fetched is missing.

33. Stored Procedure:

A Stored Procedure is a group of Transact-SQL statements compiled into a
single execution plan.

Stored procedures assist in achieving a consistent implementation of logic

across applications. The SQL statements and logic needed to perform a
commonly performed task can be designed, coded, and tested once in a
stored procedure. Each application needing to perform that task can then
simply execute the stored procedure. Coding business logic into a single
stored procedure also offers a single point of control for ensuring that
business rules are correctly enforced.

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Parameters
Parameters are used to exchange data between stored procedures and the
application or tool that called the stored procedure:

 Input parameters allow the caller to pass a data value to the stored
procedure.

 Output parameters allow the stored procedure to pass a data value or

a cursor variable back to the caller.

 Every stored procedure returns an integer return code to the caller. If

the stored procedure does not explicitly set a value for the return
code, the return code is 0.

34. 32

35. Using RAISERROR.

It returns a user-defined error message and sets a system flag to
record that an error has occurred. Using RAISERROR, the client can either
retrieve an entry from the sysmessages table or build a message
dynamically with user-specified severity and state information. After the
message is defined it is sent back to the client as a server error message.

36. A trigger is a complex integrity constraint that can be applied on a table.

Trigger will be fired automatically when the user performs any insertion,
deletion or updation operations on the table.

37. Instead of Triggers are used to do updations on views, which is not

possible previously. Three types of Instead of Triggers are available.
Instead of Insert, Instead of Delete and Instead of Update. For a table we
can have only one of each category.

38. Both Stored Procedures and Triggers contain pre-compiled set of

executable statements. The difference between them is:
 A procedure contains parameters, where as a trigger does not allow
any parameters.
 Procedures should be called explicitly from another program where
as a Trigger will be fired automatically when the user performs any
insertion, deletion or updation operations on the table.

39. An UDF is also a database object contains pre-complied set of executable

statements as a unit. They can return any type of value.

40. The difference between an UDF and Stored Procedure is:

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  Stored procedure allows input and output parameters. Whereas, an
UDF allows only input parameters. Instead of output parameters
they support RETURN values.
 Stored Procedures also provide RETURN keyword but it specifies
only the success or failure by returning an integer value. Whereas,
an UDF’s RETRUN value can return any type of data.
 A Stored Procedure cannot be used inside a SELECT statement.
Whereas, an UDF can be used as part of the SELECT statement.

41.
A transaction is a logical unit of work in which, all the steps must be
performed or none. ACID stands for Atomicity, Consistency, Isolation,
Durability. These are the properties of a transaction. For more information
and explanation of these properties, see SQL Server books online or any
RDBMS fundamentals text book.

Atomicity

A transaction must be an atomic unit of work; either all of its data

modifications are performed, or none of them is performed.

Consistency

When completed, a transaction must leave all data in a consistent state.

In a relational database, all rules must be applied to the transaction's
modifications to maintain all data integrity. All internal data structures,
such as B-tree indexes or doubly-linked lists, must be correct at the end of
the transaction.

Isolation

Modifications made by concurrent transactions must be isolated from the

modifications made by any other concurrent transactions. A transaction
either sees data in the state it was in before another concurrent
transaction modified it, or it sees the data after the second transaction has
completed, but it does not see an intermediate state. This is referred to as
serializability because it results in the ability to reload the starting data
and replay a series of transactions to end up with the data in the same
state it was in after the original transactions were performed.

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 Durability

After a transaction has completed, its effects are permanently in place in

the system. The modifications persist even in the event of a system
failure.

42. Microsoft® SQL Server™ 2000 uses locking to ensure transactional

integrity and database consistency. Locking prevents users from reading
data being changed by other users, and prevents multiple users from
changing the same data at the same time. If locking is not used, data
within the database may become logically incorrect, and queries executed
against that data may produce unexpected results

43.DeadLocking:

A deadlock occurs when there is a cyclic dependency between two or more

threads for some set of resources.

In this illustration, thread T1 has a dependency on thread T2 for the Part

table lock resource. Similarly, thread T2 has a dependency on thread T1
for the Supplier table lock resource. Because these dependencies form a
cycle, there is a deadlock between threads T1 and T2.

44. select a.empid,a.ename,a.sal from emp a where 3=(select

count(distinct(b.sal) from emp b where a.sal<b.sal)

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45. Deleting Duplicate rows in SQL Server:

As there is no pseudo-column like RowID in SQL Server so we

cannot make a single line query in SQL Server.
See following example:
create table tName (firstname varchar(20));
–sample data
insert into tName
select ‘Jas’ union all
select ‘Raj’ union all
select ‘Arsh’union all
select ‘Jas’ union all
select ‘Aks’
– add temporarily identity column.
alter table tName add tid int identity(1,1)
–query to delete duplicate rows from table
delete from tName where tid not in
(select min(tid) from tName a where a.firstname = tName.firstname)
– drop temporarily added identity column
alter table tName drop column tid

46. Database Consistency Checker commands are used to check the

consistency of database objects in the database.

47. Two types of Authencations are available.

 Windows Authentication
 SQL Server Authentication

48. Two types of Authentication modes are available:

 Windows NT mode
 Mixed mode

49. This is a very open ended question and there could be a lot of reasons
behind the poor performance of a query. But some general issues that you
could talk about would be: No indexes, table scans, missing or out of date
statistics, blocking, excess recompilations of stored procedures, procedures
and triggers without SET NOCOUNT ON, poorly written query with
unnecessarily complicated joins, too much normalization, excess usage of
cursors and temporarytables.

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