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Meri-Rastilantie 3 B, FI-00980 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol.11 (2): 1136-1142. 2013 www.world-food.net
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Traditional wood charcoal production labour in Turkish forestry (Çankırı sample)

Kayhan Menemencioglu
Faculty of Forestry, Cankiri Karatekin University, 18200 Cankiri, Turkey. e-mail: kmenemen@karatekin.edu.tr

Received 11 January 2013, accepted 30 April 2013.

Absract
Wood charcoal, especially made from hardwoods such as oak, hornbeam, beech, olive and citrus, is known best and preferred as the primary fuel in
most of Turkey for grilling and barbecue. The use and demand of wood charcoal has grown in Turkey and it is still widely produced by migrant
charcoal producers with traditional methods by using earth mound kilns. Data collected from 44 kilns at two sites resulted with the mean kiln
efficiency of 19% ranging from 17-22% (1 kg of charcoal from 5 to 6 kg of wood) which were constructed by 23 adults, using 1350 tons oak wood
and having 255 tons of charcoal equivalent to approximately 10000 sacks of charcoal for about 7 months period. All 44 active kilns observed in the
charcoal production sites during the study time were traditional earth kilns, ranging in size from 25 to 45 m3. The productivity for adults involved in
this study was 11087 kg/per adult and average wholesale price was 0.70 US$/kg and average income was 7761 US$/adult in a season. A total of annual
income of the producers in Turkey is calculated as 140 millions US$. Current status of labour intensive traditional wood charcoal production process
from supply of woods to production, transport and marketting of charcoal in Turkey is reviewed in this paper.

Key words: Wood charcoal, traditional earth mound kiln, charcoal production labour, Turkey.

Introduction
Turkish energy consumption consists of petroleum (40%), coal Turkey, but there is no official data available about this subject.
(25%), natural gas with increasing consumption gradually (21%) Annual average firewood consumption of Turkey is 10-11.5
and others including renewable sources, especially traditional million m3 and firewood production is 6-7 million m3 (4.5 -5 million
biomass (14%) 1. Forest biomass is the most important resource in m3 from state forests and 1.5-2 million m3 from private afforestation)
the renewable sources of energy 2 and Turkey has a large potential in recent years 11 meanwhile 4-4.5 million m3 firewood deficiency is
and different combinations for renewable energy resources 3. off the record, containing harvesting waste utilization, cutting
Renewable resources are the second-largest domestic energy trees from own gardens and illegal cutting. Migration from the
source after coal in Turkey and main renewable energy resources forest villages to cities, expansion of home and water heating
are hydro, biomass, wind, geothermal, and solar 1, 4, 5 but these systems with solar energy and natural gas caused a decreasing
resources are not adequately evaluated. consumption and also production quantity of firewood in Turkey
Production of charcoal is one of the most common methods for in recent years, especially after the year 2000 (Table 1).
processing wood residues to make them cleaner, easier to use and Wood charcoal production is a seasonal, mostly labour-
to transport 6. Charcoal has many favourable characteristics intensive activity, mainly carried out by household labour
compared with fuelwood, a higher energy density and excellent containing mostly men, employing a large number of people at
cooking properties, it can be stored without risk of insect or fungal different phases of the process, with power saw and manual tools
attack 7, 8. Charcoal can be made from both hardwood and softwood (axes, hoes and shovels), especially in producing wood as a raw
but hardwood is generally preferred because of higher energy material (felling, crosscutting, piling and stacking of woods) which
content and easier handle 9. Wood charcoal, especially made from requires high manual labour inputs, distribution, kiln preparation,
hardwoods such as oak, hornbeam, beech, olive and citrus, is carbonization and finally unloading charcoal from the kiln,
known best and used as the primary fuel in most of Turkey for bundling, packaging and marketing 8, 12-17. Charcoal labour
grilling and barbecue. Turkey has a population of over 74 million requirements, production process and general situation and living
people, of which 10% lives in 20,430 forest villages located in or conditions of charcoal producers in Turkey is examined in this
adjacent to forests 10 and wood fuels (firewood and charcoal) are study.
the most important energy source for these people. Wood fuel
users in Turkey can be classified into two main groups: the rural Materials and Methods
area dwellers who use firewood for daily household needs like This study was carried out in Yapraklı Forest District in city of
heating and cooking and the urban area dwellers who use wood Çankırı, central region of Turkey. The places selected for kilns were
charcoal for grilling and barbecue at homes, in restaurants and for privately owned and adjacent to forest, located in Yukarıöz and
picnic activities etc. The average annual consumption of charcoal Yapraklı. The geographic coordinates of the study area (1500 m2) in
for grilling and barbecue is estimated to be over 250,000 tons in Yukarıöz is 40º48' 34.9"- 40º48' 34.7" N and 33º48' 41.5" - 33º48'

1136 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.11 (2), April 2013
Table 1. Firewood production quantity from state forests in Turkey 18. defined and used for charcoal
Year
Amount
Year
Amount
Year
Amount
Year
Amount
Year
Amount production. Wind direction must be
(1000 m3) (1000 m3) (1000 m3) (1000 m3) (1000 m3) consiedered, if impossible, wind screens
1961 7,031 1972 12,684 1983 14,938 1994 7,634 2005 4,983 must be established. There must be
1962 6,981 1973 11,051 1984 13,568 1995 8,534 2006 5,831
1963 7,214 1974 11,355 1985 10,345 1996 9,182 2007 4,645 enough water source around kiln places
1964 8,806 1975 11,941 1986 10,500 1997 8,277 2008 4,958 to use for daily needs and cooling the
1965 10,670 1976 14,815 1987 10,500 1998 7,689 2009 5,048 kilns. Kilns shouldn’t be composed on
1966 11,175 1977 13,970 1988 10,475 1999 6,543 2010 4,885 air permeable loose soils to prevent
1967 10,994 1978 13,457 1989 9,796 2000 5,510 2011 4,602
burning with air and sandy clay soils
1968 11,852 1979 15,742 1990 9,796 2001 5,361
1969 13,377 1980 16,351 1991 9,750 2002 4,931 are preferred for this purpose 20-22.
1970 12,670 1981 15,000 1992 8,495 2003 5,081 Charcoal-burning places are carefully
1971 11,852 1982 15,000 1993 9,469 2004 5,278 defined at the beginning of the work
and controlled during the production
42.9" E with 1290 m elevation and 0-5 % slope, and the second process by the responsible forest engineer of the region in Turkish
study area (10,860 m2) in Yapraklı is 40º45' 39.7"- 40º45' 40.2" N and forestry. In general, suitable bare or treeless spaces are firstly
33º47' 25.5" - 33º47' 28.2" E with 1160 m elevation and 5-10% preferred for kiln burning place and most kilns are located on the
average slope. Both sites are close to streams. Field observations forest edge not to be far away from the kiln feedstock to degrease
and chatting surveys were actualized with seasonal immigrant the transport cost of woods. The place of the feedstock resource
charcoal producers came from different regions of the country is changeable, so kiln places are generally not sedentary and they
with the whole family, during the charcoal production process in are abandoned after the charcoal production process until the
2009. The sample comprised of 9 adults and 3 school age (older next period. Both sites selected for kiln burning were privately
than 7 years old) members, staying in 4 different temporary shelters owned and adjacent to forest in this study.
were interviewed in Yukarıöz region and 14 adults and 5 school
age members staying in 6 different temporary shelters were Wood supply and preparation for kilns: Almost all of the forests
interviewed in Yapraklı. A cubic metre oak wood is supposed to be (99.9%) are state forests in Turkey and are managed by Turkish
730 kg 19. The volume of the kilns were calculated according to the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, General Directorate of
formula given below 20: Forestry. Forested area is about 26.22% of the country and only
C2·h C2·h
50.13% of forests are productive forest. The ratio of coppice forest
V= = in Turkey is 27%, mostly with the species oak, beech, hornbeam
8·π 25
and firewood production ratios of these species are 35-40%, 15-
where V= volume of the kiln, C = perimeter of the kiln, h = height of 20% and 2-3%, respectively, of total production 18. To improve
the kiln. production of charcoal sustainably, trees large enough (10 cm
dbh has been proposed as the minimum size or may be based on
Charcoal production: Wood charcoal production in Turkey is species) should be cut according to selective harvesting or
regulated with the notification of permission for the people who clearfelling. Both regimes require demarcation of the forest into
want to benefit from forest products 21, 22. According to the 15th annual coupes or periodic blocks indicating clearly the sequence
article of the notification, state forest villagers or people who of felling cycles 17, 27. All silvicultural operations and degraded
want to produce charcoal at state forests, are permitted to make coppice forests are also sustained under silvicultural basis and
charcoal from the woods they supplied according to 37th article of principles of forests notification 28. Cutting period is defined as 20
Forest Law. Wood charcoal producers must report the source of years and the suitable areas are generally divided into 20 parts to
wood, scaled plan and duration of wood charcoal production to sustain benefitting each year. According to the notification 22,
state forestry organization in districts. Charcoal is produced in people are permitted to produce wood charcoal from different
traditional earth mound kilns in Turkey with advantages of no kinds of trees (oak, beech, hornbeam etc.), who supply wood from
capital investment and special equipment requirement (only sale, rural market sale or sale defined by General Directorate of
handtools like hoes, rakes, shovels, buckets and ladders etc are Turkish State Forestry. Additionally, charcoal made from olive
used), very flexible about the capacity of the volume to be and citrus woods are also preferred most for grilling and barbecu
carbonised, possible usage of large logs without cutting or activities in Turkey and these woods can be supplied from privately
splitting. Poor control of carbonisation with plenty of losses and owned forests and gardens by paying money to owners, especially
low efficiency are supposed to be disadvantages of traditional in Mediterranean and Aegean Regions of Turkey located at south
earth mound kilns 23-26. Household labour is usually used for and west of the country.
charcoal making and the process involves wood supply (cutting Wood charcoal producers don’t have wood supply problem in
down trees), space selection and preparation of the kiln (piling up Turkey, because of enough wood reserve and tree species, and
the woods, covering with earth), ignition of the kiln, carbonization, these broadleaved trees have sprouting ability of stems, roots
unloading charcoal from the kiln and finally filling into sacks. and stumps. A total of homogenously distributed 100-150 standing
trees per hectare are left as future tree in regular coppice forests.
Space selection for kilns: According to the notification mentioned Trees must be cut carefully and slightly sloping nearly ground
above; charcoal producers are not permitted to burn kilns on level to ensure the stump sprouts and to prevent stump bark
fired and fire sensitive sites, forest regeneration and afforested damage and decay before the vegetation period. Woods are
areas. Old kiln places or suitable safe forest spaces must be firstly removed from the cutting site before the vegetation period to

Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.11 (2), April 2013 1137
 grass, dirt, humus or turf and the construction is sealed
with 5-10 cm thickness clayey soil containing charcoal
crumbs to prevent direct contact with the air. Some
basic handtools like hoes, rakes, shovels and ladders
are used for these activities (Fig. 2).

Ignition of the kiln: After kiln building is completed,

some kindlings are thrown down into the central shaft
followed by a burning torch to light the kiln by using
the hatch, which was naturally formed at the top of
the pile (Fig. 4A). Charcoal producers generally begin
B A B
C lighting early in the morning under the windless air
conditions. When the wood is alight, the hatch is then
D closed and some small openings or air inlets are opened
D
around the base of the pile to allow the control and
B
monitoring of the process. The intensity of fire is also
regulated by these air inlets, which are not fixed, new
ones can be opened or closed according to expansion
of burning zone. It takes 8-10 hours to initially heat
and ignite the kiln. Controlling the input of air ensures
Figure 1. General aspect from the charcoal production site in Yukarıöz.
A:Traditional earth mound kiln, B:Temporary shelters, C:Stream, D:Woods left for air dry.
the smulder of the wood rather than bursting into
flames which is called carbonization process. This
prevent damage on sprouts and the site must be protected against method provides better control over combustion and carbonization.
grazing and leafy brushwoods or twig woods are abandoned at
site of tree fall 28. Charcoal producers generally use power-saws Carbonization: The simplest and most convenient route for the
for cutting trees and thick branches, separate into pieces (50-100 production of charcoal is pyrolysis of the biomass 32 and charcoal
cm length) and axes for thinner branches. Trees to be converted is the most common residue of carbonization, as well as the most
to charcoal are cut several months (at least 1.5-2 months) earlier economically advantageous 24. The process of carbonization is
and are left out for air dry (Fig. 1), before lighting in the kiln. greatly dependent on the carbonization temperature, the moisture
Woods are generally carried with tractors from cutting site to kiln content of the wood used (the drier the better), the skill of the
places. producer and the condition of the wood (lignin content) 26. Wood
is slowly converted into charcoal after a process which typically
Arrangement of woods and preparation of earth mound kiln: takes around 5-15 days or more for large kilns depending on the
Traditional kilns are characterized as; temporary structures built wood species, size of the pole, experience and skills of the charcoal
on the site of wood harvesting and abandoned after one burners .
carbonization process, no need to use bricks, metal sheets or The carbonization process is described in 4 stages (Fig. 3, 4B):
metallic chimney 29 and to be constructed easily by using locally a) Wood drying, with vaporization of the hygroscopically
materials collected from the harvest site without extra cost is the absorbed water through the cell walls, and of the chemically
most important advantage of earth mound kiln. The kilns shouldn’t bonded or constituent water under the temperature between 100
be composed bigger than 30-40 m3 for fire control and yielding 21, to 200°C. b) Pre-carbonization stage under the temperature
22
. The water substance highly affects the reaction time and between 180-200°C and 250-300°C, an endothermic degree where
charcoal yield negatively in a conventional kiln 30, so woods should a fraction of the pyroligneous liquid and a small quantity of non-
be air-dried before building the kilns. condensable gases are obtained. c) Carbonization, fast and
Kiln building begins with raising 3 or 4 long wood poles fastened exogenous reaction, began between 250 and 300°C and part of the
each other from the top, with the 25-30 cm distance at bottom, as wood is carbonized and most of the soluble tar and pyroligneous
centre logs to occur shaft for a chimney activity. The height of the acid are liberated in this stage. d) Carbonization stage, when the
poles should be at least as high as or heigher than the kiln. The biomass is transformed into charcoal at temperatures above 300°C 25, 33.
shaft is filled with easily combustible materials as excelsiors or The kilns are kept under control staying awake all night for the
shivers for ignition. Beginning from thicker ones, woods
are collected and stacked vertically or with low bevels
around this pole, the thinners (larger than 5 cm) are
stacked at outer part of the pile and a hemispherical heap
is formed. Thin branches and twigs are not stacked in
this process because they have potential to burn and
produce flames, so tree trunks and large, thick branches
are preferred 12. Kiln sizes vary between 15 m3 and 90 m3
in several countries 31 but in Turkey, the capacity of the
kilns vary from 10 to 15 or 25 m3 of wood. The wooden
heap is then covered with a 15-20 cm thickness layer of Figure 2. Preparation of traditional earth mound kilns.

1138 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.11 (2), April 2013
 of responsible forest engineer of the region. Considering the issues
Smoke
Finished
Distillation zone mentioned in the notification, charcoal-burning places were
Finings charcoal privately owned, completely well located, close to water source
and raw material, all activities were under the supervision and
Wood control of responsible forest engineer of the region in the study
area.
With the improvement of energy consumption and the type of
Air
fuel used by households, woodfuel usage is decreased and it is
Air inlet Carbonization zone Drying zone
clearly related to development of countries and improvement in
Burning zone incomes, as well as to new policies and programs established by
Figure 3. Progressing of fire in the simple kiln and carbonization 34. governments 35. Conditions and developments in Turkey in recent
years, especially after the year 2000 also support this opinion
carbonization stage by at least two adults to prevent burning risk with higher development rate 36 when compared with firewood
with air. production and consumption 18 for the same period.
Charcoal is potentially a renewable forest product and very
Harvesting charcoal and marketing: Harvesting of charcoal is a important for developing nations, as well as for Turkish people 24
pleasurable stage as a result of long and exhausting toils but it and it must be acknowledge that charcoal is not a minor forest
might also be a hazardous stage when the kiln is dug up or opened product 17. Although Turkey has rich renewable energy potential,
earlier, because of burning risk with air. As soon as the thermal it has not been utilized sufficiently, so the energy necessity will
decomposition has been completed, the temperature of the kiln be met by fossil-based energy sources in the long term and Turkish
begins to degrease and after the production process of charcoal, energy policies will be strongly affected by global energy policies 1.
the kilns are left for at least 2-3 days to cool down changing Sustainable charcoal production requires a large extension and
according to the kiln size (Fig. 4C). After several days, the kilns areas for wood supply 17. Forest areas cover approximately
are opened and the charcoal is ready to be harvested. Hoes and 21,537,091 ha, accounting for 27.6% of the total land area of Turkey.
rakes are used for kiln digging and opening, charcoal is removed Of the area (4,874,712 ha) 23% is coppice forest with 29.1%
from the pile by using rakes (Fig. 4D) and then filled into sacks. (1,420,324 ha) productive, 70.9% (3,454,388 ha) degraded forest
The products are sold to wholesalers of packaging and they wrap ratio 18 and this situation can be considered as big opportunity of
the charcoals into 1 or 2 kg packages and these packages are then continuous wood source for sustainable charcoal production when
delivered to markets and supermarkets to reach the consumers. the area is properly planned and managed. Actual laws and
regulations are suitable for sustainable charcoal production with
Results and Discussion the advantage of almost all (99.9%) state owned forests.
Wood charcoal production in Turkey: Wood charcoal production Benefitting from coppice forests and cutting cycles are considered
in Turkey is regulated with the notification 21, 22 and criterions of by the management especially for firewood and wood charcoal
space selection for kiln burning, wood supply and charcoal production is actualized from these firewoods. Wood charcoal
production are defined in the notification. Wood charcoal producers locally apply to state forestry organizations in districts
producers must report the source of wood, scaled plan and with the reports of wood source, scaled plan and duration of
duration of wood charcoal production to state forestry wood charcoal production and if suitable, they are permitted to
organization and all these activities are actualized under the control produce charcoal, but planning and management of charcoal
production activities from one centre will be better to
provide sustainable charcoal production all over the
country. “Firewood and wood charcoal” are prohibited
to export, except charcoal made from fruit peels 37, 38 in
Turkey as a precaution to degrease or prevent illegal
cutting of firewood but when sustainable charcoal
production is provided and wood charcoal is produced
more than the consumption, this prohibition might be
repealled. One of the major problem related to charcoal
production is specified as deforestation and sustainability
A B
of wood source 9, 39, 40. This problem is largely solved by
planning the utilization and controlling the raw material
harvest in Turkey with the advantage of controlled
state-owned forests.

Efficiency of charcoal production: The efficiency of

charcoal production is dependent on many factors,
such as kiln type and composition, kiln covering
material, moisture content, species, wood density, the
C D
arrangement of the wood inside the kiln, the skill and
Figure 4. Charcoal production process. experience of the producer, and even the climatic
A: Ignition of kiln, B: Carbonization process, C: Kiln left to cool down, D: Harvesting charcoal.

Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.11 (2), April 2013 1139
conditions 17, 41, 42. One of the factors affecting yield quality is regions and large areas, absolutely require to go to workplace, are
temperature. High yield of charcoal is obtained at low temperatures realized under uncontrollable and suddenly changeable
around 300°C with a high content of volatile material. Temperatures circumstances influenced from open air conditions, take part in
around 600°C give lower yields with a low content of volatiles heavy and dangerous works when compared with some other
which makes it a preferred fuel 9, but charcoal producers generally sectors, are due to the high rate of work accidents, including
prefer the higher yield. The charcoal yield decreases as the women and children in the family, consisting of close relatives
temperature increases 3, 30, 43-46, so charcoal producers take care to and villagers, deprived of social life away from their homes in
control the temperature to increase the yield. The conversion different regions, conducted largely with seasonal itinerant groups
efficiency of traditional earth mound kiln in Africa is typically of workers, a mediator generally takes part in between the employer
about 10-15% 25, and charcoal production using traditional kiln is and the workers, predominantly low income and education level
associated with high consumption of wood 9, with low yield of workers, have common problems about education, health,
production (typically 1 kg of charcoal from 8 to 12 kg or more of safety, housing, transport, social and environmental relationship,
wood) and variable quality 47, but data collected from 44 kilns at with the work features and social security issues 50 and all these
two sites resulted with the mean kiln efficiency of 19% ranging characteristics and problems were mentioned, observed and
from 17-22% (1 kg of charcoal from 5 to 6 kg of wood) and charcoal identified within this study. Children at school age mentioned
conversion efficiency in traditional earth mound kilns is found that they are negatively affected from changing the school for 2
similar to yields from earthen kilns in many studies 42 but relatively or 3 months (between April-June). After school time, they all help
good and with experienced charcoal producers in this study. their parents during the production process at lighter and easier
Totally, 23 adults constructed 44 kilns in the study sites, requiring works. Although the charcoal producers work in dusty and smoky
1350 tons oak wood and having 255 tons of charcoal equivalent environment, none of them uses materials to prevent harmful and
to approximately 10,000 sacks of charcoal. Wood charcoal hazardous factors. They have some difficulties because of living
producers can easily find wholesalers to sell the products in sacks. in temporary shelters under limited conditions and 85% of them
All 44 active kilns observed in the charcoal production sites during think that they can’t earn enough money. Waiting awake all night
the study time were traditional earth kilns, ranging in size from 25 during the burning stage of the kiln with great responsibility was
to 45 m3. The productivity for per adult involved in this study was attered as the most difficult and grueling stage by adults. Because
11,087 kg and wholesale price of charcoal was 0.70 US$/kg and they are aware of the mission they have and all efforts might be
average income was 7761 US$/adult for about 7 months period. wasted if they sleep even for a moment. They also mentioned that
This monthly income for per adult has a little higher rate when they have been producing charcoal since years as ancestor work,
compared with the 8590 US$ GDP per capita in 2009 in Turkey. A they adopted and used to their work, they think that they don’t
total of annual income of traditional wood charcoal producers is have so much better alternative works to do.
calculated as 140 millions US$ when 200,000 tons of 250,000 tons
annual consumption of charcoal for grilling and barbecue is Conclusions
supposed to be produced in traditional kilns. Energy necessity is mostly met by fossil-based energy sources in
There are different ways to increase efficiency of charcoal Turkey although having rich renewable energy potential. State
production methods and kilns 7, 15, 17, 45, 48, 49. Charcoal can be readily owned coppice forests with rich species, suitable for wood
produced from wood with no capital investment in equipment charcoal production can be considered as big opportunity of
through the use of traditional earth mound kilns and it is important continuous wood source for sustainable charcoal production
to learn methods for maximizing the efficiency of its potential. without deforastation problem, when the area is better planned
Using improved charcoal kiln might be a solution but it requires and managed. Traditional earth mound kiln efficiency is found
some capital outlay, better understanding and control of the relatively good with experienced charcoal producers but the
carbonization process. Drying of wood, better stacking methods, efficiency improvement of traditional earth mound kilns should
and better process control, in combination with a chimney to force be ensured with training and providing the professionalization of
inverted draught, can greatly increase carbonization efficiency. the sector, applying criteria and indicators through national
However, they take more time and effort to prepare the kiln and programmes, international processes or certification systems.
control the carbonization process. Increasing the efficiency of When charcoal makers produce charcoal as their main activity,
charcoal production requires regulatory measures, systematic they will have more income with higher kiln efficiencies and better
training, and demonstration programs 23- 26. Criteria and indicators working conditions. Charcoal producers problems about
for wood charcoal production can be implemented through national education, health, safety, and housing should be solved with better
programmes, international processes or certification systems 8. It regulations and control. Prohibition of firewood and wood charcoal
means that professionalization of the sector should be provided, export in Turkey should also be repealled when the potential is
whereby charcoal makers would produce charcoal as their main utilized sufficiently.
activity and occasional charcoal production by non-professionals
would be dissuaded and these training programs should be simple Acknowledgements
training about the efficiency improvement of traditional earth I would like to acknowledge the help of Yapraklı Forest District
mound kilns. members and charcoal production workers for their help in the
study area.
Labour conditions of charcoal producers: Some features of
agricultural and forestry labours in Turkey are specified as;
depending on the soil, with different characteristics in different

1140 Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment, Vol.11 (2), April 2013
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