Materials Science and Engineering

Dr. Vivek Pancholi

Department of Metallurgical & Materials Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee

Lecture - 03
Crystal systems and structures: Lattice

Hello, friends one of the most important and to understand the main material behavior is
crystal systems and structure ok. So, if we understand the crystal structures, we will be
able to understand the material behavior in a much better way and actually a lot of
properties depend upon that what is the crystal structure of the material ok. So, today’s
lecture we will consider we will talk about first we will talk about a lattice and then we
will come to the crystal systems and crystal structures ok.

So, when we want to understand the crystal systems or structures basically the lattice is
the framework, which you can use to understand that what do we mean by crystal system
and structures ok. Lattice in loose sense you must have used a lot of time that whenever
you want to see you see a regular pattern you say that this is a lattice ok.

For example, nowadays you must have seen on the pavement you put those tiles some
very nice shape tiles and they are put next to each other you must have seen the or you
must have seen the, the honey bees they the, the, the structure they make which is a very
nice hexagonal lattice

So, the lattice is there in the nature and you must have seen it ok. So, the basis for crystal
systems and structure is star it starts from the lattice ok, so, first lets understand the
lattice.
(Refer Slide Time: 02:05)

The this idea was actually proposed by Bravais that is why they are called Bravais
lattices. So, in this particular lecture we will cover the lattice in 2 D and 3 dimensions, 2
dimension and 3 dimensions and a unit vector and cells and then we will talk about
lattice and plus basis to make crystals, and then what are the different crystal systems and
crystal structures ok.

So, the Bravais proposed that that the idea of lattice and using that idea of lattice he
proposed that there are can be only 7 crystal systems and 14 crystal structures. So, you
can understand and this work he did in 1850 and you can understand that in at that time
he could predict what will be the crystal system and structure in all the natural or
manmade materials which are possible ok, and they are still the the there is no change in
that there it is still holding and he could do that only by doing geometry ok.

So, he must have a spent a lot of time and lot of thinking and of course, him did not have
any distractions of TV, and your io your smart phones and all that which we nowadays
have all these distractions ok. So, he did not have that; obviously, and because of that I
think he could have devoted lot of time and energy in this I concept, and using geometry
only he proposed it only these many crystal systems and structures are possible. And
with all the fancy tools which we have nowadays it is still holding with we don’t have
any other then what he proposed in 1850.
So, the and ideas were very nice and elegant. So, starting from 2 d lattice that what do we
mean by lattice ok, the important properties of a lattice is that a lattice has exactly same
surroundings ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 04:15)

This is very important or if you if you like you can call it as a same scenery is there. So,
if you take any lattice point and if you see around that lattice point other lattice points if
you see the surrounding has to be same if I take this lattice point and suppose I take
maybe another lattice point after ten lattice points and if I also check surrounding around
that lattice point, between this and the new one there should not be any change it should
be same the scenery has to be same ok.

So, the surrounding has to be exactly same of course, you have to look only from 1
direction if you want we are looking from another direction the surrounding will change,
but from that direction if you see any lattice point you choose any lattice point the
surrounding around that lattice point will be is exactly same.

So, from looking from 1 direction if I choose any lattice point and it k there can be
infinite lattice points ok. So, it is a imaginary concept you can extend, extend it to the
length of the universe if you want you choose any lattice point and around that the
surrounding has to be same. So, this is the first property it should have , how you can
make a lattice is a very simple thing the most important property it should have is what
we call as translation symmetry ok.
So, basically if you have we start with 1 lattice point if I you give you 2 translation
vectors in 2 dimensions, then you will be able to get all the lattice points and up to
infinity ok, again you can take a take example of the pavement ok. So, if I want to fill the
pavement there is a pavement or any porch is let us say and I have to fill the whole area
ok.

So, what I will do I will put first tile, then I will put the next tile. So, by 1 translation I
have put the next tile. So, from the center of the tile if you see from this center to the
next tile center there is a you can say it is a vector is there then I put another tile. So, like
that if I keep putting or I can keep translating the vector then you will get the whole area
covered and you have a lattice.

So, in the lattice also the most important property is it should have a translation ok; that
means, by translation of a 1 unit vector I should get the next lattice point, another
translation of that same unit vector I should get the next lattice point and so on. And that
is why there surrounding is same because it has a translation symmetry. So, everywhere
the translation has to be same the translation vector has to be same, another very
important property it should have is called rotation symmetry.

We will not cover or not dwell into rotation symmetry too much, but we will use
translation symmetry to understand the lattice and to construct a lattice ok. So, let, let us
start with the with a lattice point like that.

(Refer Slide Time: 07:30)

So, this is a lattice point and we want to create a 2 dimensional lattice ok, and suppose I
have defined a unit vector a in this direction and suppose I so when I translate it by a , in
that direction I have should get the next lattice point.

Similarly, if I keep translating I should get the next lattice point, by the same vector a
similarly I can have another vector b ok, in another direction and if I keep translating by
the vector b in another direction I should get the next lattice point. So, if I do a vector
translation of this a vector it should have been little bit larger here ok.

So, by doing a translation of a I should get the next lattice point in this direction, in the
direction of a if I keep translating by a vector b in this direction, in the direction of b I
should get the next lattice point and if I keep doing that I will fill the whole area here and
I should get the lattice point.

And if you see the, the surrounding as I was telling you suppose you choose this lattice
point if I check the surrounding ok. So, you have 1 lattice point here another here and the
distances they look very same then what I suppose I choose this lattice point again the
surrounding is same. So, for each lattice point the surrounding is same and that is
because you have this translation symmetry.

So, this translations vector can be easily represented by a mathematical equation like this
that m into a you go in this direction n into b you go in b direction you will get the whole
translation, if this vector is the unit vector then m and n becomes unity ok. So, it is
simply the translation in by a and b vector in the direction of a and b respectively then by
doing that I can get the full lattice.

Now, what should be the choice of unit vector and unit cell ok, that is an arbitrary choice
there is no unique way of saying that this should be the unit vector or this should be the
unit cell. So, the unit cell is the cell, which kind of represent that particular lattice if I you
choose a unit cell it is a representation of the whole lattice So, that is the idea of a unit
cell.
(Refer Slide Time: 10:05)

So, suppose again as I we did earlier that a in this direction and b in this direction will
construct the whole lattice ok, I can also construct the lattice by instead of choosing b I
can choose another vector which is c ok, and if I do that also then I should get the next
lattice point and so on ok. So, the idea here is that there is no unique way of defining a
unit vector I can choose any vector as a unit vector and still I can construct the whole
lattice.

Similarly, the unit cell I can choose any unit cell for example, covering these 4 lattice
points I have chosen a unit cell like this, or I can choose a unit cell like this may, but in
this case now it is covering more than or it is covering 6 here you 6 lattice points, or I
can choose a unit cell like this also.

Ah reputation of this unit cell will also give you the lattice. So, the choice is arbitrary
you have to choose it according to your own idea of the lattice the basic of choosing a
unit cell is that it should represent the lattice ok. So, if you see this particular lattice it it
looks like a square lattice ok; that means, a and b vectors are same their length is same.
So, both the vector have the same distances or same magnitude.

So; that means, that if I choose a square unit cell for this that is actually able to represent
this particular lattice ok. So, choice can be anything out of these three, but still I will
choose this is square lattice because it is able to bring out the property of the lattice, that
it is a square lattice it has a square symmetry. Now, coming to 3 dimension lattice again
the same thing can be done in 3 dimensions ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 12:21)

So, in now instead of 2 dimension it is an infinitely regularly spaced array of points in 3

dimensions. So, you can see a nice array of lattice points is there ok, and 1 of the unit
cell is carved out of that which is able to nicely represent this particular lattice and in this
case it is a cubic unit cell because it has a nice cubic symmetry to it ok, all the 3 lengths
are equal ok. So, that is why we have chosen this one, we could have chosen unit cell
like this also where this is extending up to here instead of ending here.

So, this could have been a unit cell, but it is not a giving you a nice representation of the
lattice because it has a nice symmetry, where a is equal to b equal to c. So, a unit cell
which has a cubic dimension that should be the right unit cell for this lattice. So, unit cell
can be chosen arbitrarily, but you should choose it which represent that particular lattice.

So, abc is in these 3 direction and now my translation vector can be instead of 2
dimension it has to be in 3 dimension. So, m times a n times b and o times c will give
you the next unit or next lattice point and so on. Now, till now we have not talked about
the crystals or crystal structures or atomic arrangement, we have not talked about all
these things we have only talked about lattices ok.
So, lattices can be anything it is a 3 dimensional space and you start putting a lattice
point here, and now you define that after this much translation I should get the next
lattice point. In a this much translation I should get the b this much translation I should
get the c and if I keep repeating, I will have I can have full or fill the whole space here in
this room. And the choice can be anything for abc and depending upon that you will have
the whole space filling arrangement for this 3 dimensional space.

So, we have not talked about anything about crystal or crystal structure or atomic
arrangement also s and so on. So, you have to keep these 2 ideas separate 1 is lattice
which is just a 3 dimensional space filling arrangement that how I can arrange in this 3
dimension lattice point. So, that it will fill this room or you fill this 3 dimensional space.

Now, if I start putting atoms or molecules or iron on this lattice point then I am building
a atomic crystal structure and then I am talking about materials, till that time it is it is a
simple geometrical arrangement of points in 3 dimension , which has a translation
symmetry and we satisfy the, the requirement of a lattice.

(Refer Slide Time: 15:45)

So, when you put a basis on the lattice point then it becomes a crystal ok. So, the crystal
must have a lattice and a basis and basis can be anything it can be as 1 single atom , it
can be a molecule 2 2 atoms combined sitting on the lattice point or it can be an ion
which has a some positive or negative charge.
So, that I am representing here with 2 different type of basis in this first example the
basis is simple 1 blue circle , in another 1 it is a blue circle combined with a red circle
with 2 different diameters ok. So, now I will start arranging the, the basis on the lattice
point ok, arrangement can be any way the circle can be such that that my lattice point is
at the center of the circle or in this case it is little bit in a offset position ok. So, anything
can be possible, but for all the basis the condition should be same. So, you can see that it
is offset, but the offset is of the same type in all the conditions or for all the lattice points
ok.

So, now I have put a basis, so you can consider that I have put an atom, so now it has
become a crystal. So, lattice plus basis makes a crystal this is another arrangement of
these 2 circles which is a basis ok, and I have done an arrangement like that. So, the
arrangement is such that the lattice point is coming within the red circle here. So, that
will be same for all the lattice points it , it cannot be that for 1 point the blue circle the
lattice point come within the blue circle then it cannot be a crystal.

So, the now this is another crystal with suppose you can consider that it is a molecule
here 2 atoms are joined there and that is put at the lattice point. So, like that for different
crystals you can put different basis or for the layer same lattice also to get different type
of crystals.

(Refer Slide Time: 17:54)

Now, as I told you that Bravais said that there are only 7 crystal systems are there and
there are fourteen crystal structures ok. So, how this concept of first let us see how this
concept of lattice came, so why this seven systems are only the possibilities ok, to
understand that you have to see that how I can have a space filling arrangement.

So, 4 times this is example this is a 3 dimensional space a room is there if I have to fill it
this room what I should do ok, basically if I take example of boxes if I key start keeping
boxes 1 above another I will be able to fill the whole space ok. And that is how B also
started that what can be the different ways or how what can be the different type of boxes
which are available which can give me this space filling arrangement ok.

So, you can consider that how understand this lattice from the staking of the boxes ok.
So, I am just giving you an animation here to have a space filling arrangement ok. So,
this is a 3 dimensional space here 3 vectors are there and I am putting a sta doing a
staking ok. So, I took a box such that the 3 dimensions are same abc is same.

So, it is a cube and I am putting over 1 another and I am trying to the saying that the
whole 3 dimensional space can be filled by doing that ok. I can have another type of box
ok, which is not a cube it is a cuboid and then I have another way in which I can do this
space filling.

So, you can understand and you can now have different boxes ok. So, what Bravais did is
by doing all this geometry he found out that only there are 7 possible ways to do this
space filling arrangement or 2. So, there are only 7 type of boxes to fill this whole 3
dimensional space ok, and he started putting it on one another and saw that this is
satisfying my condition ok.

So, you cannot have a box which is a spherical box, or you cannot have a box with which
has a curvature because then you will have some areas which will not be filled ok. So,
you have to have arrangement which is a space filling arrangement and this gives you a
space filling arrangement so, by doing this he proposed that there are only seven crystal
systems ok which you can have, so starting with a very simple system or box and that is
it cubic ok.
(Refer Slide Time: 20:46)

So, in cubic a is equal to b is equal to c and alpha beta gamma equal to 90 degree so; that
means, the 3 dimensions are same and the angle between these 3 axis is 90 degree, most
one of the most simple arrangement you can think of.

Now, you start complicating the, the arrangement. So, the first complication which you
can bring is that a should be equal to b, but the c dimension is not equal. So, a equal to
b , but c is not equal to both of these ; however, the angles are still 90 degree ok.

So, when you have this arrangement it is called tetragonal ok. So, these 2 example I have
shown in the earlier slide, slide to you again bring more complications I can say that a is
not equal to b not equal to c; that means, that all the 3 are not equal to each other. So, a is
different b is different and c is different.

Now, , but the angles are still 90 degree to each other. So, angle between these 3 axis is
still 90 degree all are 90 degree, here also all angles for 90 degree. So, in this all these 3
cases angles are 90 degree in cubic all axis for same in tetragonal 1 axis was different in
orthorhombic all the 3 axis are different angles are still 90 degree.

So, this is the most you can say general example from which you can get cubic or
tetragonal , by putting some constraints then comes now we say that and the dimensions
are same a is equal to b is equal to c alpha is equal to beta is equal to gamma angles are
also equal, but they are not equal to 90 degree ; that means, angle k alpha can be
anything other than 90 degree beta can be anything other than 90 degree and gamma also
can be another anything other than 90 degree.

But all the angles whatever it is let us say it is 60 degree then alpha beta gamma all are
sixty degree ok, equivalent or equal to 60 degree for example, then comes hexagonal. So,
again a is equal to b, but is not equal to c alpha and beta are equal to 90 degree, but
gamma is not equal to 90 degree. Now it is equal to 120 degree , so this angle here is 120
degree, but these 2 angles are 90 degree to each other.

So, between a and c it is 90 degree between b and c, which is again is shown as a

because both are equal. So, between b and c is also it is 90 degree, but between a and b it
is 120 degree though it doesn’t look like a hexagonal to you , it doesn’t look like a
hexagonal , but I can show you that how it will be hexagonal in the next slide.

Then comes the monoclinic , now a is not equal to b not equal to c. So, now all the 3
dimensions are not equal alpha and gamma are equal to 90 degree, but not equal to beta
ok. So, 2 angles are equal to 90 degree, but are not equal to beta.

So, now, beta we have not put any condition, so beta can be any angle in the hexagonal
case we said the third angle to be 120 degree, but here we are saying the third angle can
be anything. So, we are not putting any condition there, so it can take any angle whatever
it like.

Then the least symmetrical is the triclinic, so none of the dimensions are equal none of
the angles are equal and of course, they are not of course, equal to ninety degree also. So,
a angle between the 2 axis can be anything , any 2 axis can be anything their dimension
can be anything, and usually you find this kind of crystal system for geological samples
for example, rocks. So, rocks also have the same idea is what we understand in materials
ok.

So, very interesting concept ah, but problem with the geological samples or rocks is that
lot of these rocks have this triclinic symmetry and one of the most difficult to understand
because nothing is same all are different ok. So, very difficult to understand anything
with the triclinic crystal system.
So, these are the only the seven system ok, so how you got the seven system by doing
this staking of boxes ok. So, you make box of this all these different shapes you start
putting it over one another and you will see that there is a nice space filling arrangement
is there. So, from that he could understand that there can be only these seven ways within
which you can do that.

(Refer Slide Time: 26:17)

Now, from this seven comes 14 crystal structures ok, so now, he started putting lattice
points at different places and he said that in cube for example, there are 3 different
arrangement of lattices are points are possible, one is that all at corners you put the atoms
or in this face centered cubic you can put at the face centered position also on the faces
of the cube , you at the center of the faces you can put 1 atom or you can have a body
centered cubic condition, where you can put the lattice point at the center of the cell.

So, in cube you can have 3 different type of arrangements are possible in tetragonal you
have simple one of course, at the corner simple is everywhere. So, simple at the corner
and then the next one is the body centered tetragonal. So, there is no face centered
tetragonal here or base centered tetragonal here this is what is the greatness of that guy
that he could do all kind of permutation and combination and then he said that if you try
a face centered body center it can be represented by a much easier or much simpler
lattice arrangement ok, which is already he has defined ok. So, that is why those lattice
arrangements are not possible
So, but body centered 1 is a unique 1 that cannot be shown by any other arrangement.
So, all these are unique arrangement you cannot show any 1 of them with any other
arrangement. So, that is what is the greatness of that guy, that he could see that or he
could work out all these arrangements.

Then as I told you in case of hexagonal I showed you only this much part of the cell that
a and b are same c is not same as in b, but between a and b the angle is 120 degree
between a and c and b and c the angle is 90 degree ok. So, this was the unit cells shown,
but if you repeat this cell 3 times. So, 1 is shown here if you take this 1 and put here like
this and third time you take this 1 and put here then it will give you a hexagonal unit cell.
So, that is why it is called hexagonal in that I reputation of this he gives you a hexagonal
unit cell.

Then orthorhombic all lot of possibilities are there you have simple orthorhombic on the
corner positions body centered orthorhombic, orthorhombic where the lattice point is at
the center of the this unit cell , base center orthorhombic. So, 2 unit cell at the base and
face centered orthorhombic where the unit cell sorry lattice points are at the face
centered position ok. So, all these are lattice points.

Then you have rhombohedra only 1 possibility monoclinic has 2 possibilities simple
monoclinic has been centered monoclinic and of course, triclinic can be only 1 type. So,
there are 3 system which has only 1 possibilities 1 is rhombohedral 1 in hexagonal and 1
in triclinic

So, now of course, some of the these crystal structures for example, cubic 1 you must
have done in your twelfth class physics also our chemistry ok, and you must have
calculated the linear density planar density ok, and you must have also done that what
are the dimensions of this face diagonal or body diagonal ok.

So, that I am not covering here just before finishing this off actually in hexagonal there is
1 arrangement is not shown here this is not a closed packed hexagonal ok. There is
another hexagonal which is called close packed hexagonal structure which I have
brought this ball model here. So, you can see that these, these are the 6 atom at the
bottom.
So, you can see here also 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 1 at the center. So, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 1 at
the center this is the base this is the top which is shown here 1 again 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 1
at the center which you can see here. But you can also have another set of this same
arrangement at the center of the cell here, at the center of this cell and which is shown
here ok.

(Refer Slide Time: 31:17)

So, when you have this arrangement it is called a closed pack arrangement why we call it
as a closed pack arrangement this is the closest packing you can have, for example,
between the 3 balls here there is another ball sitting in the cavity of that and with the
spherical objects this is the best packing you can have ok. So, this is called a closed pack
arrangement in hexagonal system and where the, you have this kind of arrangement.

So, you will have another set of the same arrangement, in the center which is like this ok.
So, this is a closed packed hexagonal structure, if you want to see a same ball model for
FCC it will look like this. So, 4 corner atoms and 1 in the center of the face ok. So, this is
the face and 4 corner atom and 1 at the face centered position.

So, the if you see the how the atoms are touching each other or what is the equilibrium
distance between the atoms, the equilibrium distance will be in the face diagonal in case
of a centered cubic structure whereas, in the this direction you will see that there are
some gap is there; that means, the bonds are stretched in these directions, where is in the
face diagonal the it is having a equilibrium distance ok. In case of body centered cubic it
will be along the face dialogue along the body diagonal, it will have a equilibrium
structure equilibrium is spacing other places it will be a stretched bonds ok.

So, this is a example of a face centered cubic structure and this is for an hexagonal
closed pack structure. So, with that I am finishing this lecture in which we have covered
the lattice crystal systems and crystal structures ok, and the detail of these we will do or
use lot of the ideas of this crystal structure of the especially we will be using example of
cubic systems. So and simple cubic also you don’t see much.

So, the most of the metallic material will be either in body centered cubic structure or
face centered cubic structure or hexagonal closed pack structure ok. So, we will be
taking only these 3 in more you will be using in in to understand the material behavior so
with that way I.

Thank you for having patience and understanding this concept little bit difficult, but I
think you will be able to catch it ok.

Thank you.