Measurement of resistivity and determination of band gap using Four-

Probe method

GENERAL SAFETY SUMMARY

This equipment is Class 1 equipment tested in accordance with the European Standard
publication EN 61010-1.
This manual contains information and warnings that must be observed to keep the Instrument
in a safe condition and ensure safe operation.
To use the Instrument correctly and safely, read and follow the precautions in Table 1 and
follow all safety instructions or warnings given throughout this manual that relate to specific
measurement functions. In addition, follow all generally accepted safety practices and
procedures required when working with and around electricity.

SYMBOLS

The table below lists safety and electrical symbols that appear on the Instrument or in this
manual.
Table: Safety and Electrical Symbols

Symbols Description Symbols Description

Risk of danger. Important

Earth ground
information. See Manual.

Hazardous voltage. Voltage

>30Vdc or ac peak might be Potentially hazardous voltage
present.
Do not dispose of this product
Static awareness. Static as unsorted municipal waste.
discharge can damage parts. Contact SES or a qualified
recycle for disposal.
 Table 1. Safety Information

Warning

To avoid possible electric shock, personal injury, read the following before using the
Instrument:
• Use the Instrument only as specified in this manual, or the protection provided by
the Instrument might be impaired.
• Do not use the Instrument in wet environments
• Inspect the Instrument before using it. Do not use the Instrument if it appears
damaged.
• Inspect the connecting lead before use. Do not use them if insulation is damaged or
metal is exposed. Check the connecting leads for continuity. Replace damaged
connecting leads before using the Instrument.
• Whenever it is likely that safety protection has been impaired, make the
• Instrument inoperative and secure it against any unintended operation.
• Never remove the cover or open the case of the Instrument before without first
removing it from the main power source.
• Never operate the Instrument with the cover removed or the case open.
• Use only the replacement fuses specified by the manual.
• Do not operate the Instrument around explosive gas, vapor or dust.
• The equipment can remain Switched on continuously for five hours
• The equipment must remain Switched off for at least fifteen minutes before being
switched on again.
• The equipment is only for the intended use
• Use the equipment only as specified in this manual.
 PID CONTROLLED OVEN
Model : PID-TZ

TEMP. CONTROLLER

PID
Temperature
Controller

Oven Selector
Switch between Temperture
600C & 200C Oven Sensor Connector
Temp. Sensor

OVEN-600 OVEN-200

Oven
Oven ON-OFF Switch for Selector
ON ON
600C Oven Oven ON-OFF Switch for
200C Oven
Oven Power for 600C
MAINS
Oven
Oven Power for 200C
ON Oven
Mains On-OFF switch
C

Fig 1. PID Controlled Oven, PID-TZ

1 PV : Display processing value (Red)

TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER c
2 SV : Display setting value (Green)

3 SV2 : Indicate SV2 operation (not used)

4 AT : Indicate Autotuning operation

1 PV
5 AT Key : The mode key to execute
2 sv Autotuning function

6 , , Setting Key
3 7
SV2 AT OUT EV1
4 8 7 EV1 : Indicate EVENT1 Output
MD AT
8 OUT : Indicate Output
9
9 MD Key : Mode Key
5 6

Fig.2 Shows the front panel of the Controller Panel for identification of the various keys,
indicators and displays
OBJECTIVES:

(I) To measure resistivity of a semiconductor and a metal at room temperature

(II) To measure resistivity of a semiconductor as a function of temperature and determination
of energy band gap

INTRODUCTION

Four Probe method is one of the standard & most commonly used method for the
accurate measurement of resistivity. It overcomes the problem of contact resistance and also
offer several other advantages. Accurate resistivity measurement in samples having a variety
of shapes is possible by this method. The pressure contacts provided in the Four Point
Arrangement are especially useful for quick measurement. This setup can measure samples of
reasonably wide resistivity range (micro ohm to mega ohm).

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SET UP

1. PID-TZ Controlled Oven

The unit is a high quality PID (Proportional, Integral and Differential) controller
wherein the temperatures can be set and controlled easily. The P, I and D parameters are
factory set ( P = 1.8, I = 300, D = 80) for immediate use, however, the user may adjust
these for specific applications as well as auto-tune the oven whenever required. The
steps for these are given in the user manual of the controller. A common controller may
be used either for our small oven, up to 200°C or a larger oven up to 600°C. The two are
switch selectable and use thermocouple as temperature sensors (see Fig.1).

General Specifications

The controller is designed around Autonics Temperature Controller Model TZN4S.

Although this is a very versatile piece of equipment, below is a summary of the specifications
that are relevant to the present application. For more details the reader may refer to the full
catalog of the controller available at www.autonics.com
Temperature Range Ambient to 200°C/600°C
Power Supply 100-240VAC; 50/60Hz
7 Segment LED display
Display Method
[Process value (PV):Red, Set value (SV):Green]
Input Sensor Thermocouple (Chromel – Alumel)
Control Method PID, PIDF, PIDS
Display Accuracy ± 0.3%
Setting Type Setting by front push buttons
Proportional Band (P) 0 to 100.0%
Integral Time (I) 0 to 3600 Sec
Derivative Time (D) 0 to 3600 Sec
Control Time (T) 1 to 120 Sec
Sampling Time 0.5 Sec
Setting (P, I & D) Manual / Auto-tuned
 CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE
Model : CCS - 01

CURRENT

20mA 200mA
ON
OUTPUT

Current Current Range On-off

Panel Meter
Output Control Switch Switch

Fig. 3: Constant Current Source, CCS-01

Controls
(1) OVEN SELECTOR Switch – to select between the smaller 200 ºC or larger 600 ºC
ovens. Select 200ºC for the small oven used in this experiment.
(2) POWER CONNECTORS – a 3-pin round for small 200ºC oven and two sockets for
the large 600ºC oven
(3) SENSOR CONNECTOR – Common thermocouple input for both ovens
(4) OVEN ON-OFF switches – for individual oven with its own indicator
(5) PID TEMPERATURE CONTROLLER – for setting, displaying and controlling the
temperature of the oven used. Details shown in Fig.2 above
(6) MAINS SWITCH – for connecting the mains power to the unit

2. Constant Current Source, Model : CCS-01

(for low resistivity to medium resistivity samples)
It is an IC regulated current generator to provide a constant current to the
outer probes irrespective of the changing resistance of the sample due to change in
temperatures. The basic scheme is to use the feedback principle to limit the load
current of the supply to preset maximum value. Variations in the current are
achieved by a potentiometer included for that purpose. The supply is a highly
regulated and practically ripples free d.c. source. The constant current source is
suitable for the resistivity measurement of thin films of metals/ alloys and
semiconductors like germanium.
Specification
Open Circuit Voltage : 10V
Current Range : 0-20mA, 0-200mA
Resolution : 10µA
Accuracy : ± 0.25% of the reading ± 1 digit
Display : 3½ digit, 7 segment LED with auto polarity and
decimal indication
Load Regulation : 0.03% for 0 to full load
Line Regulation : 0.05% for 10% changes
 Controls
(1) Range Switch – The current meter can be switched between 20mA and 200mA
range using this switch. Keep the range switch at the desired range and set the
desired current using the current control knob. In case the meter shows over
ranging (sign of 1 on the left and all other digits goes blank) range switch maybe
shifted to higher range.
(2) Panel Meter – Display the current in mA.
(3) Current Control – This is to feed the desired current in the Sample.
(4) Current Output – Connect suitable connector from Four probe Arrangement in
this connector. This will enable the unit to feed desired current in the sample
(5) ON-OFF switch – To power the unit ON/ OFF.

LOW CURRENT SOURCE

Model : LCS - 02
2 µA
20 µA

200 µA
2mA
CURRENT
RANGE
ADJ.

OUTPUT ON

Current Panel Meter Current Control Range Switch On-off

Output Switch

Fig. 4: Low Current Source, LCS-02

3. Low Current Source, Model : LCS-02

(for high resistivity samples)
Low Constant Current Sources are needed when the sample resistance, either
inherently or due to contact resistances, is large. These include the resistivity
measurement of silicon wafers or high resistivity film deposits. Large values of the
sample resistance make the measurement prone to noise pick-up from the mains and
elsewhere. This is one of the most significant problems of high resistance
measurement.
In the present unit the problem of pick-up has been reduced to very low levels
by having a battery operated source. Since the current requirement is small and the
circuit being specially designed for this purpose, the batteries should have a
reasonably long life. Further, a transistor circuit has been preferred over an Op-Amp
based circuit as it offers a reduction of the battery count and is also simpler. An
internal voltage reference of 2.5 volt ensures reliable operation even when the batter
voltage falls and a ten turn potentiometer makes the current adjustment very easy. The
actual current is read on a 3½ digit LCD display. There are two current ranges, which
may be selected with the help of a switch on the panel.
Specification
Open Circuit Voltage : 18V
Current Range : 0-2µA, 0-20µA, 0-200µA, 0-2mA
Resolution : 1nA at 0-2µA range
Accuracy : ± 0.25% of the reading ± 1 digit
Display : 3½ digit, 7 segment LCD with auto polarity and
decimal indication
Load Regulation : 0.05% for 0 to full load
Power : 3 x 9V batteries

Controls
(1) Range Switch – The current meter can be switched between 2µA, 20µA,
200µA and 2mA range using this switch. Keep the range switch at the desired
range and set the desired current using the current control knob. In case the
meter shows over ranging (sign of 1 on the left and all other digits goes blank)
range switch maybe shifted to higher range.
(2) Panel Meter – Display the current in µA/ mA (as per setting of Range Switch)
(3) Current Control – This is to feed the desired current in the Sample.
(4) Current Output – Connect suitable connector from Four probe Arrangement in
this connector. This will enable the unit to feed the desired current in the sample
(5) ON-OFF Switch – To power the unit ON/ OFF.

Note: Please note that this unit is operated on 9V x 3 batteries. In case there is any
problem in operation, please check the batteries also. Batteries are assessable after
opening the Top Cover of the unit.

DIGITAL MICROVOLTMETER
Model : DMV-001

1 mV
10 mV
RANGE 100 mV
1V
10 V

ON

Range Voltage Panel Zero Adj. On-off

Switch Input Meter Knob Switch

Fig. 5: Digitral Microvoltmeter, DMV-001

1. D.C. Microvoltmeter, Model DMV-001
Digital Microvoltmeter, DMV-001 is a very versatile multipurpose instrument
for the measurement of low dc voltage. It has 5 decade ranges from 1mV to 10V with
100% over-ranging. For better accuracy and convenience, readings are directly
obtained on 3½ digit DPM.
This instrument uses a very well designed chopper stabilized IC amplifier.
This amplifier offers exceptionally low offset voltage and input bias parameters,
combined with excellent speed characteristics.
Filter circuit is provided to reduce the line pickups of 50 Hz. All internal
power supplies are IC regulated.
Specification
Range : 1mV, 10mV, 100mV, 1V & 10V with 100% over
ranging
Resolution : 1µ V
Accuracy : ± 0.2%
Stability : Within ± 1 digit
Input Impedance : >1000MΩ (10MΩ on 10V range)
Display : 3½ digit, 7 segment LED with auto polarity and decimal
indication

Controls
(1) Range Switch – The voltmeter can be switched between 1mV, 10mV, 100mV,
1V & 10V range using this switch. Keep the range switch at lowest range for
better accuracy. In case the meter shows over ranging (sign of 1 on the left and
all other digits goes blank) range switch maybe shifted to higher range.
(2) Panel Meter – Display the Voltage in mV/ V (as per setting of Range Switch)
(3) Zero Adj. Knob – This is to adjust Zero of Microvoltmeter before starting the
experiment.
(4) Voltage Input – Connect suitable connector from Four probe Arrangement in
this connector. This will enable the unit to measure the voltage output of the
sample
(5) ON-OFF switch – To power the unit ON/ OFF.

2. Four Probes Arrangement

It has four individually spring loaded probes. The probes are collinear and
equally spaced. The probes are mounted in a teflon bush, which ensure a good
electrical insulation between the probes. A teflon spacer near the tips is also provided
to keep the probes at equal distance. The probe arrangement is mounted in a suitable
stand, which also holds the sample plate and RTD sensor. This stand also serves as
the lid of PID Controlled Oven. Proper leads are provided for current, Voltage &
Temp. measurement with their universal connectors. For current measurement there is
three pin connector which can be connected to the CCS-01/ LCS-02 as per
requirement of sample. For voltage measurement BNC connector is used connected to
DMV-001 unit. For temperature measurement, a two pin connector is provided for
connection with PID- Controlled oven unit PID-200 at connector marked as
Temperature Sensor.
 To DMV-001
To CCS-01 / LCS-02

Probe Pipe

To Thermocouple
Probe Holding Connector
Screws

Teflon Spacer Leveling Srew

Sample

Spring Loaded
4 Probes

Fig. 6: Four Probe Arrangement

Three levelling screws are provided in Four Probe arrangement by which we can adjust the
level of plateform to make it horizontal. A probe holding screw is provided at the collar of the
arrangement. Initially it should be in loose position, to allow free movement of Probe Pipe.
After placing the sample the Probe Pipe should be lowered so that all four pins touches the
sample. Further Press the pipe very lightly so that the assured firm contact is made of all Four
Pins with the sample. Tighten the Probe Holding Screw at this position. The Probe
Arrangement is ready with the sample for the experiment.

APPARATUS
(1). PID Controller with a Oven Unit, Model PID-TZ
(2). Constant Current Sources:-
a) Constant Current Source, Model CCS-01
b) Low Current Source, Model LCS-02
(3). D.C. Microvoltmeter, Model DMV-001
(4). Four Probe Arrangement with Thermocouple sensor and suitable connectors for
DMV and CCS/ LCS.
(5). Set of test samples and emery powder.
BASIC THEORY

Four sharp probes are placed on a flat surface of the material to be measured (Fig.7).
The current is passed through the two outer electrodes, and the floating potential is measured
across the inner pair. If the flat surface on which the probes rest is adequately large, it may be
considered to be a semi-infinite volume. To prevent minority carrier injection and make good
contacts, the surface on which the probes rest, maybe mechanically lapped.
The experimental circuit used for measurement is illustrated schematically in Fig. 8.
A nominal value of probe spacing, which has been found satisfactory, is an equal distance of
2.0 mm between adjacent probes.
In order to use the four-probe method, it is assumed that:
1. The resistivity of the material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current - carrying
electrodes, most of the carriers recombine near the electrodes so that their effect on the
conductivity is negligible. (This means that the measurements should be made on surface,
which has a high recombination rate, such as mechanical by lapped surfaces).
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurements are equally spaced and collinear.
5. The diameter of the contact between the metallic probes and the semiconductor should be
small compared to the distance between probes.
6. The surfaces of the material may be either conducting or non-conducting.
A conducting boundary (such as copper) is one on which the sample is plated or placed.
A non-conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the sample is in contact with
an insulator.

PROBES
I V I

SEMICONDUCTORS
1 2 3 4

S1 S2 S3

Fig. 7: Model for the four probe resistivity measurement

 GALVANOMETER
POTENTIOMETER
NANOAMMETER
MICROVOLTMETER
DIRECT
CURRENT V
SOURCE I
I

PROBES

Fig. 8: Circuit used for resistivity measurement

CASE 1 - RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS ON A LARGE SAMPLE

One added boundary condition is required to treat this case namely, the probes are far
from any of the other surfaces of the sample and the sample can thus be considered a semi-
infinite volume of uniform resistivity material. Fig. 7 shows the geometry of this case. Four
probes are spaced S1, S2 and S3 apart. Current I is passed through the outer probes (1 and 4)
and the floating potential V is measured across the inner pair of probes 2 and 3.
The floating potential Vf a distance r from an electrode carrying a current I in a
material of resistivity ρ0 is given by
ρ0 I
Vf =
2π r
In the model shown in Fig. 7 there are two current-carrying electrodes, numbered 1
and 4, and the floating potential Vf, at any Y point in the semiconductor is the difference
between the potential induced by each of the electrodes, since they carry currents of equal
magnitude but in opposite directions Thus:
ρ0 I  1 1 
Vf =  −  (1)
2π  r1 r4 
where r1 = distance from probe number 1 and r4 = distance from probe number 4.
The floating potentials at probe 2, Vf2, and at probe 3, Vf3 can be calculated from (1)
by substituting the proper distances as follows :
ρ0 I  1 1 
Vf2 =  − 
2π  S1 S 2 + S3 

ρ0 I  1 1 
Vf3 =  − 
2π  S1 + S 2 S3 
The potential difference V between probes 2 and 3 is then
ρ0I  1 1 1 1 
V = Vf2 − Vf3 =  + − − 
2π  S1 S3 S 2 + S 3 S1 + S 2 
and the resistivity ρ0 is computable as
V 2π
ρ0 = − (2)
I 1 1 1 1 
 + − − 
S
 1 S 3 S1 + S 2 S 2 + S 3 

+I -I
n = +2

2W
-I +I
n = +1

2W
+I 1 2 3 4
-I TOP SURFACE
n = -0
(NON-CONDUCTING)
S S S W SLICE
BOTTOM SURFACE
-I +I (CONDUCTING)
W
n = -1
3S
2W
+I -I
n = -2

Fig. 9: Images for the case of the resistivity probes on a slice with conducting bottom
surface

1.0

0.7

0.5
0.4

0.3

0.2
S S S

G6(W/S)

0.1
W
0.07
CONDUCTING BOUNDARY
0.05
0.04

0.03

0.02

0.01
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 2 3 4 5 7 10
(W/S)

Fig. 10: G6 (W/S) for probes on a thin slice with a conducting bottom surface
 When the point spacings are equal, that is, S1 = S2 = S3 = S the above simplifies to :
V
ρ0 = × 2πS (3)
I

CASE 2- RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS ON A THIN SLICE-CONDUCTING

BOTTOM SURFACE

Two boundary conditions must be met in this case; the top surface of the slice must be
a reflecting (non-conducting) surface and the bottom surface must be an absorbing
(conducting) surface. Since the two boundaries are parallel, a solution by the method of
images requires for each current source an infinite series of images along a line normal to the
plane and passing through the current source.
The model for this case is shown in Fig. 9. The side surface of the slice is assumed to
be far from the area of measurement and, therefore, only the effect of the bottom surface
needs to be considered. In this analysis equal probe spacing S shall be assumed. The width of
the slice is W. The array of images needed is indicated in Fig. 9. where the polarity and
spacing of the first few images are as shown.
The floating potential Vf2 at electrodes 2 is

r I  n =∞ 1 n =∞
1 
Vf2 =   (−1) n −  (−1) n  (4)
2p  n = −∞ S2 + (2nW)2 n = −∞ (2S)2 + (2nW)2 
Likewise, the floating potential at electrode (3) can be obtained and

ρ I 1 
n =∞ n =∞
4 4
V=  +
2 π  S n =1 ( −1) n −  ( −1) n 
2 
(5)
 S 2 + (2nW) 2 n =1
2
(2S) + (2nW) 
The resistivity then becomes
ρ0
ρ= (6)
G 6 ( W / S)
Where resistivity ρ0 is computable from (2, and 3) can be used if the point spacing are
different, but approximately equal. The function G6 (W/S) is computed from
 
n =∞
 
 W S n  1 1 
G6  = 1+ 4
 S W n=1

( −1) 
2
−
2  (7)
  S 2  S 2 
  W  + (2n) 

2
W
 + (2n)
 
 
which is tabulated in Table I and plotted in Fig. 10.
 100.0

70.0

S S S
40.0

30.0

W
20.0

NON CONDUCTING
BOUNDARY

10.0

7.0

5.0
4.0

2.0

1.0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.7 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 7.0 10.0

Fig. 11: G7 (W/S) for probes on a thin slice with a non-conducting bottom surface
 TABLE - I
S. No. W/S G6 (W/S) G7 (W/S)
1 0.100 0.0000019 13.863
2 0.141 0.00018 9.704
3 0.200 0.00342 6.931
4 0.33 0.0604 4.159
5 0.500 0.228 2.780
6 1.000 0.683 1.504
7 1.414 0.848 1.223
8 2.000 0.933 1.094
9 3.333 0.9838 1.0228
10 5.000 0.9948 1.0070
11 10.000 0.9993 1.00045

CASE 3 RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS ON A THIN SLICE-NON-CONDUCTING

BOTTOM SURFACE.

The model for these measurements is like the case 2, except that the bottom surface of
the slice is nonconducting. This means that all the images of Fig. 3 have the same charge as
the current source. Thus all the images on a row have equal charges and Eq. 5 describes the
potential difference across the inner pair of probes, if (-1)n is removed from the equation.
Then,
ρ0
ρ= , (8)
G 7 (W / S)
where
 
n= ∞
 
S  1 1 
G 7 (W / S) = 1 + 4
W
  2
−
2  (9)
n=1   S 2  S 2 
  W  + ( n)  2  + (2 n)
 W  
 
This function G7(W/S) is tabulated in Table I. and plotted in Fig. 11. For smaller
values of W/S the function G7 (W/S) approaches the case for an infinitely thin slice, or
 W  2S
G7   = log e 2 (10)
 S W
Thus for sample W/S < 0.25 or sample thickness upto 0.5mm, the correction factor
may be obtained from equation (10) directly.
 DIGITAL MICROVOLTMETER CONSTANT CURRENT SOURCE
Model : DMV-001 Model : CCS - 01
mA
1 mV
10 mV ZERO ADJ
RANGE 100 mV CURRENT
1V
10 V
20mA 200mA
ON OUTPUT ON

OR

PID CONTROLLED OVEN

Model : PID-TZ
LOW CURRENT SOURCE
Model : LCS - 02
2 µA
TEMP. CONTROLLER 20 µA
c 200 µA
CURRENT 2mA
RANGE
ADJ.

PV ON
OUTPUT
sv
SV2 AT OUT EV1

MD AT

Temp. Sensor

OVEN-600 OVEN-200

Oven
Selector
ON ON

MAINS

OVEN
ON

Fig. 12: Connection diagram for the set up

Fig. 13: Complete experimental set up

PROCEDURE

Before starting the experiment, make sure that the surface of your sample is clean and
conducting. Particularly in case of Germanium and Silicon, a oxidation layer is formed which
causes error in readings. Therefore for such samples, it is advisable to remove this oxidation
layer by rubbing the sample in fine emery slurry on a glass surface for 2 – 3 minutes. The
sample will be ready to use after washing it in plane water and subsequent drying.

(I) Measurement of resistivity of n-Si and Al at room temperature:

1. Put the sample (n-Si/Al) on the base plate of the four probe arrangement. Unscrew the
pipe holding the four probes and slowly let the four probes rest at the middle of the
sample. Apply a very gentle pressure on the probes and tighten the pipe in this position.
CAUTION : Use only the minimum pressure required for proper electrical contacts particularly for
semiconductor wafers and thin films.
2. Connect the outer pair of probes to the constant current source through 3-pin socket and
the inner pair to the D.C. Microvoltmeter through an BNC connector.
3. Place the Four Probe Arrangement in the oven.
4. Switch ‘ON’ D.C. Microvoltmeter and allow about 5 minutes time for thermal stability.
Adjust the zero of D.C. Microvoltmeter with the knob provided for it.
5. Switch ‘ON’ the Constant Current Power Supply (For Ge and Al samples)/ Low Current
Power Supply (For Si sample) and check the zero reading of D.C. Microvoltmeter at zero
current reading again. Adjust it, if required. In case it can not be adjusted (this may
happen in highly resistive samples), note it down and treat it as zero error.
6. Increase the current gradually and note the corresponding voltage readings. Subtract the
V
zero reading if any and check for Ohm’s Law ( = R). This would ensure that the system
I
is working properly and the systematic readings could be taken.

(II) Measurement of resistivity of n-Ge at various temperatures:

7. Put n-Ge sample in the four probe arrangement following the procedure described in (I).
The only difference here is that the current will be fixed (say at 5mA) and temperature is
varied.
8. For different temperature settings, the PID Controlled Oven should be used. It stabilizes
the temperature at the desired value while recording data.
The PID parameters are already set to a reasonable level (P = 3.0; I = 350; D = 87) for
immediate operation of the unit in a range 800C to 2000C. To operate the system one only
needs to set the desired final temperature as described below. For other temperatures the
parameters are to be set again.

Set the PID Controlled oven PID-TZ as follows :

(i) Connect the Thermocouple sensor’s 2-pin socket of Four Probe Arrangement
and the oven socket to the PID Controller. Select the 200°C oven, switch the
MAINS ON, and switch the oven ON. Now RUN the controller.
(ii) Set a desired temperature for the first reading as described below.
 Step.1 Connect the controller and the sensor, switch ON the unit. The oven should
be OFF.
Step.2 The upper display would show the present oven temperature (PV or process
value) and the lower display shows the current setting of the oven
temperature (SV or set value).
Step.3 Set the desired temperature by using the keys
,  and , taking care of
the maximum temperature allowed for the oven connected.
Step.4 Press MD key to return to the RUN mode. The oven may now be switched
ON and operated in the usual manner. The oven temperature at any instant
would be seen on the upper display.
(iii) Allow about 5 minutes time to stabilize the circuit. The Process Value (PV)
will slowly rise and become steady.
(iv) Record the voltage readings for the set temperature.
(v) Set the temperature for the next reading and repeat (ii) and (iii) above.
Continue till the highest temperature needed for the experiment is reached.
This must be <200°C for the safety of the four probe arrangement as well
as the oven.
(vi) Plot a graph for Log10 ρ ~ (1/T) and calculate the enegy band gap.
(vii) When completed switch the oven and MAINS OFF. Allow the oven to cool
down for the next experiment.

OBSERVATIONS

Table 1: Data for resistivity of Al foil

No. of commercial Al foils: 16
Thickness of one foil: = 0.001 cm
Thickness of Stack: 0.16 ± 0.01 mm
Probe distance (S): 0.200 ± 2% cm (fixed)
S.No. Current (I) Voltage (volts) V/I

Table 2: Data for resistivity of n-Si

Thickness (W): 0.50 ± 2% mm

S.No. Current (I) Voltage (volts) V/I

 Table 2: Data for resistivity ~ Temperature of n-Ge
Thickness (W): 0.50 ± 2% mm
Probe current (I) = 5 mA (fixed)

S.No. Temp Voltage (volts) ρ T-1 x 10-3 Log10 ρ

(T in K) (Ω .cm.) (K-1)

CALCULATIONS AND GRAPH

From Eq. (3)

V
ρ0 = × 2πS
I

Correction Factor:
Since the thickness of the samples are small compared to the probe distance a correction
factor for it has to be applied. Further the bottom surface is non-conducting in the present
case, Eq. (9) will be applied.
ρ0
ρ=
G 7 ( W/S)
The function G7 (W/S) may be obtained from Table-I or Fig. 5 for the appropriate
value of (W/S). For sample W/S<0.25, correction factor may be obtained directly from Eqn.
10. Thus ρ may be calculated for various temperatures.

Energy Band Gap

Log e ρ
We know, E g = 2k
1
T
Where k is the Boltzamann's constant = 8.6 x 10-5 eV/deg & T is temperature in kelvin. Use
the graph to determine Eg.
 Determination of the band gap of a Ge Sample

1.300

1.250

1.200

1.150

1.100

1.050

1.000

0.950

0.900

0.850

0.800

0.750

0.700

0.650
log10ρ

0.600

0.550

0.500

0.450

0.400

0.350

0.300

0.250

0.200

0.150

0.100

0.050

0.000
1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 1.80 2.00 2.20 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00 3.20 3.40 3.60 3.80 4.00 4.20
-0.050

-0.100
T-1 X 10-3

Fig. 14: Sample Graph of Log10 ρ ~ (1/T) for n-Ge sample

Typical values of samples:

Standard value for pure Aluminium = 2.8 X 10-6 ohm.cm.

Typical value for n-Si (as supplied by manufacturer) = (6±1) ohm.cm.
Typical value for n-Ge at 303K (as per datasheet of manufacturer) = 18.09 ohm.cm
Typical value of band gap for n-Ge at 303K (as per datasheet of manufacturer) = 0.68eV

The results given above are only for reference, exact values depend upon the sample and
may not replicate.

SOME USEFUL POINTS

1. Very high resistance (> 1MΩ) may cause high off-set in D.C. Microvoltmeter which can
not be adjusted with the knob provided - Note it down and treat it zero error.
2. Unstable voltage reading may be due to improper contacts of probes with the sample.
(a) This may be due to insulating layer on the sample - Clean it.
(b) It may be due to loose contacts of probes with the sample - tighten the springs of
4-probes (1/2 thread only)
(c) Check the earth point and see that the whole system, constant current power
supply, D.C. Microvoltmeter and Four Probe Arrangement are properly grounded.
3. In cases of semiconductor, like Si though the resestivity of sample may not be high but
because of contact resistance, its effective resistance is usually very high.

Sources of Error
1. Material (Al) used in the foil is commercial grade, while standard resistance is for pure
Al.
2. The thickness of Al foil is very small and there could be error of ± 7% in measurement
of thickness.
3. The formula for ρ is valid for semi-infinite /very large surface in comparision with the
probe distance.
4. Variation of doping in the sample

REFERENCES

1. ‘Introduction of Solid State Physics’, by C. Kittel IVth edition.

2. 'Resistivity Measurements on Germanium for Transistor', by L.B. Valdes, Proceedings of
the IRE, Vol. 42, p. 420 (1954).
3. Hand Book of Semiconductor Electronics, by L.P. Hunter (ed.) McGraw Hill Book Co,
Inc. NY (1962).
4. 'Experiments in Modern Physics', by A.C. Melissions, Academic Press NY 1966.