Hyperbola

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A hyperbola is an open curve with two branches, the

intersection of a plane with both halves of a double
cone. The plane does not have to be parallel to the
axis of the cone; the hyperbola will be symmetrical in
any case.
Hyperbola (red): features

In mathematics, a hyperbola (plural

hyperbolas or hyperbolae) is a type of
smooth curve lying in a plane, defined by
its geometric properties or by equations
for which it is the solution set. A
hyperbola has two pieces, called
connected components or branches, that
are mirror images of each other and
resemble two infinite bows. The
hyperbola is one of the three kinds of
conic section, formed by the intersection
of a plane and a double cone. (The other
conic sections are the parabola and the
ellipse. A circle is a special case of an
ellipse.) If the plane intersects both
halves of the double cone but does not
pass through the apex of the cones, then
the conic is a hyperbola.

Hyperbolas arise in many ways:

as the curve representing the function

in the Cartesian plane,
as the path followed by the shadow of
the tip of a sundial,
as the shape of an open orbit (as
distinct from a closed elliptical orbit),
such as the orbit of a spacecraft
during a gravity assisted swing-by of a
planet or more generally any
spacecraft exceeding the escape
velocity of the nearest planet,
as the path of a single-apparition
comet (one travelling too fast ever to
return to the solar system),
as the scattering trajectory of a
subatomic particle (acted on by
repulsive instead of attractive forces
but the principle is the same),
in radio navigation, when the difference
between distances to two points, but
not the distances themselves, can be
determined,
and so on.

Each branch of the hyperbola has two

arms which become straighter (lower
curvature) further out from the center of
the hyperbola. Diagonally opposite arms,
one from each branch, tend in the limit to
a common line, called the asymptote of
those two arms. So there are two
asymptotes, whose intersection is at the
center of symmetry of the hyperbola,
which can be thought of as the mirror
point about which each branch reflects to
form the other branch. In the case of the
curve the asymptotes are
the two coordinate axes.
Hyperbolas share many of the ellipses'
analytical properties such as eccentricity,
focus, and directrix. Typically the
correspondence can be made with
nothing more than a change of sign in
some term. Many other mathematical
objects have their origin in the hyperbola,
such as hyperbolic paraboloids (saddle
surfaces), hyperboloids ("wastebaskets"),
hyperbolic geometry (Lobachevsky's
celebrated non-Euclidean geometry),
hyperbolic functions (sinh, cosh, tanh,
etc.), and gyrovector spaces (a geometry
proposed for use in both relativity and
quantum mechanics which is not
Euclidean).
Etymology and history
The word "hyperbola" derives from the
Greek ὑπερβολή, meaning "over-thrown"
or "excessive", from which the English
term hyperbole also derives. Hyperbolae
were discovered by Menaechmus in his
investigations of the problem of doubling
the cube, but were then called sections
of obtuse cones.[1] The term hyperbola is
believed to have been coined by
Apollonius of Perga (c. 262–c. 190 BC) in
his definitive work on the conic sections,
the Conics.[2] The names of the other two
general conic sections, the ellipse and
the parabola, derive from the
corresponding Greek words for
"deficient" and "applied"; all three names
are borrowed from earlier Pythagorean
terminology which referred to a
comparison of the side of rectangles of
fixed area with a given line segment. The
rectangle could be "applied" to the
segment (meaning, have an equal
length), be shorter than the segment or
exceed the segment.[3]

Definition of a hyperbola as
locus of points
Hyperbola: definition by the distances of points to
two fixed points (foci)

Hyperbola: definition with director circle

A hyperbola can be defined geometrically

as a set of points (locus of points) in the
Euclidean plane:

A hyperbola is a set of points, such

that for any point of the set, the
absolute difference of the distances
to two fixed points
 (the foci), is constant, usually
denoted by

The midpoint of the line segment

joining the foci is called the center of the
hyperbola. The line through the foci is
called the major axis. It contains the
vertices , which have distance to
the center. The distance of the foci to
the center is called the focal distance or
linear eccentricity. The quotient is the
eccentricity .

The equation
can be viewed in a different way (see
diagram):
If is the circle with midpoint and
radius , then the distance of a point
of the right branch to the circle equals
the distance to the focus :

is called the circular directrix (related

to focus ) of the hyperbola.[4][5] In
order to get the left branch of the
hyperbola, one has to use the circular
directrix related to . This property
should not be confused with the
definition of a hyperbola with help of a
directrix (line) below.

Hyperbola in Cartesian
coordinates
Equation

If Cartesian coordinates are introduced

such that the origin is the center of the
hyperbola and the x-axis is the major
axis, then the hyperbola is called east-
west-opening and

the foci are the points

,
the vertices are
.

For an arbitrary point the distance

to the focus is

and to the second focus

. Hence the point

 is on the hyperbola if the following
condition is fulfilled

Remove the square roots by suitable

squarings and use the relation
to obtain the equation of
the hyperbola:

This equation is called the canonical

form of a hyperbola, because any
hyperbola, regardless of its orientation
relative to the Cartesian axes and
regardless of the location of its center,
can be transformed to this form by a
change of variables, giving a hyperbola
that is congruent to the original (see
below).

The axes of symmetry or principal axes

are the transverse axis (containing the
segment of length 2a with endpoints at
the vertices) and the conjugate axis
(containing the segment of length 2b
perpendicular to the transverse axis and
with midpoint at the hyperbola’s center).
As opposed to an ellipse, a hyperbola has
only two vertices: . The
two points on the
conjugate axis are not on the hyperbola.
It follows from the equation that the
hyperbola is symmetric with respect to
both of the coordinate axes and hence
symmetric with respect to the origin.

Eccentricity

For a hyperbola in the above canonical

form, the eccentricity is given by

Two hyperbolas are geometrically similar

to each other – meaning that they have
the same shape, so that one can be
transformed into the other by rigid left
and right movements, rotation, taking a
mirror image, and scaling (magnification)
– if and only if they have the same
eccentricity.

Asymptotes

Hyperbola: semi-axes a,b, linear eccentricity c, semi

latus rectum p
Hyperbola: 3 properties

Solving the equation (above) of the

hyperbola for yields

It follows from this that the hyperbola

approaches the two lines

for large values of . These two lines

intersect at the center (origin) and are
called asymptotes of the hyperbola
With help of the figure one can see that

The distance from a focus to either

asymptote is (the semi-minor axis).

From the Hesse normal form

of the asymptotes and the

equation of the hyperbola one gets:[6]

The product of the distances from

a point on the hyperbola to both the

asymptotes is the constant

which can also be written in terms of

the eccentricity e as
From the equation

of the hyperbola (above) one can derive:

The product of the slopes of lines

from a point P to the two vertices is the
constant

In addition, from (2) above it can be

shown that[6]

The product of the distances from

a point on the hyperbola to the
asymptotes along lines parallel to the
asymptotes is the constant

Semi-latus rectum
The length of the chord through one of
the foci, perpendicular to the major axis
of the hyperbola, is called the latus
rectum. One half of it is the semi-latus
rectum . A calculation shows

The semi-latus rectum may also be

viewed as the radius of curvature of the
osculating circles at the vertices.

Tangent

The simplest way to determine the

equation of the tangent at a point
is to implicitly differentiate the
equation of the hyperbola.

Denoting dy/dx as y′, this produces

With respect to , the

equation of the tangent at point

is,

A particular tangent line distinguishes

the hyperbola from the other conic
sections.[7] Let f be the distance from the
vertex V (on both the hyperbola and its
axis through the two foci) to the nearer
focus. Then the distance, along a line
perpendicular to that axis, from that
focus to a point P on the hyperbola is
greater than 2f. The tangent to the
hyperbola at P intersects that axis at
point Q at an angle ∠PQV of greater than
45°.

Rectangular hyperbola

In the case the hyperbola is called

rectangular (or equilateral), because its
asymptotes intersect rectangularly (i.e.,
are perpendicular). For this case, the
linear eccentricity is , the
eccentricity and the semi-latus
rectum .
Parametric representation
with hyperbolic sine/cosine

Using the hyperbolic sine and cosine

functions , a parametric
representation of the hyperbola

can be obtained, which is

similar to the parametric representation

of an ellipse:

which satisfies the Cartesian equation

because

Further parametric representations are

given in the section Parametric equations
below.
Here a = b = 1 giving the unit hyperbola in blue and
its conjugate hyperbola in green, sharing the same
red asymptotes.

Conjugate hyperbola

Exchange and to obtain the equation

of the conjugate hyperbola (see
diagram):

also written as
Hyperbola with equation
y=A/x

Rotating the coordinate system in order to describe

a rectangular hyperbola as graph of a function
Three rectangular hyperbolas with the
coordinate axes as asymptotes
red: A=1, magenta: A=4; blue: A=9

If the xy-coordinate system is rotated

about the origin by the angle and
new coordinates are assigned, then
.

The rectangular hyperbola

(whose semi-axes are equal) has the new

equation . Solving for yields

Thus, in an xy-coordinate system the

graph of a function
 with equation

is a rectangular

hyperbola entirely in the first and third

quadrants with
the coordinate axes as asymptotes,
the line as major axis ,
the center and the semi-axis

the vertices

the semi-latus rectum and radius of

curvature at the vertices
 the linear eccentricity and
the eccentricity

the tangent at

point

A rotation of the original hyperbola by

results in a rectangular hyperbola
entirely in the second and fourth
quadrants, with the same asymptotes,
center, semi-latus rectum, radius of
curvature at the vertices, linear
eccentricity, and eccentricity as for the
case of rotation, with equation

the semi-axes
 the line as major axis,
the vertices

Shifting the hyperbola with equation

so that the new

center is , yields the new

equation

and the new asymptotes are and

.
The shape parameters
remain unchanged.

Definition of a hyperbola by
the directrix property

Hyperbola: directrix property

Hyperbola: definition with directrix property

The two lines at distance and

parallel to the minor axis are called

directrices of the hyperbola (see
diagram).

For an arbitrary point of the

hyperbola the quotient of the distance
to one focus and to the corresponding
directrix (see diagram) is equal to the
eccentricity:

The proof for the pair follows from

the fact that
and satisfy the

equation

The second case is proven analogously.

Pencil of conics with a common vertex and common

semi latus rectum

The inverse statement is also true and

can be used to define a hyperbola (in a
manner similar to the definition of a
parabola):

For any point (focus), any line

(directrix) not through and any real
number with the set of points
(locus of points), for which the
quotient of the distances to the point
and to the line is

is a hyperbola.

(The choice yields a parabola and

if an ellipse.)

Proof
Let and assume
is a point on the curve. The
directrix has equation . With
, the relation
produces the
equations

and

The substitution yields

This is the equation of an ellipse ( )

or a parabola ( ) or a hyperbola (
). All of these non-degenerate
conics have, in common, the origin as a
vertex (see diagram).

If , introduce new parameters

so that ,

and then the equation above becomes

which is the equation of a hyperbola with

center , the x-axis as major axis
and the major/minor semi axis .

Hyperbola as plane section

of a cone
Hyperbola (red): two views of a cone and two

Dandelin spheres d1, d2

The intersection of an upright double

cone by a plane not through the vertex
with slope greater than the slope of the
lines on the cone is a hyperbola (see
diagram: red curve). In order to prove the
defining property of a hyperbola (see
above) one uses two Dandelin spheres
, which are spheres that touch the
cone along circles , and the
intersecting (hyperbola) plane at points
and . It turns out: are the
foci of the hyperbola.

1. Let be an arbitrary point of the

intersection curve .
2. The generator (line) of the cone
containing intersects circle at point
and circle at a point .
3. The line segments and are
tangential to the sphere and, hence,
are of equal length.
4. The line segments and are
tangential to the sphere and, hence,
are of equal length.
5. The result is:

is independent of the hyperbola point .

The tangent bisects the

angle between the lines to
the foci

Hyperbola: the tangent bisects the lines through the

foci

For a hyperbola the following statement

is true:
 The tangent at a point bisects the
angle between the lines .
Proof

Let be the point on the line with

the distance to the focus (see
diagram, is the semi major axis of the
hyperbola). Line is the bisector of the
angle between the lines . In
order to prove that is the tangent line
at point , one checks that any point
on line which is different from
cannot be on the hyperbola. Hence
has only point in common with the
hyperbola and is, therefore, the tangent
at point .
From the diagram and the triangle
inequality one recognizes that

holds, which means:

. But if is a
point of the hyperbola, the difference
should be .

Midpoints of parallel chords

Hyperbola: the midpoints of parallel chords lie on a

line.
Hyperbola: the midpoint of a chord is the midpoint of
the corresponding chord of the asymptotes.

The midpoints of parallel chords of a

hyperbola lie on a line through the
center (see diagram).

The points of any chord may lie on

different branches of the hyperbola.

The proof of the property on midpoints is

best done for the hyperbola .
Because any hyperbola is an affine
image of the hyperbola (see
section below) and an affine
transformation preserves parallelism and
midpoints of line segments, the property
is true for all hyperbolas:
For two points
of the
hyperbola

the midpoint of the chord is

the slope of the chord is

For parallel chords the slope is constant

and the midpoints of the parallel chords
lie on the line
Consequence: for any pair of points
of a chord there exists a skew
reflection with an axis (set of fixed
points) passing through the center of the
hyperbola, which exchanges the points
and leaves the hyperbola (as a
whole) fixed. A skew reflection is a
generalization of an ordinary reflection
across a line , where all point-image
pairs are on a line perpendicular to .

Because a skew reflection leaves the

hyperbola fixed, the pair of asymptotes is
fixed, too. Hence the midpoint of a
chord divides the related line
segment between the asymptotes
into halves, too. This means that
 . This property can be
used for the construction of further
points of the hyperbola if a point
and the asymptotes are given.

If the chord degenerates into a tangent,

then the touching point divides the line
segment between the asymptotes in two
halves.

Steiner generation of a
hyperbola
Hyperbola: Steiner generation

Hyperbola y=1/x: Steiner generation

The following method to construct single

points of a hyperbola relies on the
Steiner generation of a non degenerate
conic section:

Given two pencils of

lines at two points (all lines
containing and , respectively) and
a projective but not perspective
 mapping of onto , then
the intersection points of
corresponding lines form a non-
degenerate projective conic section.

For the generation of points of the

hyperbola one uses the

pencils at the vertices . Let

be a point of the
hyperbola and
. The line
segment is divided into n equally-
spaced segments and this division is
projected parallel with the diagonal
as direction onto the line segment
(see diagram). The parallel projection is
part of the projective mapping between
the pencils at and needed. The
intersection points of any two related
lines and are points of the
uniquely defined hyperbola.

Remark: The subdivision could be

extended beyond the points and in
order to get more points, but the
determination of the intersection points
would become more inaccurate. A better
idea is extending the points already
constructed by symmetry (see
animation).

Remark:

1. The Steiner generation exists for

ellipses and parabolas, too.
2. The Steiner generation is sometimes
called a parallelogram method because
one can use other points rather than the
vertices, which starts with a
parallelogram instead of a rectangle.

Inscribed angles for

hyperbolas y=a/(x−b)+c and
the 3-point-form

Hyperbola: inscribed angle theorem

A hyperbola with equation
is uniquely
determined by three points
with
different x- and y-coordinates. A simple
way to determine the shape parameters
uses the inscribed angle theorem
for hyperbolas:

In order to measure an angle between

two lines with equations

in this context one uses the quotient

Analogous to the inscribed angle

theorem for circles one gets the
Inscribed angle theorem for
hyperbolas:,:[8][9]

For four points

(see diagram) the following statement

is true:
The four points are on a hyperbola with
equation if and only if
the angles at and are equal in
the sense of the measurement above.
That means if

(Proof: straightforward calculation. If the

points are on a hyperbola, one can
assume the hyperbola's equation is
.)

A consequence of the inscribed angle

theorem for hyperbolas is the

3-point-form of a hyperbola's equation:

The equation of the hyperbola

determined by 3 points

is the solution of the equation

for .

Orthogonal tangents -
orthoptic
Hyperbola with its orthoptic (magenta)

For a hyperbola

the intersection points of orthogonal

tangents lie on the circle
.
This circle is called the orthoptic of the
given hyperbola.

The tangents may belong to points on

different branches of the hyperbola.
In case of there are no pairs of
orthogonal tangents.

Pole-polar relation for a

hyperbola

Hyperbola: pole-polar relation

Any hyperbola can be described in a

suitable coordinate system by an

equation . The equation of

the tangent at a point of

the hyperbola is If one
allows point to be an
arbitrary point different from the origin,
then

point is
mapped onto the line

, not through the

center of the hyperbola.

This relation between points and lines is

a bijection.

The inverse function maps

line onto the

point and
 line onto the point

Such a relation between points and lines

generated by a conic is called pole-polar
relation or just polarity. The pole is the
point, the polar the line. See Pole and
polar.

By calculation one checks the following

properties of the pole-polar relation of
the hyperbola:

For a point (pole) on the hyperbola the

polar is the tangent at this point (see
diagram: ).
 For a pole outside the hyperbola the
intersection points of its polar with the
hyperbola are the tangency points of
the two tangents passing (see
diagram: ).
For a point within the hyperbola the
polar has no point with the hyperbola
in common. (see diagram: ).

Remarks:

1. The intersection point of two polars

(for example: ) is the pole of the
line through their poles (here: ).
2. The foci and
respectively and the directrices
and respectively belong to
pairs of pole and polar.

Pole-polar relations exist for ellipses and

parabolas, too.

Hyperbola as an affine
image of the unit hyperbola
x²-y²=1

Hyperbola as an affine image of the unit hyperbola

Another definition of a hyperbola uses
affine transformations:

Any hyperbola is the affine image of

the unit hyperbola with equation
.

An affine transformation of the Euclidean

plane has the form ,
where is a regular matrix (its
determinant is not 0) and is an
arbitrary vector. If are the column
vectors of the matrix , the unit
hyperbola
is mapped onto the hyperbola
 is the center, a point of the
hyperbola and a tangent vector at
this point. In general the vectors
are not perpendicular. That means, in
general are not the vertices of
the hyperbola. But point into
the directions of the asymptotes.

The tangent vector at point is

Because at a vertex the tangent is

perpendicular to the major axis of the
hyperbola one gets the parameter of a
vertex from the equation
and hence from

which yields

(The formulae

were used.)

The two vertices of the hyperbola are

The advantage of this definition is that

one gets a simple parametric
representation of an arbitrary hyperbola,
even in the space, if the vectors
are vectors of the Euclidean
space.

Hyperbola as an affine
image of the hyperbola
y=1/x

Hyperbola as affine image of y=1/x

Because the unit hyperbola

is affinely equivalent to the
hyperbola , an arbitrary
hyperbola can be considered as the
affine image (see previous section) of
the hyperbola

is the center of the hyperbola,

the vectors have the directions
of the asymptotes and is a
point of the hyperbola. The tangent
vector is

At a vertex the tangent is perpendicular

to the major axis. Hence
and the parameter of a vertex is

is equivalent to
and are the vertices
of the hyperbola.

The following properties of a hyperbola

are easily proven using the
representation of a hyperbola introduced
in this section.

Tangent construction
Tangent construction: asymptotes and P given →
tangent

The tangent vector can be rewritten by

factorization:

This means that

the diagonal of the parallelogram

is parallel to the tangent at the

hyperbola point (see diagram).
This property provides a way to construct
the tangent at a point on the hyperbola.

This property of a hyperbola is an affine

version of the 3-point-degeneration of
Pascal's theorem.[10]

Area of the grey parallelogram

The area of the grey parallelogram MAPB

in the above diagram is

and hence independent of point P. The

last equation follows from a calculation
for the case, where P is a vertex and the
hyperbola in its canonical form

Point construction

Point construction: asymptotes and P1 are given →

P2

For a hyperbola with parametric

representation
(for simplicity
the center is the origin) the following is
true:

For any two points

the points

are collinear with the center of the

hyperbola (see diagram).

The simple proof is a consequence of the

equation .

This property provides a possibility to

construct points of a hyperbola if the
asymptotes and one point are given.
This property of a hyperbola is an affine
version of the 4-point-degeneration of
Pascal's theorem.[11]

Tangent-asymptotes-triangle

Hyperbola: tangent-asymptotes-triangle

For simplicity the center of the hyperbola

may be the origin and the vectors
have equal length. If the last
assumption is not fulfilled one can first
apply a parameter transformation (see
above) in order to make the assumption
true. Hence   are the
vertices,   span the minor
axis and one gets   and
  .

For the intersection points of the tangent

at point   with the

asymptotes one gets the points

The area of the triangle   can be

calculated by a 2x2-determinant:

 
(see rules for determinants).
  is the area of the
rhombus generated by . The area
of a rhombus is equal to one half of the
product of its diagonals. The diagonals
are the semi-axes of the hyperbola.
Hence:

The area of the triangle   is

independent of the point of the
hyperbola:  

Polar coordinates

 
Hyperbola: Polar coordinates with pole = focus

Hyperbola: Polar coordinates with pole = center

pole = focus:

The polar coordinates used most

commonly for the hyperbola are defined
relative to the Cartesian coordinate
system that has its origin in a focus and
its x-axis pointing towards the origin of
the "canonical coordinate system" as
illustrated in the first diagram.
In this case the angle   is called true
anomaly.

Relative to this coordinate system one

has that

and

pole = center:

With polar coordinates relative to the

"canonical coordinate system" (see
second diagram) one has that
  

For the right branch of the hyperbola the

range of   is

Parametric equations
A hyperbola with equation

can be described by several parametric

equations:

1:  
 2:  

(rational representation)
3:
 

4: Tangent slope as parameter:

A parametric representation, which uses

the slope of the tangent at a point of
the hyperbola can be obtained
analogously to the ellipse case: Replace
in the ellipse case   by   and use
formulae for the hyperbolic functions.
One gets
  

  is the upper and   the lower half of

the hyperbola. The points with vertical
tangents (vertices   ) are not
covered by the representation.
The equation of the tangent at point
  is

This description of the tangents of a

hyperbola is an essential tool for the
determination of the orthoptic of a
hyperbola.

Other mathematical
definitions
Reciprocation of a circle

The reciprocation of a circle B in a circle

C always yields a conic section such as a
hyperbola. The process of "reciprocation
in a circle C" consists of replacing every
line and point in a geometrical figure with
their corresponding pole and polar,
respectively. The pole of a line is the
inversion of its closest point to the circle
C, whereas the polar of a point is the
converse, namely, a line whose closest
point to C is the inversion of the point.

The eccentricity of the conic section

obtained by reciprocation is the ratio of
the distances between the two circles'
centers to the radius r of reciprocation
circle C. If B and C represent the points at
the centers of the corresponding circles,
then

Since the eccentricity of a hyperbola is

always greater than one, the center B
must lie outside of the reciprocating
circle C.

This definition implies that the hyperbola

is both the locus of the poles of the
tangent lines to the circle B, as well as
the envelope of the polar lines of the
points on B. Conversely, the circle B is the
envelope of polars of points on the
hyperbola, and the locus of poles of
tangent lines to the hyperbola. Two
tangent lines to B have no (finite) poles
because they pass through the center C
of the reciprocation circle C; the polars of
the corresponding tangent points on B
are the asymptotes of the hyperbola. The
two branches of the hyperbola
correspond to the two parts of the circle
B that are separated by these tangent
points.

Quadratic equation
A hyperbola can also be defined as a
second-degree equation in the Cartesian
coordinates (x, y) in the plane,

provided that the constants Axx, Axy, Ayy,

Bx, By, and C satisfy the determinant
condition

This determinant is conventionally called

the discriminant of the conic section.[12]

A special case of a hyperbola—the

degenerate hyperbola consisting of two
intersecting lines—occurs when another
determinant is zero:

This determinant Δ is sometimes called

the discriminant of the conic section.[13]

Given the above general parametrization

of the hyperbola in Cartesian
coordinates, the eccentricity can be
found using the formula in Conic
section#Eccentricity in terms of
parameters of the quadratic form.

The center (xc, yc) of the hyperbola may

be determined from the formulae
  

In terms of new coordinates, ξ = x − xc

and η = y − yc, the defining equation of
the hyperbola can be written

The principal axes of the hyperbola make

an angle φ with the positive x-axis that is
given by

 
Rotating the coordinate axes so that the
x-axis is aligned with the transverse axis
brings the equation into its canonical
form

The major and minor semiaxes a and b

are defined by the equations

where λ1 and λ2 are the roots of the

quadratic equation
  

For comparison, the corresponding

equation for a degenerate hyperbola
(consisting of two intersecting lines) is

The tangent line to a given point (x0, y0)

on the hyperbola is defined by the
equation

where E, F and G are defined by

 
 
 
The normal line to the hyperbola at the
same point is given by the equation

The normal line is perpendicular to the

tangent line, and both pass through the
same point (x0, y0).

From the equation

the left focus is   and the right

focus is   where e is the
eccentricity. Denote the distances from a
point (x, y) to the left and right foci as  
and   For a point on the right branch,
  

and for a point on the left branch,

This can be proved as follows:

If (x,y) is a point on the hyperbola the

distance to the left focal point is

To the right focal point the distance is

If (x,y) is a point on the right branch of

the hyperbola then   and

 
  

Subtracting these equations one gets

If (x,y) is a point on the left branch of the

hyperbola then   and

 
 

Subtracting these equations one gets

Conic section analysis of the

hyperbolic appearance of
circles
 

Central projection of circles on a sphere: The center

O of projection is inside the sphere, the image plane
is red.
As images of the circles one gets a circle (magenta),
ellipses, hyperbolas and lines. The special case of a
parabola does not appear in this example.
(If center O were on the sphere, all images of the
circles would be circles or lines; see stereographic
projection).

Besides providing a uniform description

of circles, ellipses, parabolas, and
hyperbolas, conic sections can also be
understood as a natural model of the
geometry of perspective in the case
where the scene being viewed consists
of circles, or more generally an ellipse.
The viewer is typically a camera or the
human eye and the image of the scene a
central projection onto an image plane,
i.e., all projection rays pass a fixed point
O, the center. The lens plane is a plane
parallel to the image plane at the lens O.

The image of a circle c is

a) a circle, if circle c is in a special

position, for example parallel to the
image plane and others (see
stereographic projection),
b) an ellipse, if c has no point with the
lens plane in common,
 c) a parabola, if c has one point with
the lens plane in common and
d) a hyperbola, if c has two points with
the lens plane in common.

(Special positions where the circle plane

contains point O are omitted.)

These results can be understood if one

recognizes that the projection process
can be seen in two steps: 1) circle c and
point O generate a cone which is 2) cut
by the image plane, in order to generate
the image.

One sees a hyperbola whenever catching

sight of a portion of a circle cut by one's
lens plane. The inability to see very much
of the arms of the visible branch,
combined with the complete absence of
the second branch, makes it virtually
impossible for the human visual system
to recognize the connection with
hyperbolas.

Derived curves

Sinusoidal spirals: equilateral hyperbola (n = −2), line

(n = −1), parabola (n = − 12 ), cardioid (n = 12 ), circle
( ), p ( 2 ), ( 2 ),
(n = 1) and lemniscate of Bernoulli (n = 2), where
rn = −1n cos nθ in polar coordinates and their
equivalents in rectangular coordinates.

Several other curves can be derived from

the hyperbola by inversion, the so-called
inverse curves of the hyperbola. If the
center of inversion is chosen as the
hyperbola's own center, the inverse curve
is the lemniscate of Bernoulli; the
lemniscate is also the envelope of circles
centered on a rectangular hyperbola and
passing through the origin. If the center
of inversion is chosen at a focus or a
vertex of the hyperbola, the resulting
inverse curves are a limaçon or a
strophoid, respectively.
Elliptic coordinates
A family of confocal hyperbolas is the
basis of the system of elliptic
coordinates in two dimensions. These
hyperbolas are described by the equation

where the foci are located at a distance c

from the origin on the x-axis, and where θ
is the angle of the asymptotes with the x-
axis. Every hyperbola in this family is
orthogonal to every ellipse that shares
the same foci. This orthogonality may be
shown by a conformal map of the
Cartesian coordinate system w = z + 1/z,
where z= x + iy are the original Cartesian
coordinates, and w=u + iv are those after
the transformation.

Other orthogonal two-dimensional

coordinate systems involving hyperbolas
may be obtained by other conformal
mappings. For example, the mapping w =
z2 transforms the Cartesian coordinate
system into two families of orthogonal
hyperbolas.

Other properties of
hyperbolas
The following are concurrent: (1) a
circle passing through the hyperbola's
foci and centered at the hyperbola's
 center; (2) either of the lines that are
tangent to the hyperbola at the
vertices; and (3) either of the
asymptotes of the hyperbola.[14][15]
The following are also concurrent: (1)
the circle that is centered at the
hyperbola's center and that passes
through the hyperbola's vertices; (2)
either directrix; and (3) either of the
asymptotes.[15]

Hyperbolic functions

 
A ray through the unit hyperbola   in
the point   , where is twice the
area between the ray, the hyperbola, and the -axis.
For points on the hyperbola below the -axis, the
area is considered negative.

Just as the trigonometric functions are

defined in terms of the unit circle, so also
the hyperbolic functions are defined in
terms of the unit hyperbola, as shown in
this diagram.

Applications

 
Hyperbolas as declination lines on a sundial

Sundials

Hyperbolas may be seen in many

sundials. On any given day, the sun
revolves in a circle on the celestial
sphere, and its rays striking the point on
a sundial traces out a cone of light. The
intersection of this cone with the
horizontal plane of the ground forms a
conic section. At most populated
latitudes and at most times of the year,
this conic section is a hyperbola. In
practical terms, the shadow of the tip of
a pole traces out a hyperbola on the
ground over the course of a day (this
path is called the declination line). The
shape of this hyperbola varies with the
geographical latitude and with the time
of the year, since those factors affect the
cone of the sun's rays relative to the
horizon. The collection of such
hyperbolas for a whole year at a given
location was called a pelekinon by the
Greeks, since it resembles a double-
bladed axe.

Multilateration

A hyperbola is the basis for solving

multilateration problems, the task of
locating a point from the differences in
its distances to given points — or,
equivalently, the difference in arrival
times of synchronized signals between
the point and the given points. Such
problems are important in navigation,
particularly on water; a ship can locate
its position from the difference in arrival
times of signals from a LORAN or GPS
transmitters. Conversely, a homing
beacon or any transmitter can be located
by comparing the arrival times of its
signals at two separate receiving
stations; such techniques may be used to
track objects and people. In particular,
the set of possible positions of a point
that has a distance difference of 2a from
two given points is a hyperbola of vertex
separation 2a whose foci are the two
given points.
Path followed by a particle

The path followed by any particle in the

classical Kepler problem is a conic
section. In particular, if the total energy E
of the particle is greater than zero (i.e., if
the particle is unbound), the path of such
a particle is a hyperbola. This property is
useful in studying atomic and sub-atomic
forces by scattering high-energy
particles; for example, the Rutherford
experiment demonstrated the existence
of an atomic nucleus by examining the
scattering of alpha particles from gold
atoms. If the short-range nuclear
interactions are ignored, the atomic
nucleus and the alpha particle interact
only by a repulsive Coulomb force, which
satisfies the inverse square law
requirement for a Kepler problem.

Korteweg–de Vries equation

The hyperbolic trig function  

appears as one solution to the
Korteweg–de Vries equation which
describes the motion of a soliton wave in
a canal.

Angle trisection
 

Trisecting an angle (AOB) using a hyperbola of

eccentricity 2 (yellow curve)

As shown first by Apollonius of Perga, a

hyperbola can be used to trisect any
angle, a well studied problem of
geometry. Given an angle, first draw a
circle centered at its vertex O, which
intersects the sides of the angle at points
A and B. Next draw the line segment with
endpoints A and B and its perpendicular
bisector   . Construct a hyperbola of
eccentricity e=2 with   as directrix and B
as a focus. Let P be the intersection
(upper) of the hyperbola with the circle.
Angle POB trisects angle AOB.

To prove this, reflect the line segment OP

about the line   obtaining the point P' as
the image of P. Segment AP' has the
same length as segment BP due to the
reflection, while segment PP' has the
same length as segment BP due to the
eccentricity of the hyperbola. As OA, OP',
OP and OB are all radii of the same circle
(and so, have the same length), the
triangles OAP', OPP' and OPB are all
congruent. Therefore, the angle has been
trisected, since 3×POB = AOB.[16]
Efficient portfolio frontier

In portfolio theory, the locus of mean-

variance efficient portfolios (called the
efficient frontier) is the upper half of the
east-opening branch of a hyperbola
drawn with the portfolio return's standard
deviation plotted horizontally and its
expected value plotted vertically;
according to this theory, all rational
investors would choose a portfolio
characterized by some point on this
locus.

Hyperbolas as plane
sections of quadrics
Hyperbolas appear as plane sections of
the following quadrics:

Elliptic cone
Hyperbolic cylinder
Hyperbolic paraboloid
Hyperboloid of one sheet
Hyperboloid of two sheets
  

Elliptic cone

Hyperbolic cylinder
  

Hyperbolic paraboloid

Hyperboloid of one sheet

  

Hyperboloid of two sheets

See also
Other conic sections

Circle
Ellipse
Parabola
Degenerate conic

Other related topics

 Elliptic coordinates, an orthogonal
coordinate system based on families
of ellipses and hyperbolas.
Hyperbolic growth
Hyperbolic partial differential equation
Hyperbolic sector
Hyperbolic structure
Hyperbolic trajectory
Hyperboloid
Multilateration
Rotation of axes
Translation of axes
Unit hyperbola

Notes
1. Heath, Sir Thomas Little (1896),
"Chapter I. The discovery of conic
sections. Menaechmus", Apollonius of
Perga: Treatise on Conic Sections with
Introductions Including an Essay on
Earlier History on the Subject , Cambridge
University Press, pp. xvii–xxx.
2. Boyer, Carl B.; Merzbach, Uta C. (2011),
A History of Mathematics , Wiley, p. 73,
ISBN 9780470630563, "It was Apollonius
(possibly following up a suggestion of
Archimedes) who introduced the names
"ellipse" and "hyperbola" in connection
with these curves."
3. Eves, Howard (1963), A Survey of
Geometry (Vol. One), Allyn and Bacon,
pp. 30–31
4. Apostol, Tom M.; Mnatsakanian,
Mamikon A. (2012), New Horizons in
Geometry, The Dolciani Mathematical
Expositions #47, The Mathematical
Association of America, p. 251, ISBN 978-
0-88385-354-2
5. The German term for this circle is
Leitkreis which can be translated as
"Director circle", but that term has a
different meaning in the English literature
(see Director circle).
6. Mitchell, Douglas W., "A property of
hyperbolas and their asymptotes",
Mathematical Gazette 96, July 2012, 299–
301.
7. J. W. Downs, Practical Conic Sections,
Dover Publ., 2003 (orig. 1993): p. 26.
8. E. Hartmann: Lecture Note 'Planar
Circle Geometries', an Introduction to
Möbius-, Laguerre- and Minkowski Planes,
p. 93
9. W. Benz: Vorlesungen über Geomerie
der Algebren, Springer (1973)
10. Lecture Note Planar Circle
Geometries, an Introduction to Moebius-,
Laguerre- and Minkowski Planes , S. 33,
(PDF; 757 kB)
11. Lecture Note Planar Circle
Geometries, an Introduction to Moebius-,
Laguerre- and Minkowski Planes , S. 32,
(PDF; 757 kB)
12. Fanchi, John R. (2006), Math refresher
for scientists and engineers , John Wiley
and Sons, pp. 44–45, ISBN 0-471-75715-2,
Section 3.2, page 45
13. Korn, Granino A. and Korn, Theresa M.
Mathematical Handbook for Scientists
and Engineers: Definitions, Theorems, and
Formulas for Reference and Review, Dover
Publ., second edition, 2000: p. 40.
14. "Hyperbola" . Mathafou.free.fr.
Retrieved 26 August 2018.
15. [1]
16. This construction is due to Pappus of
Alexandria (circa 300 A.D.) and the proof
comes from Kazarinoff (1970, pg. 62).

References
Kazarinoff, Nicholas D. (2003), Ruler
and the Round, Mineola, N.Y.: Dover,
ISBN 0-486-42515-0

External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related
to Hyperbolas.

Wikisource has the text of the 1911

Encyclopædia Britannica article
Hyperbola.
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001) [1994],
"Hyperbola" , Encyclopedia of
Mathematics, Springer
Science+Business Media B.V. / Kluwer
Academic Publishers, ISBN 978-1-
55608-010-4
Apollonius' Derivation of the
Hyperbola at Convergence
"Unit hyperbola" . PlanetMath.
"Conic section" . PlanetMath.
"Conjugate hyperbola" . PlanetMath.
Weisstein, Eric W. "Hyperbola" .
MathWorld.
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