Modal verbs

 Modal verbs are used to talk about ability, possibility, obligation, prohibition, or to make
requests or offers.

Form

Modal verb + Verb (bare infinitive)

Modal
Usages Examples
verbs
Ability I can play the piano very well.
Permission Can I go now?
Possibility It can be a very good day tomorrow.
I can help you with this homework. Don’t
Offer
worry!
Can Request Can you please pass me the salt?
Ability in the past I could play the piano well when I was 9.
Polite permission Excuse me, could I come in?
Possibility A hailstorm could come here tomorrow.
Polite offer No problem. I could give you a lift.

Polite request Could you please move to the next slide?

Could
Permission May I leave early?

May Possibility Astronauts may discover life in other planets.

Polite permission Might I take you home?

Possibility I might visit him tomorrow if the weather is nice.

Might
Obligation You must do homework.
He must be at the cinema now. He told me about
Must Certainty
that yesterday.
Mustn't Prohibition You mustn’t play here. It’s dangerous.
 Modal
Usages Examples
verbs
The weather forecast predicts that it’ll rain
Prediction
tonight.
Promise I’ll finish all the homework by Friday.
Spontaneous decision I’ll lend you some money.

Request/ demand Will you please give me that book?

Will
My dad said that he would give me some toys on
Used as the past form of “will”
my birthday.

Polite request/ demand Would you mind closing the door, please?
Would
Prediction This time tomorrow I shall be in London.

Offer/ suggestion Shall we discuss this further with him?

Shall
Advice You should see the doctor. It’s swollen.
Prediction/ expectation The project should be done before May.

Polite suggestion Should I call her to say sorry?

Should
You ought to say good bye to your parents when
Obligation
you leave.

Advice You ought to sleep early. You look really tired.

Ought to
Used to talk about something not You needn’t give him any advice. He won’t
necessary listen.
Needn't

Irregular verb


 Regular verbs are verbs formed by adding –ed to the end.

 Regular verbs
Bare infinitive Simple past Past participle
wash washed washed
walk walked walked
cook cooked cooked

 Unlikely, irregular verbs are verbs that do not form its simple past tense or past participle
by adding –ed to the bare infinitive.

 List of common irregular verbs

Bare infinitive Simple past Past participle

awake awoke/ awaked awaken
arise arose arisen
be was, were been
become became become
begin began begun
bite bit bitten
bet bet bet
break broke broken
build built built
bring brought brought
burn burnt/ burned burnt/ burned
buy bought bought
come came come
cut cut cut
cost cost cost
choose chose chosen
cook cook cook
catch caught caught
do did done
do do do
deal dealt dealt
draw drew drawn
dream dreamt, dreamed dreamt, dreamed
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
Bare infinitive Simple past Past participle
find found found
feel felt felt
feed fed fed
fly flew flown
forgive forgave forgiven
forget forgot forgotten
give gave given
grow grew grown
get got got/ gotten
go went gone
have had had
hit hit hit
hold held held
hear heard heard
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
know knew known
lay laid laid
lie lay lain
lead led led
learn learnt/ learned learnt/ learned
leave left left
lend lent lent
lose lost lost
let let let
meet met met
mean meant meant
make made made
pay paid paid
put put put
quit quit quit
read read read
ride rode ridden
run ran run
sit sat sat
see saw seen
say said said
Bare infinitive Simple past Past participle
shut shut shut
show showed showed/ shown
shoot shot shot
sell sold sold
send sent sent
sing sang sung
sleep slept slept
smell smelt/ smelled smelt/ smelled
speak spoke spoken
spend spent spent
stand stood stood
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
take took taken
tell told told
teach taught taught
think thought thought
throw threw thrown
understand understood understood
wake woke/ waked woke/ waked
wear wore worn
write wrote written

WH- questions


 WH-questions are questions starting with WH-words including: what, when, where, who,
whom, which, whose, why and how.

Question
Usages Examples
words
- What are you doing?
WHAT Used to ask about things
- What do you think about the movie?

- When will the meeting start?

WHEN Used to ask about time
Question
Usages Examples
words
- When are you leaving?

- Where’s my bag?
WHERE Used to ask about places
- Where do you live?

- Who do you love the most in your family?

WHO Used to ask about people
- Who told you that story?

- Whom did you see in the morning? I saw Mr.

Mark, my English teacher.
Used to ask about people
WHOM
(object of verb) - Whom was Jim talking to? He was talking to Jack, his
new roommate.

- Which one do you choose? The left or right?

WHICH Used to ask about choices - Of all the drinks in the menu, which one would you
like?

- Whose pencil is this? Is it yours?

WHOSE Used to ask about possession
- Whose books are these?

- Why did it happen? I didn’t understand.

Used to ask about reasons/
WHY
causes - Why is he crying?

- How can you explain this problem? Please tell us.

Used to ask about manner/
HOW
process - How can you get here?

How to form WH-questions?

- with an auxiliary
 WH-WORD + AUXILIARY + SUBJECT + MAIN VERB …?

 Auxiliary verbs are helping verbs (not main verbs).

  

Common auxiliary verbs include be, do, have. Others are will, shall, would, can, could, must,
should, may, might, etc.

 What do you do for a living?

 Why should we read books?
 When is she coming?

- without any auxiliary

(when WH-words replace subjects already)

 WH-WORD + MAIN VERB …?

 What happened to Peter?



 A bad accident happened to him today.

 Who won the game?

  Tio won the game.

 Who gave you this present?

 My cousin gave me this present.

Adverbs of Frequency


 Adverbs of frequency is used to say how often we do things or how often things happen.

 

They stand before main verbs and after TOBE.

 He always wakes up late.

 He is always a good student.

Frequency Adverbs of frequency Examples

100% Always My dad always takes good care of my family.
80% Usually I usually go to the park after school.
60% Often My cat often play with her baby in the garden.
30-50% Sometimes I am sometimes late for school.
Frequency Adverbs of frequency Examples
10% Seldom/ rarely Jane rarely waters the plants. She’s lazy.
5% Hardly He hardly calls me. He doesn’t love me.
0% Never I never clean my room. I hate cleaning.

Question tags


 Are questions at the end of the statement

  Used in spoken language

  Used for confirming information or asking for someone’s agreement or disagreement

 

Form: Question tag = Auxiliary + Subject

A POSITIVE STATEMENT, A NEGATIVE QUESTION TAG?

A POSITIVE STATEMENT A NEGATIVE QUESTION TAG

You are (a doctor) aren’t you?
She is (a doctor) isn’t she?
They were (doctors) weren’t they?
She was (a doctor) wasn’t she?
You run (very fast) don’t you?
He runs (very fast) doesn’t he?
They ran (very fast) didn’t they?
You have (finished the homework) haven’t you?
She has (finished the homework) hasn’t she?
They had (finished the homework) hadn’t they?
He can (swim well) can’t he?
She could (swim well) couldn’t she?
They will (come early) won’t they?
They would (come early) wouldn’t they?
They must (come early) mustn’t they?
They should (come early) shouldn’t they?

 He’s 6 years old, isn’t he?

 You’re reading, aren’t you?
  They’ve just had breakfast, haven’t they?

A NEGATIVE STATEMENT, A POSITIVE QUESTION TAG?

A NEGATIVE STATEMENT A POSITIVE QUESTION TAG

You aren’t (a doctor) are you?
She isn’t (a doctor) is she?
They weren’t (doctors) were they?
She wasn’t (a doctor) was she?
You don’t run (very fast) do you?
He doesn’t run (very fast) does he?
They didn’t run (very fast) did they?
You haven’t (finished the homework) have you?
She hasn’t (finished the homework) has she?
They hadn’t (finished the homework) had they?
He can’t (swim well) can he?
She couldn’t (swim well) could she?
They won’t (come early) will they?
They wouldn’t (come early) would they?
They mustn’t (come early) must they?
They shouldn’t (come early) should they?

 You haven’t answers all the questions in the test, have you?
 Kelly didn’t help you, did she?
 Tom couldn’t pass the exam, could he?

Exceptions:

Pay attention to the following question tags. They don’t follow any rules.

Statements Question tags Examples

I am … aren’t I? I am too loud, aren’t I?
Let’s … shall we? Let’s go to the beach, shall we?
Statements without subjects
- Open the door, will you?
Ex:
will you? - Listen, will you?
- Open the door.
- Don’t come any closer, will you?
- Don’t come any closer.
Positive statements with negative Positive - She can hardly understand what I have
Statements Question tags Examples
senses question tags experienced, can she?

Ex: - George could hardly speak any English

words, could he?
- She can hardly understand what I
have experienced. - Nobody remembered to turn off the
light, did they?
- Nobody remembered to turn off the
light.

Intonation

Depending on the speaker’s purposes, intonations for question tags are different.

He should review the whole lessons, shouldn’t he?

Intonation falling, voice goes down rising, voice goes up
You’re sure about the information. You You’re not sure about the information.
Meanings
want to confirm. You want to check.

Reflexive Pronouns
Form

Reflexive pronouns end with –self (singular) or –selves (plural)

Subject pronouns Reflexive pronouns

I Myself
He Himself
She Herself
It Itself
You Yourself/ yourselves
We Ourselves
They Themselves

Usages


  Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and object refer to the same thing or
person.

 My dad accidentally cut himself with a knife. He’s so careless.

 I can help myself. Don’t worry.
 She gave herself a present for her birthday.

 Reflexive pronouns are used to emphasize.

 I myself feel really sorry for what happened to him.

 They themselves have broken the vase. I’m sure.
 She did the homework herself. No one helped her.

 Conditionals
Conditional
Usages Forms Examples
type
IF MAIN
CLAUSE CLAUSE
- If you heat ice, it melts.

Used to talk about the - If it rains, everything gets

Zero Present
general truths/ things Present simple wet.
conditional simple
that are always true
- Your heart beats faster if
you’re worried.
-If I win the game, I’ll get
some prizes.

- She’ll get bad score if

First Used to talk about real Present WILL + Verb-
she doesn’t study hard.
conditional or possible situations simple bare
- If the weather is nice
tomorrow, we’ll go
camping.
-If I met him yesterday, I
would tell him the truth.
Used to talk about
Second Past WOULD + - I would pass the exam if
unreal or impossible
conditional simple Verb-bare I studied hard.
situations at present
- If Sally drove more
carefully, she wouldn’t
 Conditional
Usages Forms Examples
type
have any accident.
-If Jane had known the
truth, she would have been
very shocked.

Used to talk about WOULD - I would have won the

Third Past
unreal or impossible HAVE + Past competition if I had tried
conditional perfect
situations in the past participle harder.

- If I had finished
homework earlier, I would
have gone to the movies.

Possessive Adjectives and Possessive

Pronouns


 Similarities and differences between possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns

Possessive adjectives Possessive pronouns

Similarities used to show ownership

Differences
 Can’t stand alone
 


Stand before nouns

My T-shirt is blue.
 Stand alone
 

Replace nouns

His T-shirt is read while mine is blue.

List of possessive adjectives and possessive pronouns

Subject pronouns Object pronouns Adjective pronouns (AP) Possessive pronouns (PP)
Subject pronouns Object pronouns Adjective pronouns (AP) Possessive pronouns (PP)
I Me My Mine
You You Your Yours
He Him His His
She Her Her Hers
It It Its Its
We Us Our Ours
They Them Their Theirs

 This is my pen. It’s mine.



 my: AP; mine: PP

 This is his car. It’s his.
  his (1): AP; his (2): PP
 These are our books. They’re ours.
  our: AP, ours: PP
 This is her bike. Hers is read and mine is purple.
 her: AP; hers: PP, mine: PP

This, that, these, those

This, that, these, those as pronouns

 We use “this” (singular) and “these” (plural) to talk about something near us.

 This is my favorite T-shirt.

 These are my favorite T-shirts.
 This is a cat.
 These are my cats.

 We use “that” (singular) and “those” (plural) to talk about something far from us.

 That is my phone.
 Those are my phones.
 That is my brother.
 Those are my brothers.
This, that, these, those as determiners

A determiner is a word (such as the, some, my, this, that, these, those, etc.) that comes before a
noun.

 We use “this” and “that” with singular and uncountable nouns.

 Please give this pencil to John.

 This music makes me happy.
 I’ll buy that book.
 That beef is so raw.

 We use “these” and “those” with plural nouns.

 These performances are amazing.

 Have a look at these sentences.
 I love those beautiful memories.
 Don’t touch those plants. They’re dangerous.

Article
Indefinite article (a/ an)

 Indefinite articles refer to a general thing instead of a particular one.

  “A” and “an” go with singular nouns.
  “An” precedes a noun beginning with a vowel (A, E, I, O ,U)

 

(an apple, an elephant, an ice cream, an orange, an umbrella)

 Please give me a pen; any pen will do.

 Please hand me a notebook; any notebook will do.
 I saw a man riding a horse.
Definite article (the)

 Definite article refers to a particular thing, instead of a general thing. Hearers know
exactly which one we’re talking about.

 “The” precedes singular, plural and uncountable nouns.

 There are many pens on the table. Please give me the red one.
 There is a garden behind my house. The garden is very beautiful.
 My mom gave me a postcard. The postcard she gave me is red.

Preposition
A preposition is a word (such as in, from, to, at, on, etc.) which is used before a noun or pronoun
to show place, position, time or method.

 Preposition of time (in, on, at, etc.)

 Preposition of time refers to the time.

Preposition Usages Examples

The event happened in the 20th century.
Centuries
She was the only writer born in the 19th century.
I’m going to France in the winter.
Seasons
He likes going to the beach in the summer.
He was born in 1990.
Years
This house was built in 2000.
We’ll take the test in June.
Months
They are going to get married in December.
He usually has a snack in the afternoon.
In Parts of day
I get up at 6 am in the morning.
Preposition Usages Examples
My mom always goes shopping on Mondays.
Days
He doesn’t go to school on Sundays.
Her birthday is on the first of May.
Dates
He’s leaving on the fifth of October.
I wish to get a doll on my birthday.
On Particular days
Jim gave his girlfriend a rose on Valentine’s day.
My grandpa goes to bed at 9 pm.
Clock time
My wife starts working at 8am.
at night, at noon, at lunchtime, at sunset

At Short and precise times Don’t stay up late at night.

See you at lunchtime.

 Preposition of place (in, on, at, etc.)

 Preposition of place refers to the position and direction.

Preposition Usages Examples

The baby has gone. She isn’t in the
room.

Room, town, country He’s working in New York now.

Nina is an American. She was born in

America.
There’s a doll in the car.
Car, taxi
I’m in the taxi now. I’ll get there in 5
minutes.
Who’s this sexy lady in the picture?
Picture
What can you see in the picture?
I saw this writer in the book Harry
Potter.
Book
In There are lots of lively illustrations in
the book.
Preposition Usages Examples
Which is the longest river in the
world?
The World
Have a look at 3 best countries in the
world. What do you think?
My house is on Jackson street.
Streets
The kids are playing on the street.
He lives on this island.
Islands
There are not many people living on
that island.
My teacher put the books on the table.
Surfaces:
Please put your shoes on the floor.
table, floor, wall
The picture on the wall is fantastic.
Max is the tall boy standing on the
right.
A certain side (left, right)
Human heart is on the left side.
We’re on the bus.
Public transports
On Please switch your phone into airplane
mode if you’re on a plane.
I saw her yesterday on TV.
TV, radio
There have been lots of advertisements
on radio these days.
My grandpa goes to bed at 9 pm.
For events
My wife starts working at 8am.
at night, at noon, at lunchtime, at
sunset
Meaning “next to”
Don’t stay up late at night.

See you at lunchtime.

At I am at school, while my parents are at
work.
Somewhere typical
Jim is watching movie at the cinema.
Preposition Usages Examples
There is a big box behind the car.
At/ toward the back of something/
someone Can you see the street behind the
Behind
building?
The rabbit is in front of the tree.
The opposite of behind
The girl is standing in front of the
In front of
mirror.

The board is below the picture.

Below the surface of something/ covered
by something
Jimmy has a scar below his right eye.
Under
The plane is flying above the tree.
To a higher level than something/
someone (opposite with below) Please turn on the projector above your
head.
Above
The duck is swimming across the lake.
From one side to the other side of
something The boy helped his grandma walk
Across
across the crowded street.
Throw the trash into the dustbin
please.
To a position in/ inside something
Into I can’t go into the water since it’s too
cold.

Reported speech


 Reported speech is used when you want to tell someone else what a person said before.

 

The tense in reported speech is one tense back in time from the tense in direct speech.

I/ you/ we/ they He/ she/ it/ James

 Present simple Ex: “I go shopping every  Past simple Ex: My mom said (that) she went
Friday”, my mom said. shopping every Friday.
I/ you/ we/ they He/ she/ it/ James
 Present continuous Ex: “We are watching TV”,  Past continuous Ex: They told me (that) they were
they told me. watching TV.

 Present perfect Ex: “I have lived here for 10  Past perfect Ex: David said (that) he had lived there
years”, David said. for 10 years.

 Past simple Ex: “I was at school yesterday”,  Past perfect Ex: My sister said (that) she had been at
my sister said. school the day before.

 Past continuous Ex: “We were cooking when  Past perfect continuous Ex: They told me (that) they
she came”, they told me. had been cooking when he had come.

 Past perfect Ex: “I had had a car accident”,  Past perfect Ex: Marry told me (that) she had had a
Marry told me. car accident.

 Present perfect continuous Ex: “I have been  Past perfect continuous Ex: Jim said (that) he had
explaining to her for hours”, Jim said. been explaining to her for hours.

 Simple future with WILL Ex: “I will travel to  WOULD + bare infinitive Ex: My cousin told me (that)
Asia next year”, my cousin told me. she would travel to Asia the following year.

 Simple future with BE GOING TO Ex: “I am  WAS/ WERE GOING TO + Bare infinitive Ex: Sarah
going to write a story”, Sarah said. said (that) she was going to write a story.

 Future continuous Ex: “I will be coming back  WOULD BE verb-ING Ex: Michael told me (that) he
in an hour”, Michael told me. would be coming back in an hour.

 modal verb MAY Ex: “I may see you in the  MIGHT/ COULD Ex: Jane said (that) she might see me
afternoon”, Jane said. in the afternoon.

 modal verb MIGHT

 MIGHT Ex: My sister said (that) Jim might visit her
Ex: “Jim might visit me tomorrow”, my sister
the following day.
said.

 modal verb MUST Ex: “You must make your  MUST/ HAD TO Ex: She said (that) I had to make my
final decision by 20th May”, she said. final decision by 20th May.

 modal verb SHALL Ex: “We shall need your  WOULD/ SHOULD Ex: They told me (that) they would
help”, they told me. need my help.

 modal verb CAN Ex: “You can wait for me in  COULD Ex: My boss said (that) I could wait for him in
I/ you/ we/ they He/ she/ it/ James
the office”, my boss said. the office.

 modal verb COULD Ex: “We could finish  COULD Ex: My husband told me (that) we could
everything soon”, My husband told me. finish everything soon.

 modal verb SHOULD Ex: “You should go to  SHOULD Ex: My mom said (that) I should go to bed
bed early”, my mom said. early.

 modal verb WOULD Ex: “I would teach you  WOULD Ex: My mom said (that) she would teach me
how to make cookies”, my mom said. how to make cookies.

 modal verb NEED Ex: “You need to drink more  NEED Ex: My doctor told me (that) I need to drink
water a day”, my doctor told me. more water a day.

Place, time words and demonstratives

Direct speech Reported speech
Today That day
Yesterday The day before
Tomorrow The next day/ the following day
Time … days ago … days before
Last week The week before
Next week The following week
Now Then
Place Here There
This That
Demonstratives
These Those

Reported questions

 There are two types of questions: WH-question and Yes/No question.

  In reported speech, the word orders change.

 

In WH-question, the WH-words (what, where, why, how, etc.) remains the same.

...ASK ME + WH-WORDS


  In Yes/ No question, the auxiliary is deleted. We use if/ whether instead.

... ASK ME + IF/ WHETHER

Direct speech Reported speech

“Where do you go?” She asked. She asked me where I went.
WH-questions “What have you done?” He asked. He asked me what I had done.
“Why are you crying?” She asked. She asked me why I was crying.
“Are you going shopping?” Jenny Jenny asked me if/ whether I was going
asked. shopping?
Yes/ No “Have you ever been to London?” He asked me if/ whether I had ever been to
questions He asked. London.
“Can you help me with this Tom asked me if/ whether I could help him
homework?” Tom asked. with that homework.

Reported commands/ requests

...ASK ME + (NOT) TO DO SOMETHING

Direct speech Reported speech

“Go away.” She said. She asked me to go away.
“Don’t come any closer.” He said. He asked me not to come any closer.
“Jack, wait for a second.” He said. He asked Jack to wait for a second.

Passive voice


 Difference between active and passive voice

  Active voice: describe the subject doing the action

 

Passive voice: used when the focus is on the action. The one doing the action is not important.

 Active: Marry cleaned the classroom.

 Passive: The classroom was cleaned (by Marry).

Forms Examples
Positive Subject + Tobe + Verb – past participle A rose is sent to her every day.
Subject + Tobe + NOT + Verb – past Tom wasn’t invited to the party. Tom was
Negative
participle so sad.
 Forms Examples
Question Tobe + Subject + Verb – past participle? Will it be done tomorrow?

Passive voice with tenses

Verb – past
Subject Tobe (conjugated)
participle
Present simple Subject Am/ is/ are Am/ is/ are
The room is cleaned every two days.
Present continuous Subject Am/ is/ are + being Verb – pp
The room is being cleaned now.
Present perfect Subject Have/ has + been Verb – pp
The room has been cleaned since Monday.
Past simple Subject Was/ were Verb – pp
The room was cleaned yesterday.
Present perfect Subject Was/ were + being Verb – pp
The room was being cleaned this time last week.
Past continuous Subject Was/ were + being Verb – pp
The room was being cleaned this time last week.
Past perfect Subject Had been Verb – pp
The room had been cleaned before he came.
Past continuous Subject Was/ were + being Verb – pp
The room was being cleaned this time last week.
Simple future (WILL) Subject Will be Verb – pp
The room will be cleaned tomorrow.
Am/ is/ are + going to +
Simple future (BE GOING TO) Subject Verb – pp
BE
The room is going to be cleaned on Monday.
Future continuous Subject Will be being Verb – pp
The room will be being cleaned at 7 pm tonight.
Future perfect Subject Will have been Subject
The room will have been cleaned before midnight.
Modal verbs:

Can/ could/ may/ might/ should/ Subject Modal + be Subject

must/ …

The room must be cleaned by Friday.

Subject/ Verb Inversion

Inversion means putting verb before subject.

Usages

 Question formation

 Normal sentence: I understood the lessons.

 Inversion: Did you understand the lessons?

 Normal sentence: You like shopping.

 Inversion: Do you like shopping?

 Negative adverbs

Never Never have I been in such an embarrassing situation before.

Seldom Seldom does he calls me.
Hardly Hardly could I believe that he was a thief.
Rarely Rarely can she eat such delicious food.

 Adverbs phrases

Not only … but also Not only did he write the book but he also designed the cover.
No sooner … than No sooner had he arrived home than it rained.
Only when Only when he needs me does he calls me.

 Here and there

Here Here comes the teacher!

Here Here comes the teacher!
There There stood a statue.

 Conditional sentences

 Normal sentence: If he had informed me earlier, I would have helped him.

 Inversion: Had he informed me earlier, I would have helped him.

 Normal sentence: If she had left sooner, she wouldn’t have got wet in the rain.

 Inversion: Had she left sooner, she wouldn’t have got wet in the rain.

 Structure: “So + Adj … that”

 Normal sentence: Jim was so kind that everybody loved him.

 Inversion: So kind was Jim that everybody loved him.

 Normal sentence: The cartoon was so funny that all the kids laughed.

 Inversion: So funny was the cartoon that all the kids laughed.

Comparative and superlative

One-syllable adjectives
Adjectives Comparative forms Superlative forms
A A-ER A-EST
tall taller tallest
short shorter shortest
fast faster fastest
Adjectives Comparative forms Superlative forms
slow slower slowest
big bigger biggest
small smaller smallest
strong stronger strongest
weak weaker weakest
old older oldest
young younger youngest

 Harry is tall, but Jane is taller, and Jack is the tallest in class.
 I am strong, but my brother is stronger, and my dad is the strongest in my family.
 Kyo is faster than Jane, but Jane is stronger (than Kyo).
 The biggest mistake in my life is to tell him my secret.

One-syllable adjectives ending with –e

Adjectives Comparative forms Superlative forms

A A-ER A-EST
large larger largest
wide wider widest
wise wiser wisest

 Whale is the largest animal I’ve ever seen.

 Although Henry is the youngest child in the family, he’s the wiser than his two elder (older)
brothers.

Adjectives with two or more syllables

Adjectives Comparative forms Superlative forms

A A-ER A-EST
modern more modern most modern
beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
expensive more expensive most expensive
interesting more interesting most interesting
delicious more delicious most delicious
important more important most important
handsome more handsome most handsome
attractive more attractive most attractive

 Jenny is attractive, but Wendy is even more attractive.

 Harry Potter is the most interesting book I’ve read.
  Liam is the most handsome boy in my class.

Two-syllable adjectives ending with –y

Adjectives Comparative forms Superlative forms

A A-ER A-EST
happy happier happiest
lucky luckier luckiest
friendly friendlier friendliest
sexy sexier sexiest
heavy heavier heaviest
pretty prettier prettiest
noisy noisier noisiest
messy messier messiest
early earlier earliest
busy busier busiest
angry angrier angriest

 The earliest sign of pregnancy is food aversion.

 People have become busier and busier recently.
 The happiest moment in my life was when he said he loved me.

Two-syllable adjectives ending with –er, -ow and -le

Adjectives Comparative forms Superlative forms

clever cleverer cleverest
narrow narrower narrowest
shallow shallower shallowest
gentle gentler gentlest
simple simpler simplest

 The cleverest girl in my team is Nina.

 The streets are narrower here than in my city.
 These fish were found in the shallowest river.

*Exceptions

Adjectives Comparative forms Superlative forms

good better best
bad worse worst
little less least
Adjectives Comparative forms Superlative forms
much/ many more most
far farther/ further farthest/ furthest

 This is the worst movie I’ve seen.

 I am less charming than her.
 John’s been better than he used to be.

Conjunction: and, but, so, because



 A conjunction is a word used to connect other words, phrases and clauses together.

 Common conjunctions: and, but, or, because, so

 

And: also, in addition to. “And” is used when the statements are similar.

 He’s 10 and she’s 12.

 My mom and dad are teachers.
 Tim usually practices the piano and plays football at weekend.

 But: however, despite this. “But” is used to connect two opposite ideas.

 I love ice cream, but he loves apples.

 It’s sunny and hot, but I like it.
 She’s 40 years old, but she looks much younger than her real age.

 Or is used to express choices.

 Do you like playing football or badminton?

 Would you like tea or juice?
 Who’s taller? Michael or Tom?


  So is used to link between cause/ reason and results

 He’s hungry so he gets some food.

 The weather isn’t very nice so we don’t go camping.
 He lost the key so he couldn’t get into his room.

 Because is used to give reasons.

 She doesn’t go to school because she’s sick.

 Because it rains, I wear a raincoat.
 Kate was happy because she won the competition.

Relative clause


 Relative clause helps define or give us extra/ additional information about things or people
we’re talking about.

 Relative clause starts with relative pronouns (who, which, that, whose, whom) or relative
adverbs (where, when, why).

Relative pronouns/
Meanings
adverbs
who Refer to people
which Refer to things or animals
Refer to people, animals or things (can replace which or who,
that
informal)
whose Refer to possession
whom Refer to a people, used instead of who if who is the object.
where Refer to places
when Refer to time
why Refer to reasons

Pattern
RELATIVE CLAUSE
Pattern 1 RELATIVE PRONOUN/ ADVERB + SUBJECT + VERB
The present which he gave me was just amazing.
Examples
That memorable moment was the time when he kissed me for the first time.
 RELATIVE CLAUSE
Jack sent me a job offer that I couldn’t decline.
Pattern 2 RELATIVE PRONOUN AS SUBJECT + VERB
The girl who is standing next to John is my younger sister.
Examples Venus flytrap is a plant which traps insects.
Henry is a man who is very kind and friendly.
There are two types of relative clause: defining and non-defining relative clause.

1. Defining relative clauses

 Defining relative clauses add detail about a particular noun that is defined. They give essential/
important information about the people, things being referred to.

 Without defining relative clause, the meanings would not remain the same.

 Venus flytrap is a plant which traps insects.

 This was the evidence which greatly affected the case.
 I am going to show you a video which was made by the most famous American film director.

Note:

 The pronouns who, who, which can be replaced by that in spoken language.

 We don’t use comma in defining relative clauses.

 Venus flytrap is a plant which (that) traps insects.

 Venus flytrap is a plant, which traps insects.
 This was the evidence which (that) greatly affected the case.
 This was the evidence, which (that) greatly affected the case.

2. Non-defining relative clauses

 Non-defining relative clauses give extra/ non-essential information about people or things. It
does not affect the meanings of the whole sentence.
 

 Without defining relative clause, the meanings would remain the same.

 Mr. David, who is an inspiring teacher, won the Global teacher prize 2018.
 I’ve just come back from England, which is a very beautiful country.
 My two puppies, which were only 6 days old, are taken care of very carefully.

Note:

 We don’t use that for non-defining relative clause.

 We always use comma in defining relative clauses.

 Mr. David, who is an inspiring teacher, won the Global teacher prize 2018.
 Mr. David that is an inspiring teacher, won the Global teacher prize 2018.
 I’ve just come back from England, which is a very beautiful country.
 I’ve just come back from England which is a very beautiful country.

Structure: too …to …



 “Too” is an adverb.

 used before an adjective or another adverb

 meaning: “more than enough”

 TOO + ADJECTIVE/ ADVERB

 It’s too hot here.

 She’s too tall.
 She’s driving too fast.
 The turtle was moving too slowly.

 TOO + ADJECTIVE/ ADVERB + TO –INFINITIVE

  It’s too hard to finish the project by Friday.
 She’s too short to reach the shelf.
 She draws too terribly to win the first prize.
 The teacher is reading too quickly for me to catch up with.

Enough
“Enough” can be used as a determiner, a pronoun or an adverb.

"Enough” as a determiner

 used before plural or uncountable nouns to mean “sufficient” or “as many or as much as
expected”

 ENOUGH + NOUN

 My little sister didn’t have enough money to buy that toy.

 You didn’t drink enough water today. You look so tired.
 She hasn’t prepared enough apples for the kids.
 Don’t ask me about this. I’ve had enough problems.

“Enough” as a pronoun

 used alone (without a noun) to mean “as many or as much as expected”

 Three pieces should be enough.

 Don’t give me any more books. I’ve read enough.

"Enough” as an adverb

 Used after an adjective or another adverb to mean “to the necessary degree”

 ENOUGH + ADJECTIVE
 ENOUGH + ADVERB

 This chair isn’t comfortable enough for me to sit on.

 He’s good enough to win the competition.
 He has come early enough to get a good seat.
 The cat is running fast enough to catch the mouse.
Structure: such … that …


 “Such” is used as a determiner.

SUCH + ADJ + NOUN

 He’s such an intelligent boy!

 Jim and Sue are such a perfect couple.

SUCH + A/AN + ADJ + SINGULAR NOUN + THAT

 It is used to express a cause and effect.

 It was such a great day that I couldn’t forget.

 Jill is such a kind girl that everybody loves her.
 This island is such a wonderful place that it attracts thousands of tourists every year.

SUCH + PLURAL/ UNCOUNTABLE NOUN + THAT

 It is used to express a cause and effect.

 He has such interesting books that everybody wants to borrow.

 This restaurant has such delicious food that it’s always crowded with people.

Countable and uncountable noun

Defining whether a word is countable or uncountable helps choose suitable article (a/an) and
verb forms (singular or plural).

Countable nouns

 refer to things that we can count

 

have singular or plural forms. Singular form can be preceded by determiner a/an, while the
plural form may be used with some

Singular countable nouns Plural countable nouns

Singular countable nouns Plural countable nouns
a lamp some/ two lamps
a laptop some/ three laptops
a pear some/ five pears
a cat some/ two cats
a school some/ four schools
an apple some/ nine apples
an elephant some/ ten elephants
an umbrella some/ two umbrellas

 There are ten apples on the table. Some apples are red, while others are green.
 This is an apple. It’s red.
 Yesterday my mom gave me a new laptop for my birthday. Now I have two laptops.

Uncountable nouns

 refer to things that we cannot count

 

always have singular form and take singular verb

Food and drinks Daily life things Feelings

wine housework love
water homework beauty
juice equipment humor
milk garbage (rubbish) help
lemonade trash assistance
meat dust advice
tea dirt information
coffee rain knowledge
pork time
beef air
sugar baggage (luggage)
salt evidence
cheese
oil
rice
Food and drinks Daily life things Feelings
butter
chicken
honey
fruit
bread

 Would you like to order some drinks?/ Yes. Please give me some orange juice.
 Peter, don’t be lazy. You have a lot of homework to do today.
 Please give me some help. I don’t know how to solve this Math problem.

Vocabulary you need to know about uncountable nouns

A glass of water A jar of olives
A cup of tea A bowl of sugar
A bottle of orange juice A slice of meat
A can of coke/ beer A kilo of rice
A carton of milk A bag of money
A loaf of bread A piece of cake
A bar of chocolate

* Note:

List of quantifiers that can be used with countable and uncountable nouns

Quantifiers Countable nouns Uncountable nouns

some, any some, any some, any
much, many many much
lots of, a lot of lots of, a lot of lots of, a lot of
a little, a few a few a little
a number of, an amount of a number of an amount of

 She needed a large amount of money in order to run her own business.
 How much time do you need to finish this exercise?
 How many students are there in your class?
 Would you like any water?

Structure: it’s time to …./ it’s (high) time …

 It’s time to + Verb-bare


  Meaning: something should be done at the present time

 It’s time to go to bed. It’s 10 pm.

 It’s time to change the rules.
 It’s time to go home.
 It’s time to raise your voice.

 It’s (high) time + subject + Verb (past simple)

 Meaning: something should be done, and that’s a bit late.

 It’s high time you went to bed.

 It’s time you came to see us. We haven’t met each other for so long.
 It’s time you started thinking about running your own business.

Do or make
Do

 “Do” is used to talk about jobs, work or tasks. No physical objects are produced.

 Expressions with “do”

Housework Work/ study General things

do the shopping do the project do my best
do the dishes do homework do a favor
do the laundry do the assignment do harm
do the cooking do the task do good
do the washing up do business
do the ironing do a job
do the gardening do the work
do the cleaning do an exercise
do a report
do the painting
do a drawing
do a course
do an activity
Make

 “Make” is used to talk about producing, constructing or creating something new.

 Expressions with “make”

Food Plan Money Communication

make
make food make a plan make friends
money
make make a
make a list make love
breakfast profit
make make a
make a change make a phone call
lunch loss
make
make an effort make an apology
dinner
make tea/
make a guess make a complaint
coffee
make
make a mistake make a comment
noodles
make a
make progress make a suggestion
cake
make a
make a decision make a prediction
sandwich
make
make a promise
salad
make soup make an excuse
make an
agreement

Structure: It’s no good/

use + V-ING, …
make an
 It’s no good/ use + V-ING
appointment
 It’s pointless/ useless/ hopeless/ a waste of time +
Verb-ING
 There’s no use/ point + Verb-ING

 Used to say that an action will not get an

Food Plan Money Communication
expected outcome

It’s no good/ use + Verb-ING

 It’s no good/ use looking for it here. You lost it 2

weeks ago.
 It’s no good/ use asking her for help. She will
never care.
 It’s no good/ use talking to him. He won’t listen.

It's pointless/ useless/ hopeless/ a waste of time +

Verb-ING

 It’s pointless repairing that car. It’s time for a

new car.
 It’s useless crying. You’d better figure out the
solutions.
 It’s just a waste of time contacting Jane. She’s
lost her phone.

There’s no use/ point + Verb-ING

 There’s no use/ point writing to her. She will not

reply.
 There’s no use/ point advising her. She’s such a
stubborn girl.
 There’s no use/ point shouting here. No one will
listen.

Form

I/ you/ we/ they He/ she/ it/ James

I/ you/ we/ they +
He/ she/ it/ James +
bare infinitive
Positive Verb – s/ es
She goes to bed early.
We go to bed early.
He/ she/ it/ James +
I/ you/ we/ they + do
does not + bare
not + bare infinitive
infinitive
Negative Do not = don’t
Does not = doesn’t
They don’t go to bed
James doesn’t go to
early.
bed early.
Question Do + I/ you/ we/ Does + he/ she/ it/
Food Plan Money Communication
they + bare James + bare
infinitive? infinitive?
Do they go to bed Does she go to bed
early? early?

Usages

 To talk about general truths

 The Sun rises in the East

 To give instructions or directions

 Don’t open that box. Throw it away.

 To talk about something that is fixed in the

future

 The bus leaves at 8 pm. Hurry up!

Signal words:

Always, usually, often, sometimes, seldom, never, every

day, every week, every month, every year, on Sundays,
after school, before school

So, too, either, neither



 “So” and “too” are used in positive sentences to show agreement.

 SO + AUXILIARY + SUBJECT
POSITIVE SENTENCE,
TOO Auxiliary (do/ does/ have/
should/…)
Person A Person B Person B
I love football. I love football, too. So do I.
Jack can swim. I can swim, too. So can I.
Hana and Jim have done their
I have done my tasks, too. So have I.
tasks.

 “Either” and “neither” are used in negative sentence to show agreement.(NEITHER =

NOT EITHER)

NEITHER + AUXILIARY +
SUBJECT
NEGATIVE SENTENCE,
EITHER.
Auxiliary (do/ does/ have/
should/…)
Person A Person B Person B
I don’t love football. I don’t (love football), either. Neither do I.
Jack can’t swim. I can’t (swim), neither. Neither can I.
Hana and Jim haven’t done I haven’t (done my tasks),
Neither have I.
their tasks. neither.

Structure: so …that


 “So” is an adverb.
  used before an adjective or another adverb

 

meaning: “very, to such a great degree”

 SO + ADJECTIVE/ ADVERB

 The chicken was so delicious.

 Those pictures are so beautiful.
 He’s done it so well.
 The baby is moving so slowly.
 SO + ADJECTIVE/ ADVERB + THAT + CLAUSE

So … that: show cause and effect.

 James was so tired that he couldn’t finish the test on time.



 (James was too tired to finish the test on time.)

 Nina was so sleepy that she couldn’t concentrate on the lessons.
  (Nina was too sleepy to concentrate on the lessons.)
 The man ran so slowly that he didn’t win the race.
  (The man ran too slowly to win the race.)
 He speaks so loud that the baby can’t sleep.
 (He speaks too loud for the baby to sleep.)

Correlative conjunctions: either or, neither

nor, not only … but also, both…and
Note: In all examples below, A and B are the same parts of speech.

 A: verb => B: verb

 A: noun => B: noun
 A: adjective => B: adjective

 NEITHER A NOR B: used in negative sense. The verb agrees with the noun that is
closer to it.

 Neither Kelly nor Sarah likes swimming.

 His car is neither big nor small.
 My grandpa neither likes nor cares about the technology.

 EITHER A OR B: The verb agrees with the noun that is closer to it.

 Either you or Jenny has to ask my permission for going out.

 Either John or his parents are going to the meeting tomorrow.
 I don’t like either badminton or tennis?

 NOT ONLY A BUT ALSO B: The verb agrees with the noun that is closer to it.
  Not only Tom but also Harry has got 10 on the test.
 I not only work hard but also play hard.
 She is interested in not only Math but also Science.

 BOTH A AND B: verbs always take the plural forms.

 Both Jim and Ann are coming to the party tomorrow.

 Both Jack and his brother have passed the exam.
 He can speak both English and Spanish.

Quantifier: some and any, much and many,…

Some and any
Some Any

Similarities
 used when we don’t know the amount

 

used with both countable and uncountable nouns

 Please give me some apples.

 I don’t have any free paper to share.


Differences

 Used in positive sentences

 She’s earned some money by working as a waitress.

 Used in questions when offering/ requesting


 Would you like some coffee?

 Used in negative sentences and questions

 She doesn’t eat any fish. She hates fish.

  Is there any milk in the fridge?

Much and many

Much Many

Similarities
 Used to show an amount of something

  Used with a noun or without a noun

 

Used in all positive, negative sentences and questions

 She has many stories to tell us.

 There are not enough bananas left. Don’t take so many.
 How many people are there in your family?
 Drinking too much alcohol will harm your health.
 How much does it cost?


Differences

 Used with singular uncountable nouns

 I don’t have much money. 

 You should drink much water.
 Hurry up! We don’t have much time left.

 Used with plural (countable) nouns

 Many journalists are here today.

 There are many rules we have to follow in class.
 I need to buy many things to prepare for the birthday party.

A lot of and lots of

"A lot of" and "lots of" are used similarly.

 Used in informal styles

  Used with both plural countable or singular uncountable nouns
  

Used in all positive, negative sentences and questions

 I bought a lot of/ lots of presents for him.

 My little hamster eats a lot of/ lots of cheese.
 Harry didn’t know a lot of/ lots of English words.
 My baby sister drinks a lot of/ lots of milk every day.
 Have you answered a lot of/ lots of questions?

Few, a few and little, a little

 A few, a little mean some.

  Few, little (without article “a”) mean not as much/ many as expected or not enough. They have
negative meanings.

  Few, a few: used with countable plural nouns.

 

Little, a little: used with uncountable nouns.

Few and a few Explanation


There are a few people attending the meeting.
 Meaning: some, a small number
 

The noun goes after “a few” is people: countable, plural

noun.

There are very few people attending the meeting.
 Meaning: not many as expected/ almost none.

 

The noun goes after “few” is people: countable, plural

noun.
Little and a little Explanation

The kids pay a little attention to the lessons.
 Meaning: some, a small amount

 

The noun goes after “a little” is attention: uncountable

noun.

The kids pay very little attention to the lessons.
 Meaning: not much/ almost none

 

The noun goes after “little” is attention: uncountable noun.

More examples

 He has a few friends. He’s not a sociable person.

 He has few friends. He’s a lonely person.
 I have a little money. I can buy a small toy with this amount.
 I have little money. It isn’t enough to buy anything.

Structure: find it/ something + adj + to do

something, …
 FIND IT/ SOMETHING + ADJ + TO DO SOMETHING

 used to express a particular opinion or feeling you have about something

 I find this book very interesting to read.

 I find it hard to pass the English exam.
 I found it difficult to approach that famous girl.

 FIND SOMETHING/ SOMEONE + ADJ/ NOUN

 used to say that you’ve discovered something after you’ve experienced it

 I found this sofa very comfortable.

 I find this exercise very difficult.
 We found teacher Mark a friendly person.
