AP Chemistry Summative 
The Chemistry of 
Digestion 
 

Harsh Patel 

Mr.Jones 

June 7th, 2018 

SCH4U9 Period 3 
 
 

   

 
 

Table of Contents 
Question …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..……………………..…...2 

Purpose……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………...2 

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………...2 

Ingestion………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………………...3 

Organic and Structures…………………………………………………….……………………………………………………...3 

Reaction 
Rates………………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………...4 

Acid Base Equilibrium………………………………………..………………………………………………….………………...4 

Propulsion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………...6 

Digestion…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………...7 

Mechanical Digestion……………………………………………………………………………………………..…..…………...7 

Chemical Digestion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....8 

Organic and Properties…………………………………………………………………………………………………………....9 

Acid Base Reactions and Equilibrium…………………………………………………………………………………....10 

Heats of Reactions and Rates of Reactions………………………………………………………………………..…10 

Absorption………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………...12 

Organic and 
Structures…………………………………………………………...……………………………………………...12 

Rates of 
Reactions………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………...14 

Defecation………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………...15 

Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………...1
5 

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Glossary………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………...1
6 

Question 
How does the digestive system relate to chemical structures and properties, organic 
chemistry, chemical equilibrium, redox reactions, and heats and rates of chemical reactions? 

Purpose 
The purpose of this report is to explore the realm of chemical digestion, and how 
chemical structures and properties, organic chemistry, chemical equilibrium, redox reactions, and 
heats and rates of chemical reactions are found amongst the daily process of digestion.  

Introduction 
All living things need energy to survive. While plants obtain this via photosynthesis, and 
their roots, animals including humans obtain nutrients by the consumption of other organisms. To 
go more in depth, literally, the human biological molecules necessities are amino acids, lipids, 
and sugars. However the food consumed contains carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. The humans 
body therefore must convert such molecules to simpler ones that the human body can use for 
cellular functions, and at the same time get rid of any waste. This is exactly what the digestive 
system accomplishes during the processes of ingestion, propulsion, digestion, and absorption.  

One of the main challenges that the human body naturally faces is maintaining a balance 
between food intake, storage and energy expenditure. Taking in more energy than expended 
builds up fat storage. The rise in obesity and the resulting diseases like type 2 diabetes makes 
understanding the role of diet and nutrition in maintaining good health all the more important. 
While there is quite a bit of biology amongst this report, there is equally as much of chemistry, 
which talks about the natural beauty of how the human body naturally combines biology and 
chemistry to display a sense of effectiveness. Hence, let's get started! 

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Ingestion 
The first step to the digestive process is that of ingestion. Ingestion is a process where 
food is taken in through the mouth and is mechanically and chemically broken down via the 
assistance of teeth, and saliva respectively. The purpose of ingestion is that large clumps of food 
bits cannot pass through the cell membrane and through the esophagus by peristalsis, and 
therefore need to be broken down. The first step is ingestion: taking food through the mouth. 
Once in the mouth, teeth, saliva, and tongue play important roles in mastication. Each type of 
teeth have different roles amongst the ingestion process. The incisors are at the front of the 
mouth and have sharp biting surface area of which are used for cutting or shearing foods into 
small chewable bites. The canines are at the corners of the dental arcs, whose function is to grip 
and tear food bits. Then there are the premolars, whose function is to tear and crush food. Lastly, 
there are the molars themselves, who are responsible for “chewing”, crushing and grinding the 
food.  

Mastication is an extremely pivotal part of the digestive process, especially for fruits and 
vegetables as these have indigestible cellulose coats which must physically be broken down. 
Also, digestive enzymes only work on the surfaces of food particles, so the smaller the particles 
of food, the more efficient the digestive process. While the food is mechanically being broken 
down, the enzymes from saliva begin the chemically process the food as well.  

Organic and Structures 

Saliva is constituent of a multitude of different organic and 
inorganic compounds. The basic secretary units of salivary glands 
are clusters of cells called acini. These cells secrete 99.5% H​2​O, 
electrolytes, mucus, and enzymes, of which flow out and begin 
their chemical digestion. The electrolytes include those of sodium, 
potassium, and bicarbonate. While there is no specific chemical 
organic structure of saliva, due to the percent composition of 
saliva, it can be seen that saliva would be just slightly acidic, and 
therefore would be a great oral cleanser, of which would dilute and 
remove organic acids from dental plaque. Saliva is also supersaturated with hydroxyapatite, 
calcium, and phosphate ions. This allows in the increased likelihood of remineralization via the 

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incorporation of calcium and phosphate into enamel. Saliva also has antibacterial properties as 
an enzyme to the name of amylases breaks 
down food particles that stick to the teeth, 
reducing the bacterial buildup that can lead to 
enamel and teeth decay. Amylase has many 
hydrogen bonds, along with the fact that it is 
polar, and that it has london dispersion forces, 
and dipole-dipole intermolecular forces.  

Reaction Rates 
There are several chemical 
reactions that occur of which slightly 
break down food. However the main 
reaction is between that of amylase 
and starches of which break down 
into maltose, dextrin and glucose, 
illustrated by figure 2.0. Amylase 
coats and surrounds each starch 
molecule in the mouth. Then the 
enzyme deconstructs complex 
starch molecules through hydrolysis, 
or chemical breakdown, turning 
them into smaller, more manageable 
particles. Such reaction rates can 
significantly be increased. The best 
method that the human body 
naturally does this is by increasing the surface 
area of the starch by more mechanical 
breakdown by the teeth, as a method to get 
more contact with the enzyme. Additionally 
such reaction does not have a high activation 
energy because it readily occurs in the mouth, 
with little to no input of heat. Lastly, due to the 
presence of the other biological catalysts of 
life - enzymes - amongst saliva the activation 

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energy for the reaction is lowered, as the presence of catalysts speed up reactions by providing 
an alternative reaction mechanism without altering equilibrium. An example of such catalyse is 
amylase itself. Traditionally a starch molecule would break down due the the acidic levels of aliva 
to be 6.2, but the presence of amylase speeds up such decomposition. Lastly, most chemical 
reactions proceed at a faster rate as temperature increases. Food digestion follows the same 
principle. However there is an upper limit of 40 degrees celsius with saliva. As represented by 
figure 2.1: at 40 degrees celcius there is the maximum rate of reaction for saliva.  

Acid Base Equilibrium 

Why is it that when we eat something acidic our mouth does not burn? The answer lies 
due to the presence of a salivary buffer. Buffer solutions are solutions that maintain an 
approximately constant pH when amounts of acidic or basic solutions are added to it. The saliva, 
there are three possible buffer systems. There is the protein buffer, even though the protein 
buffer is not the most effective, due to the lack of many ionized groups. Then there's the 
phosphate buffer. The phosphate buffer is usually active amongst unstimulated saliva. The 
mechanism of the phosphate buffer system is due to the capability of the secondary phosphate 
ions to bind a hydrogen ion and form a primary phosphate ions. The phosphate buffer is that of 
between HPO​4​ 2- and H​2​PO​4​ - with a pK​2​ value of 6.8. Since this acid base pair has a pKa value 
in the range of 6.8 - 7.2, its range is relatively close to the salivary pH of 6 - 8, and therefore has 
the potential to be a great buffer among saliva. However the only downside is the lack of 
phosphate in the oral cavity. However, that changes when its unstimulated, as the concentration 
of phosphate increases when saliva is unstimulated.  

The last and most effective form of buffer is that of carbonic acid and that of bicarbonate. 
When food is placed in the mouth, the pH drops and an increase in the concentration of 
bicarbonate occurs. The drop in pH is caused by increased concentrations of H+, due to lactic 
acid being produced by bacteria. As a result more bicarbonate is produced as a byproduct of 
cellular metabolism of which helps neutralise the increased amount of acid (H+). As represented 
by figure 3.0, a rise in bicarbonate concentration increases the concentration of carbonic acid. 
However, the concentration of carbonic acid remains at 1.3mMol/L. Therefore, this means that the 
carbonic acid concentration causes the equilibrium to further shift to the left until CO2 is 
produced. Such shift is also catalysed by carbonic anhydrase by lowering the activation energy 
for the reaction by providing an alternative reaction mechanism. As the concentration of carbonic 
acid falls, more bicarbonate ions bind to the hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid, establishing a 
new equilibrium.  

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Propulsion 
Propulsion is the movement of chime (food) along the digestive tract. The major method 
of propulsion is that of peristalsis, which is a series of alternating contractions and relaxations of 
smooth muscles that line the walls of the digestive organs and that force food the move forwards 
amongst the digestive process. Specifically, it is the continuous segments of longitudinal smooth 
muscle rhythmically contracting and relaxing in order to move food down through the esophagus, 
gut and the small and large intestines. Peristaltic waves push the swallowed bolus down the 
esophagus. In the stomach, peristalsis churns the food which ultimately mixes it with gastric 
juices. It takes about a minute to chew a piece of food into a bolus and a few seconds swallow it, 
but it takes a couple of hours to turn bolus into chyme. Propulsating the food down the 
esophagus takes only 2-3 seconds, whereas propulsing it through the small and large intestines 
takes a couple of hours.  

The human esophagus has a mucous membrane, which allows for the food to easily go 
through the esophagus, and also serves as a protective function against the abrasive effects of 
food. Like other parts of the digestive tube, the esophagus has four tunics, which are unique and 
important in their own ways. The proximal esophagus has striated muscle and the distal 
esophagus has smooth muscles. Unfortunately, there is a significant lack of any real digestion 
and absorption occurring throughout the stages of propulsion, and therefore lack the essence of 
chemistry amongst such process.  

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Digestion 
Chemical digestion really gets underway in the stomach. The top of the stomach is 
connected to the end of the esophagus. The secretion of gastric juices are controlled by the 
nerves and the homomes amongst the stomach. There are three phases of gastric secretion: 
cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases. The cephalic phase, also referred to as the reflect phase, 
is when the smell, taste, sight, or thought of food triggers the preparation of gastric secretion. The 
gastric phase lasts about three to four hours, of which is triggered by the entry of food into the 
stomach. In this phase, parasympathetic neurons release acetylcholine, which provokes the 
secretion of gastric juices. This creates an acidic environment amongst the internal of the 
stomach. Additionally, the release of gastric juices also triggers stomach contractions, which help 
into moving the food around the stomach, and also mechanically breaking it down. Lastly, the 
intestinal phase of gastric secretion is when partially digested food fills the duodenum by 
opening the pyloric sphincter.  

Mechanical Digestion 
Within a few 
moments after food 
bits enter the 
stomach, mixing 
waves begin. A mixing 
wave is a unique type 
of peristalsis that 
mixed and softens the 
food with gastric 
juices to create 
chyme. The initial 
mixing waves are 
generally soft initially 
but they exponentially 
get harder and 
stronger the farther 
down the chyme continues down the stomach. At the end the mixing waves get very significant, 
significant enough that the waves themselves would break down the cyme, through mechanical 
digestion, as represented in figure 4.0. 

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There is also the pylorus, which acts like a filter which only allows liquids and small food 
particles pass through the end of the stomach. The remaining larger solids and then reenter the 
stomach to be further processed by the gastric juices. Release of a greater amount of chyme at 
one time would overwhelm the capacity of the small intestine to handle it.  

Chemical Digestion 
Fungus plays an important role, because it stores both undigested food and gases that 
are released during the process of chemical digestion. Ultimately the mixing waves incorporate 
the food with chyme, as the acidity of which inactivates salivary amylase and activate lingual 
lipase. The lingual lipase begins breaking down triglycerides into free fatty acids, and mono and 
diglycerides, as represented by figure 5.0 . On the other hand the breakdown of proteins starts in 
the stomach through the actions of hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin. What happens is 
that hydrochloric acid activates pepsin, which then assists by breaking the bond links between 
amino acids. Additionally there are many microorganisms that have their growth inhibited by an 
acidic environment, which also assists in the prevention of infections.  

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Organic and Properties 

Lipase has the organic structural drawing as 
represented by figure 6.0. With a molecular 
weight of 238.202 g/mol and a chemical 
formulae of C​11​H​9​N​3​NaO​2​ +, it is generally a 
polar organic molecule with a hydrogen bond 
donor count of 2, and a hydrogen bond 
acceptor count of 5. Therefore due to the 
presence of several hydrogen bonds, and 
polarity, it has high intermolecular forces, of 
which include: dipole-dipole forces, hydrogen 
bonds, and london dispersion forces as it is a 
relatively large molecule.  

Furthermore, triglycerides has a chemical 

name of docosahexaenoic acid. With a 
molecular formulae of C​22​H​32​O​2​, and a 
molecular weight of 328.496 g/mol, it has a 
hydrogen bond donor count of 1 and a 
hydrogen bond acceptor count of 2. Also, this 
organic molecule is polar as it is not 
symmetrical. Therefore triglycerides are polar 
with high intermolecular forces of which include: dipole - dipole forces, hydrogen bonds, and 
london dispersion forces.  

Lastly, the enzyme pepsin has a molecular formulae of C​34​H​63​N​5​O​9​. With a significantly 
greater molecular weight of 685.904 g/mol, it has 8 hydrogen bond donor counts, with 9 
hydrogen bond acceptor counts. This organic molecule is polar, and therefore has the highest 
amounts of intermolecular forces of which include: dipole - dipole forces, hydrogen bonds, and 
london dispersion forces.  

Overall due to the presence of such highly polar molecules they will mix together with 
one another in order to help in chemical reactions.  

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Acid Base Reactions and Equilibrium 

HCl is a very strong acid as its K​a​ value 
is relatively high, especially in high 
concentrations. Why is it then that the 
stomach doesn't burn itself. Despite the 
presence of a thick mucus lining protects the 
interior of the stomach walls there is also the 
presence of a bicarbonate buffer system, that 
is produced by other cells. Catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase, carbon dioxide reacts with water to 
form carbonic acid which in turn turns into a bicarbonate ion and a hydrogen ion as represented 
by figure 7.0. As with practically any buffer system, the pH is balanced by the presence of a weak 
acid and its conjugate base, which would be H​2​CO​3​ and HCO​3​ - respectively. Failure in such 
buffer system would result in acid-base imbalances, which would be lethal.   

Heats of Reactions and Rates of Reactions 

Due to the sufficiency of different enzymes 
such as proteases and peptidases, lipases, amalases, 
and nucleases, of which all have the ability to act as a 
catalyst, it increases the rate of a chemical reaction 
without itself undergoing any permanent chemical 
changes. A specific example is of carbonic 
anhydrase, which is a catalyst for the bicarbonate 
buffer. Instead of following the reaction presented in 
figure 7.0, it follows the reaction presented in figure 
8.0. What happens is that the enzyme employs a 
two-step reaction mechanism. In the first step, there is nucleophilic attack of a zinc-bound 
hydroxide ion on carbon dioxide. In the second step, the active site is regenerated by the 
ionization of the zinc-bound water molecule and the removal of a proton from the active site. The 
active site can be formed in two forms: a high pH form that is active in the hydration of carbon 
dioxide and a low pH form that is active in the dehydration of bicarbonate. Additionally the 
following table illustrates the effect of the catalysed reaction in terms of enthalpy, entropy and 
gibbs free energy at 25°C.  

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  Reaction  Enthalpy  Entropy  Gibbs Free 

Energy 

Uncatalysed  Reaction 1  -8.5 KJ/mol  96.2 J/mol*K  -36.5 KJ/mol 

Reaction  H+ + HCO​3​- -> 
H​2​CO​3 

Reaction 2  20.1 KJ/mol  96.6 J/mol*K  -7.7 KJ/mol 

H​2​CO​3​ -> H​2​O + 
CO​2 

Catalysed  H+ + HCO3 - ->  11.6 KJ/mol  192.-7.78 J/mol*K  -44.2 KJ/mol 

Reaction  H2O + CO2 

Figure 9.0: The following figure illustrates the enthalpy, entropy and gibbs free energy of the 
uncatalysed and catalysed reaction.  

According to the figure 

presented above, it can clearly be 
seen that the catalysed reaction with 
is more spontaneous than any of the 
other uncatalysed reactions, with a 
Gibbs Free energy of -44.2 KJ/mol. 
This is further solidifies with the 
enthalpy diagram amongst figure 
10.0. The figure illustrates that due 
to the catalyzed reaction with an 
enzyme, the activation energy for 
the reaction is significantly less, 
which allows for a greater reaction 
rate.  

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Absorption 
The mechanical and digestive process have one goal, which is to convert food into 
molecules small enough that they can be absorbed by cells amongst the intestinal villi (tiny hairs 
throughout the small and large intestine that absorb nutrients and water) and then transferred to 
the blood streams. Almost all ingested food, that is about 80% of electrolytes and 90% of water is 
absorbed by villi throughout the long length of the small intestine. The muscles of the small 
intestine mix food with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver and intestine, and propel the 
mixture forward for further digestion. The pancreas makes a digestive juice that has enzymes that 
break down carbohydrates, fats and proteins. The pancreas delivers the digestive juice to the 
small intestine through small tubes called ducts. On the other hand, the liver makes a digestive 
juice called bile that helps digest fats and some vitamins. Bilt ducts carry bible from the liver to 
the gallbladder for storage, or to the small intestine for usage. Additionally, the small intestine 
also makes digestive juices, which mixes with bile and pancreatic juices in amongst the 
absorption process in the intestines to complete the breakdown of proteins, carbohydrates and 
fats. Bacterias in the small intestine produce come of the enzymes needed for the digestion of 
carbohydrates. Lastly, bacteria in the large intestine help break down remaining nutrients and 
make Vitamin K. Waste products of digestion, including parts of food that are still too large 
become a stool.  

Organic and Structures 

Amongst the pancreas itself, cells called acinar cells produce the enzymes. There are 
three main enzymes that are created by the pancreas. The first one is pancreatic proteases such 
as trypsin and chymotrypsin of which assist in the digestion of proteins. Then there is pancreatic 
amylase which helps to digest sugars and carbohydrates. In accordance to figure 11.0, pancreatic 

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juice contains amylase 

which creates 
oligosaccharides. 
When oligosaccharides 
reacts with dextrinase it 
creates sucrose, 
maltose, and lactose, of 
which when absorbed 
by the microvilli turns 
into galactose, glucase, 
and fructose which runs through the bloodstream. Additionally, if there is the lack of dextrinase 
amongst the food, sucrose can be created by the reaction of glucose and fructose which is called 
condensation polymerization, as presented by figure 12.1. Lastly, there is pancreatic lipase which 
helps digest fats(​triglycerides)​. As it can be seen by figure 12.0, a ​triglyceride reacts with a 
pancreatic lipase to form carboxylic acid and 2-Monoglyceride. Furthermore, as both the 
carboxylic acid and the 2-Monoglyceride is polar the products of the reaction will definitely have 
dipole-dipole intermolecular forces. Now the fatty acids are then absorbed by the villi that align 
the walls of the small intestine of which transport such fatty acids to the bloodstream. 

The liver's main function is to secrete bile 

into the duodenum. Bile is a complex fluid 
containing water, electrolytes and a battery 
of organic molecules including bile acids, 
cholesterol, phospholipids and bilirubin. As 
built contain bile acids, which are critical for 
digestion and absorption of fats and 
fat-soluble vitamins in the small intestine. Bile 

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acids are actual groups of cholesterol that are synthesized in a hepatocyte. Cholesterol, which is 
intaken as part of the diet is converted to bile acids cholic and chenodeoxycholic acids, which are 
then conjugated to an amino acid. Bile acids as represented by figure 13.0, are actually 
hydrophobic and hydrophilic, as one face is hydrophobic and the hydroxyl group is hydrophilic. 
Such properties allows for emulsification of lipids. This causes fat blobs to break down into 
minute, microscopic droplets. This allows the lipids to increase in surface area and therefore be 
absorbed by the villi. Additionally, there is the presence of a lot of hydrogen bonds along with an 
carboxylic acid group on the bile. There accounts for the presence of dipole-dipole 
intermolecular forces and london dispersion forces. 

. ​Rates of Reactions 

There are three methods in which the reaction rates increase in favour towards the 
products. Firstly, there is the presence of different types of enzymes, specifically the two 
enzymes that assist in digesting carbohydrates, fats, and sugars are hydrolases and 
phosphatases of which reduce the activation energy required to complete the reaction by 
producing an alternative reaction mechanism, and at the same time not being consumed 
amongst the reaction itself. Secondly, due to the ongoing form of peristalsis the chime is still 
being broken down as it makes its way through the small intestine. Therefore as the surface area 
of the chime continues to increase the reaction speed also continues to increase as there is an 

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increase in the surface area amongst which the two reactants can contact one another. Lastly, 
due to the presence of villi amongst the linings of the intestines, the concentrations of the 
products are being reduces, and therefore the reaction would shift in favour towards the 
products. Additionally the concentration of the reactants is also increasing as more pancreatic 
juices are being added to the chime. Therefore the cycle continues of the reactant concentration 
increasing and the product concentration decreasing, ultimately shifting the equilibrium towards 
the products.  

Defecation 
Defecation is the final act of digestion. It is a means by which solids, semisolids, or some 
liquid waste materials are eliminated from the digestive tract via the anus. Waves of muscle 
contractions called peristalsis amongst the wall of the colon move fecal matter through the 
digestive tract towards the rectum. Undigested food may also be expelled this way, in a process 
to the name of egestion. The physiology of defecation is quite simple. The rectum temporarily 
stores fecal waste. As the walls of the rectum fill up there is an increase in pressure, of which 
urges the human body to defecate.  

Conclusion 
Concludingly, there are a multitude of different chemical reaction that involve the 
principles of grade 12 chemistry. There is the presence of rates of reactions which involves Le 
Chatelier Principle, and how the human body naturally favours the products over the reactions. 
Additionally, there is equilibrium and the presence of catalysts in the form of enzymes that 
decrease the activation energy of reactions, ultimately increasing the rates of reactions. 
Furthermore, there is the presence of acid base equilibriums amongst the human body. Due to 
the presence of natural buffers of bicarbonate and carbonic acid amongst the stomach, this 
allows acids to not cause complete internal acidification. Lastly, organic chemistry and structures 
are present throughout the human body. From the organic properties of the natural enzymes 
found in the stomach to the enzymes found in the mouth, there are hundreds of organic 
structures present everywhere in the human body. Ultimately, the human body is a an array of 
different chemical and biological inntercrasies. Despite the fact that we can not understand 
everything about the human body, one can definitely, explore the chemical reactions and their 
properties of the human body.  

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Glossary 
Acetylcholine​: a compound which occurs throughout the nervous system, in which it functions as 
a neurotransmitter 

Bilirubin​: Bilirubin is formed by the breakdown of red blood cells in the body. The liver helps to 
excrete it. High levels of bilirubin can lead to jaundice. 

Bolus​: a small rounded mass of a substance, especially of chewed food at the moment of 
swallowing. 

Buffe​r: a solution that resists changes in pH when acid or alkali is added to it. Buffers typically 
involve a weak acid or alkali together with one of its salts. 

Cellulose​: an insoluble substance which is the main constituent of plant cell walls and of 
vegetable fibers such as cotton. It is a polysaccharide consisting of chains of glucose monomers 

Chime​: the semifluid mass of partly digested food expelled by the stomach into the duodenum 

Enzymes​: a substance produced by a living organism which acts as a catalyst to bring about a 
specific biochemical reaction 

Equilibrium​: a state in which opposing forces or influences are balanced. 

Hepatocyte​: a liver cell. 

Hydrogen bond​: a weak bond between two molecules resulting from an electrostatic attraction 
between a proton in one molecule and an electronegative atom in the other. 

Hydrolysis​: the chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water. 

Intermolecular​: existing or taking place between molecules. 

Lipids​: any of a class of organic compounds that are fatty acids or their derivatives and are 
insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They include many natural oils, waxes, and 
steroids. 

Mastication​: Chewing 

Metabolism​: the chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life. 

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Nucleophilic​: (of a molecule or group) having a tendency to donate electrons or react at 
electron-poor sites such as protons. 

Parasympathetic neurons​: The parasympathetic nervous system (PSNS) is one of the two 
divisions of the autonomic nervous system (a division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS)), the 
other being the sympathetic nervous system 

Photosynthesis​: the process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to 
synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water. Photosynthesis in plants generally involves the 
green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a byproduct. 

Reaction Mechanism​: In chemistry, a reaction mechanism is the step by step sequence of 
elementary reactions by which overall chemical change occurs. 

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