IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE

Irrig. and Drain. 68: 115–122 (2019)

Published online 10 December 2018 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/ird.2310

THE CHINAMPA: AN ANCIENT MEXICAN SUB-IRRIGATION SYSTEM†

BRAULIO ROBLES, JORGE FLORES* , JOSE LUIS MARTÍNEZ AND PATRICIA HERRERA
Mexican Institute of Water Technology, Paseo Cuauhnahuac, 8532, Jiutepec, Morelos, Mexico

ABSTRACT
The Chinampa is an agro-hydrological system practised for many generations, built over shallow lacustrine wetland areas near
Mexico City. It was developed by the Aztecs, a pre-Hispanic culture who settled around the lake in the old Tenochtitlan,
ancient capital of the Mexican empire. The Chinampa design takes advantage of local environmental and soil conditions. Now-
adays, some are still used by local producers and it is one of the few pre-Hispanic irrigation structures that have been preserved
and that operate as originally designed, with increasing value, because of its sustainability. The Chinampa consists of several
layers of vegetation and sludge to produce an organic soil 50 cm above the water level for agricultural use in wetlands. These
rectangular plots, surrounded by water, are 5–10 m wide by 50–100 m long. When a significant number of Chinampas are built,
they make a network of canals among Chinampas, and broader canals provide navigation routes. The Chinampa is secured on
the edges by trees whose roots hold the soil. These agricultural structures have provided many benefits for the inhabitants in the
water system of the area, not only productive, but also economic, environmental, cultural and social. In December 1984,
the Chinampa system in the Valley of Mexico was declared to be Cultural Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO; in 1992, the
Mexican government declared the zone a ‘Natural Protected Area’; and in 2004, the wetlands that support the Chinampa were
also declared a RAMSAR site. © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
key words: Ancient, Mexico; agriculture development; successful technology

Received 15 August 2018; Revised 9 October 2018; Accepted 9 October 2018

RÉSUMÉ
Le Chinampa est un système agro-hydrologique pratiqué depuis de nombreuses générations, construit sur des zones humides
lacustres peu profondes près de Mexico. Il a été développé par les Aztèques, une culture préhispanique qui s’est installée sur le
lac dans l’ancienne Tenochtitlan, ancienne capitale de l’empire Mexica. La conception de Chinampa tire parti des conditions
environnementales et de sol locales. De nos jours, certains sont encore utilisés par les producteurs locaux et c’est l’une des rares
structures d’irrigation préhispaniques qui ont été préservées et qui fonctionnent comme prévu à l’origine, avec une valeur
croissante, en raison de leur durabilité. Le Chinampa est constitué de plusieurs couches de végétation et de boues qui
produisent un sol organique à 50 cm au-dessus du niveau de l’eau pour une utilisation agricole dans les zones humides. Ces
parcelles rectangulaires entourées d’eau ont une largeur de 5 à 10 m et une longueur de 50 à 100 m. Lorsqu’un nombre impor-
tant de Chinampas sont construits, ceux-ci forment un réseau de canaux entre les Chinampas et des canaux plus larges offrent
des itinéraires de navigation. Le Chinampa est fixé sur les bords par des arbres dont les racines retiennent le sol. Ces structures
agricoles ont apporté de nombreux avantages aux habitants du système d’eau de la région, non seulement productifs, mais aussi
économiques, environnementaux, culturels et sociaux. En décembre 1984, le système Chinampa de la vallée du Mexique a été
déclaré patrimoine culturel de l’humanité par l’UNESCO; en 1992, le gouvernement mexicain a déclaré la zone ‘zone naturelle
protégée’; et en 2004, les zones humides qui soutiennent le Chinampa ont également été déclarées site RAMSAR. © 2018 John
Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
mots clés: Patrimoine, Mexique; développement de l’agriculture; technologie réussie

*Correspondence to: Dr. Jorge Flores. Mexican Institute of Water Technology. Alicia, Cuernavaca 62290, Mexico. Tel.: 014442140571.E-mail:
jorge_flores@tlaloc.imta.mx
†
Le Chinampa: un système mexicain ancien de sous-irrigation.

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

116 B. ROBLES ET AL.

INTRODUCTION been favourable for the concentration of population. In the

sixteenth century, pre-Hispanic settlements were estimated
Sustainability, food security, climate change, and overex-
at 1 million inhabitants, around the city of Tenochtitlan, cap-
ploitation and degradation of natural resources are the main
ital of the Aztec empire. The Aztecs were a nomadic tribe of
challenges for agriculture. For many centuries, one of the
hunters and gatherers who left from a place called Aztlán
best alternative farming techniques in Mexico for sustainable
looking for somewhere to settle. The name Aztec comes
food production was the Chinampa agriculture. This ancient
from the Nahuatl aztecatl, which means ‘inhabitant of
sub-irrigation agrosystem is still practised in Xochimilco,
Aztlán’. Guided by their patron god, Huitzilopochtli, the
south of Mexico City. The method of establisment was also
Aztecs arrived in the Valley of Mexico, where they found
used by the Aztecs to expand their territory, gaining ground
the sign that their god had promised them, an eagle perched
in the lakes and lagoons of the Valley of Mexico. This way,
on a cactus, devouring a snake. The guide of the tribe was
the city of Mexico-Tenochtitlan became a ‘floating’ city.
Tenoch, and in his honour the city founded in the indicated
The Aztecs built the Chinampas for agricultural production,
place was given the name of Tenochtitlan. The city of
piling up mud from the bottom of the lake, rich in organic
Tenochtitlan was founded around 1325 on an island on Lake
matter and nutrients and protecting it with a fence of wooden
Texcoco. The small islet was soon occupied by temples and
stakes. Next, they sowed willow branches with a slender
houses, so there was a need to expand the area, gaining land
crown, called ahuejotes (Salix bonplandiana), around the
from the lake through the development of agricultural
plot. The plot was built to stand about 50 cm above the water
practices such as Chinampas. Soon the Aztecs extended
table. Once the plots were built, irrigated agriculture was
their dominion over the neighbouring towns, constructing
developed by subsurface irrigation. This type of irrigation
a vast empire that lasted until the arrival of the Spaniards
was possible due to the special characteristics of the ancient
in 1521. At the time of the conquest, Tenochtitlan had a
valley of central Mexico, such as shallow and muddy lakes,
population of approximately 200 000 inhabitants and an
which provided the ideal environment for this practice. Also,
area of aproximately 15 km2.
hydraulic works by the Mexicas and their allies, creating bar-
The Chinampa, a sustainable and highly efficient
riers to control floods and salinization of the water, created
agroecosystem associated with shallow lacustrine or
favourable environmental conditions for the construction of
wetland areas, was developed by pre-Hispanic cultures
Chinampas, favouring the development of intensive agricul-
3000 years ago in several wetlands of Mexico. Chinampas
ture. The peak Chinampa area in the Chalco-Xochimilco
in the Valley of Mexico have been recognized as a success-
region was estimated in the fifteenth century to be 9500 ha
ful agricultural practice since the fifteenth century. This
(Luna, 2014) and could support a population of 200 000. Af-
heritage system is cultivated by chinamperos (local farmers)
ter the Spanish colonization of the Mexican empire, the con-
in the Xochimilco–Chalco river basin (Figure 1), south-east
ditions of the lake area were modified by draining and drying
of the capital city of Mexico, and is now the last example of
the lake, thus reducing the agricultural areas built with
how the lacustrine city of Tenochtitlan once was. One of the
Chinampas. Nowadays, only a few areas are preserved south
oldest maps of Mexico City is attributed to Alonso de Santa
of Mexico City, in Xochimilco and Tlahuac. Due to changes
Cruz, a Spanish cartographer. The map, dated 1550, is
in hydrological patterns, the Chinampas are now supplied
currently in the archives of the Uppsala University library
with treated wastewater from Mexico City.
in Sweden. Detail of the Uppsala map (Figure 2) indicates
The Chinampa is an ancient agricultural system with
the both, together between man and water, where Chinampas
many advantages over conventional, commercial monocrop
were essential for the agricultural support of the habitants of
systems. The Chinampa is a sustainable sub-irrigation agri-
the ancient city of Tenochtitlan.
cultural system that played a vital role in the Valley of
The word ‘chinampa’ comes from the Nahuatl chinamitl,
Mexico’s agriculture over many centuries. Therefore, it
which means ‘woven fence of canes’. Nahuatl was the
needs to be preserved and studied. However, pollution and
Aztec language, which was spoken by the Mexicas
population explosion have caused reduction in the area
(the indigenous dominant people who inhabited the Valley
and the quantity of Chinampas. This paper describes the
of Mexico). The Chinampa is a farming practice that
Chinampa as a heritage irrigation structure adapted to the
consists of small permanent artificial islands built on a
evolution of Mexico.
freshwater lake for agricultural purposes. Their shape and
dimensions were variable; however, the most important
representation is a rectangular islet 50 cm above the
DEVELOPMENT OF CHINAMPAS IN THE
water level, 5–10 m wide by 50, 100 or more metres long.
VALLEY OF MEXICO
There was a network of small canals between Chinampas,
Due to its physiographic characteristics and the abundance and broader canals that provided navigation routes and
of water resources, the Valley of Mexico river basin has irrigation supply. The ancient Chinampas were built by

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Irrig. and Drain. 68: 115–122 (2019)
 CHINAMPA, AGROHYDROLOGICAL SYSTEM 117

called ahuejotes (willows) and interwoven with branches

(chinamitl). The Chinampa system is very versatile and pro-
ductive, allowing permanent cropping the whole year round.
Farmers used to produce several crops each year: vegeta-
bles, fruits, and grains, mainly corn, beans and amaranth.
This wetland ecosystem also supports aquatic flora and
fauna in the canals. Vegetation management in the
Chinampas by local producers, which comprises 51 domes-
ticated species, is an example of a process of evolution of
agrodiversity, which also includes 96 non-domesticated
species, which are used as fodder crops (67%), medicine
(20%) and food (13%).
The Chinampa represents a multifunctional activity,
complementary to the urban dynamics of Mexico City. They
fulfil the integrated objectives of socio-environmental
sustainability, including an extensive biological wealth and
important ecosystem services to the urban and periurban
area (FAO, 2018). In addition, agroforestry elements and
the channels serve to control flooding when excess water
in the rainy season is diverted from Mexico City, working
as regulation vessels. Also, the humidity generated by the
water in the channels and wetlands promotes climate control
and reduces aggressive wind erosion in the southern zone of
Figure 1. Location map of the Valley of Mexico river basin and Mexico the city.
City (Luna, 2014). [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

SCIENTIFIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Chinampa bed construction narratives typically describe the
following steps (Luna, 2014): (i) stick soundings locate
shallow areas within a lake; (ii) rectangular bed areas are
staked out; (iii) vegetation mats are piled in the staked area
and possibly alternated with layers of lake mud; (iv) the
peat-like foundation is capped with a thick layer of mud
from the lake bottom, alluvial sediments or from the
tops of older Chinampas; (v) the borders of the Chinampas
are planted with fast, straight-growing willows (ahuejotes)
to reduce field edge erosion; (vi) the bed is capped with
an rich organic layer of muck prior to sowing crops
(Figures 3 & 4).
The channels that surround the Chinampa and the plots of
rectangular and narrow design allow the roots of the plants
that are cultivated to profit from the water and take
advantage of the humidity of the soil, which has a porous
consistency. This process implies the permanent irrigation
Figure 2. Uppsala map. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary. of the crops, regardless of the rainy season, from the
com]
channels to be used for irrigation. Initially, after the
construction of the Chinampa, the farmers irrigated with
hand, enriched using organic material from aquatic plants containers, collecting water from the channels and applying
and sediment from the deep channel and supplemented it to the plot. Once the root of the plants is developed,
with small amounts of animal manure. water is absorbed by the root system. Sub-irrigation systems
A typical Chinampa is located on shallow areas of lakes start in the phreatic level up to the surface, ascending by
and wetlands and their sides are reinforced with local trees capillarity. If the water flux is constant between root and

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Irrig. and Drain. 68: 115–122 (2019)
118 B. ROBLES ET AL.

Figure 3. An unidentified author’s representation of a Chinampa. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

the most important ones, it was an irrigation or sub-

irrigation system. The original Chinampa was built in
platforms up to a height of 0.5–0.7 m above water levels
and the sides were reinforced with posts interwoven with
branches and with trees planted along the edges. Each
platform averages 6–10 m wide; the narrowness of the
Chinampas ensures that water from the channel infiltrates
the Chinampa, giving rise to a zone of moisture within reach
of the crop’s roots (Gliessman, 1998). Using layers of vege-
tation, dirt and mud, together with sub-irrigation from the
channel, ensures that an adequate supply of nutrients is
always available to the growing crops.

Soil, organic supply and model of sub-irrigation

In different scenarios, many authors (Sanborn, 1893; Green
and Green, 1895; Rane, 1896; Philip, 1991; Bengtson, 1993;
Wright and Adamsen, 1993) have considered that a combi-
nation of soil and plant properties is necessary for sub-
irrigation systems. Several studies, at different times (Brady,
1974; Stolzy, 1974; Wilken, 1985; Wilken, 1987), have
considered specific requirements for a sub-irrigation system,
such as a minimum thickness at the water level for root de-
velopment. But the most important thing is the composition
of the layers, which should be mainly of fine sand and
Figure 4. Cross-cut section of a Chinampa in Xochimilco (Photo: Hugo coarse silt in order to produce a capillary fringe a few
Brehme, 1910) centimetres above the root of the crops—85 cm above the
water level on average—but taking care that this fringe
atmosphere, moisture is supplied to crops and high produc- does not produce salinization due to transpiration and
tivity can be obtained in this system. oxygenation.
In summary, soil composition was the first component of
the amazing agriculture systems based on Chinampas.
Chinampa sub-irrigation system
Figure 5 shows a model of the factors that control sub-
The success of Chinampa systems was due to several irrigation. In diagram (a), the water table is too high relative
factors, such as size, composition, etc., but maybe between to the planting surface, so that drainage is necessary for

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Irrig. and Drain. 68: 115–122 (2019)
 CHINAMPA, AGROHYDROLOGICAL SYSTEM 119

Figure 5. Model of wetland sub-irrigation (Crossley, 2004)

agriculture to be feasible. In situation (b), a deeper water ta- growth, may benefit from moisture in the capillary fringe
ble and a silt loam soil allow development of a capillary above the water table. Situation (d), then, is the one envis-
fringe that reaches the zone subject to evaporation and aged by those who have suggested that Chinampas and other
may lead to salt accumulation in the root zone. In diagram wetland fields should be sub-irrigated.
(c), the soil profile is too deep (or too coarse) for the capil- In order to preserve this way of cultivating, it is important
lary fringe to be reached by even the deepest plant roots. to know the characteristics of the sub-irrigation system and
In (d), a deeper soil profile created by field-raising allows crop production that were successful, because current condi-
development of a zone of well-drained soil for initial root tions are quite different as to size of the platform, drainage,
growth, and deep-rooting crops, or mature phases of root canal infilling, and dredging (Rojas Rabiela, 1993;
Bojórquez Castro, 1995). In this regard, during 1996–
1997, Crossley (2004) took measurements of the actual
height of capillary rise in Chinampas of varying width,
and correlated these estimates with soil texture, organic mat-
ter content, soil salinity, and field profile observations
(Crossley, 2004). The results are shown in Figures 6 and 7:

Figure 6. Moisture content, profile SL6, San Luis Tlaxialtemalco

(Crossley, 2004) Figure 7. Organic matter content of Chinampa soils (Crossley, 2004)

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Irrig. and Drain. 68: 115–122 (2019)
120 B. ROBLES ET AL.

a significant decline in moisture content despite increasing or CHINAMPAS IN THE PRESENT

steady organic matter content and confirmation of this
position for the capillary fringe from the salinity values and The area built with Chinampas peaked at about 10 000 ha
field observations. during the late Aztec period (1450–1521), presumably under
Two basic ideas can be emphasized: organic matter primarily maize cultivation. After the conquest by the
content and thickness and position of the layers of the Spaniards, the vast lakes that once filled the Valley of
Chinampa. The range of Chinampa heights reported in the Mexico were steadily drained, and now they have almost
literature go from 25 to 100 cm (Santamaría, 1993). disappeared, the lacustrine marshes replaced with concrete,
Adjustment of platform height after fields became too tarmac and steel. Mexico City is now home for almost 21
high also suggests changes in optimal morphologies for million people.
sub-irrigation. In this context, it is clear that Chinampa soils One of the main problems of the Chinampa agro-
do produce sufficient capillary rise to provide potential hydrological system is the expansion of urban areas.
moisture to crops in spite of several capillarity-inhibiting The Xochimilco Ecological Plan, developed in 1987,
features of the platform subsoil. Also, the high organic brought the expropriation of about 1000 ha (2577 acres);
matter content of the Chinampa soils is likely an important private enterprises and individual owners took possession
feature of the Chinampa system for moisture retention and of these communal lands (Onofre, 2005). Hence, the
availability, and sub-irrigation may have actually been more water quality of the lacustrine zone was severely affected
important for supplying moisture to the willow trees, because of the increasing need to supply water to Mexico
thereby reducing competition for the moisture supplied City. Consequently, there has been an intensive exploita-
from the surface, than in actually irrigating Chinampa crops tion of aquifers and water springs in the Xochimilco–
(Crossley, 2004). Chalco sub-basin. This happened in the 1950s, when
several local springs dried up and the aquifer became
depleted. Therefore, the government decided to supply
treated wastewater to the Chinampas in order to maintain
them. Despite this situation, and thanks to a reduced
CONSERVATION OF THE ECOSYSTEM
group of tenacious chinamperos (Chinampa farmers),
Conservation of ecosystems implies specific management of and with the help of the local government, the agro-
several factors, such as soil, water flow, water levels, forest, hydrological system continues to work at a high level of
etc. The soil of the Chinampa must be constantly renewed. sustainability, efficiency, productivity and equilibrium
This is possible with the application of contributions of within the wetland ecosystem (Martínez Ruiz, 2014).
organic matter that come from its own lacustrine ecosystem, The impact on Chinampas has been so severe that it al-
either from the humus that is extracted from the bottom of most caused its extinction, but fortunately, there are still
the canals or from vegetable residues of the environment rural communities where the knowledge and practice of
in combination with manure. Similarly, fertility is sustained cultivation on Chinampas have been conserved. González
indefinitely, salinization is prevented, and it is recom- et al. (2016) estimated the existence of about 20 922
mended to use organic fertilizer and avoid as much as possi- Chinampas in Xochimilco, 3586 of which are active and
ble the use of agrochemicals. Management is a basic way to the other 17 336 inactive.
achieve high indexes of productivity both in quality and in Some farmers are adapting their agro-systems to new con-
quantity. It is important to point out that by means of the ditions. Figure 8 shows a greenhouse producing high-value
use of almácigos (nurseries), where the seed is implanted flowers on a Chinampa. However, modern Chinampas are
and which is made with the base of the mud of the channels no longer self-sustaining systems, as plastic covers provide
and compost rich in nutrients, one can have the soil under frost protection, gas-powered pumps deliver reclaimed
constant cultivation. urban water (transferred to the system) to the plants on large
The Chinampa is also an agroforesty unit, because it fields, and external organic and chemical inputs introduce
includes the use of a local variety of willow (Salix nutrients and contaminants to the soil. The average
bonpladiana), called ahuejote in Mexico. These trees Chinampa area is also increasing, from 221 m2 in Aztec
planted on the periphery of the parcel avoid the detachment times to more than 2000 m2 in the last century, as pointed
of the borders with their roots; their roots play a significant out by Luna (2014).
role in the conservation of the forest biomass; they give a Since the hydrological conditions under which
little shade to the cultivation and serve as a wind barrier. It Chinampas were created have changed, it is necessary to
is also worth mentioning their importance as a carbon sink adapt them to new conditions. For instance, water fluxes,
and that they propitiate the conservation of the richness of water levels, and Chinampa dimensions have been reduced;
the wetland ecosystem. therefore, the shape, size, and position of the Chinampa

© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Irrig. and Drain. 68: 115–122 (2019)
 CHINAMPA, AGROHYDROLOGICAL SYSTEM 121

Figure 8. Chinampa in San Gregorio Atlapulco, Xochimilco. [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

must be improved. If drainage is discharged into the (8) the current Chinampa area is around 25 km2, which
channels, fertilizers and chemical pesticides, as well as can be developed as a modern sustainable irrigated
invasion of exotic plants, are factors to be considered in zone to promote the conservation of wetlands, and
the new Chinampa design. protect and stimulate the biotic wealth of lacustrine
environments.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
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