College Algebra

POLYNOMIALS
Operations on Polynomial
Removing Grouping Symbols
POLYNOMIALS
Definitions:
• Constant- is a symbol that assigns one specific value.
Ex: 3 ; 9 ; 8
• Variable- is a symbol that assumes many values.
Ex: x ; y ; z
• Algebraic expression- is a collection of constants and variables
involving at least one of the basic operations in mathematics.
Ex: 7 ; x ; 2m ; 5y + 9

• Term- is an expression preceded by plus or minus sign.

Ex: 4a ; – 6m2 ; 3xy3
POLYNOMIALS
Definitions:
• Monomial- is a term involving only the product of a real
number which may have coefficients of variables with
positive integral exponent.
Ex: 7 ; x2y3z4 ; –2m5n ; 9b4
• Polynomial- is a sum of finite monomials.

• Binomial – a polynomial with two terms.

Ex: 5x + 3 ; 9x2 – 8x ; –2m5n + 5
• Trinomial – a polynomial with three terms
Ex: 2x + 9y – z ; 6x2 – 7x + 1 ; 8m6 –2m5 + 5m4
DEGREE OF THE POLYNOMIAL
• Degree of a Term
is the sum of the exponents of the variables that appear in it
• Degree of the Polynomial
is the highest of the degrees of its monomials (individual
terms) with non-zero coefficients.
Ex1: 10x + 3 - 1st degree equation - Linear equation
Ex2: 9x2 – 8x + 5 - 2nd degree equation - Quadratic equation
Ex3: x3 – 12x2 + 5x – 3 - 3rd degree equation - Cubic equation
Ex4: 8m4 – 5 - 4th degree equation - Quartic equation
Ex5: 8m6 –2m3 + 5m - 6th degree equation
5x2y3 + 2x – 3 = 0
OPERATIONS ON POLYNOMIALS
• Addition and Subtraction of Polynomials
Similar Terms- terms having the same literal coefficients.

Ex.
1. 5x + 3x = 8x
2. 4x2 + 8x2 = 12x2
3. 12x4 + 7x4 + 8y2 + 6y2 = 19x4 + 14y2
4. 9m5 – 3m5 = 6m5
5. 17a2+6a–3–4a2–10a–4+11a2–8a+1 =
17a2–4a2+11a2+6a–8a–10a–3–4+1 =
24a2 –12a – 6
REMOVING GROUPING SYMBOLS

( ) - Parentheses
[ ] - Brackets
{ } - Braces
Simplify the following by removing the grouping symbols.
1. –{ 8x –[13x – 2(7y – x)] – 18y}=
–[ 8x –(13x – 14y + 2x) – 18y]=
–[ 8x –(15x – 14y) – 18y]=
–(8x – 15x + 14y – 18y) =
–(– 7x – 4y) =
= 7x +4y
2. 2x – {–3x –[–(2x – 2y+ 3x) – 5y] – 6x + y} – 2y=
2x – {–3x –[–(5x – 2y) – 5y] – 6x + y} – 2y=
2x – [–3x –(–5x + 2y – 5y) – 6x + y] – 2y=
2x – [–3x –(–5x – 3y) – 6x + y] – 2y=
2x – (–3x + 5x + 3y – 6x + y) – 2y=
2x – (–4x + 4y ) – 2y=
2x + 4x –4y – 2y=
= 6x – 6y
Simplify the following by removing the grouping symbols.

3. –{x –[2x – y –(3x + y) – 6x] – y} =

–[x –(2x – y – 3x – y – 6x) – y] =
–(x –2x + y + 3x + y + 6x – y) =
– x + 2x – y – 3x – y – 6x + y =
= –8x – y
 ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF POLYNOMIALS
1. Add –3x2y + 2xy, –5x3y + 4x2y – 7 , 4x3y – 3xy & 7xy + 7

– 3x2y + 2xy
–5x3y + 4x2y –7
4x3y – 3xy
7xy + 7
–x3y + x2y + 6xy
2. Subtract –4x from 12x
12x
–
– 4x
16x
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF POLYNOMIALS
3. Subtract 5x2 –6x + 1 from 9x2–3x –1.
9x2 – 3x –1
–+ – 5x2 +
– 6x –+1
4x2 + 3x – 2
4. Subtract the sum of 2x–3 and 5x+6 from the sum of
9x–4 and –7x–1.
2x–3 9x–4 2x–5
+ 5x+6 + –7x–1
– – 7x +– 3
7x+3 2x–5 –5x–8
5. Subtract the difference of 10x2 –x and –2x2 –3x + 4 from
the sum of 6x2–x+6 and 3x2–4.
–+ 10x2 – x 6x2– x + 6 –+ 2 9x2– x + 2
+ 3x2 – 4
–2x2 –3x –++ 4 –12x –+ 2x +– 4
+
12x2 + 2x – 4 9x2 – x + 2 – 3x2 – 3x + 6
MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS
Multiplication Law of Exponents
-multiply the numerical coefficients and add the exponents.
am ∙ an = am+ n
1. x ∙ x = x2
2. 5x2 ∙ –3x3= –15 x5
3. –12xy ∙ –7xy= 84 x2y2
4. Multiply (5x – 3)and(6x + 5)

6x(5x – 3)= 30x2 – 18x

+5(5x – 3)= + 25x – 15
30x2 + 7x – 15
MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS
5. Multiply 2x2–3x+4 by x2–7.
x2(2x2–3x+4)= 2x4 – 3x3 + 4x2

–7(2x2–3x+4)= –14x2 + 21x –28

2x4 – 3x3 – 10x2 + 21x –28
6. Multiply x2–5x +1 by x2+x–2.
x2(x2–5x +1)= x4 – 5x3 + x2
+x(x2–5x +1)= x3 – 5x2 + x
–2(x2–5x +1)= –2x2 +10x –2
x4 –4x3 –6x2 +11x –2
MULTIPLICATION OF POLYNOMIALS
7. Multiply (x–1)(x – 2) and (x – 3).
Multiply (x– 1) and (x – 2)
x(x – 1) = x2 – x
–2(x – 1) = –2x +2
x2 –3x +2

Multiply (x2 – 3x + 2) by (x – 3)
x(x2 – 3x + 2) = x3 – 3x2 + 2x

–3(x2 – 3x + 2) = – 3x2 + 9x – 6
x3 – 6x2 + 11x – 6
 DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS
Division Law of Exponents
- divide the numerical coefficients and subtract the exponents.
am = am – n
an
1. x5 ÷ x3 = x5 – 3 = x2
2. –20m4 ÷ 5m = 4m3
3. –80a2b4c ÷ –12a5b2c =
–80a2 b4 c = (–4)(20)a2 b4 c = 20 b2
–12a5 b2 c (–4)(3)a5 b2 c 3a3
DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS
4. Divide 27x3y3 –36x2y2+45xy by 9xy
27x3y3 –36x2y2+45xy
9xy
27x3y3 + –36x2y2 + 45xy
9xy 9xy 9xy
3x2 y2 – 4xy + 5
DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS
5. Divide 6x2 –x–12 by 2x – 3.
3x + 4
2x – 3│6x2–x– 12
+– – 6x2 +– 9x
8x –12
8x –12
0
DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS

6. Divide 2x3 –11x–6 by x + 2.

2x2 – 4x – 3
x + 2 2x3 –11x – 6
– 2x3 +– 4x2
–4x2 –11x – 6
–4x2 – 8x
– 3x – 6
– 3x – 6
0
DIVISION OF POLYNOMIALS

7. Divide –2x2+5x3–18x–10 by x + 2
– 22
5x2 –12x + 6 + x+ 2
x + 2 │5x3–2x2– 18x–10
– 5x3–+10x2
–12x2 –18x
+–12x2 +–24x
6x –10
– 6x –+ 12
– 22
SYNTHETIC DIVISION

8. Divide x4+4x3–9x+12 by x + 3
x4 x3 x2 x c
1 4 0 –9 12 –3

–3 –3 9 0

1 1 –3 0 12
12
x3 + x2 –3x + 0 + x + 3
SYNTHETIC DIVISION

9. Divide 6y3–11y2 – 1 by 3y – 1
y3 y2 y c
6 –11 0 –1 1

2 –3 –1

6 –9 –3 –2

÷3 2 –3 –1
–2
2y2 – 3y –1 +
3y – 1
SPECIAL PRODUCTS AND FACTORING

PRODUCT OF TWO BINOMIALS

(ax + by)(cx + dy) = acx2 + adxy + bcxy + bdy2

F – first terms
(ax + by)(cx + dy) O – outside terms
I – inside terms
L – last terms
Examples:

1. (2x – 3y) (4x + 5y) =

=(2x)(4x) +(2x)(5y) +(–3y)(4x) +(–3y)(5y)
= 8x2 + 10xy –12xy –15y2
= 8x2 –2xy –15y2
2. (x2 – 4) ( x2 + 5) =
= x4 +5x2 –4x2 –20
= x4 +x2 –20

3. (2x – 5y) (8x – 7y) =

16x2 –14xy –40xy +35y2
=16x2 –54xy +35y2
SQUARE OF A BINOMIAL

(x + y)2 = x2 + 2xy + y2
Examples:
1. (4a + 5b)2 = (4a)2 +2(4a)(5b) +(5b)2
16a2 + 40ab + 25b2

2. (x2 – 4)2 = x4 – 8x2 + 16

3. (2m – 3n)2 = 4m2 –12mn +9n2

4) [(x + 5y) – 4]2 = Let m = x + 5y

(m – 4)2

(m2 – 8m +16)
[(x + 5y)2 –8(x + 5y) + 16]

(x2 + 10xy + 25y2 – 8x – 40y +16)

5) [(m + 2) + 3(n – 3)]2 = Let x=(m + 2) ; y = (n – 3)
(x + 3y)2
x2 + 6xy + 9y2
(m + 2)2 + 6(m + 2)(n – 3) + 9(n – 3)2
PRODUCT OF THE SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF THE SAME TWO TERMS
(x + y)(x – y) = x2 – y2
Examples:
1. (3m+n) (3m–n)= (3m)2 – (n)2

= 9m2 – n2
2. (7x2–9)(7x2+9) = 49x4 – 81

3. (2x–3y)(2x+3y) = 4x2 – 9y2

[(k + 3) – 2] [(k + 3) + 2] = Let x = k + 3

(x – 2) (x + 2)
(x2 – 4)
[(k+3)2 – 4)]
= k2 +6k + 5
 SPECIAL CASE OF PRODUCT OF BINOMIAL AND TRINOMIAL
(x + y)(x2 –xy + y2) = x3 + y3
(x – y)(x2 +xy + y2) = x3 – y3
Examples:
1. (3m+n) (9m2 – 3mn + n2 )= (3m)3 + (n)3
= 27m3 + n3

2. (5x2–9)(25x4 + 45x2 + 81) = 125x6 – 729

3. (2x–3y)(4x2 + 6xy + 9y2) = 8x3 – 27y3

 CUBE OF A BINOMIAL
(x + y)3 = x3 + 3x2y + 3xy2 + y3
(x – y)3 = x3 – 3x2y + 3xy2 – y3
Examples:
1. (3m+n)3= (3m)3 +3(3m)2(n)+3(3m)(n)2 + (n)3

= 27m3 + 27m2n + 9mn2 + n3

2. (5a2–2b)3 = 125a6 –150a4b +60a2b2 – 8b3

3. (2x3 –3y2)3 = 8x9 – 36x6y2 +54x3y4 – 27y6

 SQUARE OF A TRINOMIAL

(x + y + z)2 = x2 + y2 + z2 +2xy +2yz +2xz

Examples:
1.(3m+5n +4p)2=
9m2 +25n2 +16p2 +30mn +40np +24mp

2.(5x–2y+6z)2 =
25x2 +4y2 +36z2 –20xy –24yz +60xz

3.(2a2 –3b3 – 5c4)2 =

4a4 +9b6 +25c8 –12a2b3 +30b3c4 –20a2c4
A. Find the product.
1. (7x – 3y)(7x – 3y)=
2.(4x – 3y – 5z)2 =
3. (8x4 + 3y4 )(8x4 – 3y4 ) =
4. (3x – 1)(5x + 3)=
5. (6m – 5) (36m2 + 30m + 25)=
6. (a2 – b)(a2 + b) =
7. (7x – 3)2 =
8, (4m2 – 7n3)3 =
B. Factor the following completely:
1. 9x3y2 – 12x2y3 =
2. 16x2 – 1 =
3. 2x2 + x – 6 =
4. x2 – 8x + 15 =
5. 8m3 – 125 =
6. x2 – 6x + 9 =
COMMON MONOMIAL FACTORING (CMF)
(ax + ay)= a(x + y)
1. 4x + 4y = 4(x + y)
2. 4x4 + 8x3 – 12x2 = 4x2 (x2 +2x – 3)
3. 27m6n4–12m5n3–18m4n2=
3m4n2 (9m2n2 –4mn –6)
4. 56a2b2c4 –32a5b3c3–40a3b4c2=
8a2b2c2 (7c2 –4a3bc –5ab2)
DIFFERENCE OF TWO SQUARES (DOTS)
(x2 – y2)= (x + y) (x– y)

1. 4x2 – 9y2 = (2x – 3y) (2x + 3y)

2. 25m6 – 16n8 = (5m3 – 4n4) (5m3 + 4n4)
3. n4 –1 = (n2 + 1) (n2 – 1)
=(n2 +1) (n + 1) (n –1)
4. 12ac4 –75ab2 = 3a (4c4 –25b2)
=3a (2c2 – 5b) (2c2 + 5b)
5. 32xy5 –98x3y = 2xy (16y4 –49x2)
= 2xy (4y2 +7x) (4y2 – 7x)
SUM AND DIFFERENCE OF TWO CUBES (SADOTC)
(x3 + y3)= (x + y) (x2 –xy + y2)
(x3 – y3)= (x – y) (x2+xy + y2)

1. 8x3 – 27y3 = (2x – 3y) (4x2 +6xy +9y2 )

2. 64m6+125n9= (4m2 +5n3) (16m4 –20m2n3 +25n6)
3. 81n8 –3n2 = 3n2 (27n6 –1)
=3n2 (3n2 –1)(9n4 +3n2 +1)
4. c6 – 1 = (c2 – 1) (c4 + c2 +1)
=(c – 1) (c + 1)(c4 + c2 +1)
(c3 – 1) (c3 + 1)
(c – 1) (c2 + c +1) (c + 1)(c2 – c +1)
PERFECT SQUARE TRINOMIAL (PST)
(x2 +2xy + y2)= (x + y)2
(x2 –2xy + y2)= (x– y)2

1.(4x2 +12xy +9y2)= (2x + 3y)2

2.(16m4– 40m2n3+25n6)= (4m2 – 5n3)2

3. (27n5 –18n3+3n)= 3n (9n4 –6n2 +1)

=3n (3n2 –1)2
GENERAL QUADRATIC TRINOMIAL (GQT)
x2 +(a+b)x + ab =(x + a ) (x + b)

1.(x2 +7x + 12)= (x + 3 ) (x + 4 )

2.(m2–8mn–20n2)= (m –10n) (m + 2n)

3. (10a2 +ab –21b2)= (2a +3b) (5a –7b)

4. (8x2 –22xy +15y2)= (2x –3y ) (4x –5y)
FACTORING BY GROUPING

( 3x + xy )+ (3z + yz) =
x( 3 + y) + z( 3+ y)
= (x + z) (3 + y)
3a – 9 + 2a2 – 6a =
(3a – 9) + (2a2 – 6a)
3(a – 3) + 2a(a – 3)

(3 + 2a) (a – 3)
FACTORING BY GROUPING
4x2 – 4y2 + 4y – 1 =
4x2 – (4y2 – 4y + 1)
4x2 – (2y – 1)2
[ 2x – (2y – 1) ][ 2x + (2y – 1)]
SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
2 3
• Simplify 8a b2 c2
12ab c

8a2 b3 c = 2ab
12ab2c2 3c
SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
Reduce 2x2 – 3x + 1 to lowest term
x2 – 1
2x2 – 3x + 1 = (2x – 1)(x – 1) = (2x – 1)
x2 – 1 (x + 1)(x – 1) (x +1)

6x 3 – 6x2 – 36x
Reduce to lowest term
4x2 – 2x – 30
6x3 – 6x2 – 36x = 6x(x2– x – 6) = 6x(x – 3)(x + 2)
4x2 – 2x – 30 2 (2x2 – x – 15) 2 (x – 3)(2x + 5)

= 3x(x + 2)
(2x + 5)
SIMPLIFYING ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
16 – x2 .
Reduce to lowest term
x2 – 2x – 8

16 – x2 .

=
(4 – x) (4 + x)
x2 – 2x – 8 (x – 4) (x + 2)

=
–(4 + x)
x+2
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

Multiply:
2
5m2n • 4p4 = p2
. .

2 3 12 1
4 16p 3 15m n 12mn
Multiply:

x3+ x2 • x2 – 1 = 0
. .

x3 – x2 .x3 + 1 .

x2 (x + 1) • (x – 1)(x + 1)
. ..

= (x + 1) ..

x2 (x – 1) .(x + 1)(x2 – x + 1) . (x2 – x + 1) .

MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

Multiply:
10x2 + xy – 3y2.

• x 2 + xy – 2y2.

2x2 + 3xy – 2y2. 5x2 – 2xy – 3y2 .

(5x + 3y) (2x – y) .

• (x + 2y) (x – y) .

(x + 2y) (2x – y) . (5x + 3y) (x – y) .

=1
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

Division:
x3 + y3 . x
÷ 3
2 – xy + y2
=0
2x2 – xy – 15y2 x – 3x2y
.

. .

x3 + y3 .

• x3 – 3x2y = 0
.

2x2 – xy – 15y2 . x2 – xy + y2
(x + y)(x2 – xy + y2) • 2x 2(x – 3y) .

=0
(2x + 5y)(x – 3y) . x – xy + y2
x 2(x+ y)
=
(2x + 5y)
MULTIPLICATION AND DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

Division:
m2 + mn • m3 – n3
.

÷ 2m 2 – mn – n2
. .

=0
2
m n+3mn 2 2
m + 2mn + n
.
2 mn + 3n2 .
.

m(m + n) • (m – n)(m2 + mn +n2)

. .

• n(m+ 3n) .

mn(m+3n) (m + n) (m + n)
. . (2m + n)(m – n) .

m 2 + mn +n2
= .

(m + n) (2m + n)
m2 + mn +n2 .

2m2 + 3mn +n2 .

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

x – 3 + 3x – 5
.

.
.

= x – 3 + 3x – 5 . .

x+ 3 x+ 3 x+ 3
.

. . .

= 4x – 8 . .

x+ 3
.

m2 – 5mn + 2n2 – m 2 – 2mn – n2 .

=0 .
.

m– n . m– n .

m2 – 5mn + 2n2 – (m2 – 2mn – n2)

. .

m– n .

m2 – 5mn + 2n2 – m2 + 2mn + n2

.

= – 3mn + 3n 2 . .

m– n m– n
.

. .

= – 3n
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

• Add 3a – 5 and . a– 6 .

2a – 1 . a+ 1 .

3a – 5 a – 6 (a + 1) (3a – 5) + (2a – 1) (a – 6)
+ =
. . .
. .

2a – 1 a+ 1 (2a – 1) (a + 1)
.

. . . .

3a 2 – 5a + 3a – 5 + 2a2 –12a – a + 6
= .

(2a – 1) (a + 1)
.

. .

5a 2 – 15a + 1
=
(2a – 1) (a + 1)
.

. .
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

• Add 2m – 9 and 5m + 6 . .

m2 – 8m + 16 3m2 – 11m – 4 . .

2m – 9 + 5m + 6
.

=0 .

2
m – 8m + 16 2
3m – 11m – 4
.
.

2m – 9 + .5m + 6 =0 .

(m – 4) (m – 4) (3m + 1) (m – 4)
.

. .

(3m + 1) (2m – 9) + (m – 4) (5m + 6)

=0
.

2
(m – 4) (3m + 1)
6m2 – 27m + 2m – 9 + 5m2 + 6m – 20m – 24 =0
(m – 4)2 (3m + 1)
11m2 – 39m – 33
(m – 4)2 (3m + 1)
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS
• Subtract a– b .

from a– b .

2a2 – ab – b2 . a2 + ab – 2b2 .

a– b .

– a– b .

=0
2
a + ab – 2b 2 .
2
2a – ab – b 2 .
(a – b)
a– b .

– a– b .

= 0 (a + 2b) (2a + b)
(a + 2b) (a – b) (2a + b) (a – b)
(2a + b) (a – b) – [(a + 2b) (a – b)]
=0
(a + 2b) (2a + b) (a – b)
2a2 –2ab + ab – b2 – (a2 – ab + 2ab – 2b2 ) = 0
(a + 2b) (2a + b) (a – b)
2a2 – ab – b2 – a2 + ab – 2ab + 2b2 = 0
(a + 2b) (2a + b) (a – b)
a2 – 2ab + b2 =0 (a – b) (a – b) =0
(a + 2b) (2a + b) (a – b) (a + 2b) (2a + b) (a – b)
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF ALGEBRAIC FRACTIONS

• Perform the indicated operation.

x + 2 .

– 6 .
. .

x2 – 3x + 2 x2 – 9x + 14 .x2 – 8x + 7 . .

x + 2 .

– 6 . .

(x – 2)(x – 1) (x – 7)(x – 2) (x – 7)(x – 1)

.

. . .

x (x – 7) + 2 (x – 1) – 6 (x – 2)
=0
. . .

(x – 2) (x – 1) (x – 7)
. .

x2 –7x + 2x –2 – 6x + 12 = 0
. . . . . .

(x – 2) (x – 1) (x – 7)
. .

x2 –11x +10
.

=0 . .

(x – 2) (x – 1) (x – 7)
. .

(x – 1) (x – 10) =0 (x – 10)
(x – 2) (x – 1) (x – 7)
. (x – 2) (x – 7)
. .
COMPLEX FRACTION
• If the numerator or the denominator of a fraction is
a fraction or both of them are fractions.
Examples:
1) x .

2) 1 3) 2 4) 2 + 3
y
.

4 9 x
5
. .

9 1 x
3

5) a+b
a–b
a+b
2
COMPLEX FRACTION
1) 2 + 3 . 2x + 3
x x 2x + 3 1 2x + 3
x
=
x
. =.

x •x =.

x2
.

2) a+b
a–b
= a+b • 2 = 2
a+b a–b a+b a–b
. .
.

2
COMPLEX FRACTION
3) x _ y 3x – 5y
5 3 = 15
x +y .

9x + 2y
2 9 18
6
= 3x – 5y • 18
5 15 9x + 2y
. .

= 6 (3x – 5y)
5 (9x + 2y)
.
COMPLEX FRACTION
4) 1 1 1
= =
1 1 x
1+ 1+ 1+
3+ 1 3x + 1 3x + 1
x x
1 1 3x + 1
= =
3x + 1 + x 4x + 1 4x + 1
3x + 1 3x + 1