OOAD - Object Oriented Paradigm

A Brief History
The object-oriented paradigm took its shape from the initial concept of a new
programming approach, while the interest in design and analysis methods
came much later.

 The first object–oriented language was Simula (Simulation of real systems) that
was developed in 1960 by researchers at the Norwegian Computing Center.

 In 1970, Alan Kay and his research group at Xerox PARK created a personal
computer named Dynabook and the first pure object-oriented programming
language (OOPL) - Smalltalk, for programming the Dynabook.

 In the 1980s, Grady Booch published a paper titled Object Oriented Design that
mainly presented a design for the programming language, Ada. In the ensuing
editions, he extended his ideas to a complete object–oriented design method.

 In the 1990s, Coad incorporated behavioral ideas to object-oriented methods.

The other significant innovations were Object Modelling Techniques (OMT) by

James Rumbaugh and Object-Oriented Software Engineering (OOSE) by Ivar
Jacobson.

Object-Oriented Analysis
Object–Oriented Analysis (OOA) is the procedure of identifying software
engineering requirements and developing software specifications in terms of
a software system’s object model, which comprises of interacting objects.

The main difference between object-oriented analysis and other forms of

analysis is that in object-oriented approach, requirements are organized
around objects, which integrate both data and functions. They are modelled
after real-world objects that the system interacts with. In traditional analysis
methodologies, the two aspects - functions and data - are considered
separately.

Grady Booch has defined OOA as, “Object-oriented analysis is a method of

analysis that examines requirements from the perspective of the classes and
objects found in the vocabulary of the problem domain”.
The primary tasks in object-oriented analysis (OOA) are −

 Identifying objects

 Organizing the objects by creating object model diagram

 Defining the internals of the objects, or object attributes

 Defining the behavior of the objects, i.e., object actions

 Describing how the objects interact

The common models used in OOA are use cases and object models.

Object-Oriented Design
Object–Oriented Design (OOD) involves implementation of the conceptual
model produced during object-oriented analysis. In OOD, concepts in the
analysis model, which are technology−independent, are mapped onto
implementing classes, constraints are identified and interfaces are designed,
resulting in a model for the solution domain, i.e., a detailed description
of how the system is to be built on concrete technologies.

The implementation details generally include −

 Restructuring the class data (if necessary),

 Implementation of methods, i.e., internal data structures and algorithms,

 Implementation of control, and

 Implementation of associations.

Grady Booch has defined object-oriented design as “a method of design

encompassing the process of object-oriented decomposition and a notation
for depicting both logical and physical as well as static and dynamic models
of the system under design”.

Object-Oriented Programming
Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a programming paradigm based upon
objects (having both data and methods) that aims to incorporate the
advantages of modularity and reusability. Objects, which are usually
instances of classes, are used to interact with one another to design
applications and computer programs.
The important features of object–oriented programming are −

 Bottom–up approach in program design

 Programs organized around objects, grouped in classes

 Focus on data with methods to operate upon object’s data

 Interaction between objects through functions

 Reusability of design through creation of new classes by adding features to

existing classes

Some examples of object-oriented programming languages are C++, Java,

Smalltalk, Delphi, C#, Perl, Python, Ruby, and PHP.

Grady Booch has defined object–oriented programming as “a method of

implementation in which programs are organized as cooperative collections
of objects, each of which represents an instance of some class, and whose
classes are all members of a hierarchy of classes united via inheritance
relationships”.

OOAD - Object Model

The object model visualizes the elements in a software application in terms
of objects. In this chapter, we will look into the basic concepts and
terminologies of object–oriented systems.

Objects and Classes

The concepts of objects and classes are intrinsically linked with each other
and form the foundation of object–oriented paradigm.

Object
An object is a real-world element in an object–oriented environment that may
have a physical or a conceptual existence. Each object has −

 Identity that distinguishes it from other objects in the system.

 State that determines the characteristic properties of an object as well as the

values of the properties that the object holds.

 Behavior that represents externally visible activities performed by an object in

terms of changes in its state.
Objects can be modelled according to the needs of the application. An object
may have a physical existence, like a customer, a car, etc.; or an intangible
conceptual existence, like a project, a process, etc.

Class
A class represents a collection of objects having same characteristic
properties that exhibit common behavior. It gives the blueprint or description
of the objects that can be created from it. Creation of an object as a member
of a class is called instantiation. Thus, object is an instance of a class.

The constituents of a class are −

 A set of attributes for the objects that are to be instantiated from the class.
Generally, different objects of a class have some difference in the values of the
attributes. Attributes are often referred as class data.

 A set of operations that portray the behavior of the objects of the class. Operations
are also referred as functions or methods.

Example

Let us consider a simple class, Circle, that represents the geometrical figure
circle in a two–dimensional space. The attributes of this class can be identified
as follows −

 x–coord, to denote x–coordinate of the center

 y–coord, to denote y–coordinate of the center

 a, to denote the radius of the circle

Some of its operations can be defined as follows −

 findArea(), method to calculate area

 findCircumference(), method to calculate circumference

 scale(), method to increase or decrease the radius

During instantiation, values are assigned for at least some of the attributes.
If we create an object my_circle, we can assign values like x-coord : 2, y-
coord : 3, and a : 4 to depict its state. Now, if the operation scale() is
performed on my_circle with a scaling factor of 2, the value of the variable a
will become 8. This operation brings a change in the state of my_circle, i.e.,
the object has exhibited certain behavior.

Encapsulation and Data Hiding

Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process of binding both attributes and methods together
within a class. Through encapsulation, the internal details of a class can be
hidden from outside. It permits the elements of the class to be accessed from
outside only through the interface provided by the class.

Data Hiding
Typically, a class is designed such that its data (attributes) can be accessed
only by its class methods and insulated from direct outside access. This
process of insulating an object’s data is called data hiding or information
hiding.

Example

In the class Circle, data hiding can be incorporated by making attributes

invisible from outside the class and adding two more methods to the class for
accessing class data, namely −

 setValues(), method to assign values to x-coord, y-coord, and a

 getValues(), method to retrieve values of x-coord, y-coord, and a

Here the private data of the object my_circle cannot be accessed directly by
any method that is not encapsulated within the class Circle. It should instead
be accessed through the methods setValues() and getValues().

Message Passing
Any application requires a number of objects interacting in a harmonious
manner. Objects in a system may communicate with each other using
message passing. Suppose a system has two objects: obj1 and obj2. The
object obj1 sends a message to object obj2, if obj1 wants obj2 to execute
one of its methods.

The features of message passing are −

 Message passing between two objects is generally unidirectional.

  Message passing enables all interactions between objects.

 Message passing essentially involves invoking class methods.

 Objects in different processes can be involved in message passing.

Inheritance
Inheritance is the mechanism that permits new classes to be created out of
existing classes by extending and refining its capabilities. The existing classes
are called the base classes/parent classes/super-classes, and the new classes
are called the derived classes/child classes/subclasses. The subclass can
inherit or derive the attributes and methods of the super-class(es) provided
that the super-class allows so. Besides, the subclass may add its own
attributes and methods and may modify any of the super-class methods.
Inheritance defines an “is – a” relationship.

Example

From a class Mammal, a number of classes can be derived such as Human,

Cat, Dog, Cow, etc. Humans, cats, dogs, and cows all have the distinct
characteristics of mammals. In addition, each has its own particular
characteristics. It can be said that a cow “is – a” mammal.

Types of Inheritance
 Single Inheritance − A subclass derives from a single super-class.

 Multiple Inheritance − A subclass derives from more than one super-classes.

 Multilevel Inheritance − A subclass derives from a super-class which in turn is

derived from another class and so on.

 Hierarchical Inheritance − A class has a number of subclasses each of which

may have subsequent subclasses, continuing for a number of levels, so as to form
a tree structure.

 Hybrid Inheritance − A combination of multiple and multilevel inheritance so as

to form a lattice structure.

The following figure depicts the examples of different types of inheritance.

Polymorphism
Polymorphism is originally a Greek word that means the ability to take
multiple forms. In object-oriented paradigm, polymorphism implies using
operations in different ways, depending upon the instance they are operating
upon. Polymorphism allows objects with different internal structures to have
a common external interface. Polymorphism is particularly effective while
implementing inheritance.

Example

Let us consider two classes, Circle and Square, each with a method
findArea(). Though the name and purpose of the methods in the classes are
same, the internal implementation, i.e., the procedure of calculating area is
different for each class. When an object of class Circle invokes its findArea()
method, the operation finds the area of the circle without any conflict with
the findArea() method of the Square class.

Generalization and Specialization

Generalization and specialization represent a hierarchy of relationships
between classes, where subclasses inherit from super-classes.

Generalization
In the generalization process, the common characteristics of classes are
combined to form a class in a higher level of hierarchy, i.e., subclasses are
combined to form a generalized super-class. It represents an “is – a – kind –
of” relationship. For example, “car is a kind of land vehicle”, or “ship is a kind
of water vehicle”.

Specialization
Specialization is the reverse process of generalization. Here, the
distinguishing features of groups of objects are used to form specialized
classes from existing classes. It can be said that the subclasses are the
specialized versions of the super-class.

The following figure shows an example of generalization and specialization.

Links and Association
Link
A link represents a connection through which an object collaborates with
other objects. Rumbaugh has defined it as “a physical or conceptual
connection between objects”. Through a link, one object may invoke the
methods or navigate through another object. A link depicts the relationship
between two or more objects.

Association
Association is a group of links having common structure and common
behavior. Association depicts the relationship between objects of one or more
classes. A link can be defined as an instance of an association.

Degree of an Association
Degree of an association denotes the number of classes involved in a
connection. Degree may be unary, binary, or ternary.

 A unary relationship connects objects of the same class.

 A binary relationship connects objects of two classes.

 A ternary relationship connects objects of three or more classes.

Cardinality Ratios of Associations

Cardinality of a binary association denotes the number of instances
participating in an association. There are three types of cardinality ratios,
namely −
  One–to–One − A single object of class A is associated with a single object of
class B.

 One–to–Many − A single object of class A is associated with many objects of

class B.

 Many–to–Many − An object of class A may be associated with many objects of

class B and conversely an object of class B may be associated with many objects
of class A.

Aggregation or Composition
Aggregation or composition is a relationship among classes by which a class
can be made up of any combination of objects of other classes. It allows
objects to be placed directly within the body of other classes. Aggregation is
referred as a “part–of” or “has–a” relationship, with the ability to navigate
from the whole to its parts. An aggregate object is an object that is composed
of one or more other objects.

Example

In the relationship, “a car has–a motor”, car is the whole object or the
aggregate, and the motor is a “part–of” the car. Aggregation may denote −

 Physical containment − Example, a computer is composed of monitor, CPU,

mouse, keyboard, and so on.

 Conceptual containment − Example, shareholder has–a share.

Benefits of Object Model

Now that we have gone through the core concepts pertaining to object
orientation, it would be worthwhile to note the advantages that this model
has to offer.

The benefits of using the object model are −

 It helps in faster development of software.

 It is easy to maintain. Suppose a module develops an error, then a programmer

can fix that particular module, while the other parts of the software are still up
and running.

 It supports relatively hassle-free upgrades.

  It enables reuse of objects, designs, and functions.

 It reduces development risks, particularly in integration of complex systems.

OOAD - Object Oriented System

We know that the Object-Oriented Modelling (OOM) technique visualizes
things in an application by using models organized around objects. Any
software development approach goes through the following stages −

 Analysis,

 Design, and

 Implementation.

In object-oriented software engineering, the software developer identifies

and organizes the application in terms of object-oriented concepts, prior to
their final representation in any specific programming language or software
tools.

Phases in Object-Oriented Software

Development
The major phases of software development using object–oriented
methodology are object-oriented analysis, object-oriented design, and
object-oriented implementation.

Object–Oriented Analysis
In this stage, the problem is formulated, user requirements are identified,
and then a model is built based upon real–world objects. The analysis
produces models on how the desired system should function and how it must
be developed. The models do not include any implementation details so that
it can be understood and examined by any non–technical application expert.

Object–Oriented Design
Object-oriented design includes two main stages, namely, system design and
object design.

System Design
In this stage, the complete architecture of the desired system is designed.
The system is conceived as a set of interacting subsystems that in turn is
composed of a hierarchy of interacting objects, grouped into classes. System
design is done according to both the system analysis model and the proposed
system architecture. Here, the emphasis is on the objects comprising the
system rather than the processes in the system.

Object Design

In this phase, a design model is developed based on both the models

developed in the system analysis phase and the architecture designed in the
system design phase. All the classes required are identified. The designer
decides whether −

 new classes are to be created from scratch,

 any existing classes can be used in their original form, or

 new classes should be inherited from the existing classes.

The associations between the identified classes are established and the
hierarchies of classes are identified. Besides, the developer designs the
internal details of the classes and their associations, i.e., the data structure
for each attribute and the algorithms for the operations.

Object–Oriented Implementation and Testing

In this stage, the design model developed in the object design is translated
into code in an appropriate programming language or software tool. The
databases are created and the specific hardware requirements are
ascertained. Once the code is in shape, it is tested using specialized
techniques to identify and remove the errors in the code.

OOAD - Object Oriented Principles

Principles of Object-Oriented Systems
The conceptual framework of object–oriented systems is based upon the
object model. There are two categories of elements in an object-oriented
system −
Major Elements − By major, it is meant that if a model does not have any
one of these elements, it ceases to be object oriented. The four major
elements are −

 Abstraction

 Encapsulation

 Modularity

 Hierarchy

Minor Elements − By minor, it is meant that these elements are useful, but
not indispensable part of the object model. The three minor elements are −

 Typing

 Concurrency

 Persistence

Abstraction
Abstraction means to focus on the essential features of an element or object
in OOP, ignoring its extraneous or accidental properties. The essential
features are relative to the context in which the object is being used.

Grady Booch has defined abstraction as follows −

“An abstraction denotes the essential characteristics of an object that

distinguish it from all other kinds of objects and thus provide crisply defined
conceptual boundaries, relative to the perspective of the viewer.”

Example − When a class Student is designed, the attributes

enrolment_number, name, course, and address are included while
characteristics like pulse_rate and size_of_shoe are eliminated, since they
are irrelevant in the perspective of the educational institution.

Encapsulation
Encapsulation is the process of binding both attributes and methods together
within a class. Through encapsulation, the internal details of a class can be
hidden from outside. The class has methods that provide user interfaces by
which the services provided by the class may be used.
Modularity
Modularity is the process of decomposing a problem (program) into a set of
modules so as to reduce the overall complexity of the problem. Booch has
defined modularity as −

“Modularity is the property of a system that has been decomposed into a set
of cohesive and loosely coupled modules.”

Modularity is intrinsically linked with encapsulation. Modularity can be

visualized as a way of mapping encapsulated abstractions into real, physical
modules having high cohesion within the modules and their inter–module
interaction or coupling is low.

Hierarchy
In Grady Booch’s words, “Hierarchy is the ranking or ordering of abstraction”.
Through hierarchy, a system can be made up of interrelated subsystems,
which can have their own subsystems and so on until the smallest level
components are reached. It uses the principle of “divide and conquer”.
Hierarchy allows code reusability.

The two types of hierarchies in OOA are −

 “IS–A” hierarchy − It defines the hierarchical relationship in inheritance,

whereby from a super-class, a number of subclasses may be derived which may
again have subclasses and so on. For example, if we derive a class Rose from a
class Flower, we can say that a rose “is–a” flower.

 “PART–OF” hierarchy − It defines the hierarchical relationship in aggregation

by which a class may be composed of other classes. For example, a flower is
composed of sepals, petals, stamens, and carpel. It can be said that a petal is a
“part–of” flower.

Typing
According to the theories of abstract data type, a type is a characterization
of a set of elements. In OOP, a class is visualized as a type having properties
distinct from any other types. Typing is the enforcement of the notion that
an object is an instance of a single class or type. It also enforces that objects
of different types may not be generally interchanged; and can be
interchanged only in a very restricted manner if absolutely required to do so.

The two types of typing are −

 Strong Typing − Here, the operation on an object is checked at the time of

compilation, as in the programming language Eiffel.

 Weak Typing − Here, messages may be sent to any class. The operation is
checked only at the time of execution, as in the programming language Smalltalk.

Concurrency
Concurrency in operating systems allows performing multiple tasks or
processes simultaneously. When a single process exists in a system, it is said
that there is a single thread of control. However, most systems have multiple
threads, some active, some waiting for CPU, some suspended, and some
terminated. Systems with multiple CPUs inherently permit concurrent threads
of control; but systems running on a single CPU use appropriate algorithms
to give equitable CPU time to the threads so as to enable concurrency.

In an object-oriented environment, there are active and inactive objects. The

active objects have independent threads of control that can execute
concurrently with threads of other objects. The active objects synchronize
with one another as well as with purely sequential objects.

Persistence
An object occupies a memory space and exists for a particular period of time.
In traditional programming, the lifespan of an object was typically the lifespan
of the execution of the program that created it. In files or databases, the
object lifespan is longer than the duration of the process creating the object.
This property by which an object continues to exist even after its creator
ceases to exist is known as persistence.

OOAD - Object Oriented Analysis

In the system analysis or object-oriented analysis phase of software
development, the system requirements are determined, the classes are
identified and the relationships among classes are identified.
The three analysis techniques that are used in conjunction with each other
for object-oriented analysis are object modelling, dynamic modelling, and
functional modelling.

Object Modelling
Object modelling develops the static structure of the software system in
terms of objects. It identifies the objects, the classes into which the objects
can be grouped into and the relationships between the objects. It also
identifies the main attributes and operations that characterize each class.

The process of object modelling can be visualized in the following steps −

 Identify objects and group into classes

 Identify the relationships among classes

 Create user object model diagram

 Define user object attributes

 Define the operations that should be performed on the classes

 Review glossary

Dynamic Modelling
After the static behavior of the system is analyzed, its behavior with respect
to time and external changes needs to be examined. This is the purpose of
dynamic modelling.

Dynamic Modelling can be defined as “a way of describing how an individual

object responds to events, either internal events triggered by other objects,
or external events triggered by the outside world”.

The process of dynamic modelling can be visualized in the following steps −

 Identify states of each object

 Identify events and analyze the applicability of actions

 Construct dynamic model diagram, comprising of state transition diagrams

 Express each state in terms of object attributes

 Validate the state–transition diagrams drawn

Functional Modelling
Functional Modelling is the final component of object-oriented analysis. The
functional model shows the processes that are performed within an object
and how the data changes as it moves between methods. It specifies the
meaning of the operations of object modelling and the actions of dynamic
modelling. The functional model corresponds to the data flow diagram of
traditional structured analysis.

The process of functional modelling can be visualized in the following steps −

 Identify all the inputs and outputs

 Construct data flow diagrams showing functional dependencies

 State the purpose of each function

 Identify constraints

 Specify optimization criteria

Structured Analysis vs. Object Oriented Analysis

The Structured Analysis/Structured Design (SASD) approach is the traditional
approach of software development based upon the waterfall model. The
phases of development of a system using SASD are −

 Feasibility Study

 Requirement Analysis and Specification

 System Design

 Implementation

 Post-implementation Review

Now, we will look at the relative advantages and disadvantages of structured

analysis approach and object-oriented analysis approach.

Advantages/Disadvantages of Object Oriented Analysis

Advantages Disadvantages

Focuses on data rather than the Functionality is restricted within objects.

procedures as in Structured Analysis. This may pose a problem for systems
which are intrinsically procedural or
computational in nature.
The principles of encapsulation and It cannot identify which objects would
data hiding help the developer to generate an optimal system design.
develop systems that cannot be
tampered by other parts of the system.

The principles of encapsulation and The object-oriented models do not easily

data hiding help the developer to show the communications between the
develop systems that cannot be objects in the system.
tampered by other parts of the system.

It allows effective management of All the interfaces between the objects

software complexity by the virtue of cannot be represented in a single
modularity. diagram.

It can be upgraded from small to large

systems at a greater ease than in
systems following structured analysis.

Advantages/Disadvantages of Structured Analysis

Advantages Disadvantages

As it follows a top-down approach in In traditional structured analysis

contrast to bottom-up approach of object- models, one phase should be
oriented analysis, it can be more easily completed before the next phase.
comprehended than OOA. This poses a problem in design,
particularly if errors crop up or
requirements change.

It is based upon functionality. The overall The initial cost of constructing the
purpose is identified and then functional system is high, since the whole
decomposition is done for developing the system needs to be designed at once
software. The emphasis not only gives a leaving very little option to add
better understanding of the system but functionality later.
also generates more complete systems.

The specifications in it are written in simple It does not support reusability of

English language, and hence can be more code. So, the time and cost of
easily analyzed by non-technical personnel. development is inherently high.
 OOAD - Dynamic Modeling
The dynamic model represents the time–dependent aspects of a system. It
is concerned with the temporal changes in the states of the objects in a
system. The main concepts are −

 State, which is the situation at a particular condition during the lifetime of an

object.

 Transition, a change in the state

 Event, an occurrence that triggers transitions

 Action, an uninterrupted and atomic computation that occurs due to some event,
and

 Concurrency of transitions.

A state machine models the behavior of an object as it passes through a

number of states in its lifetime due to some events as well as the actions
occurring due to the events. A state machine is graphically represented
through a state transition diagram.

States and State Transitions

State
The state is an abstraction given by the values of the attributes that the
object has at a particular time period. It is a situation occurring for a finite
time period in the lifetime of an object, in which it fulfils certain conditions,
performs certain activities, or waits for certain events to occur. In state
transition diagrams, a state is represented by rounded rectangles.

Parts of a state
 Name − A string differentiates one state from another. A state may not have any
name.

 Entry/Exit Actions − It denotes the activities performed on entering and on

exiting the state.

 Internal Transitions − The changes within a state that do not cause a change
in the state.
  Sub–states − States within states.

Initial and Final States

The default starting state of an object is called its initial state. The final state
indicates the completion of execution of the state machine. The initial and
the final states are pseudo-states, and may not have the parts of a regular
state except name. In state transition diagrams, the initial state is
represented by a filled black circle. The final state is represented by a filled
black circle encircled within another unfilled black circle.

Transition
A transition denotes a change in the state of an object. If an object is in a
certain state when an event occurs, the object may perform certain activities
subject to specified conditions and change the state. In this case, a
state−transition is said to have occurred. The transition gives the relationship
between the first state and the new state. A transition is graphically
represented by a solid directed arc from the source state to the destination
state.

The five parts of a transition are −

 Source State − The state affected by the transition.

 Event Trigger − The occurrence due to which an object in the source state
undergoes a transition if the guard condition is satisfied.

 Guard Condition − A Boolean expression which if True, causes a transition on

receiving the event trigger.

 Action − An un-interruptible and atomic computation that occurs on the source

object due to some event.

 Target State − The destination state after completion of transition.

Example

Suppose a person is taking a taxi from place X to place Y. The states of the
person may be: Waiting (waiting for taxi), Riding (he has got a taxi and is
travelling in it), and Reached (he has reached the destination). The following
figure depicts the state transition.
Events
Events are some occurrences that can trigger state transition of an object or
a group of objects. Events have a location in time and space but do not have
a time period associated with it. Events are generally associated with some
actions.

Examples of events are mouse click, key press, an interrupt, stack overflow,
etc.

Events that trigger transitions are written alongside the arc of transition in
state diagrams.

Example

Considering the example shown in the above figure, the transition from
Waiting state to Riding state takes place when the person gets a taxi.
Likewise, the final state is reached, when he reaches the destination. These
two occurrences can be termed as events Get_Taxi and Reach_Destination.
The following figure shows the events in a state machine.

External and Internal Events

External events are those events that pass from a user of the system to the
objects within the system. For example, mouse click or key−press by the
user are external events.

Internal events are those that pass from one object to another object within
a system. For example, stack overflow, a divide error, etc.

Deferred Events
Deferred events are those which are not immediately handled by the object
in the current state but are lined up in a queue so that they can be handled
by the object in some other state at a later time.

Event Classes
Event class indicates a group of events with common structure and behavior.
As with classes of objects, event classes may also be organized in a
hierarchical structure. Event classes may have attributes associated with
them, time being an implicit attribute. For example, we can consider the
events of departure of a flight of an airline, which we can group into the
following class −

Flight_Departs (Flight_No, From_City, To_City, Route)

Actions
Activity
Activity is an operation upon the states of an object that requires some time
period. They are the ongoing executions within a system that can be
interrupted. Activities are shown in activity diagrams that portray the flow
from one activity to another.

Action
An action is an atomic operation that executes as a result of certain events.
By atomic, it is meant that actions are un-interruptible, i.e., if an action starts
executing, it runs into completion without being interrupted by any event. An
action may operate upon an object on which an event has been triggered or
on other objects that are visible to this object. A set of actions comprise an
activity.

Entry and Exit Actions

Entry action is the action that is executed on entering a state, irrespective of
the transition that led into it.

Likewise, the action that is executed while leaving a state, irrespective of the
transition that led out of it, is called an exit action.

Scenario
Scenario is a description of a specified sequence of actions. It depicts the
behavior of objects undergoing a specific action series. The primary scenarios
depict the essential sequences and the secondary scenarios depict the
alternative sequences.

Diagrams for Dynamic Modelling

There are two primary diagrams that are used for dynamic modelling −

Interaction Diagrams
Interaction diagrams describe the dynamic behavior among different objects.
It comprises of a set of objects, their relationships, and the message that the
objects send and receive. Thus, an interaction models the behavior of a group
of interrelated objects. The two types of interaction diagrams are −

 Sequence Diagram − It represents the temporal ordering of messages in a

tabular manner.

 Collaboration Diagram − It represents the structural organization of objects

that send and receive messages through vertices and arcs.

State Transition Diagram

State transition diagrams or state machines describe the dynamic behavior
of a single object. It illustrates the sequences of states that an object goes
through in its lifetime, the transitions of the states, the events and conditions
causing the transition and the responses due to the events.

Concurrency of Events
In a system, two types of concurrency may exist. They are −

System Concurrency
Here, concurrency is modelled in the system level. The overall system is
modelled as the aggregation of state machines, where each state machine
executes concurrently with others.

Concurrency within an Object

Here, an object can issue concurrent events. An object may have states that
are composed of sub-states, and concurrent events may occur in each of the
sub-states.

Concepts related to concurrency within an object are as follows −

Simple and Composite States

A simple state has no sub-structure. A state that has simpler states nested
inside it is called a composite state. A sub-state is a state that is nested inside
another state. It is generally used to reduce the complexity of a state
machine. Sub-states can be nested to any number of levels.

Composite states may have either sequential sub-states or concurrent sub-

states.

Sequential Sub-states
In sequential sub-states, the control of execution passes from one sub-state
to another sub-state one after another in a sequential manner. There is at
most one initial state and one final state in these state machines.

The following figure illustrates the concept of sequential sub-states.

Concurrent Sub-states
In concurrent sub-states, the sub-states execute in parallel, or in other
words, each state has concurrently executing state machines within it. Each
of the state machines has its own initial and final states. If one concurrent
sub-state reaches its final state before the other, control waits at its final
state. When all the nested state machines reach their final states, the sub-
states join back to a single flow.

The following figure shows the concept of concurrent sub-states.

OOAD - Functional Modeling

Functional Modelling gives the process perspective of the object-oriented
analysis model and an overview of what the system is supposed to do. It
defines the function of the internal processes in the system with the aid of
Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs). It depicts the functional derivation of the data
values without indicating how they are derived when they are computed, or
why they need to be computed.

Data Flow Diagrams

Functional Modelling is represented through a hierarchy of DFDs. The DFD is
a graphical representation of a system that shows the inputs to the system,
the processing upon the inputs, the outputs of the system as well as the
internal data stores. DFDs illustrate the series of transformations or
computations performed on the objects or the system, and the external
controls and objects that affect the transformation.

Rumbaugh et al. have defined DFD as, “A data flow diagram is a graph which
shows the flow of data values from their sources in objects through processes
that transform them to their destinations on other objects.”

The four main parts of a DFD are −

  Processes,

 Data Flows,

 Actors, and

 Data Stores.

The other parts of a DFD are −

 Constraints, and

 Control Flows.

Features of a DFD
Processes
Processes are the computational activities that transform data values. A
whole system can be visualized as a high-level process. A process may be
further divided into smaller components. The lowest-level process may be a
simple function.

Representation in DFD − A process is represented as an ellipse with its

name written inside it and contains a fixed number of input and output data
values.

Example − The following figure shows a process Compute_HCF_LCM that

accepts two integers as inputs and outputs their HCF (highest common factor)
and LCM (least common multiple).

Data Flows
Data flow represents the flow of data between two processes. It could be
between an actor and a process, or between a data store and a process. A
data flow denotes the value of a data item at some point of the computation.
This value is not changed by the data flow.
Representation in DFD − A data flow is represented by a directed arc or an
arrow, labelled with the name of the data item that it carries.

In the above figure, Integer_a and Integer_b represent the input data flows
to the process, while L.C.M. and H.C.F. are the output data flows.

A data flow may be forked in the following cases −

 The output value is sent to several places as shown in the following figure. Here,
the output arrows are unlabelled as they denote the same value.

 The data flow contains an aggregate value, and each of the components is sent
to different places as shown in the following figure. Here, each of the forked
components is labelled.

Actors
Actors are the active objects that interact with the system by either producing
data and inputting them to the system, or consuming data produced by the
system. In other words, actors serve as the sources and the sinks of data.

Representation in DFD − An actor is represented by a rectangle. Actors are

connected to the inputs and outputs and lie on the boundary of the DFD.

Example − The following figure shows the actors, namely, Customer and
Sales_Clerk in a counter sales system.
Data Stores
Data stores are the passive objects that act as a repository of data. Unlike
actors, they cannot perform any operations. They are used to store data and
retrieve the stored data. They represent a data structure, a disk file, or a
table in a database.

Representation in DFD − A data store is represented by two parallel lines

containing the name of the data store. Each data store is connected to at
least one process. Input arrows contain information to modify the contents
of the data store, while output arrows contain information retrieved from the
data store. When a part of the information is to be retrieved, the output arrow
is labelled. An unlabelled arrow denotes full data retrieval. A two-way arrow
implies both retrieval and update.

Example − The following figure shows a data store, Sales_Record, that

stores the details of all sales. Input to the data store comprises of details of
sales such as item, billing amount, date, etc. To find the average sales, the
process retrieves the sales records and computes the average.

Constraints
Constraints specify the conditions or restrictions that need to be satisfied over
time. They allow adding new rules or modifying existing ones. Constraints
can appear in all the three models of object-oriented analysis.

 In Object Modelling, the constraints define the relationship between objects. They
may also define the relationship between the different values that an object may
take at different times.

 In Dynamic Modelling, the constraints define the relationship between the states
and events of different objects.

 In Functional Modelling, the constraints define the restrictions on the

transformations and computations.

Representation − A constraint is rendered as a string within braces.

Example − The following figure shows a portion of DFD for computing the
salary of employees of a company that has decided to give incentives to all
employees of the sales department and increment the salary of all employees
of the HR department. It can be seen that the constraint {Dept:Sales} causes
incentive to be calculated only if the department is sales and the constraint
{Dept:HR} causes increment to be computed only if the department is HR.

Control Flows
A process may be associated with a certain Boolean value and is evaluated
only if the value is true, though it is not a direct input to the process. These
Boolean values are called the control flows.
Representation in DFD − Control flows are represented by a dotted arc
from the process producing the Boolean value to the process controlled by
them.

Example − The following figure represents a DFD for arithmetic division. The
Divisor is tested for non-zero. If it is not zero, the control flow OK has a value
True and subsequently the Divide process computes the Quotient and the
Remainder.

Developing the DFD Model of a System

In order to develop the DFD model of a system, a hierarchy of DFDs are
constructed. The top-level DFD comprises of a single process and the actors
interacting with it.

At each successive lower level, further details are gradually included. A

process is decomposed into sub-processes, the data flows among the sub-
processes are identified, the control flows are determined, and the data stores
are defined. While decomposing a process, the data flow into or out of the
process should match the data flow at the next level of DFD.

Example − Let us consider a software system, Wholesaler Software, that

automates the transactions of a wholesale shop. The shop sells in bulks and
has a clientele comprising of merchants and retail shop owners. Each
customer is asked to register with his/her particulars and is given a unique
customer code, C_Code. Once a sale is done, the shop registers its details
and sends the goods for dispatch. Each year, the shop distributes Christmas
gifts to its customers, which comprise of a silver coin or a gold coin depending
upon the total sales and the decision of the proprietor.
The functional model for the Wholesale Software is given below. The figure
below shows the top-level DFD. It shows the software as a single process and
the actors that interact with it.

The actors in the system are −

 Customers

 Salesperson

 Proprietor

In the next level DFD, as shown in the following figure, the major processes
of the system are identified, the data stores are defined and the interaction
of the processes with the actors, and the data stores are established.

In the system, three processes can be identified, which are −

 Register Customers

 Process Sales

 Ascertain Gifts

The data stores that will be required are −

 Customer Details

 Sales Details

 Gift Details
The following figure shows the details of the process Register Customer.
There are three processes in it, Verify Details, Generate C_Code, and Update
Customer Details. When the details of the customer are entered, they are
verified. If the data is correct, C_Code is generated and the data store
Customer Details is updated.
The following figure shows the expansion of the process Ascertain Gifts. It
has two processes in it, Find Total Sales and Decide Type of Gift Coin. The
Find Total Sales process computes the yearly total sales corresponding to
each customer and records the data. Taking this record and the decision of
the proprietor as inputs, the gift coins are allotted through Decide Type of
Gift Coin process.

Advantages and Disadvantages of DFD

Advantages Disadvantages

DFDs depict the boundaries of a system DFDs take a long time to create, which
and hence are helpful in portraying the may not be feasible for practical
relationship between the external objects purposes.
and the processes within the system.

They help the users to have a knowledge DFDs do not provide any information
about the system. about the time-dependent behavior,
i.e., they do not specify when the
transformations are done.
The graphical representation serves as a They do not throw any light on the
blueprint for the programmers to develop frequency of computations or the
a system. reasons for computations.

DFDs provide detailed information about The preparation of DFDs is a complex

the system processes. process that needs considerable
expertise. Also, it is difficult for a non-
technical person to understand.

They are used as a part of the system The method of preparation is

documentation. subjective and leaves ample scope to
be imprecise.

Relationship between Object, Dynamic, and

Functional Models
The Object Model, the Dynamic Model, and the Functional Model are
complementary to each other for a complete Object-Oriented Analysis.

 Object modelling develops the static structure of the software system in terms of
objects. Thus it shows the “doers” of a system.

 Dynamic Modelling develops the temporal behavior of the objects in response to

external events. It shows the sequences of operations performed on the objects.

 Functional model gives an overview of what the system should do.

Functional Model and Object Model

The four main parts of a Functional Model in terms of object model are −

 Process − Processes imply the methods of the objects that need to be

implemented.

 Actors − Actors are the objects in the object model.

 Data Stores − These are either objects in the object model or attributes of
objects.

 Data Flows − Data flows to or from actors represent operations on or by objects.

Data flows to or from data stores represent queries or updates.

Functional Model and Dynamic Model

The dynamic model states when the operations are performed, while the
functional model states how they are performed and which arguments are
needed. As actors are active objects, the dynamic model has to specify when
it acts. The data stores are passive objects and they only respond to updates
and queries; therefore the dynamic model need not specify when they act.

Object Model and Dynamic Model

The dynamic model shows the status of the objects and the operations
performed on the occurrences of events and the subsequent changes in
states. The state of the object as a result of the changes is shown in the
object model.

OOAD - UML Analysis Model

The Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a graphical language for OOAD that
gives a standard way to write a software system’s blueprint. It helps to
visualize, specify, construct, and document the artifacts of an object-oriented
system. It is used to depict the structures and the relationships in a complex
system.

Brief History
It was developed in 1990s as an amalgamation of several techniques,
prominently OOAD technique by Grady Booch, OMT (Object Modeling
Technique) by James Rumbaugh, and OOSE (Object Oriented Software
Engineering) by Ivar Jacobson. UML attempted to standardize semantic
models, syntactic notations, and diagrams of OOAD.

Systems and Models in UML

System − A set of elements organized to achieve certain objectives form a
system. Systems are often divided into subsystems and described by a set of
models.

Model − Model is a simplified, complete, and consistent abstraction of a

system, created for better understanding of the system.

View − A view is a projection of a system’s model from a specific perspective.

Conceptual Model of UML

The Conceptual Model of UML encompasses three major elements −

 Basic building blocks

 Rules

 Common mechanisms

Basic Building Blocks

The three building blocks of UML are −

 Things

 Relationships

 Diagrams

Things
There are four kinds of things in UML, namely −

 Structural Things − These are the nouns of the UML models representing the
static elements that may be either physical or conceptual. The structural things
are class, interface, collaboration, use case, active class, components, and nodes.

 Behavioral Things − These are the verbs of the UML models representing the
dynamic behavior over time and space. The two types of behavioral things are
interaction and state machine.

 Grouping Things − They comprise the organizational parts of the UML models.
There is only one kind of grouping thing, i.e., package.

 Annotational Things − These are the explanations in the UML models

representing the comments applied to describe elements.

Relationships
Relationships are the connection between things. The four types of
relationships that can be represented in UML are −

 Dependency − This is a semantic relationship between two things such that a

change in one thing brings a change in the other. The former is the independent
thing, while the latter is the dependent thing.

 Association − This is a structural relationship that represents a group of links

having common structure and common behavior.
  Generalization − This represents a generalization/specialization relationship in
which subclasses inherit structure and behavior from super-classes.

 Realization − This is a semantic relationship between two or more classifiers

such that one classifier lays down a contract that the other classifiers ensure to
abide by.

Diagrams
A diagram is a graphical representation of a system. It comprises of a group
of elements generally in the form of a graph. UML includes nine diagrams in
all, namely −

 Class Diagram

 Object Diagram

 Use Case Diagram

 Sequence Diagram

 Collaboration Diagram

 State Chart Diagram

 Activity Diagram

 Component Diagram

 Deployment Diagram

Rules
UML has a number of rules so that the models are semantically self-consistent
and related to other models in the system harmoniously. UML has semantic
rules for the following −

 Names

 Scope

 Visibility

 Integrity

 Execution

Common Mechanisms
UML has four common mechanisms −
  Specifications

 Adornments

 Common Divisions

 Extensibility Mechanisms

Specifications
In UML, behind each graphical notation, there is a textual statement denoting
the syntax and semantics. These are the specifications. The specifications
provide a semantic backplane that contains all the parts of a system and the
relationship among the different paths.

Adornments
Each element in UML has a unique graphical notation. Besides, there are
notations to represent the important aspects of an element like name, scope,
visibility, etc.

Common Divisions
Object-oriented systems can be divided in many ways. The two common ways
of division are −

 Division of classes and objects − A class is an abstraction of a group of similar

objects. An object is the concrete instance that has actual existence in the
system.

 Division of Interface and Implementation − An interface defines the rules for

interaction. Implementation is the concrete realization of the rules defined in the
interface.

Extensibility Mechanisms
UML is an open-ended language. It is possible to extend the capabilities of
UML in a controlled manner to suit the requirements of a system. The
extensibility mechanisms are −

 Stereotypes − It extends the vocabulary of the UML, through which new building
blocks can be created out of existing ones.

 Tagged Values − It extends the properties of UML building blocks.

 Constraints − It extends the semantics of UML building blocks.

 OOAD - UML Basic Notations
UML defines specific notations for each of the building blocks.

Class
A class is represented by a rectangle having three sections −

 the top section containing the name of the class

 the middle section containing class attributes

 the bottom section representing operations of the class

The visibility of the attributes and operations can be represented in the

following ways −

 Public − A public member is visible from anywhere in the system. In class

diagram, it is prefixed by the symbol ‘+’.

 Private − A private member is visible only from within the class. It cannot be
accessed from outside the class. A private member is prefixed by the symbol ‘−’.

 Protected − A protected member is visible from within the class and from the
subclasses inherited from this class, but not from outside. It is prefixed by the
symbol ‘#’.

An abstract class has the class name written in italics.

Example − Let us consider the Circle class introduced earlier. The attributes
of Circle are x-coord, y-coord, and radius. The operations are findArea(),
findCircumference(), and scale(). Let us assume that x-coord and y-coord are
private data members, radius is a protected data member, and the member
functions are public. The following figure gives the diagrammatic
representation of the class.
Object
An object is represented as a rectangle with two sections −

 The top section contains the name of the object with the name of the class or
package of which it is an instance of. The name takes the following forms −

o object-name − class-name

o object-name − class-name :: package-name

o class-name − in case of anonymous objects

 The bottom section represents the values of the attributes. It takes the form
attribute-name = value.

 Sometimes objects are represented using rounded rectangles.

Example − Let us consider an object of the class Circle named c1. We

assume that the center of c1 is at (2, 3) and the radius of c1 is 5. The
following figure depicts the object.

Component
A component is a physical and replaceable part of the system that conforms
to and provides the realization of a set of interfaces. It represents the physical
packaging of elements like classes and interfaces.
Notation − In UML diagrams, a component is represented by a rectangle
with tabs as shown in the figure below.

Interface
Interface is a collection of methods of a class or component. It specifies the
set of services that may be provided by the class or component.

Notation − Generally, an interface is drawn as a circle together with its

name. An interface is almost always attached to the class or component that
realizes it. The following figure gives the notation of an interface.

Package
A package is an organized group of elements. A package may contain
structural things like classes, components, and other packages in it.

Notation − Graphically, a package is represented by a tabbed folder. A

package is generally drawn with only its name. However it may have
additional details about the contents of the package. See the following
figures.

Relationship
The notations for the different types of relationships are as follows −

Usually, elements in a relationship play specific roles in the relationship. A

role name signifies the behavior of an element participating in a certain
context.

Example − The following figures show examples of different relationships

between classes. The first figure shows an association between two classes,
Department and Employee, wherein a department may have a number of
employees working in it. Worker is the role name. The ‘1’ alongside
Department and ‘*’ alongside Employee depict that the cardinality ratio is
one–to–many. The second figure portrays the aggregation relationship, a
University is the “whole–of” many Departments.

OOAD - UML Structured Diagrams

UML structural diagrams are categorized as follows: class diagram, object
diagram, component diagram, and deployment diagram.

Class Diagram
A class diagram models the static view of a system. It comprises of the
classes, interfaces, and collaborations of a system; and the relationships
between them.

Class Diagram of a System

Let us consider a simplified Banking System.

A bank has many branches. In each zone, one branch is designated as the
zonal head office that supervises the other branches in that zone. Each branch
can have multiple accounts and loans. An account may be either a savings
account or a current account. A customer may open both a savings account
and a current account. However, a customer must not have more than one
savings account or current account. A customer may also procure loans from
the bank.

The following figure shows the corresponding class diagram.

Classes in the system
Bank, Branch, Account, Savings Account, Current Account, Loan, and
Customer.

Relationships
  A Bank “has–a” number of Branches − composition, one–to–many

 A Branch with role Zonal Head Office supervises other Branches − unary
association, one–to-many

 A Branch “has–a” number of accounts − aggregation, one–to–many

From the class Account, two classes have inherited, namely, Savings Account
and Current Account.

 A Customer can have one Current Account − association, one–to–one

 A Customer can have one Savings Account − association, one–to–one

 A Branch “has–a” number of Loans − aggregation, one–to–many

 A Customer can take many loans − association, one–to–many

Object Diagram
An object diagram models a group of objects and their links at a point of time.
It shows the instances of the things in a class diagram. Object diagram is the
static part of an interaction diagram.

Example − The following figure shows an object diagram of a portion of the

class diagram of the Banking System.
Component Diagram
Component diagrams show the organization and dependencies among a
group of components.

Component diagrams comprise of −

 Components

 Interfaces

 Relationships

 Packages and Subsystems (optional)

Component diagrams are used for −

 constructing systems through forward and reverse engineering.

 modeling configuration management of source code files while developing a

system using an object-oriented programming language.

 representing schemas in modeling databases.

 modeling behaviors of dynamic systems.

Example

The following figure shows a component diagram to model a system’s source

code that is developed using C++. It shows four source code files, namely,
myheader.h, otherheader.h, priority.cpp, and other.cpp. Two versions of
myheader.h are shown, tracing from the recent version to its ancestor. The
file priority.cpp has compilation dependency on other.cpp. The file other.cpp
has compilation dependency on otherheader.h.

Deployment Diagram
A deployment diagram puts emphasis on the configuration of runtime
processing nodes and their components that live on them. They are
commonly comprised of nodes and dependencies, or associations between
the nodes.

Deployment diagrams are used to −

 model devices in embedded systems that typically comprise of software-intensive

collection of hardware.

 represent the topologies of client/server systems.

 model fully distributed systems.

Example

The following figure shows the topology of a computer system that follows
client/server architecture. The figure illustrates a node stereotyped as server
that comprises of processors. The figure indicates that four or more servers
are deployed at the system. Connected to the server are the client nodes,
where each node represents a terminal device such as workstation, laptop,
scanner, or printer. The nodes are represented using icons that clearly depict
the real-world equivalent.

OOAD - UML Behavioural Diagrams

UML behavioral diagrams visualize, specify, construct, and document the
dynamic aspects of a system. The behavioral diagrams are categorized as
follows: use case diagrams, interaction diagrams, state–chart diagrams, and
activity diagrams.

Use Case Model

Use case
A use case describes the sequence of actions a system performs yielding
visible results. It shows the interaction of things outside the system with the
system itself. Use cases may be applied to the whole system as well as a part
of the system.
Actor
An actor represents the roles that the users of the use cases play. An actor
may be a person (e.g. student, customer), a device (e.g. workstation), or
another system (e.g. bank, institution).

The following figure shows the notations of an actor named Student and a
use case called Generate Performance Report.

Use case diagrams

Use case diagrams present an outside view of the manner the elements in a
system behave and how they can be used in the context.

Use case diagrams comprise of −

 Use cases

 Actors

 Relationships like dependency, generalization, and association

Use case diagrams are used −

 To model the context of a system by enclosing all the activities of a system within
a rectangle and focusing on the actors outside the system by interacting with it.

 To model the requirements of a system from the outside point of view.

Example

Let us consider an Automated Trading House System. We assume the

following features of the system −

 The trading house has transactions with two types of customers, individual
customers and corporate customers.
  Once the customer places an order, it is processed by the sales department and
the customer is given the bill.

 The system allows the manager to manage customer accounts and answer any
queries posted by the customer.

Interaction Diagrams
Interaction diagrams depict interactions of objects and their relationships.
They also include the messages passed between them. There are two types
of interaction diagrams −

 Sequence Diagrams

 Collaboration Diagrams

Interaction diagrams are used for modeling −

 the control flow by time ordering using sequence diagrams.

 the control flow of organization using collaboration diagrams.

Sequence Diagrams
Sequence diagrams are interaction diagrams that illustrate the ordering of
messages according to time.

Notations − These diagrams are in the form of two-dimensional charts. The

objects that initiate the interaction are placed on the x–axis. The messages
that these objects send and receive are placed along the y–axis, in the order
of increasing time from top to bottom.

Example − A sequence diagram for the Automated Trading House System is

shown in the following figure.

Collaboration Diagrams
Collaboration diagrams are interaction diagrams that illustrate the structure
of the objects that send and receive messages.

Notations − In these diagrams, the objects that participate in the interaction

are shown using vertices. The links that connect the objects are used to send
and receive messages. The message is shown as a labeled arrow.
Example − Collaboration diagram for the Automated Trading House System
is illustrated in the figure below.

State–Chart Diagrams
A state–chart diagram shows a state machine that depicts the control flow of
an object from one state to another. A state machine portrays the sequences
of states which an object undergoes due to events and their responses to
events.

State–Chart Diagrams comprise of −

 States: Simple or Composite

 Transitions between states

 Events causing transitions

 Actions due to the events

State-chart diagrams are used for modeling objects which are reactive in
nature.

Example

In the Automated Trading House System, let us model Order as an object

and trace its sequence. The following figure shows the corresponding state–
chart diagram.
Activity Diagrams
An activity diagram depicts the flow of activities which are ongoing non-
atomic operations in a state machine. Activities result in actions which are
atomic operations.

Activity diagrams comprise of −

 Activity states and action states

 Transitions

 Objects

Activity diagrams are used for modeling −

 workflows as viewed by actors, interacting with the system.

 details of operations or computations using flowcharts.

Example

The following figure shows an activity diagram of a portion of the Automated

Trading House System.
 OOAD - Object Oriented Design
After the analysis phase, the conceptual model is developed further into an
object-oriented model using object-oriented design (OOD). In OOD, the
technology-independent concepts in the analysis model are mapped onto
implementing classes, constraints are identified, and interfaces are designed,
resulting in a model for the solution domain. In a nutshell, a detailed
description is constructed specifying how the system is to be built on concrete
technologies

The stages for object–oriented design can be identified as −

  Definition of the context of the system

 Designing system architecture

 Identification of the objects in the system

 Construction of design models

 Specification of object interfaces

System Design
Object-oriented system design involves defining the context of a system
followed by designing the architecture of the system.

 Context − The context of a system has a static and a dynamic part. The static
context of the system is designed using a simple block diagram of the whole
system which is expanded into a hierarchy of subsystems. The subsystem model
is represented by UML packages. The dynamic context describes how the system
interacts with its environment. It is modelled using use case diagrams.

 System Architecture − The system architecture is designed on the basis of the

context of the system in accordance with the principles of architectural design as
well as domain knowledge. Typically, a system is partitioned into layers and each
layer is decomposed to form the subsystems.

Object-Oriented Decomposition
Decomposition means dividing a large complex system into a hierarchy of
smaller components with lesser complexities, on the principles of divide–and–
conquer. Each major component of the system is called a subsystem. Object-
oriented decomposition identifies individual autonomous objects in a system
and the communication among these objects.

The advantages of decomposition are −

 The individual components are of lesser complexity, and so more understandable

and manageable.

 It enables division of workforce having specialized skills.

 It allows subsystems to be replaced or modified without affecting other

subsystems.

Identifying Concurrency
Concurrency allows more than one objects to receive events at the same time
and more than one activity to be executed simultaneously. Concurrency is
identified and represented in the dynamic model.

To enable concurrency, each concurrent element is assigned a separate

thread of control. If the concurrency is at object level, then two concurrent
objects are assigned two different threads of control. If two operations of a
single object are concurrent in nature, then that object is split among
different threads.

Concurrency is associated with the problems of data integrity, deadlock, and

starvation. So a clear strategy needs to be made whenever concurrency is
required. Besides, concurrency requires to be identified at the design stage
itself, and cannot be left for implementation stage.

Identifying Patterns
While designing applications, some commonly accepted solutions are adopted
for some categories of problems. These are the patterns of design. A pattern
can be defined as a documented set of building blocks that can be used in
certain types of application development problems.

Some commonly used design patterns are −

 Façade pattern

 Model view separation pattern

 Observer pattern

 Model view controller pattern

 Publish subscribe pattern

 Proxy pattern

Controlling Events
During system design, the events that may occur in the objects of the system
need to be identified and appropriately dealt with.

An event is a specification of a significant occurrence that has a location in

time and space.

There are four types of events that can be modelled, namely −

  Signal Event − A named object thrown by one object and caught by another
object.

 Call Event − A synchronous event representing dispatch of an operation.

 Time Event − An event representing passage of time.

 Change Event − An event representing change in state.

Handling Boundary Conditions

The system design phase needs to address the initialization and the
termination of the system as a whole as well as each subsystem. The different
aspects that are documented are as follows −

 The start–up of the system, i.e., the transition of the system from non-initialized
state to steady state.

 The termination of the system, i.e., the closing of all running threads, cleaning up
of resources, and the messages to be sent.

 The initial configuration of the system and the reconfiguration of the system when
needed.

 Foreseeing failures or undesired termination of the system.

Boundary conditions are modelled using boundary use cases.

Object Design
After the hierarchy of subsystems has been developed, the objects in the
system are identified and their details are designed. Here, the designer
details out the strategy chosen during the system design. The emphasis shifts
from application domain concepts toward computer concepts. The objects
identified during analysis are etched out for implementation with an aim to
minimize execution time, memory consumption, and overall cost.

Object design includes the following phases −

 Object identification

 Object representation, i.e., construction of design models

 Classification of operations

 Algorithm design
  Design of relationships

 Implementation of control for external interactions

 Package classes and associations into modules

Object Identification
The first step of object design is object identification. The objects identified
in the object–oriented analysis phases are grouped into classes and refined
so that they are suitable for actual implementation.

The functions of this stage are −

 Identifying and refining the classes in each subsystem or package

 Defining the links and associations between the classes

 Designing the hierarchical associations among the classes, i.e., the

generalization/specialization and inheritances

 Designing aggregations

Object Representation
Once the classes are identified, they need to be represented using object
modelling techniques. This stage essentially involves constructing UML
diagrams.

There are two types of design models that need to be produced −

 Static Models − To describe the static structure of a system using class diagrams
and object diagrams.

 Dynamic Models − To describe the dynamic structure of a system and show the
interaction between classes using interaction diagrams and state–chart diagrams.

Classification of Operations
In this step, the operation to be performed on objects are defined by
combining the three models developed in the OOA phase, namely, object
model, dynamic model, and functional model. An operation specifies what is
to be done and not how it should be done.

The following tasks are performed regarding operations −

 The state transition diagram of each object in the system is developed.

  Operations are defined for the events received by the objects.

 Cases in which one event triggers other events in same or different objects are
identified.

 The sub–operations within the actions are identified.

 The main actions are expanded to data flow diagrams.

Algorithm Design
The operations in the objects are defined using algorithms. An algorithm is a
stepwise procedure that solves the problem laid down in an operation.
Algorithms focus on how it is to be done.

There may be more than one algorithm corresponding to a given operation.

Once the alternative algorithms are identified, the optimal algorithm is
selected for the given problem domain. The metrics for choosing the optimal
algorithm are −

 Computational Complexity − Complexity determines the efficiency of an

algorithm in terms of computation time and memory requirements.

 Flexibility − Flexibility determines whether the chosen algorithm can be

implemented suitably, without loss of appropriateness in various environments.

 Understandability − This determines whether the chosen algorithm is easy to

understand and implement.

Design of Relationships
The strategy to implement the relationships needs to be chalked out during
the object design phase. The main relationships that are addressed comprise
of associations, aggregations, and inheritances.

The designer should do the following regarding associations −

 Identify whether an association is unidirectional or bidirectional.

 Analyze the path of associations and update them if necessary.

 Implement the associations as a distinct object, in case of many–to-many

relationships; or as a link to other object in case of one–to-one or one–to-many
relationships.

Regarding inheritances, the designer should do the following −

  Adjust the classes and their associations.

 Identify abstract classes.

 Make provisions so that behaviors are shared when needed.

Implementation of Control
The object designer may incorporate refinements in the strategy of the state–
chart model. In system design, a basic strategy for realizing the dynamic
model is made. During object design, this strategy is aptly embellished for
appropriate implementation.

The approaches for implementation of the dynamic model are −

 Represent State as a Location within a Program − This is the traditional

procedure-driven approach whereby the location of control defines the program
state. A finite state machine can be implemented as a program. A transition forms
an input statement, the main control path forms the sequence of instructions, the
branches form the conditions, and the backward paths form the loops or
iterations.

 State Machine Engine − This approach directly represents a state machine

through a state machine engine class. This class executes the state machine
through a set of transitions and actions provided by the application.

 Control as Concurrent Tasks − In this approach, an object is implemented as

a task in the programming language or the operating system. Here, an event is
implemented as an inter-task call. It preserves inherent concurrency of real
objects.

Packaging Classes
In any large project, meticulous partitioning of an implementation into
modules or packages is important. During object design, classes and objects
are grouped into packages to enable multiple groups to work cooperatively
on a project.

The different aspects of packaging are −

 Hiding Internal Information from Outside View − It allows a class to be

viewed as a “black box” and permits class implementation to be changed without
requiring any clients of the class to modify code.
  Coherence of Elements − An element, such as a class, an operation, or a
module, is coherent if it is organized on a consistent plan and all its parts are
intrinsically related so that they serve a common goal.

 Construction of Physical Modules − The following guidelines help while

constructing physical modules −

o Classes in a module should represent similar things or components in the

same composite object.

o Closely connected classes should be in the same module.

o Unconnected or weakly connected classes should be placed in separate

modules.

o Modules should have good cohesion, i.e., high cooperation among its
components.

o A module should have low coupling with other modules, i.e., interaction or
interdependence between modules should be minimum.

Design Optimization
The analysis model captures the logical information about the system, while
the design model adds details to support efficient information access. Before
a design is implemented, it should be optimized so as to make the
implementation more efficient. The aim of optimization is to minimize the
cost in terms of time, space, and other metrics.

However, design optimization should not be excess, as ease of

implementation, maintainability, and extensibility are also important
concerns. It is often seen that a perfectly optimized design is more efficient
but less readable and reusable. So the designer must strike a balance
between the two.

The various things that may be done for design optimization are −

 Add redundant associations

 Omit non-usable associations

 Optimization of algorithms

 Save derived attributes to avoid re-computation of complex expressions

Addition of Redundant Associations
During design optimization, it is checked if deriving new associations can
reduce access costs. Though these redundant associations may not add any
information, they may increase the efficiency of the overall model.

Omission of Non-Usable Associations

Presence of too many associations may render a system indecipherable and
hence reduce the overall efficiency of the system. So, during optimization, all
non-usable associations are removed.

Optimization of Algorithms
In object-oriented systems, optimization of data structure and algorithms are
done in a collaborative manner. Once the class design is in place, the
operations and the algorithms need to be optimized.

Optimization of algorithms is obtained by −

 Rearrangement of the order of computational tasks

 Reversal of execution order of loops from that laid down in the functional model

 Removal of dead paths within the algorithm

Saving and Storing of Derived Attributes

Derived attributes are those attributes whose values are computed as a
function of other attributes (base attributes). Re-computation of the values
of derived attributes every time they are needed is a time–consuming
procedure. To avoid this, the values can be computed and stored in their
computed forms.

However, this may pose update anomalies, i.e., a change in the values of
base attributes with no corresponding change in the values of the derived
attributes. To avoid this, the following steps are taken −

 With each update of the base attribute value, the derived attribute is also re-
computed.

 All the derived attributes are re-computed and updated periodically in a group
rather than after each update.

Design Documentation
Documentation is an essential part of any software development process that
records the procedure of making the software. The design decisions need to
be documented for any non–trivial software system for transmitting the
design to others.

Usage Areas
Though a secondary product, a good documentation is indispensable,
particularly in the following areas −

 In designing software that is being developed by a number of developers

 In iterative software development strategies

 In developing subsequent versions of a software project

 For evaluating a software

 For finding conditions and areas of testing

 For maintenance of the software.

Contents
A beneficial documentation should essentially include the following contents
−

 High–level system architecture − Process diagrams and module diagrams

 Key abstractions and mechanisms − Class diagrams and object diagrams.

 Scenarios that illustrate the behavior of the main aspects − Behavioural

diagrams

Features
The features of a good documentation are −

 Concise and at the same time, unambiguous, consistent, and complete

 Traceable to the system’s requirement specifications

 Well-structured

 Diagrammatic instead of descriptive

OOAD - Implementation Strategies

Implementing an object-oriented design generally involves using a standard
object oriented programming language (OOPL) or mapping object designs to
databases. In most cases, it involves both.

Implementation using Programming Languages

Usually, the task of transforming an object design into code is a
straightforward process. Any object-oriented programming language like
C++, Java, Smalltalk, C# and Python, includes provision for representing
classes. In this chapter, we exemplify the concept using C++.

The following figure shows the representation of the class Circle using C++.

Implementing Associations
Most programming languages do not provide constructs to implement
associations directly. So the task of implementing associations needs
considerable thought.

Associations may be either unidirectional or bidirectional. Besides, each

association may be either one–to–one, one–to–many, or many–to–many.

Unidirectional Associations
For implementing unidirectional associations, care should be taken so that
unidirectionality is maintained. The implementations for different multiplicity
are as follows −

 Optional Associations − Here, a link may or may not exist between the
participating objects. For example, in the association between Customer and
 Current Account in the figure below, a customer may or may not have a current
account.

For implementation, an object of Current Account is included as an attribute

in Customer that may be NULL. Implementation using C++ −

class Customer {

private:

// attributes

Current_Account c; //an object of Current_Account as attribute

public:

Customer() {

c = NULL;

} // assign c as NULL

Current_Account getCurrAc() {

return c;

void setCurrAc( Current_Account myacc) {

c = myacc;

void removeAcc() {

c = NULL;

}
};

 One–to–one Associations − Here, one instance of a class is related to exactly

one instance of the associated class. For example, Department and Manager have
one–to–one association as shown in the figure below.

This is implemented by including in Department, an object of Manager that

should not be NULL. Implementation using C++ −

class Department {

private:

// attributes

Manager mgr; //an object of Manager as attribute

public:

Department (/*parameters*/, Manager m) { //m is not NULL

// assign parameters to variables

mgr = m;

Manager getMgr() {

return mgr;

};

 One–to–many Associations − Here, one instance of a class is related to more

than one instances of the associated class. For example, consider the association
between Employee and Dependent in the following figure.
This is implemented by including a list of Dependents in class Employee.
Implementation using C++ STL list container −

class Employee {

private:

char * deptName;

list <Dependent> dep; //a list of Dependents as attribute

public:

void addDependent ( Dependent d) {

dep.push_back(d);

} // adds an employee to the department

void removeDeoendent( Dependent d) {

int index = find ( d, dep );

// find() function returns the index of d in list dep

dep.erase(index);

};

Bi-directional Associations
To implement bi-directional association, links in both directions require to be
maintained.

 Optional or one–to–one Associations − Consider the relationship between

Project and Project Manager having one–to–one bidirectional association as
shown in the figure below.

Implementation using C++ −

Class Project {
 private:

// attributes

Project_Manager pmgr;

public:

void setManager ( Project_Manager pm);

Project_Manager changeManager();

};

class Project_Manager {

private:

// attributes

Project pj;

public:

void setProject(Project p);

Project removeProject();

};

 One–to–many Associations − Consider the relationship between Department

and Employee having one–to–many association as shown in the figure below.

Implementation using C++ STL list container

class Department {

private:

char * deptName;

list <Employee> emp; //a list of Employees as attribute

public:
 void addEmployee ( Employee e) {

emp.push_back(e);

} // adds an employee to the department

void removeEmployee( Employee e) {

int index = find ( e, emp );

// find function returns the index of e in list emp

emp.erase(index);

};

class Employee {

private:

//attributes

Department d;

public:

void addDept();

void removeDept();

};

Implementing Associations as Classes

If an association has some attributes associated, it should be implemented
using a separate class. For example, consider the one–to–one association
between Employee and Project as shown in the figure below.
Implementation of WorksOn using C++
class WorksOn {

private:

Employee e;

Project p;

Hours h;

char * date;

public:

// class methods

};

Implementing Constraints
Constraints in classes restrict the range and type of values that the attributes
may take. In order to implement constraints, a valid default value is assigned
to the attribute when an object is instantiated from the class. Whenever the
value is changed at runtime, it is checked whether the value is valid or not.
An invalid value may be handled by an exception handling routine or other
methods.

Example

Consider an Employee class where age is an attribute that may have values
in the range of 18 to 60. The following C++ code incorporates it −

class Employee {

private: char * name;

 int age;

// other attributes

public:

Employee() { // default constructor

strcpy(name, "");

age = 18; // default value

class AgeError {}; // Exception class

void changeAge( int a) { // method that changes age

if ( a < 18 || a > 60 ) // check for invalid condition

throw AgeError(); // throw exception

age = a;

};

Implementing State Charts

There are two alternative implementation strategies to implement states in
state chart diagrams.

Enumerations within Class

In this approach, the states are represented by different values of a data
member (or set of data members). The values are explicitly defined by an
enumeration within the class. The transitions are represented by member
functions that change the value of the concerned data member.

Arrangement of Classes in a Generalization Hierarchy

In this approach, the states are arranged in a generalization hierarchy in a
manner that they can be referred by a common pointer variable. The
following figure shows a transformation from state chart diagram to a
generalization hierarchy.

Object Mapping to Database System

Persistency of Objects
An important aspect of developing object-oriented systems is persistency of
data. Through persistency, objects have longer lifespan than the program
that created it. Persistent data is saved on secondary storage medium from
where it can be reloaded when required.

Overview of RDBMS
A database is an ordered collection of related data.

A database management system (DBMS) is a collection of software that

facilitates the processes of defining, creating, storing, manipulating,
retrieving, sharing, and removing data in databases.

In relational database management systems (RDBMS), data is stored as

relations or tables, where each column or field represents an attribute and
each row or tuple represents a record of an instance.

Each row is uniquely identified by a chosen set of minimal attributes

called primary key.

A foreign key is an attribute that is the primary key of a related table.

Representing Classes as Tables in RDBMS

To map a class to a database table, each attribute is represented as a field in
the table. Either an existing attribute(s) is assigned as a primary key or a
separate ID field is added as a primary key. The class may be partitioned
horizontally or vertically as per requirement.

For example, the Circle class can be converted to table as shown in the figure
below.

Schema for Circle Table: CIRCLE(CID, X_COORD, Y_COORD, RADIUS, COLOR)

Creating a Table Circle using SQL command:

CREATE TABLE CIRCLE (

CID VARCHAR2(4) PRIMARY KEY,

X_COORD INTEGER NOT NULL,

Y_COORD INTEGER NOT NULL,

Z_COORD INTEGER NOT NULL,

COLOR

);

Mapping Associations to Database Tables

One–to–One Associations
To implement 1:1 associations, the primary key of any one table is assigned
as the foreign key of the other table. For example, consider the association
between Department and Manager −
SQL commands to create the tables
CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT (

DEPT_ID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,

DNAME VARCHAR2(30) NOT NULL,

LOCATION VARCHAR2(20),

EMPID INTEGER REFERENCES MANAGER

);

CREATE TABLE MANAGER (

EMPID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,

ENAME VARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL,

ADDRESS VARCHAR2(70),

);

One–to–Many Associations
To implement 1:N associations, the primary key of the table in the 1-side of
the association is assigned as the foreign key of the table at the N-side of the
association. For example, consider the association between Department and
Employee −

SQL commands to create the tables

CREATE TABLE DEPARTMENT (

DEPT_ID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,

DNAME VARCHAR2(30) NOT NULL,

LOCATION VARCHAR2(20),
);

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (

EMPID INTEGER PRIMARY KEY,

ENAME VARCHAR2(50) NOT NULL,

ADDRESS VARCHAR2(70),

D_ID INTEGER REFERENCES DEPARTMENT

);

Many–to–Many Associations
To implement M:N associations, a new relation is created that represents the
association. For example, consider the following association between
Employee and Project −

Schema for Works_On Table − WORKS_ON (EMPID, PID, HOURS,

START_DATE)

SQL command to create Works_On association − CREATE TABLE

WORKS_ON

EMPID INTEGER,

PID INTEGER,

HOURS INTEGER,

START_DATE DATE,

PRIMARY KEY (EMPID, PID),

 FOREIGN KEY (EMPID) REFERENCES EMPLOYEE,

FOREIGN KEY (PID) REFERENCES PROJECT

);

Mapping Inheritance to Tables

To map inheritance, the primary key of the base table(s) is assigned as the
primary key as well as the foreign key in the derived table(s).

Example

OOAD - Testing & Quality Assurance

Once a program code is written, it must be tested to detect and subsequently
handle all errors in it. A number of schemes are used for testing purposes.

Another important aspect is the fitness of purpose of a program that

ascertains whether the program serves the purpose which it aims for. The
fitness defines the software quality.

Testing Object-Oriented Systems

Testing is a continuous activity during software development. In object-
oriented systems, testing encompasses three levels, namely, unit testing,
subsystem testing, and system testing.

Unit Testing
In unit testing, the individual classes are tested. It is seen whether the class
attributes are implemented as per design and whether the methods and the
interfaces are error-free. Unit testing is the responsibility of the application
engineer who implements the structure.

Subsystem Testing
This involves testing a particular module or a subsystem and is the
responsibility of the subsystem lead. It involves testing the associations
within the subsystem as well as the interaction of the subsystem with the
outside. Subsystem tests can be used as regression tests for each newly
released version of the subsystem.

System Testing
System testing involves testing the system as a whole and is the
responsibility of the quality-assurance team. The team often uses system
tests as regression tests when assembling new releases.

Object-Oriented Testing Techniques

Grey Box Testing
The different types of test cases that can be designed for testing object-
oriented programs are called grey box test cases. Some of the important
types of grey box testing are −

 State model based testing − This encompasses state coverage, state transition
coverage, and state transition path coverage.

 Use case based testing − Each scenario in each use case is tested.

 Class diagram based testing − Each class, derived class, associations, and
aggregations are tested.

 Sequence diagram based testing − The methods in the messages in the

sequence diagrams are tested.

Techniques for Subsystem Testing

The two main approaches of subsystem testing are −

 Thread based testing − All classes that are needed to realize a single use case
in a subsystem are integrated and tested.

 Use based testing − The interfaces and services of the modules at each level of
hierarchy are tested. Testing starts from the individual classes to the small
 modules comprising of classes, gradually to larger modules, and finally all the
major subsystems.

Categories of System Testing

 Alpha testing − This is carried out by the testing team within the organization
that develops software.

 Beta testing − This is carried out by select group of co-operating customers.

 Acceptance testing − This is carried out by the customer before accepting the
deliverables.

Software Quality Assurance

Software Quality
Schulmeyer and McManus have defined software quality as “the fitness for
use of the total software product”. A good quality software does exactly what
it is supposed to do and is interpreted in terms of satisfaction of the
requirement specification laid down by the user.

Quality Assurance
Software quality assurance is a methodology that determines the extent to
which a software product is fit for use. The activities that are included for
determining software quality are −

 Auditing

 Development of standards and guidelines

 Production of reports

 Review of quality system

Quality Factors
 Correctness − Correctness determines whether the software requirements are
appropriately met.

 Usability − Usability determines whether the software can be used by different

categories of users (beginners, non-technical, and experts).

 Portability − Portability determines whether the software can operate in different

platforms with different hardware devices.
  Maintainability − Maintainability determines the ease at which errors can be
corrected and modules can be updated.

 Reusability − Reusability determines whether the modules and classes can be

reused for developing other software products.

Object-Oriented Metrics
Metrics can be broadly classified into three categories: project metrics,
product metrics, and process metrics.

Project Metrics
Project Metrics enable a software project manager to assess the status and
performance of an ongoing project. The following metrics are appropriate for
object-oriented software projects −

 Number of scenario scripts

 Number of key classes

 Number of support classes

 Number of subsystems

Product Metrics
Product metrics measure the characteristics of the software product that has
been developed. The product metrics suitable for object-oriented systems are
−

 Methods per Class − It determines the complexity of a class. If all the methods
of a class are assumed to be equally complex, then a class with more methods is
more complex and thus more susceptible to errors.

 Inheritance Structure − Systems with several small inheritance lattices are

more well–structured than systems with a single large inheritance lattice. As a
thumb rule, an inheritance tree should not have more than 7 (± 2) number of
levels and the tree should be balanced.

 Coupling and Cohesion − Modules having low coupling and high cohesion are
considered to be better designed, as they permit greater reusability and
maintainability.
  Response for a Class − It measures the efficiency of the methods that are called
by the instances of the class.

Process Metrics
Process metrics help in measuring how a process is performing. They are
collected over all projects over long periods of time. They are used as
indicators for long-term software process improvements. Some process
metrics are −

 Number of KLOC (Kilo Lines of Code)

 Defect removal efficiency

 Average number of failures detected during testing

 Number of latent defects per KLOC