CHM035 Internal energy (U) – the combined kinetic and

Conversion of Units potential energies of the atoms and molecules.

1. List down the given data and the required - Energy associated with the random,
quantity. disordered motion of molecules and with the
2. Find the appropriate conversion factors forces the molecules exert on each other
3. Write the unit multiplier in such a way that
old units cancel out and only the new unit will Energy changes during chemical reactions
remain. o The making or breaking of chemical bonds
4. Multiply the unit multiplier to the given changes the potential energy of the system
quantity and solve o If the amount of energy liberated in bond
5. If successive conversions are done, write the making is greater than that consumed in
unit multipliers in such a way that only the bond breaking, the overall process releases
required unit remains. chemical energy

Stoichiometry Calculations I Energy transfer: Heat

Molar mass (molecular weight) – the mass in grams Heat – the flow of energy between two objects, from
of one mole of a substance. the warmer one to the cooler one, because of a
Limiting reactant – the reactant that is used up difference in their temperatures
completely
o Stoichiometry computation must be based Energy transfer: Work
on the amount of limiting reactant Work – the transfer of energy accomplished by a
Excess reactant – reactant that is not used up force moving a mass some distance against
completely resistance
𝑊 = −𝑃∆𝑉
Heat in Physical Processes o A gas compresses when its pressure is less
Chemical properties – exhibited by matter as it than the surrounding pressure
undergoes changes in composition 𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 > 𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠
o Ex. A chemical property of propane is that it  Compression continues until the
combines with dioxygen, releasing energy in system and surrounding have equal
the process pressures (equilibrium)
Physical properties – observed in the absence of any  Work is being done by the
change in composition atmosphere on the gas to compress it
o Ex. Color, density, hardness, melting point,
boiling point, and electrical and thermal o A gas expands when the pressure of the gas
conductivities is greater than the surroundings. It expands
Chemical Processes – involve one or more until it reaches equilibrium
substances getting used up (at least partially), and 𝑃𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 > 𝑃𝑠𝑦𝑠
one or more new substances are formed.  Work is being done by the gas to push
Physical processes – occur with no change in against the pressure exerted by the
chemical composition; usually altered significantly as atmosphere.
matter undergoes physical changes
Temperature
Energy and Processes - Related to the average kinetic energy of the
o physical changes like changes in color etc., particles in a substance
can usually signify a chemical change - The higher the temperature, the faster the
o chemical and physical processes are usually movement of the particles
accompanied by energy changes - The lesser the temperature, the slower the
o energy may be either released (evolved) or movement of the particles
absorbed in a process
o burning fuels release a tremendous amount Law of Conservation of Energy
of energy o Energy can neither be created nor destroyed.
o burning water to produce gaseous steam Energy is always changing from one kind to
requires the input of energy another.
o The total internal energy of the object never
Forms of Energy changes.
Potential energy (P) – associated with the relative ∆𝑈 = 𝑞 + 𝑤 = 𝑞 − 𝑝∆𝑉
position of an object ∆𝑈 = 𝑈𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑈𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
Kinetic energy (K) – associated with motion
Definitions and sign conventions Comparing the internal energies of solid, liquid
System – part of the universe being studied and gases
o Energy, either in the form of heat or work,
being added to the system raises its INSERT PHOTO ABOUT IT
temperature, and vice versa
o Work being done on the system adds to the Processes at Constant Pressure
energy of the system. (+W) o It is more convenient to express the energy
o Work done by the system reduces the energy of the system associated with processes
of the system. (-W) carried out at constant pressure using a
different quantity than internal energy
Processes at constant volume called enthalpy.
o When a process is carried out at constant
volume, volume does not change. Enthalpy
Thus, ∆𝑉 = 0. Therefore, ∆𝐻 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑝∆𝑉
∆𝑈 = 𝑞 − 𝑝∆𝑉 = 𝑞𝑣 ∆𝐻 = (𝑞 − 𝑝∆𝑉) + 𝑝∆𝑉
∆𝐻 = 𝑞𝑝
Heating without change of phase: Heat Capacity ∆𝐻 = 𝐻𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝐻𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙
Specific heat – physical property of a material that
measures how much heat is required to raise the Exothermic and Endothermic Processes
temperature of one gram of that material by 1C. Exothermic process – heat evolves from the system
𝑞 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇 and the value of ∆𝐻 is less than zero
Molar heat capacity – physical property that Endothermic process – heat is absorbed by the
describes how much heat is required to raise the system and the value of ∆𝐻 is greater than zero.
temperature of one mole of a substance by 1C.
𝑞 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 Heats of Formation
*subscript p indicates that this heat capacity is a Formation reaction – chemical reaction by which
constant pressure* one mole of a compound

Phase Changes
o The addition or removal of heat to a
substance may cause it to change its phase
o Temperature does not change during phase
changes
o Water vaporizes into steam at 100C.

INSERT PIC ABOUT PHASE CHANGE

Heating with change of phase: Latent Heats

Latent heat of Vaporization (Lv) – represents the
amount of heat for 1g of liquid at the boiling point
(100C) to turn into vapor (J/g)
- Liquid is vaporized = positive; vapor is
condensed = negative
𝑄𝑣 = 𝑚𝐿𝑣

Latent heat of Fusion (Lf) – represents the amount of

heat for 1g of liquid at the melting point (0C) to turn
into solid (J/g)
- Solid is melting = positive; liquid is freezing
= negative
𝑄𝑓 = 𝑚𝐿𝑓

Calorimetry
o When heat flow occurs between two bodies
that are isolated from their surroundings,
the amount of heat lost must by one body must
equal to the amount gained by the other.
−𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 = 𝑞ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑢𝑝