Political Ideologies

UNIT 26 MARXISM

Structure
26.0 Objectives
26.1 Introduction
26.2 What is Marxism?
26.2.1 Utopian and Scientific Socialism
26.2.2 Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism
26.3 Basic Principles of Marxism
26.3.1 Dialectical Materialism
26.3.2 Historical Materialism
26.3.3 Theory of Surplus Value
26.3.4 Class Struggle
26.3.5 Revolution
26.3.6 Dictatorship of the Proletariat
26.3.7 Communism
26.4 Theory of Alienation
26.5 Theory of Freedom
26.6 A Critical Appraisal and an Overview
26.7 Let Us Sum Up
26.8 Some Useful References
26.9 Answers to Check your Progress Exercises

26.0 OBJECTIVES

In this unit, you will read about the theory and practice of Marxism, propounded by
Karl Marx and others. The basic tenets of the philosophy comprising of dialectical
and historical materialism, the theory of surplus value, class struggle, revolution,
dictatorship of the proletariat and communism are discussed at length. After going
through the unit, you should be able to:
• Discuss the pre-Marxian strands of socialism such as utopian socialism;
• Enumerate, describe and discuss the basic postulates of Marxism;
• Comment on other important components of the Marxist theory such as the
theories of alienation and freedom and finally; and
• Critique Marxism as well as comment on its contemporary relevance.

26.1 INTRODUCTION

The present unit aims at examining and explaining the principles of Marxism, which
is the most revolutionary ideology of our age. Along with liberalism, Marxism ranks
as the most important philosophy of our time. Liberalism, Idealism and Marxism are
the three important theories of Political Science. C.L Wayper has divided various
views regarding the state into three parts, viz., the state as a machine, as an organism
and as a class. In other words, the organic view of the state, the mechanistic view
of the state and the class view of the state. The organic view is idealism, the
mechanistic view is liberalism and the class view is marxism.

The present unit is subdivided into the definition of Marxism, Utopian and Scientific
Socialism, Revolutionary and Evolutionary Socialism, the main principles of Marxism,
28 a critique and a conclusion. The main principles of Marxism, are seven, viz., Dialectical
Materialism, Historical Materialism, Theory of Surplus Value, Class Struggle, Revolution, Gandhism (Dharma,
Dictatorship of the Proletariat and Communism. The concept of Alienation and Swaraj, Sarvodaya and
Satyagraha)
freedom generally associated with younger Marx or the humanist face of Marxism
have also been dealt with.

26.2 WHAT IS MARXISM?

Marxism generally refers to the ideas of the German philosopher, Karl Marx. But
Marxism does not mean exclusively the ideas of Marx. It includes the ideas of Marx,
Friedrich Engels and their supporters, who call themselves Marxists. Thus, Marxism
refers to the body of ideas, which predominantly contains the ideas of Karl Marx.
Marxism is a living philosophy. Marxist thinkers are continuously contributing to the
philosophy of Marxism. Thus, it is said that Marx is dead, but Marxism is still alive.

The Marxist philosophy existed even before the birth of Karl Marx. This is the
reason David Mclellan has written three volumes on Marxism, viz., Marxism before
Marx; Thought of Karl Marx and Marxism after Marx. Similarly, the Polish
thinker Leszek Kolakowski has authored three volumes on Marxism. The point once
again is that Marxism does not mean only the ideas of Karl Marx.

26.2.1 Utopian and Scientific Socialism

As said earlier, Marxism existed before Marx. These are known as the early
socialist thinkers. Karl Marx calls them Utopian Socialists. They were utopian,
because their diagnosis of the social ills was correct, but their remedy was wrong.
It was impracticable, and therefore, they were called utopian. The world ‘utopia’ was
derived from a novel of Thomas Moore titled, ‘Utopia.’ It refers to an imaginary
island, called Utopia, where a perfect socio-economic- political system existed. There
was no exploitation and people were happy. Some important utopian socialist thinkers
are Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, Louis Blanc, Saint Simon, Sismondi and Proudhon.

Marx calls his socialism as ‘Scientific Socialism’. It is scientific, because it offers the
economic interpretation of history by using the scientific methodology of dialectical
materialism. It explains not only the true causes of exploitation, but also offers the
scientific remedy of revolution and dictatorship of the proletariat to cure the social
ills of exploitation. It not only offers scientific reasons for class division and also
struggle in society, but also provides for a scientific mechanism to establish a classless
and exploitation less society.

26.2.2 Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism

Socialism is further divided into evolutionary and revolutionary socialism. Evolutionary
socialism does not believe in revolution and wants to attain socialism through peaceful
means. Evolutionary Socialists have faith in parliamentary democracy and want to
bring social change through the ballot. They eschew violence and so, are opposed to
a violent revolution. They also do not subscribe to the dictatorship of the proletariat
and advocate a peaceful democratic transition from a class divided to a classless
society. Fabian Socialism, Guild Socialism, Democratic Socialism are all various
types of evolutionary socialism.

Revolutionary socialism, on the other hand, believes in class struggle, revolution and
the dictatorship of the proletariat. According to them, social change cannot be peaceful.
It has to be violent. A peaceful revolution is a contradiction in terms. Revolution is
the midwife of social change, and this revolution must be violent. Revolutionary
Marxism is generally identified with the scientific socialism of Karl Marx. Syndicalism
is also a type of revolutionary socialism.
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Political Ideologies Evolutionary socialism also traces its roots from the ideas of Karl Marx and Engels.
They have talked about the withering away of the state. Exponents of evolutionary
socialism have picked up the theory of withering away of the state, and argued that
gradually through peaceful means, social change can be effected and an exploitationless
and classless society can be established. However, the critics of evolutionary socialism
do not accept this thesis, and argue that the idea of withering away of the state
applies only to the socialist state or the dictatorship of the proletariat and not to the
capitalist state. It will never wither away. It has to be smashed through a violent
revolution. Therefore, the logic of evolutionary socialism is flawed.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Distinguish between Utopian and Scientific Socialism.
Or
Distinguish between Evolutionary and Revolutionary Socialism.
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26.3 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF MARXISM

The basic tenets of Marxism are the following: dialectical materialism, historical
materialism, the theory of surplus value, class struggle, revolution, dictatorship of the
proletariat and communism. Now, these principles will be discussed in detail.

26.3.1 Dialectical Materialism

Dialectical materialism is the scientific methodology developed by Marx and Engels
for the interpretation of history. Here, Marx has borrowed heavily from his
predecessors, particularly, the Geman philosopher Hegel. Dialectics is a very old
methodology, employed to discover truth by exposing contradictions, through a clash
of opposite ideas. Hegel refined it by developing the trilogy of thesis, anti-thesis and
synthesis. It is popularly known as the Dialectical Triad. Progress or growth takes
place through the dialectical process. At every stage of growth, it is characterised
by contradictions. These contradictions induce further changes, progress, and
development. The thesis is challenged by its anti-thesis. Both contain elements of
truth and falsehood. Truth is permanent, but falsehood is transitory. In the ensuing
conflict of the thesis and the anti-thesis, the truth remains, but the false elements are
destroyed. These false elements constitute contradictions. The true elements of both
the thesis and the anti-thesis are fused together in a synthesis. This evolved synthesis
during the course of time becomes a thesis and so, it is again challenged by its
opposite anti-thesis, which again results in a synthesis. This process of thesis, anti-
thesis, and synthesis continues until the stage of perfection is reached. In this
evolutionary process, a stage will come, when there will be no false elements. These
will be destroyed at different stages of evolution. Ultimately, only the truth remains,
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because it is never destroyed. It will constitute the perfect stage and there will be Gandhism (Dharma,
no contradictions and so, there will be no further growth. The dialectical process will Swaraj, Sarvodaya and
Satyagraha)
come to an end after arriving at the perfect truth. It is the contradictions, which move
the dialectical process and a complete elimination of contradictions marks the end of
the dialectical process itself.

For materialism, Marx is highly indebted to the French school of materialism, mainly
the French materialist thinker Ludwig Feuerbach. It is the matter, which is the
ultimate reality and not the idea. The latter is a reflection of the former. How we earn
our bread determines our ideas. It is not the consciousness of men that determines
their existence but, on the contrary, it is their social existence that determines their
consciousness. Marx has observed that “Hegel’s dialectics was standing on its head
and I have put it on its feet”. Hegel has developed dialectical idealism. For him, it
is the idea, which ultimately matters. Idea lies in the base or the sub-structure, which
determines everything in the superstructure. Society, polity, economy are in this
superstructure which is shaped by the prevalent dominant ideas of the age. Ultimately
it is the idea, which matters, and the other things are only its reflection. Marx
replaced idea with matter. According to Marx, the material or the economic forces
are in the substructure and the idea is a part of the superstructure. Idea is the
reflection of material forces. The economic forces determine the idea and not vice-
versa. Thus, Marx has reversed the position of idea and matter. This is the reason
that he claims that “in Hegel it was upside down and I have corrected it”.

The base or the substructure consists of the forces of production and the relations
of production. These two together constitute the mode of production. When there is
a change in the forces of production because of development in technology, it brings
changes in the relations of production. Thus, a change in the mode of production
brings a corresponding change in the superstructure. Society, polity, religion, morals,
values, norms, etc. are a part of the superstructure and shaped by the mode of
production.

26.3.2 Historical Materialism

Historical materialism is the application of dialectical materialism to the interpretation
of history. It is the economic interpretation of world history by applying the Marxian
methodology of dialectical materialism. The world history has been divided into four
stages: primitive communism, the slavery system, feudalism and capitalism.

Primitive communism refers to the earliest part of human history. It was a propertyless,
exploitationless, classless and stateless society. Means of production were backward,
because technology was undeveloped. The community owned the means of production.
They were not under private ownership and so there was no exploitation. Stone made
hunting weapons, the fishing net and hooks were the means of production. The entire
community owned these. Production was limited and meant for self-consumption.
There was no surplus production and so there was no private property. Since there
was no private property, there was no exploitation. Since there was no exploitation,
there was no class division. Since there was no class division, there was no class
struggle. Since there was no class struggle, there was no state. It was, thus, a
communist society, but of a primitive type. Though life was difficult, it was characterised
by the absence of exploitation, conflict and struggle.

Technology is not static; it evolves continuously. Technological development results in

the improvement of production. This leads to surplus production, which results in the
emergence of private property. Means of production are now not under the community,
but private ownership. Society is, thus, divided into property owning and propertyless
classes. By virtue of the ownership of the means of production, the property owning
class exploits the propertyless class. Class division in society and exploitation lead to
class struggle. Since there is class struggle, the dominant class, that is the property 31
Political Ideologies owning class creates an institution called the state to suppress the dissent of the
dependent class, that is the propertyless class. Thus, the state is a class instrument
and a coercive institution. It protects the interests of its creator, that is the property
owning class.

In the beginning, this society is divided into masters and slaves. Masters are the
haves and the slaves are the have nots. The slaves carry out all the production work.
The masters live on the labour of slaves. They exploit the slaves and whenever the
slaves resent, the state comes to the rescue of the masters. Thus, the state serves
the interests of the master class. It uses its coercive powers to suppress the voice
of the slaves.

The slave system is succeeded by feudalism. Technological development leads to

changes in the means of production and this brings about corresponding changes in
the relations of production and the superstructure. The slave system is replaced by
the feudal mode of production and it is reflected in the society, polity, morality and
the value system. The division of society into feudal lords and peasants characterises
feudalism. The feudal lords own the means of production, that is land, but the
peasants carry out the production work. By virtue of ownership of the land, the
feudal lords get a huge share of the produce without doing anything. Thus, the feudal
lords are like parasites, who thrive on the labour of peasants. Feudal lords exploit the
peasants and if the peasants ever resist their exploitation, their resistance is ruthlessly
crushed by the state, which protects and serves the interests of the feudal lords. The
peasants are a dependent and exploited class, whereas the lords are a dominant and
exploiting class.

Capitalism succeeds feudalism. Technological development continues and so there is

change in the forces of production, which leads to a mismatch between the forces
of production and the relations of production, which is resolved through a bourgeois
revolution. Thus the contradiction between the forces of production and the relations
of production is resolved. The feudal mode of production is replaced by the capitalist
mode of production. Division of society into the bourgeois and the proletariat class
characterises capitalism. The bourgeois class owns the means of production, but the
proletariat class carries out the production. Proletariats are the industrial workers.
They sell their labour in lieu of meager wages. It is usually a subsistence wage, which
is sufficient only to support them and their families, so that an uninterrupted supply
of labour force can be maintained. Production is not for consumption by the self, but
for profit. The desire to maximise profit leads to a reduction in wages and a rise in
working hours. This further deteriorates the lot of the working class, which is eventually
pushed into a situation, where it has nothing to loose except its chains. This paves
the way for the proletariat revolution.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Explain in your own words the meaning of Dialectical Materialism.

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2) Enumerate and describe the salient features of either primitive communism or Gandhism (Dharma,
feudalism. Swaraj, Sarvodaya and
Satyagraha)
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26.3.3 Theory of Surplus Value

Marx has developed the theory of surplus value to explain the exploitation in the
capitalist society. Here, Marx was influenced by the theories of classical economists.
He subscribed to the labour theory of value. The value of a commodity is determined
by the amount of labour consumed in its production. Labour is also a commodity. It
can be bought and sold like other commodities. Out of the four factors of production,
labour is the most vital. In its absence, the other factors of production are useless.
Land, capital and organisation are the other factors of production. It is the application
of labour to these factors of production, which makes them productive. In the absence
of labour, they are sterile.

If a wage is paid in proportion to the amount of value created by a labourer, then

there is no exploitation, But this is not the case in capitalism. Labour is unique in the
sense that it creates more value than is required for its maintenance. The difference
between the value created by the worker and the value paid to the worker, as wages,
constitute the surplus value and the profit of the capitalist. For instance, if a worker
has created a value of say Rs. 25,000 in a month and has been paid Rs. 15,000 as
wages, then the remaining Rs. 10,000 will constitute the profit of the capitalist. Thus,
the worker always creates more value than he is actually paid. This surplus value
created by the worker is the profit of the bourgeois, which has been defended by the
classical economist, because it leads to capital accumulation, which is invested further
in new industries and enterprises and leads to growth and prosperity. For the Marxists,
it is the exploitation of the workers, which has to be abolished.

With the growth of capitalism and the rise in competition, the wages of the workers
continue to fall and reach the stage of subsistence level. Subsistence wage is the
minimum possible wage; beyond this the wage cannot be reduced. It is the minimum
possible wage for the survival and perpetuation of the labour force. Thus, cut throat
competition in capitalism leads to deterioration of the lot of the proletariat. This
intensifies class struggle and eventually leads to revolution.

26.3.4 Class Struggle

According to Marx, the history of all hitherto existing society has been the history of
class struggle. Except the primitive communist stage, all historical ages have been
characterised by the antagonism between the dominant and dependent classes or the
haves and the have nots. This antagonism is caused by class contradictions; it is the
result of exploitation by the property owning class of the property less class.
Throughout history, there have been two contending classes in every epoch. In the
slavery system, they were the masters and the slaves, in feudalism, the feudal lords
and the peasants and in capitalism, the bourgeois and the proletariat. The masters,
the feudal lords and the bourgeois are the owners of the means of production.
However, it is the slaves, the peasants and the proletariat, who carry out production, 33
Political Ideologies but their produce is taken away by their exploiters and in return, they are given just
enough for their survival. By virtue of the ownership of the means of production,
the property owning class exploits the propertyless class. This is the main source and
cause of class struggle. The interests of the contending classes are irreconcilable.
No compromise or rapprochement is possible between the contending classes. The
inherent contradictions of contending classes of every epoch can be resolved only
through the annihilation of the exploiting classes.

26.3.5 Revolution
Class struggle paves the way for revolution. Class struggle is imperceptible, but
revolution is perceptible. Intensification of class struggle prepares the ground for
revolution. Class struggle is a long drawn affair, but revolution is short, swift and
violent. In the words of Marx, ‘revolution is the indispensable mid-wife of social
change’. Transition from one historical stage to another occurs through revolution.
Feudal revolution brought an end to the slavery system; the bourgeois revolution
ended feudalism and the proletariat revolution will bring an end to capitalism. Thus,
any epoch making social change is always brought about by a revolution.

Revolution occurs when there is incompatibility between the means or forces of

production and the relations of production. To resolve this incompatibility, revolution
occurs, which brings corresponding changes in the relations of production and the
superstructure to make it compatible with the forces or means of production.
Technological development brings changes in the means of production. The handmill
gives you a society with the feudal lord, and the steam-mill, a society with the
industrial capitalist.

Proletarian revolution will be the last revolution in the annals of history. Revolution
occurs to resolve contradictions. So revolution will not take place, if there is no
contradiction in society. After the proletarian revolution, there will not be any further
revolution, because there will be no contradiction. However, revolution will take place
only when the forces of production have fully matured. Revolution cannot be advanced
or postponed. It will occur when the forces of production have matured and do not
match the relations of production. Revolution brings an end to this mismatch.

The sequence and direction of social evolution cannot be changed. No stage can
overleap an other stage. No stage can be short-circuited. Primitive communism will
lead to the slavery system, the slavery system to feudalism and feudalism to capitalism.
Dictatorship of the proletariat or socialism will succeed capitalism, which is the
penultimate stage of social evolution. Dictatorship of the proletariat will eventually
lead to the establishment of communism. With the proletarian revolution, revolution
itself will come to an end.

26.3.6 Dictatorship of the Proletariat

The proletariat revolution will lead to the establishment of the dictatorship of the
proletariat. It is also known as the socialist state. The state apparatus created by
the bourgeois to oppress the proletariat will be taken over by the proletariat themselves.
Now, the table will be turned and the proletariat will use the state apparatus against
the bourgeois. The bourgeois will try to stage a counter-revolution to restore the old
system and so, the coercive institutions of the state are needed to restrain the
bourgeois.

The state has always been the instrument of oppression. The dominant class to
oppress the dependent class has created the state. It is a class instrument. The state
protects and serves the interests of its creator, which is the property owning class.
This class has always been in a minority, whether it is the masters or the feudal lords
34 or the capitalists. Thus, a minority has been oppressing a majority viz., the slaves or
the peasants or the proletariat through the coercive organs of the state. Under the Gandhism (Dharma,
dictatorship of the proletariat, for the first time the state comes under the control of Swaraj, Sarvodaya and
Satyagraha)
the majority. Now, for the first time, the state’s coercive apparatus is used by the
majority against the minority.

According to Marx, all states have been dictatorships and so the socialist state is no
exception. It is also a dictatorship. The state has always been used by one class
to suppress the other class. In the socialist state, the proletariat class will use the
coercive organs of the state such as the army, the police, prison, judicial system etc.,
against the bourgeois class. Marx argues that if democracy means the rule of the
majority, then the proletariat state is the most democratic state, because for the first
time in the annals of history, power comes into the hands of the majority. Before the
proletariat state, power has always been in the hands of the minority. So if majority
rule is the criterion, then only the proletariat state can be called a democratic state.

26.3.7 Communism
Under the living care of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the socialist state will
blossom forth into communism. Socialism is a transitory stage. It will pave the way
for the eventual emergence of communism. Which is stable and permanent. This will
be the phase of social evolution. After the establishment of communism, there will
be no further social change. The dialectical process will come to an end. A perfect,
rational social system will be established, free from antagonisms and contradictions.
There will be no class contradictions and so, no class struggle. Infact communism
will be a classless, stateless, private propertyless and exploitationless society.

In a communist society, there will be no private property in the form of private

ownership of the means of production. The means of production will be under the
ownership of the community. Cooperation and not cutthroat competition will be the
basis of communist society. Production will be for consumption and not to earn profit.
Profit motive will be replaced by social needs. Since there will be no private property,
there will be no exploitation. Since there will be no exploitation, there will be no class
division, no property owning and propertyless class, no haves and have nots or no
dominant and dependent class. Since there is no class division, there is no class
struggle and so no need of the state. This is the reason why a communist society will
be a classless and stateless society.

State is the instrument of exploitation. It is a class instrument and a result of class

division in society. Since there is only one class of workers in communism and no
other class to suppress or oppress, there will not be any need of the state. It will
become redundant in a communist society. It will be relegated to the museum. The
state, however, will not be smashed; it will gradually wither away.

Communist society will be governed by the Louise Blanc principle of ‘from each
according to his capacity to each according to his need’. There will be no place for
parasites. He who will not work will not eat also. There will be only one class of
workers. The entire society will be converted into the working class. There will be
no place for exploitation. It will be an egalitarian society. There will be harmonious
relationship among the people.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) What is the theory of surplus value?

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Political Ideologies .....................................................................................................................

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2) Explain the concept of class struggle.

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3) Enumerate and describe the salient features of a communist society.

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26.4 THEORY OF ALIENATION

There have been two distinct phases in the Marxist philosophy. Economic and
Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, present the human face of Marxism. In the
Manuscripts, capitalism has been analysed without reference to class antagonism,
class struggle and violent revolution. Here, the evil influences of capitalism have been
explained through alienation and loss of identity and freedom. These views of Marx
have been identified with a younger Marx. There occurs an epistemological break in
Marx’s philosophy with the writing of Communist Manifesto in 1848. The later
Marx is known as mature Marx, who developed the theory of scientific socialism.
Marx’s earlier ideas were discovered only in 1932, with the publication of the
Manuscripts.

The theory of alienation is an important Marxian concept. The Hungarian Marxist

George Lukacs had developed the theory of alienation entirely on his own even
before the publication of Manuscripts in 1932. However, the concept of alienation
became popular only after the publication of the Manuscripts. Marx has identified
four levels of alienation. Firstly, man is alienated from his own product and from his
work process, because the worker plays no part in deciding what to produce and how
to produce it. Secondly, man is alienated from nature. His work does not give him
a sense of satisfaction as a creative worker. Under mechanisation, work tends to
become increasingly routinised and monotonous. Thirdly, man is alienated from other
men. The competitive character of the capitalist system forces everyone to live at
someone else’s expense and divides society into antagonistic classes. Lastly, man is
alienated from himself. The realm of necessity dominates his life and reduces him to
the level of an animal existence, leaving no time for a taste of literature, art, and
36 cultural heritage. The capitalist system subordinates all human faculties and qualities
to the conditions created by the private ownership of capital and property. The Gandhism (Dharma,
capitalist himself, no less than the worker, becomes a slave of the tyrannical rule of Swaraj, Sarvodaya and
Satyagraha)
money.

26.5 THEORY OF FREEDOM

As a humanist philosophy, Marxism is primarily a philosophy of human freedom.

Freedom consists not only in securing material satisfaction o f human needs, but also
in removing the conditions of dehumanisation, estrangement and alienation. The
capitalist system is characterised by necessity as opposed to freedom. Necessity
refers to the conditions under which the inevitable laws of nature govern the life of
man. These laws of nature exist independent of man’s will. Man can acquire
scientific knowledge of these laws, but cannot change them at his will. Freedom
does not consist in an escape from necessity. Freedom lies in the knowledge of these
laws of nature and the capacity to make these laws work towards the definite end
of the emancipation of human society.

Thus, a sound knowledge of the productive forces operating behind the capitalist
system and a programme to make these forces work toward human ends were
essential instruments of human freedom. Only a programme of socialist revolution
would accomplish humanity’s leap from the kingdom of necessity to the kingdom of
freedom. The emancipation of human society and the realisation of true freedom is
possible only with the abolition of capitalism and the establishment of communism.

Check Your Progress 4

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Discuss either the theory of alienation or the theory of freedom.

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26.6 A CRITICAL APPRAISAL AND AN OVERVIEW

Marxism has been subjected to severe criticism. It has simplified the class division
of society into two classes, the haves and the have nots. This is far from the reality.
Society is very complex and is divided into numerous groups. There is no clear cut
division of classes as envisaged by Marxism. Moreover, there exists a huge middle
class. Marxian thinkers predicted that with the advancement of capitalism, the middle
class would disappear and merge with the proletariat class. But this has not happened
so far and there is no possibility of it ever happening. Infact, the reverse has happened;
the middle class has strengthened its position and increased its size. Marxists also
predicted the narrowing of the capitalist class. Here again, just the opposite has
happened. Instead of shrinking, the base of the capitalist class has been enlarged.
Marx predicted the accumulation of capital, but there has been the dispersal of
capital. The condition of the proletariat class has not deteriorated as predicted by
Marx. Thus, the actual working of the capitalist system has proved the Marxist
theory of classes to be wrong. 37
Political Ideologies Marxists had predicted that the inherent contradictions of capitalism would lead to its
collapse. But this has not happened so far. No advanced capitalist system has collapsed.
Capitalism has proved its resilience. It is the socialist system, which has collapsed in
various parts of the world. Capitalism has the tremendous capacity of adaptation.
This is the main reason for its survival. Marx failed to assess capitalism correctly.

According to Marx, the proletarian revolution will occur only when capitalism has
matured. There is no chance of the proletarian revolution occurring and succeeding
in a backward feudal society. But this is exactly, what has happened in reality.
Revolution has taken place only in feudal societies such as Russia, China, Vietnam,
Cuba etc. This was the main issue of debate between two factions of Russian
Marxists, the Mensheviks led by Plekhanov and the Bolsheviks led by Lenin. Ultimately,
the Bolsheviks prevailed over the Mensheviks, but the latter were closer to classical
Marxist teachings. According to Marx, his teachings can lessen the birth pangs, but
cannot short circuit the various stages of social evolution. However, Lenin and Trotsky
in Russia and Mao in China established communism in a feudal society without going
through the process of first establishing capitalism. To resolve this obvious contradiction,
Trotsky developed the ‘theory of Permanent Revolution’. He fused the bourgeois
revolution with the proletarian revolution in his theory. These two revolutions can
occur simultaneously in the view of Trotsky. Though this seems to be a more practical
view, it does not confirm to the basic Marxian principles.

The Marxian theory of economic determinism has been severely criticised. It is not
only the economic factor, but other factors also that are equally important in bringing
about social change. If economy determines polity, society, morality, value system
etc., then economy itself is shaped by these. It is a two way process. Economic
forces are not immune to the influences of polity, society, culture, religion, values,
norms etc. If the base or the substructure shapes the superstructure, then the
superstructure also shapes the substructure. Thus, the theory of economic determinism
cannot be accepted. Later Marxist thinkers like Gramsci accepted the important role
of the superstructure.

The Marxian concepts of the dictatorship of the proletariat and communism suffer
from several flaws. After the proletarian revolution, the proletariat will seize the state
apparatus from the bourgeois. With the establishment of communism, the state will
become redundant and will gradually wither away. This has not happened. In
socialist society, the state infact became all-powerful. Instead of weakening, the
state has consolidated its position and there is no possibility of its fading away. The
Marxian dream of a stateless society will never be realised. The state will continue
to play a leading role in a socialist and communist society and there is no possibility
of it ever being relegated to the museum.

The socialist state wherever it has been established, has either been overthrown or
discredited. Wherever, it is still surviving, it has been compelled to introduce wideranging
changes, which do not confirm to the teachings of classical Marxism. The collapse
of communism in Eastern Europe, disintegration of the Soviet Union and economic
reforms in China have led thinkers like Francis Fukuyama to write the obituary of
Marxism. Fukuyama in his famous book End of History proclaims the triumph of
capitalism over communism in the post-cold war world. According to him, with the
victory of capitalism over communism, history has come to an end. Here, Fukuyama
talks of history in the Hegelean sense. After capitalism, there will be no further
economic and political evolution. Capitalism is the most rational and perfect system.
It is the most perfect ideology and philosophy. So ideological and philosophical
evolution comes to an end with the emergence of capitalism. Its main challenger
communism has been defeated and this further proves its claim that it is the best
possible social, economic and political system ever evolved by humanity.

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It is very difficult to accept the thesis propounded by Fukuyama. The importance Gandhism (Dharma,
of Marxism lies in two fields. Firstly, it has been used as a tool for social analysis. Swaraj, Sarvodaya and
Satyagraha)
Secondly, it gives a voice to the voiceless. It is the philosophy of the poor, the
oppressed and the suppressed people. If the contribution of Marxism is analysed in
these two fields, we will reach the conclusion that it is still relevant and has not
become redundant as claimed by the liberal critics. Marxism as an approach of social
analysis is still relevant as it was in the past. Its importance as a method of social
analysis will never diminish, irrespective of whether the socialist state survives or
not.

Marxism as an ideology has definitely lost its edge, but it has not become totally
redundant. As long as exploitation will continue, people will be oppressed and suppressed,
Marxism will remain relevant. Marxism as a philosophy of the exploited and the
oppressed will continue to inspire the masses to strive for their emancipation. So
there is no question of its defeat and irrelevance. Infact the systems, which have
collapsed, were not organised on classical Marxian principles. They were a variant
of Marxism-Leninism and Stalinism. So it is the Leninist-Stalinist systems, which
have collapsed in Europe and elsewhere and not classical Marxism.

Marxism as an approach will continue to be used by scholars for social analysis and
the exploited-oppressed people will continue to espouse Marxist philosophy for their
emancipation. Here, Marxism will never become irrelevant. It will always provide
an alternative philosophy to liberalism. Marxism will also act as an effective check
on the excesses of liberalism. It will mitigate the rigors of the capitalist system.

Check Your Progress 5

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answer.
ii) See the end of the unit for tips for your answer.
1) Discuss the major grounds of attack on the Marxist theory.

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2) Examine the contemporary relevance of Marxism.

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Political Ideologies
26.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have discussed various kinds of socialism such as utopian and
scientific socialism, evolutionary and revolutionary socialism. The basic principles of
Marxism such as dialectical materialism, historical materialism, surplus value, class
straggle, revolution, dictatorship of the proletariat, communism have been discussed
in detail. These principles constitute the foundation of scientific and revolutionary
socialism.

Marxism is not only the philosophy of class antagonism, class conflict, class struggle
and violent revolution. It is basically a philosophy of humanism and freedom. Capitalist
society has led to the estrangement, alienation and loss of identity and freedom. We
find the human face of Marx in his early writings, particularly in his Economic and
Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844. In the theory of alienation and freedom, we find
a humanist Marx. In the Communist Manifesto and Das Capital, which are his later
writings, we find a mature and revolutionary Marx. Thus, there are two Marx’s, a
younger and humanist Marx and a mature and revolutionary Marx. However, there
is no dichotomy between the two. There is a continuity of thought between the two
and so any distinction is superficial.

Marxism is a living philosophy. After Marx it has been enriched by Lenin, Trotsky,
Stalin, Rosa Luxembourg, Gramsci, Lukacs, Althusser, Mao etc. Exponents of the
end of ideology and the end of history have written off Marxism. But Marxism as
an approach for social analysis and the philosophy of the oppressed class will continue
to be relevant. It will inspire the masses to strive for their emancipation. Marxism
is a revolutionary philosophy. It is a philosophy of social change. In the words of
Marx, philosophers have sought to interpret the world; what matters, however, is to
change it. It aims to establish an egalitarian society, free from exploitation of one
class by another. Only through Marxism, arguably, humanity will take a leap from the
realm of necessity to the realm of freedom.

26.8 SOME USEFUL REFERENCES

Avineri, Shlomo, The Social and Political Thought of Karl Marx, Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press, 1971

Berlin, Isaiah, Karl Marx: His Life and Environment, New York, Oxford University
Press, 1996

Fukuyama, Francis, The End of History and the Last Man, New York, Free Press,
1992

Tucker, Robert, Philosophy and Myth of Karl Marx, Cambridge, Cambridge

University Press, 1961

McClelland, J.S., A History of Western Political Thought, London, Routledge, 1996

26.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERICISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) See sub-sections 26.3.1 and 26.3.2

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Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Gandhism (Dharma,
Swaraj, Sarvodaya and
1) see sub-section 26.4.1 Satyagraha)

2) see sub-section 26.4.2

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1) see sub-section 26.4.3

2) see sub-section 26.4.4

3) see sub-section 26.4.7

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1) see Sections 26.5 and 26.6

Check Your Progress Exercise 5

1) see Section 26.7

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