POLICY CAPACITY BUILDING IN THE

ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE

by

TEFERI HAILEMICHAEL HASSEN

Submitted in accordance with the requirements

for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

SUPERVISOR: Prof LC VAN JAARSVELDT

APRIL 2015
i
Dedicated to my mother Meselu Keneni, my father Hailemichael Hassen,

and

my brother, Zemedhun Hailemichael

ii
 RECOGNITION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Lord Almighty God,
Blessed Virgin Merry
My endless thanks go to You, for all the blessings You have showered onto me

I would like to extend my gratitude to the following people and institutions, who have
contributed to the completion of this thesis:
• My family, especially my sister Wubalem Hailemichael, for her encouragement
in writing this thesis. Thank you for all your support and sacrifice you made to
help me achieve this.
• Professor Liza Ceciel van Jaarsveldt, for giving me an opportunity to work on
this thesis and for her close supervision, invaluable advice and guidance
throughout the research process. You have guided me with invaluable
suggestions and encouraged me a lot in academic life as I have learned to think
critically, identify problems and indicate solutions with due commitment to
rigorous researching. Thank you, Prof., you made it happen, and with you
conducting every research is possible.
• Professor Jacobus (Kobus) Stephanus Wessels, for all his commitment and
precious time to make the contribution of this thesis more visible and clear.
Thank you, professor.

• My sincere thanks go to you, Mulu Yimer Woraki, for your continued friendship
over many years, and the inspiration you offered me in writing this.

• Special thanks are due to Meles Zenawi Asres and Thabo Mvuyelwa Mbeki
through the University of South Africa (UNISA), Department of Public
Administration and Management, for creating study opportunities for me and
my fellow Ethiopian students at Ethiopia. Thank you, UNISA.

• All my colleagues who supported me in conducting this research, especially Mr

Tewodros Teferi, Mr Yimenu Mekonnen, Prof. Tesfaye Abate, Mr Bahiru Deti, Mr
Girmaw Assemie, Mr Bacha Kebede, Mr Asmamaw Workneh, Mr Yitna Gebrie,
Mr Kedida Sonto, and Mr Tekalgn Bekama for all your advice and support.

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 DECLARATION

Student number: 4905-551-8

I declare that “POLICY CAPACITY BUILDING IN THE ETHIOPIAN CIVIL

SERVICE” is my own work and that all the resources that I have used or quoted
have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.

…………………………………………….. …………………………..
MR TEFERI HAILEMICHAEL HASSEN Date

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 SUMMARY

The Ethiopian government believes the mission of its civil service is to introduce to
the country a better economic and democratic system. In achieving this, the
government has recognised policy capacity setbacks in its civil service and
embarked on a comprehensive Civil Service Reform Programme (CSRP) to address
the issue with a national capacity building strategy. The human resource
administration aspect of the reform programme however lacks a closer and direct
integration with civil service education and training programmes. Being aware of this,
the government opened Departments of Public Administration in some universities
and restructured training institutions in the country. Nevertheless, the level of policy
competence, skill and attitude of civil service personnel leaves much to be desired
as far as ensuring effective and efficient policy development and delivery is
concerned, which otherwise could have been changed through proper public policy
education and training. This research topic was selected after the Ministry of Civil
Service had identified this problem in 2011.

Public policy education and training in public administration entail improvement of

employee policy performances in the civil service system. Public policy education
and training in a civil service system imply obtaining new policy knowledge, policy
abilities and policy skills, and, introducing public servants to and involving them in
important public policy decisions. Nevertheless, public institutions frequently fail to
achieve their programme objectives due to a lack of personnel trained and qualified
in public policy, which is often at the root of public policy failures. This can contribute
to the notion of public policy education and training receiving a wider acceptance in
the civil service.

It is generally accepted that universities and other training institutions provide public
administration education to incumbent civil servants and students who will become
the future work force in the civil service. It is the duty of such institutions to provide
scientifically inspired career education and training to students of the future and
incumbent civil servants. The institutions undertake to provide policy knowledge,

v
policy attitude as well as policy skills to students in order for them to perform their
role effectively in the public policy process.

A student studying for a public policy career should be able to gain policy knowledge
about the field of study and obtain the necessary public policy skills to be used in
practice. Thus, students in public administration should not only have policy
knowledge and policy attitude about the subject Public Policy, but also the public
policy skills to act as professional public policy proposers and advisors to the
government in power. The question can however be asked whether the curricula of
public administration education and training programmes aimed at Ethiopian civil
servants include modules on public policy to meet the requirements of the Ethiopian
civil service in strengthening the policy capacity of the Ethiopian government.

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 ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AAU Addis Ababa University

CPA Central Personnel Agency
CSA Central Statistics Agency
CSRP Civil Service Reform Programme
EPA Ethiopian Press Agency
EMI Ethiopian Management Institute
ECSU Ethiopian civil service university
GTPE Ethiopian Growth and Transformation Plan
FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia
GICAG Government of Ireland Comptroller and Auditor General
HERQA Higher Education Relevance and Quality Agency
HPR House of Peoples‟ Representatives
IEIPA Imperial Ethiopia Institute of Public Administration
ASIA International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration
MDG Millennium Development Goals
MoE Ministry of Education
MoInf Ministry of Information
MCS Ministry of Civil Service
NASPAA National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration
OAG Office of the Auditor-General
ONCCP Office of the National Council for Planning
PRC People‟s Republic of China
PSC Public Service Commission
SNNP Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples
UKCS UK civil service
UNDESA United Nation Department of Economic and Social Affairs
USA United States of America

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 KEY TERMS
Attitude
Civil service
Course
Curriculum
Education
Ethiopian civil service
Government
Graduate
House of Peoples‟ Representative
Knowledge
Policy capacity
Policy capacity building
Programme
Public Administration
Public Administration Department
Public policy
Skill
State
Training
Undergraduate
University

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 POLICY CAPACITY BUILDING IN THE ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH APPROACH 1

1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Motivation for the research topic 2
1.3 Problem statement 5
1.4 Objective and aims of the research 6
1.5 Conceptual analysis 7
1.6 Associated terminologies 15
1.7 Preliminary literature review 18
1.8 Research design and methodology 19
1.8.1 Research design 19
1.8.2 Units of observation 20
1.8.3 Research methods 20
1.8.4 Ethical consideration 21
1.9 Chapters outline 22
1.10 Chapter summary 23

CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF THE ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE 24

2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Overview of the civil service 24
2.3 Origin and characteristics of civil service in Ethiopia 28
2.4 Role and function of the Ethiopian civil service 36
2.5 Public policy and law making in Ethiopia 38
2.6 Policy capacity in the Ethiopian civil service (ECS) 41
2.7 Policy skills required by civil servants 46
2.8 Conclusion 51

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CHAPTER 3

CIVIL SERVICE EDUCATION AND TRAINING 53

3.1 Introduction 53
3.2 History and development of education and training 53
3.3 Civil service education and training 55
3.3.1 Factors influencing civil service education and training 61
3.3.2 Elements of civil service education and training 64
3.4 The relevance of civil service education and training 70
3.5 Quality assurance for civil service education and training 72
3.6 Standards of excellence for civil service education and training 73
3.7 Conclusion 80

CHAPTER 4

CIVIL SERVICE EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAMMES IN CHINA AND

THE UNITED STATES 81

4.1 Introduction 81
4.2 Overview of the People‟s Republic of China 82
4.3 Overview of the Chinese civil service 83
4.4 Public administration education and training programmes in the People‟s
Republic of China 85
4.5 Overview of the United States of America 93
4.6 Overview of the civil service in the USA 94
4.7 Public administration education and training programmes in the USA 95
4.8 Conclusion 104

CHAPTER 5

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION EDUCATION AND TRAININGPROGRAMMES

IN THE ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE 106

5.1 Introduction 106

5.2 Overview of higher education in Ethiopia 107
5.3 Requirements for civil service education and training in Ethiopia 112
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 5.4 The civil service education and training setting in Ethiopia 114
5.5 Civil service education and training programmes in Ethiopia 117
5.5.1 Universities 117
5.5.2 Professional training institutions 133
5.5.3 Government ministries training units 138
5.6 Concusion 142

CHAPTER 6

PUBLIC POLICY CURRICULAFOR ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVANTS 144

6.1 Introduction 144

6.2 Public policy curriculums 144
6.2.1 Undergraduate curriculums: Public Policy making, Analysis and
Evaluation (PPAE) 145
6.2.2 Masters curriculums: Public policy making and analysis (PPA) 152
6.2.3 PhD Curriculum: Comparative public policy 158
6.3 An evaluation of the policy curriculums against public policy skills
required 164
6.4 Conclusion 168

CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 170

7.1 Introduction 170

7.2 Research summary 171
7.3 Final conclusion 177
7.4 Recommendations 179

LIST OF SOURSES 181

APPENDIXES 223

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 INDEX OF FIGURES

Figure 2-1: Hierarchy of law-making bodies (left) and laws (right) in Federal
Ethiopia 42
Figure 2-2: Public policy and law-making process in Federal Ethiopia 38
Figure 2-3: Levels of governing capacity 41
Figure 3-1: Systematic training model 57
Figure 4-1: The CAG system of civil service training in the PRC 92
Figure 5-1: Public universities in Ethiopia 111
Figure 5-2:Ethiopian universities that offer public administration education 121

INDEX OF TABLES

Table 2-1: The civil service system model 26

Table 2-2: Relationship between government service recipient
size/density and the number of civil servants in Ethiopia 35
Table 2-3: Professional qualification levels in the Ethiopian Federal Civil
Service (EFCS) 42
Table 2-4: Personal, system, and community abilities required in the
process of public policy making 44
Table 2-5: Framework for assesssing the applicability of public policy
capacity building 48
Table 3-1: Summary of training phases and corresponding guiding
principles 58
Table 3-2: Main categories of civil service training 60
Table 3-3: Civil service training objectives, input-output-outcome
relationships 65
Table 3-4: Models of universities and institutes of education and training 67
Table 3-5: Standardised public administration education and training
curriculum components 75
Table 4-1: Examples of Chinese universities that include Public Policy as a
subject in their Public Administration curriculum 86
Table 4-2: Civil service training curriculum in the PRC 88
Table 4-3: Party schools of administration to train civil servants in the PRC 89
xii
Table 4-4: Examples of US universities that include public policy subject in
their Public Administration curriculum 97
Table 4-5: Objectives and competencies in policy awareness courses 99
Table 4-6: Executive MPA curriculum in the School of Public Affairs 102
Table 5-1: Public universities with public administration curriculums
including policy capacity 118
Table 5-2: Education and training programmes offered at the Centre for
Training and Consultancy (CTC) at the ECSU 130
Table 5-3: Training programmes (regular/tailor-made) carried out by
the EMI 134
Table 5-4: Training units in the Ethiopian government ministerial offices 139
Table 6-1: Public policy skills compared to undergraduate and postgraduate
policy curriculums 165

INDEX OF APPENDIXES

Appendix 1/a: Public universities in the People‟s Republic of China 223

Appendix 1/b: Top universities in China as identified by Chinese government 246
Appendix 2/a: Public universities in the United States of America 248
Appendix 2/b:Colleges, Schools, and Departments of Public Administration,
Public Policy, and Public Affairs accredited by the Network of
Schools of Public Policy, Public Affairs, and Public
Administration-NASPAA, 2013-2014 284

xiii
 1 CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH APPROACH

“Employee training and development does not imply only obtaining new
knowledge, abilities and skills, but also the possibility to promote
entrepreneurship, introduce employees to changes, encourage the changes of
their attitude, introduce the employees to important business decisions and
involve them actively in the process of decision making.”
(Vemić, 2007:211)

1.1 INTRODUCTION

It is generally accepted that public servants are constantly involved in the formulation
and the implementation of public policy (Box, 2008:13–14; Denhardt & Denhardt,
2007:143). Denhardt and Denhardt (2011:90–94) emphasise specifically the role of
public servants in using public policy for transformational purposes. However, the
policy process (setting an agenda, identifying the problem, formulating options, and
adopting, implementing and evaluating policy) as identified by Aguilar, Galíndez and
Velasco (2005:23) depends on the knowledge, skills and personal attributes of the
people involved. Painter and Pierre (2005:3) refer in this regard to the capacity of
government (implying public officials) “to marshal the necessary resources to make
intelligent collective choices about and set strategic directions for the allocation of
scarce resources to public ends”.

This implies that public officials in general need to be equipped with specific policy
competencies. Dougherty (2011:329) states that public administration education and
training is commonly constituted of core courses including, amongst others, the
public policy process and/or analysis. Yildiz, Demircioglu and Babaoglu (2011):343,
344) confirm this and agree that the study of public policy in the field of public
administration is becoming increasingly important around the world and focuses on
the process of making choices and the consequent results thereof. It is thus of no
surprise that a study comparing the public administration programmes for a master‟s
degree in Australia, New Zealand and South Africa revealed that the curricula for
nearly all these programmes include core modules related to “policy making skills”,

1
“policy analysis”, “applying theory and analysing data to solve policy problems”, and
becoming “effective policy makers …, or policy analyst” (Wessels, 2010:182, 188).

Considering the above, it is thus reasonable to expect that public policy plays an
equally important role in a country such as Ethiopia. Bearing in mind the specific
developmental and transformational challenges of this country (IDA & IMF, 2011:19),
one can expect that Ethiopian public officials (referred to in Ethiopia as „civil
servants‟) especially need to be equipped with the capacity needed to formulate,
analyse and implement public policies transforming the living conditions of citizens
(MCS, 2007:12). It is equally reasonable to expect that the professional education
and training programmes offered by higher education and training institutions for civil
servants include modules designed to build the abovementioned public policy
capacity.

The problem is thus to know whether the available university offerings to build the
public policy capacity of civil servants in Ethiopia are sufficient to meet the
expectations of the Ethiopian government. For the purpose of this thesis, the
research problem is how to determine the sufficiency of the various offerings aimed
at public policy capacity building in a developing country such as Ethiopia. This
research makes a unique contribution to the scholarly literature on public policy
education by proposing and applying a unique framework for determining the
sufficiency of public policy education in a developing country such as Ethiopia. This
framework provides for two dimensions of sufficiency, namely accessibility and
applicability.

This chapter provides a motivation as to why the research topic was selected as well
as the objectives and aims of the research. A conceptual analysis provides a better
understanding of important concepts that are used in this research report. Lastly, this
chapter reflects the research methodology and preliminary framework for the
chapters to follow.

1.2 MOTIVATION FOR THE RESEARCH TOPIC

Ethiopia is a country in East Africa with a mosaic of nationalities speaking a

multiplicity of languages (Adejumobi, 2007:1) and it is the second most populous

2
state in sub-Saharan Africa with a population of more than 84 million (CSA, 2012:3;
Lasonen, Kemppainen & Raheem, 2005:14). Ethiopia has a federal state structure,
comprising nine states with a parliamentarian form of government (HPR, 1995a:38).
The Central Statistical Agency and the Inner City Fund International (2012:2)
identified Ethiopia as an agrarian economy that focuses on farming. Accordingly,
only 14.5 million Ethiopians, of which 50% are female, reside in towns (CSA,
2012:68). In addition, more than 57% of Ethiopians cannot read and write a simple
sentence in any language (PCC, 2007: 286).

Regardless of the level of education, Ethiopia today is a country in transition moving

towards a middle-income economy (MoFED, 2010:7; IDA & IMF, 2011:19) with a
rapid revival of growth similar to that of Ghana and Benin in Africa (Ndulu,
Chakraborti, Ramachandran & Wolgin, 2007:30). Growth in Ethiopia has emerged
after a change from a unitary to a federal political system and after a government
controlled and regulated economy to a liberalised economy took place in 1991
(Geda, 2008:116; Tewfik, 2010:5). These changes were driven by new expectations
of ethnic rights for self-determination and demands of citizens for better government
services. Consequently, as stated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (1997:3), Ethiopia, like Central and Eastern Europe, faces the
challenge of adapting its civil service to this growing and changing new environment.
Currently, the Ethiopian civil service is poorly staffed with professionals not able to
face these challenges, as a top official in the Ethiopian Ministry of Civil Service
stated at a United Nations panel discussion on capacity building held in Addis Ababa
in April 2011 (Abay, 2011:19). Unfortunately, the delivery of services to citizens is
perceived as any other ordinary administrative work by civil servants in Ethiopia. This
perception is due to the misguided structure and appointment of people in the wrong
posts with a lack of proper civil service training and understanding. The expectations
of the Ethiopian Ministry of Civil Service as can be seen in its 2007–2011 strategic
performance plan (MCS, 2007:75) were, however, to get the public bodies staffed
with civil servants who show a clear understanding of government policies and
strategies, and who are competent enough to implement such policies and
strategies. This need was reiterated a year later when the Minister of Civil Service,
Junedin Sado, while inaugurating the Ethiopian Civil Service Charter, stated that civil

3
servants with an unchanged outlook have ill-directed the objectives of civil service
reform in the country (EPA, 2012:11).

To meet and address these challenges, the Ethiopian government attempted to

embark on a comprehensive civil service reform programme in 1996 and
reformulated its objectives in 2003 (Hailemariam & Common, 2006:6), which
focused, amongst others, on the policy capacity of the existing civil service. The
objectives of the programme disclosed government‟s intention to achieve better civil
service performance with a new perception among civil servants regarding the
changes in civil service roles from providing services to facilitating and enabling the
services, and from defending law and order to servicing society (HPR, 2003; OECD,
1998:8; Sado, 2012).

The objectives, which the Ethiopian government pursue regarding the education and
training of its civil servants (HPR, 2007:3557), reveal that with improved
competency, Ethiopian civil servants can perform better and prepare themselves for
higher responsibility based on career development. In order to achieve these
objectives, a general guideline is required, but Ethiopia lacks a specifically adopted
public policy to administer education and training programmes for civil servants as
can be seen in the training policy of the Republic of Uganda Ministry of Public
Service (RUMoPS, 2006:1). The National Education and Training Policy in Ethiopia
currently directs all higher education and training institutes by providing general
guidelines to administer all kinds of educational and training programmes in the
country (MoE, 1994:5) including public administration education. For the purpose of
this study, public administration education refers to the degree programmes while
public administration training refers to the non-degree programmes being offered
in Ethiopia.

Subsequently, the topic of this study, “Policy capacity building in the Ethiopian civil
service”, was selected because of the important role that the education and training
of civil servants and policy knowledge and skills play in most developing countries,
including Ethiopia, where “the public services form a major part of the service sector”
(Ratnam &Tomoda, 2005:17). The pre-scientific or practice problem is thus to
determine whether the available university offerings to build the public policy

4
capacity of public officials in Ethiopia are sufficient. Considering the pivotal role of
public policy capacity building interventions, this study‟s major contribution to the
practice of policy capacity building is the proposed framework for assessing the
sufficiency of these interventions.

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Governments of developing countries, like Ethiopia, are expected to do more in

terms of human resource development as was indicated above. In terms of policy,
the Ethiopian civil service is expected to develop and present policy options, set
strategic directives, and make effective and efficient use of the public human
resources available. The Ethiopian government believes (MoInf, 2001:197) that,
unlike the civil service in developed states, the mission of the Ethiopian civil service
is to introduce the country to an economic and democratic system which the country
has never experienced before. To that end, the government identified policy capacity
setbacks in its civil service and embarked on a comprehensive Civil Service Reform
Programme (CSRP) to address the issue of a national capacity building strategy.
The human resource administration aspect of the reform programme however lacks
a closer and direct integration with civil service education and training programmes
(MoInf, 2001:228). Being aware of this, the government opened Departments of
Public Administration in the Universities of Addis Ababa, Dire-Dawa, Dilla,
Haromaya, Jimma, Mekelle, Wolaita Sodo and Wollega, and in the ECSU, and
restructured training institutions like the EMI.

Years later, in 2013, the Minister of Civil Service, Muktar Kedir, in his message to
Ethiopian civil servants (MCS, 2014) emphasised that, despite the government effort
to integrate the human resource administration reform with the civil service education
and training programmes, “the level of [policy] competence, skill and attitude of the
civil service personnel leaves still much to be desired as far as ensuring effective
and efficient delivery of services”. This made it difficult for the civil servants to
perform some of their tasks, especially tasks related to development and
implementation of policy issues where educated and trained civil servants are
needed to be effective and efficient to meet the needs of the developing Ethiopian
society. The question can therefore be asked, “How sufficient are the curricula of
5
public administration education and training programmes aimed at Ethiopian civil
servants in meeting the requirements for public policy capacity building?” For the
purpose of this thesis, the research problem was thus how the sufficiency
(applicability and accessibility) of the various offerings of public policy capacity
building in a developing country such as Ethiopia can be determined.

Secondary questions, which arise from the above question, are the following:

1. What policy knowledge and skill should a public servant in the Ethiopian
civil service have?
2. What role does civil service education and training play with regard to the
policy capacity of civil servants?
3. Are policy education and training internationally viewed as important for
an effective and efficient functioning civil service?
4. Does the number of universities offering public administration education
and training and the geographical distribution of these universities meet
the needs of the Ethiopian civil service (ECS)?
5. Do policy education and training programmes for Ethiopian civil servants
include all the skills and knowledge needed to improve policy capacity?

1.4 OBJECTIVE AND AIMS OF THE RESEARCH

The main objective of this research was to propose and apply a framework for
determining the sufficiency of the various offerings for public policy capacity building
in a developing country such as Ethiopia. The unit of analysis was the various
capacity building interventions (education and training programmes), while the points
of focus were their applicability and accessibility.

The framework was firstly designed for assessing the applicability of these
interventions. This was done by exploring the public policy knowledge and skills a
civil servant in the Ethiopian civil service should have to be effective and efficient in
performing his or her duties, specifically with regard to policy work that is being done
in the government. This included providing an overview of the role and function of an
Ethiopian civil servant who is involved in policy work.

6
Subsequently, the role that civil service education and training play to improve the
knowledge and skills of civil servants was determined. This was done by looking at
the role that education and training can play in any government, including the
Ethiopian civil service.

Furthermore, this research aimed to determine whether the education and training of
civil servants with regard to policy knowledge and skills are internationally viewed as
important. This was determined by looking at the public administration and policy
education and training that was being provided to civil servants in two of the world‟s
leading economies, namely the PRC and the USA at the time of the study.

Secondly, the framework was designed for determining the accessibility of these
interventions to civil servants. In this study the concept „accessibility‟ refers to the
number of universities offering public administration education and training and their
geographical distribution. The geographical location of these universities was
determined since Ethiopia is a geographically big country with a large population that
requires educated and trained civil servants.

Lastly, the applicability part of the framework was used as analytical instrument for a
content analysis of the curricula of the various providers of education and training to
Ethiopian civil servants to determine whether the policy education and training
content of the curricula included all the policy knowledge and skills that the Ethiopian
civil service needed to perform policy tasks effectively and efficiently.

The findings of this study could benefit policy makers and advisors in the Ethiopian
parliament, the Ministry of Civil Service, and Public Administration lecturers and
researchers by providing information about the Ethiopian civil service education and
training system, its structure and approach toward the professional competence of
civil servants specifically working with policy issues. This research further provides
knowledge about policy processes within the Ethiopian government structure.

1.5 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS

The conceptual analysis provided a clarification of the key concepts in the problem
statement and the research objective, which are as follows:

7
Administrative capacity: Administrative capacity in government offices implies,
according to Tesfaye (2009:21), “a function of both high-level human resource
capacity and the effective utilization of Information Technology”. Verheijen (2006:22)
considers the concept by taking into account the issues of systematic performance in
the public management of a state, the strengths and weaknesses in its policy
coordination systems, and performance management approaches in improving the
quality of service delivery. “Administrative capacity is a broad concept that entails
running the machinery of a political or economic system, a government, and its
international or global affairs, executing policy decisions, and translating political and
collective will into actions through implementation and management” (Farazmand,
2009:1008). Painter and Pierre (2005:2) explain administrative capacity as “the
ability to manage efficiently the human and physical resources required for delivering
the outputs of government”. In this research, administrative capacity was regarded
as related to the efficient and effective utilisation of human resources in the process
of public policy formulation, execution, and evaluation by the civil service institutions.

Capacity: Milèn(2001:4) argues that a fundamental issue in capacity building is how

we define capacity, and conceptualises the term as the “ability of individuals,
organisations or systems to perform appropriate functions effectively, efficiently and
sustainably”. The concept capacity is defined by Morgan (2006:8) as the “emergent
combination of attributes that enables a human system to create developmental
value”. Goodman (1996), in Brown, 2001:3) describes capacity as “the ability to carry
out stated objectives”. Accordingly, “capacity building has been commonly
understood as a basic human resource issue: a matter of building institutional
person-power to the point where there is an adequate skills base to fulfil the tasks of
an organisation” (CHET, 2002:1). Ingram (2005:6) states that human, organisational,
and institutional capacities constitute the three dimensions of public sector capacity
and “the capacity building approach emphasized that a root cause of poverty,
illiteracy, and ill-health [in a state] was due to a lack of government‟s capacity to
design and implement proper development strategies”. Capacity is used in this
research report to refer to the human, organisational, and institutional abilities of the
civil service in efficiently and effectively utilising resources required to develop and
implement public policies. Capacity building here, therefore, implies the activity to

8
enhance the public policy professional competence of civil servants through civil
service education and training to facilitate good administration in the civil service.

Civil service: Hornby (2005:328) describes the term civil service as referring to
branches of state administration, excluding military and judicial branches and elected
politicians, while Webster‟s Third New International Dictionary of English
Language(1976:413) explains the term as “the whole public administrative service of
a government including all branches except the armed services, and a civil servant
as a member of a civil service”. The Ethiopian government does not clearly stipulate
what actually constitutes a civil service system. The government (HPR, 2007:3535),
however, defines a civil servant to be a person employed permanently by a FGE
institution but not a government official with the rank of deputy director or equivalent
and above, not a member of the parliament, a judge or prosecutor, or member of the
armed forces or the police. It also delineates a government office as an autonomous
entity established by a proclamation or regulation, completely or partially financed by
the government budget, and enlisted by the council of ministers. Accordingly, in this
research report, the term civil service implies the whole of the public administrative
services of the Ethiopian government except operational services (services in the
line functions) rendered by parliament, the armed and police forces, and the judicial
system.

Curriculum: Curriculum is an ambiguous term that it can simply be seen as a

synonym for the term „course of study‟ or broadly be considered to include all “the
educational experiences of students planned by schools”, and defining it is no easy
matter (Vargas, 2014:134). Many claim the term curriculum refers to formal
academic learning experiences such as workshops, seminars, internships,
laboratories and such others beyond a „course‟ (Lattuca& Stark, 2009:3). Pinar
(2004:32) and Null (2011:1) believe that curriculum is the heart, the intellectual and
organisational centre of education in the profound linkage between curriculum and
teaching. According to Marsh (2004:3), the term is used to refer to all planned
learning, the totality of learning experiences and the subjects that are most useful for
contemporary living and that embody essential knowledge. For Kelly (2004:8), a
curriculum is the totality of the experiences the learner has as a result of the
provision made. Webster‟s Third New International Dictionary of English
9
Language1976:557) describes a curriculum as the whole body of courses offered by
an educational institution and all planned school activities besides courses of study.

Education and training programme: In this research, the term education and
training programmes describes the integrated course of academic studies organised
to transfer knowledge, skills and competence that are required for effective public
policy formulation and implementation by civil servants.

Education in this research is understood as the process of transferring knowledge,

skill and competence at any level of development.

Education: Education is a process of knowledge making, and it has a public context

(Kelly, 2004:44). It is about how people reproduce and transmit their culture, the non-
genetic part of their nature, from generation to generation (Ross, 2000:80). The
Ethiopian Education and Training Policy explain education as a process by which
experiences, accumulated values, and new findings are transmitted through
generations (MoE, 1994:1). For Schofield (1999:5), the word education implies a
complex, evolving concept, shaped by contemporary norms of a given society at a
given place and in a given time that it has no any permanently and universally
accepted meaning. Encarta Dictionaries (2009) describe the word as “to give
knowledge to or develop the abilities of somebody by teaching and „educating‟ as the
imparting and acquiring of knowledge through teaching and learning, especially at a
school or similar institution”. According to Webster‟s Third New International
Dictionary of English Language (1976:723), the term education signifies the act of
providing with knowledge, skill, competence, or desirable qualities of behaviour
provided by a formal course of study, instruction or training. Royal (2007:15) states
that education is concerned with the acquisition of skills and understanding about the
world. He further explains the process of education with features of assisting in
development and maturation level (transitive), deeper realisations and
understandings for resolution of tensions and gaining of legitimate power to act
(learning events), and with the making of assessments concerning knowledge and
experience and granting of awards and qualifications (formal milestones) (Royal,
2007:16).

10
Policy capacity: Like the concept of policy, policy capacity has also been defined as
having different dimensions. Gleeson (2009:16) states that policy capacity implies
“the capacity of government to make „intelligent choices‟ between policy options”. In
its broadest sense, says Peters (1996:11), policy capacity is concerned with
formulating clever and potentially effective policies, and includes the implementation
and political capacity of the system to respond to changing demands from interest
groups and the public, with the assumption that government should be more
autonomous. “The policy capacity of the State refers to the ability of public sector‟s
executives to make and implement policies” (Aguilar 2005:21). For Press (1998:39),
the concept of policy capacity relies on the capabilities of government to execute
official duties, and of civil society to pursue collective action. According to Painter
and Pierre (2005:2), policy capacity is the pivot around which state and
administrative capacities revolve, and describe it as the “ability to marshal the
necessary resources to make intelligent collective choices about and set strategic
directions for the allocation of scarce resources to public ends”. In the current
research, policy capacity meant the capacity of civil servants to actively self-engage
in the process of public policy and all aspects related to public policy.

Policy: Policy, as defined by Brikland (2011:9), is understood as a statement by

government at any level, such as law, regulation, ruling, decision, order or a
combination of these of what it intends to do about a public problem. Wilson
(2006:154) explains the term as “the actions, objectives, and pronouncements of
governments on particular matters, the steps they take (or fail to take) to implement
them, and the explanations they give for what happens (or does not happen)”. A set
of interrelated activities describe a policy, and Anderson (2011:3–5) elaborates these
tasks with illustrative questions in stages of “problem identification and agenda
setting, formulation, adoption, implementation-administration, and evaluation”. The
New Oxford Dictionary of English (2001), in Hamilton, 2009:1) defines policy as “a
course or principle of action adopted or proposed by a government, party, business
or individual”. According to Yukubousky (1999:2) “formally adopted policy generally
takes the form of a governing principle, plan, or course of action”. In this research,
policy was conceptualised as made by the government and implying a general guide
to actions involving different tasks of interdependent stages, as elaborated by Jann

11
and Wegrich (2007:44) as “first, problems are defined and put on the agenda, next.
Policies are developed, adopted and implemented; and, finally these policies will be
assessed against their effectiveness and efficiency and either terminated or
restarted”.

Programme: According to the Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary (2005:1023),

the word programme can be interpreted in various descriptions as “an
announcement of the events that will occur, a radio or television show, a sequence
of instructions that a computer can interpret and execute”. For the purpose of this
research, programme referred to an integrated course of academic studies for
professional competence, a series of steps to be carried out or goals to be
accomplished and a system of training and development within the civil service
intended to meet public needs.

Public administration: Public administration as an activity with a primary and

principal purpose of regulating group action and behaviour can be traced back to the
earliest times of organised social life (Basu, 2004:1; Maheshwari, 2002:395). Pruthi
(2005:26) states that the term public administration was most acceptably defined in
the nineteenth century by Woodrow Wilson as the “detailed and systematic
execution of public law”, and two words namely “public” and “administration”
constitute the term. For Khan (2008:1), the word “public” in the term public
administration means “government”, while administration denotes “getting things
done” and thus public administration signifies management of government affairs.
According to Holzer and Schwester (2011:32), the term public administration
denotes the formation and implementation of public policy as a recipe for the
fundamental functions of management and incorporating psycho-social practices.
Basu (2004:2) identifies public administration by, inter alia, the formation and
implementation of public policies, the organisational structures and machinery of
administration, and the executive branch of government. He describes public
administration as the management of government affairs or any kind of
administration in the interest of the public at national, state and local levels. Nadu
(2005:4) argues the word “public” in the term public administration is used to imply
„governmental‟, and he explains public administration as governmental
administration, or “the study of the management of public agencies that carry out
12
public policies in order to fulfil the state purposes in the public interest”. According to
Marini (2000:1), public administration refers to the disciplined study and
administration or management of matters associated with society and polity. It
implies “a professional practice (vocation, occupation, field of activity), and an
academic field which seeks to understand, develop, criticize, and improve that
professional practice as well as to train individuals for that practice” (Marini, 2000:3).
For the current study, public administration was the study of the content of the
subject Public Administration in light of the formation and implementation of public
policies at undergraduate and postgraduate levels at universities in Ethiopia.

Public human resource management (PHRM): Human resource management is

considered by the Harvard School (1996), in Boyne, (1999:408) as “to involve all
management decisions that affect the relationship between the organization and
employees – its human resources”. According to Senyucel (2009:14), managing
people is not a straightforward task and thus countless definitions of what human
resource management should be, prevail. The public dimensions of managing this
resource (and which this research used), is well articulated by Van der Westhuizen
(2005:144) as “a field of study, theory and practice taken to be that part of
management concerned with all the factors, decisions, principles, strategies,
operations, practices, functions, activities, methods and procedures related to
employees in [public] institutions”.

Public policy: Several scholars have defined the concept public policy by using
different approaches. Kitschelt (1986:29) describes public policy as a cluster of role
players, institutions, decision-making processes, and outcomes viewed from
analytical aspects of social groups, decision-making processes, specific institutional
arenas of political decision-making, and policy outcomes. Cooper (2004:15) defines
the concept as a process aimed at solving public problems, and a public problem-
solving process. According to Gerston (2010:7), public policy can be described as
“the combination of basic decisions, commitments, and actions made by those who
hold or influence government positions of authority”. Reaching a consensus on one
definition of the concept public policy, however, according to Birkland (2011:9–11),
has proved nearly impossible since governments make policies in the name of the
assumed broader desires and needs of the public affecting a greater variety of
13
people and interests. Cochran et al., (2012:1) describes the difficulty of defining
public policy in a clear and unambiguous term and explains it as referring to “a set of
actions by the government that includes, but is not limited to, making laws and is
defined interims of a common goal or purpose”. For this research, the concept of
public policy was understood as a policy or law made by government in allocating
the scarce resources that governments possess to address problems prevailing
among societies.

The above statements on the term curriculum describe the „what‟ and „how‟ of
teaching by an academic institutions. This study however only focused on the „what‟
(content) of public policy offerings being taught to students at universities in Ethiopia.
For the purpose of this research, the term curriculum refers only to the content
descriptors of the curricula for the subject Public Policy. This definition, therefore, did
not include the structuring and content of the degree programmes within which the
subject is offered.

Training: Various authors have defined training in different ways but with a similar
approach. Wilson (1999:5) used the definition of the British Manpower Services
Commission of the concept as “a planned process to modify attitudes, knowledge or
skill behaviour through learning experience to achieve effective performance in an
activity or range of activities”. For the Northern Ireland Department of Finance
(2000:1), training refers in the same manner to “a planned and systematic activity,
through learning experiences, to impart knowledge or develop individual or group
skills and attitudes for the purpose of improving performance”. This department sees
training as interdependently interlinked to development, and both are complementary
parts of the same process. According to Pynes (2009:310), training and development
programmes seek to change the skills, knowledge, or behaviours of employees,
while Boella and Goss-Turner (2005:122) identified knowledge, skills and attitudes
as the three main components of training that an individual requires in order to do a
job effectively. Lucking (2003:1) states that a training school is one of the three key
components of a civil service system with an objective to establish the form, content
and national standards of civil service training and to contract the delivery of training
courses. In this research, training was understood as a learning process aimed at

14
developing the knowledge, skills and attitudes of the civil servant required for
effective public policy formulation and implementation.

University: A university, according to Ben-David (1972:191), can be described as an

organisation engaged in the advancement of knowledge through education and
training programmes, and examining students in scholarly, scientific and professional
fields. For Boulton and Lucas (2008:3), “a university is a place where inquiry is
pushed forward, discoveries verified and perfected, and error[s are] exposed by the
collision of mind with mind, and knowledge with knowledge”. A university can also be
described as “[an] institution of higher education, usually comprising a college of
liberal arts and sciences and graduate and professional schools and having the
authority to confer degrees in various fields of study” (Encyclopaedia Britannica,
2014). The Ethiopian government describes a university as an institution that offers
education in the fields of arts and sciences with a minimum enrolment capacity of
2 000 students in at least three academic units (HPR, 2009:4983). For this research,
a university is therefore an institution of higher learning that a student will attend after
completing high school to obtain specific knowledge, for example knowledge about
public administration. In this research, the word university will specifically refer to
Ethiopian universities offering Public Administration to undergraduate and
postgraduate students.

1.6 ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGIES

Other terms related to this research include:

Certificate: The Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary (2005:345) states that a

certificate is “an official document proving that you have completed a course of study
or passed an exam; a qualification obtained after a course of study or an exam”.
According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2014), the word „certificate‟ refers to a
document that is official proof that an individual have finished school or a course of
training. The word “certificate” implies an official document that provides, inter alia,
proof and details of educational attainments (Encarta Dictionaries, 2009). In simple
words, a certificate is an award granted by an educational institution for the
accomplishment of a course with a status below diploma.

15
Diploma: According to the Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary (2005: 416), the
word “diploma” describes “a course of study at a college or university”. Encarta
Dictionaries (2009) explain a diploma as “a course certificate given by a high school,
college, university, or professional organization, indicating that somebody has
completed a course of education or training and reached the required level of
competence”. Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2014) describes the word as “a
document bearing record of graduation from or of a degree conferred by an
educational institution”. The word “diploma” in this research designates an official
document awarded by a higher educational institution for courses completed with
fewer credit hours than at a degree level.

Efficacy, effectiveness, and efficiency: In this research, efficacy is described in

relation to public service provision as the extent to which the civil service has the
ability to make intelligent choices and utilise human resources toward intended
public ends. Effectiveness on the other hand, implies the extent to which policy
choice and human resource utilisation in the civil service contribute to the
achievement of those intended public ends. Efficiency signifies generating public
value through the allocation of scarce public human resources and providing insight
into how public servants add value for public treasure.

Facilitate: The Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary (2005:523) defines the word
as “to make an action or a process possible or easier”, and the Webster‟s Third New
International Dictionary of English Language (1976:492) adds “to help cause
something run more smoothly and effectively”. For the current research, to facilitate
described as Van Jaarsveldt (2010:6) puts it, “providing the resources, assistance
and means to a group, class or individual to accomplish its goals in the easiest
practical way”.

Good administration: The Swedish Agency for Public Management (SAPM)

(2004:10–70) chose a set of rights and obligations that it considers essential for the
meaning of good administration, and enumerated them as –
 the principles of lawfulness, non-discrimination and proportionality;
 the right to have one‟s affairs handled impartially, fairly, and within a
reasonable time;
16
  be heard, before any individual measure is taken that would affect the citizen
adversely;
 have access to life regarding any individual measure that would affect him or
her;
 general access to documents;
 the obligation to state all decisions in writing ;
 notify all persons concerned of a decision;
 give an indication of remedies available to all persons concerned;
 document an administrative procedure;
 keep registers; and
 be service minded.

Diamandouros (2005:10–20) made these principles the basis of the code of good
administrative behaviour on the European continent. According to the European
Commission for Democracy through Law (2011:4–18), these principles are “based
on clearly identifiable procedural rights, the alleged violation of which can be invoked
before a court. Ensuring that civil servants perform their tasks both in the general
interest and in the interests of the persons with whom they are dealing, is essential
for good administration”. Thus, the principles were used in this research as well to
refer to the meaning of good administration.

Government: The concept government in this research implies “a group of

individuals exercising legitimate authority, and protecting and adapting the
community by making and carrying out decisions” (Apter, 1972:215).

Impacting: The Oxford Advanced Learner‟s Dictionary (2005:951) defines the word
impacting as an adjective of the noun/verb form impact as having a “a marked effect
or influence/have a strong effect on someone or something”. This research used the
word as defined by the Webster‟s Third New International Dictionary of English
Language (1976:1131), to mean “to have an immediate and strong effect on
something or somebody”. For this research, the term impacting referred to the
immediate effect which training could have on public policy process in the civil
service.

17
Professional competence: There are various approaches to and definitions of the
concept of competence. According to Deist and Winterton (2005:36), while
competence generally refers to functional areas, competency deals with behavioural
areas. Definitions of competence may be designed (Eraut, 1994:160) for one
purpose and serve quite a different purpose in practice, for example assumptions
about the nature of professional knowledge. (Epstine & Hundert, 2002:226) define
professional competence as “the habitual and judicious use of communication,
knowledge, technical skills, reasoning, emotions, values, and reflections in daily
practice for the benefit of the individual and community being served”. This study
understood the concept as the competencies civil servants have in formulating
potentially effective public policies and efficiently implement them.

Qualification: the European Quality Assurance in Vocational Education and

Training (EQAVET) (2013) explains the word “qualification” as “the formal outcome
(certificate, diploma or title) of an assessment and validation process which is
obtained when a competent body determines that an individual has achieved
learning outcomes to given standards and/or possesses the necessary competence
to do a job in a specific area of work”. Farlex (2014) describes qualification as “a
quality, ability, or accomplishment that makes a person suitable for a particular
position or task”. In the Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2014), qualification is explained
as “a special skill or type of experience or knowledge that makes someone suitable
to do a particular job or activity”. In this research report, the term refers to attributes
acquired through education and training, and proved by examination.

1.7 PRELIMINARY LITERATURE REVIEW

The preliminary literature review included information regarding education and

training in the civil service and its impact upon public policy and administrative
capacities in the public policy process, and the utilisation of scarce resources,
particularly of human resources in the effort to achieve public ends. The review also
included relevant legislation and policy documents on the training process in the civil
service system, and power and duties of the legislative and executive branches of
the FDRE in general and the Ministry of Civil Service in particular. Strategic plans
and performance achievements of the public service, reports on panel discussions of
18
conference proceedings, policy documents and problems related to learning
processes prevailing in the civil service were also considered.

During the preliminary literature review, it was determined that this research does not
constitute a duplication of any previous research and that no previous research has
been conducted to determine whether the curricula for public administration
education and training programmes aimed at Ethiopian civil servants include
modules on public policy and whether these offerings meet the requirements of the
Ethiopian civil service.

1.8 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

Bearing in mind that the research objective was to determine whether the curricula
for public administration education and training programmes aimed at Ethiopian civil
servants include modules on public policy and whether these offerings and the
geographical distribution of the hosting universities are adequate to meet the
requirements of the Ethiopian civil service, it was necessary to select an appropriate
research design (either empirical or non-empirical) to conduct the intended research
(Babbie & Mouton, 2001:55).

1.8.1 Research design

As the unit of analysis for this research was the Ethiopian civil service, and because
this civil service can be seen as a real-life object forming part of the so-called World
1 (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:84), the appropriate research design for this study
seemed to be an empirical design, since an empirical design helps the researcher to
understand reality through the collection of facts. In this case, the researcher aimed
to understand the reality of the Ethiopian civil service through the collection of facts
from various sources. The research objective mentioned under point 1.4 above
implied that the research would focus on various aspects in the unit of analysis,
namely –
 the nature of the Ethiopian civil service policy capacity (what does the
Ethiopian civil service policy capacity look like?);
 the civil service orientation (legislation, policies and curricula) and

19
  civil service actions (how the civil service education and training modules on
public policy meet the requirements of the Ethiopian civil service system).

A variety of units of observation (data sources) for this research project were
consequently needed.

1.8.2 Units of observation

A considerable portion of the research material comprised scholarly literature, official

calendars and curriculum documents. A literature survey of the most topical books
and journal articles helped to provide insight into the various aspects related to
education, training, policy capacity and the civil service in Ethiopia.

According to Van der Ven and Scherer-Rath (2005:35), the normative approach
consists of norms and guidelines that help in guiding the individual‟s thoughts and
actions. A normative approach is used to answer the question “what should be?”
(Van Jaarsveldt, 2010:15) For example, “what should an education and training
programme for Ethiopian civil servants look like to improve policy capacity in the
Ethiopian civil service?”

Information about the Ethiopian civil service, education and training, Public
Administration curricula and policy capacity were also collected from official
documents, for example policy papers, Acts and Bills. This research relied heavily on
the reading and analysing of official calendars or curriculum documents, books,
journal articles and official documents. Accordingly, reading and analysing of text
can be seen as the main research methods.

1.8.3 Research methods

This research made use of an extensive analysis of the content of curriculum

documents, articles, books and official documents. The theoretical perspectives were
thus obtained through a comprehensive review of these scholarly literatures. The
requirements of the Ethiopian government for civil service education and training
were established by way of a comprehensive review of official documents and
information.

20
Content analysis is defined by Neuman (2000) in Van Jaarsveldt (2010:16) as –

a technique for gathering and analysing the content of text. The content
refers to words, meanings, pictures, symbols, ideas, themes or any
message that can be communicated. The text is anything written, visual or
spoken that serves as a medium for communication. It includes books,
newspapers or magazine articles, advertisements, speeches, official
documents, films or videotapes, musical lyrics, photographs, articles of
clothing, or works of art. Content analysis dates back nearly a century and
is used in many fields literature, history, journalism, political science,
education, psychology, and so on.

During the content analysis of curriculum documents and calendars of universities,

all thirty-two universities in Ethiopia were analysed to determine whether they
provided any public administration or policy education and training. A comprehensive
Internet search was conducted to obtain relevant information, for example official
calendars and curriculum documents. Where the curricula for public administration
programmes were not available, the institutions were contacted by telephone to
obtain the curricula currently being used. For the purpose of this study, “public
administration education” referred to degree programmes while “public
administration training” referred to non-degree programmes. The purpose of the
content analysis was thus to determine whether modules (or any other offerings)
related to public policy were included in the curricula as well as in the policy content
of these offerings.

1.8.4 Ethical consideration

This research was done in a manner that ensured that ethical guidelines were
always kept in mind and adhered to as required by the university. Although this
research consisted of the analysis and review of scholarly literature, such as books
and journal articles and curriculum documents, and did not include interviews and
questionnaires, ethical guidelines in the reporting of facts and findings from literature
were always adhered to.

21
1.9 CHAPTERS OUTLINE

Points summarised below will be discussed and analysed in their respective

chapters as indicated.

Chapter 1 comprises the general introduction to the research consisting of the

background to, rationale of, and motivations for the study; a preliminary literature
review; statement of the research problem; objectives and aims of the research and
its methods; and conceptual analysis with associated terminologies.

Chapter 2 provides a comprehensive overview of what the Ethiopian civil service

looks like, how it functions and what it does. This chapter also looks at what policy
capacity is and how policy was being used in the Ethiopian civil service at the time of
this study, and why public policy is important. This chapter proposes a framework for
assessing the applicability of public policy capacity building.

Chapter 3 explains what education and training are and what the roles of an
education and training programme are as well as the advantages that education and
training can have with regard to the public policy capacity of civil servants. This
chapter also looks at how education and training can benefit any government,
including the Ethiopian civil service.

Chapter 4 provides a comprehensive overview of the civil service education and

training programmes in the People‟s Republic of China (PRC) and the United States
of America (USA). The chapter briefly reports on the civil service education and
training system and programmes in both countries and on public administration
courses that include public policy. This helped the researcher to determine whether
other countries also view public administration education and training with emphasis
on public policy as important factors in strengthening policy capacity of their civil
service as a major role player in the government, and that countries like Ethiopia can
adopt the civil service education and training system to their civil service system.

Chapter 5 provides an overview of public administration education and training

programmes being provided to Ethiopian civil servants, and also indicates the
number and geographical distribution of universities in Ethiopia. This chapter also

22
provides information on programmes providing policy capacity to civil servants in
Ethiopia.

Chapter 6 gives an overview and examples of public administration courses that

include public policy knowledge and skills required by Ethiopian civil servants. This
chapter reports on the public policy course content that is being used by universities
in Ethiopia to teach public policymaking to undergraduate and postgraduate public
administration students.

Chapter 7 makes recommendations as to what a proper training programme for

Ethiopian civil servants should look like and indicates what should be included in
such a training programme to improve policy capacity. This chapter includes an
evaluation of the literature reviewed and the findings of the research.

1.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY

The chapter provided an overview of the research that will be undertaken in this
thesis. Apart from the background to the study, the problems statement, aims and
objectives was explained as well as the methodology that was used to complete this
research, This chapter indicated that this the focus of the research will be on
determining if the current policy education provided to civil servants in the Ethiopian
civil service meets the requirements of the country. This will be done by determining
if the curricula for public administration education and training programmes aimed at
Ethiopian civil servants include modules on public policy and whether the number
and content of these offerings meet the requirements of the Ethiopian civil service.

The next chapter will provide an overview of the Ethiopian civil service.

23
 2 CHAPTER 2

OVERVIEW OF THE ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The previous chapter provided an overview of the research that was undertaken for
this thesis. This chapter provides an overview of what the Ethiopian civil service
system looks like, its origin and basic characteristics, the systems that the civil
service is currently using, and the qualities of a competent civil service.

Apart from the roles and functions of the civil service in Ethiopia, this chapter also
shows how public policy is currently being used in Ethiopia and why public policy
knowledge and skill are important in the Ethiopian civil service. Lastly, the chapter
will look at the policy capacity in the Ethiopian civil service as well as the policy
knowledge and skills that a civil servant should have.

This chapter relies heavily on the reading and analysis of books and journal articles.
A literature study was done to get a clear understanding of the development, role
and functions of the civil service and to get an overview of various authors‟ opinions
about how a civil service system is structured, its features, roles and functions, and
its capacity to participate actively in the process of public policy making.

2.2 OVERVIEW OF THE CIVIL SERVICE

In general, the origin of civil service dates back to the administrative system of
traditional Chinese government, which gave its empire stability for hundreds of years
and served as a model for the civil service system in Asia and the West
(Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2012c). Van de Walle and Scott (2009:8) state that
serving the public is what makes the government visible to citizens for citizens are
directly in line with the government through the services the government provides.
According to UNPAN (2012:8), the first true bureaucracies came about due to the
desire and commitment of governments to provide services by monitoring the flow of
water and supervising the distribution of water in great river valleys like that of the
Nile, the Tigris and Euphrates, the Indus and the Yellow River. In the millennia that

24
have since passed, this remained the major task in the growing multiplicity of
government functions. Modernisation required governments to change or evolve new
forms of institutional management and supervision, motivation and remuneration.

Today, civil service can be described as a system that comprises functionally and
structurally of interconnected components with specific characteristics and sets of
rules (EROPA, 2004:5–25). These components usually include –

 human resource management, training and development;

 a policy-formulating/implementing agency;
 research and development in public administration;
 strategies for change management (O'Riordan, 2004:14);
 enabling legislation (Biggs & Helms, 2007:175) and ethical standards(Silva,
2005:311);
 performance management (Huque et al., 1998:98) and pay structure
(Robinson, 1990:15);
 position classification;
 basic employment qualifications(Robinson, 1990: 184);
 recruitment and selection processes (J.Raid & Scot, 1994:68);
 working conditions;
 employee and retirement benefits;
 gender and age range distribution;
 civil service unions;
 office deployment; and
 civil service coverage

Apart from the civil service components as mentioned above, civil service can also
be described in terms of being open and closed (Ramio & Salvador, 2004: 311). In a
state where the civil service is open to its external environment and includes, for
example, universities or professional training institutions, civil service posts remain
open to people outside government. Therefore, in an open or position-based model
of civil service, posts are filled through open competition between internal and
external candidates and recruitment is allowed to mid-career jobs (Oda, 2009:100).

25
The civil service composition thus represents the type of society within which it is
situated. A closed or career-based system allows only for those graduates of a
specific civil service training school to enter that civil service. The system marks an
elite group distinct from the rest of the society with a strong civil service ethos (Oda,
2009:100). An example of a civil service system model that explains both a closed
and open system can be found in a number of countries around the world. Countries
for example the United Kingdom (UK), New Zealand and Australia have a position-
based system, while France, Belgium, Denmark and Norway have a career-based
civil service system (OECD, 2008:4). Table 2.1 explains all the aspects related to an
open and closed civil service system.

Table 2-1: The civil service system model

System of civil service
Closed or career-based system Open or position-based system

A Recruitment only to entry positions 1 Recruitment also to mid-career jobs

No specific diplomas and/or education for a
Specific diplomas and/or education
Conditions for B 2 specific career, but specific skill sets as per
I for specific careers
access requirements for the specific post
Training and/or probation period at No training period and/or stage at the
C 3
the beginning of the career beginning of the career
Career
II D Set promotion system 4 No promotion system
development
Employment on a contractual basis as in the
III Employment E Lifelong employment 5
private sector; no life-time job
Remuneration
IV F Statutory scheme 6 Collective agreement/individual pay
system
Pension
V G Statutory scheme 7 Collective agreement
system
Specific legislation regulating the Civil servants‟ working conditions are set
Labour participation of unions in the through negotiations between the authorities
VI H 8
legislation decision-making concerning civil and the unions and laid down in collective
servants‟ working conditions agreements

Source: Oda (2009:101)

In Table 2.1 above, it is clear that, among other factors, the nature of career
development, conditions for access and the nature of employment determine a civil
service system to be closed or open and career- or position-based. Morgan and
Perry (1988:84) describe the civil service system as “mediating institutions that
mobilize human resource in the civil service affairs of the state in a given territory”.
The system could be identified by using different models as open or position-based,
and closed or career-based when viewed from the human resource management
perspective (Ramio & Salvador, 2004:313). In an open or position-based model of

26
civil service system, posts are filled through open competition between internal and
external candidates and recruitment is allowed to mid-career jobs (Oda, 2009:100).

Accordingly, the civil service, by its nature, substantially varies among countries,
policy sectors and levels of government (Van den Berg &Toonen, 2007:101). As
discussed by Halligan (2003:195–211), external relationships of the civil service with
the society and political executives, its internal features and patterns of change can
be used as the basis for reviewing systems of civil service in different countries.
According to this view, the patterns of change in the civil service may be seen in
terms of its historical development, and its internal features are reflected in the civil
service active participation in the process of public policy making and through the
processes of job analysis and design, staffing, job security, reward structure and
rules. Measures designed to gain greater influence over civil servants, the way and
nature of civil service representativeness, and the significance of society relative to
state institutions designate relationships of the civil service with its external
environment.

With regard to the civil service system explained above, it is clear that Ethiopia has a
closed system. The closed career-based model, which the Ethiopian civil service
system followed at the time of the research (MCS, 2008:38), makes the standard of
civil service appointment rigorous and allows for internal promotions and lifelong
employment (Oda, 2009:100).

Regarding an open or closed system, Oszlak (2001:1) states that a civil service
system implies a set of rules dealing with the conditions whereby the state ensures
the availability of civil servants with the skills and attitudes to perform the tasks
involved in discharging the role of civil society in society efficiently. According to
UNPAN (2012:3–5), the characteristics of a competent civil service, include the
following:

 merit-based and politically neutral appointments;

 well-structured, “right-sized”, and well-paid staff;
 accountable and professional services, free of corruption;
 relatively autonomous, responsive and representative institutions; and
 well-trained, performance-oriented staff within a relatively open system.
27
Governments today are structured in such a way that they comprise of civil servants
with the ability and power to influence the formulation and execution of public
policies (Xiaoqi, 2012:1) and whose behaviour in their relationships with politicians
and the public is shaped by the same system (Horton, 2011:32). Governments,
therefore, pre-require professionalisation and the search for social responsiveness
and societal support in the public policy process, which as a modernisation agenda,
greatly influences dimensions of the policy capacity of the civil service system (Brans
& Vancoppenolle, 2005:164, 175).

In the next section, the origin and characteristics of the civil service in Ethiopia are
discussed.

2.3 ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF CIVIL SERVICE IN

ETHIOPIA

The country of Ethiopia has its own distinctive institutional features and traditions
that determine the functional and structural development and characteristics of its
civil service. The making of its modern statehood goes back to “the mid-nineteenth
century when different regions were gradually reintegrated to form the nucleus of a
modern state by strong monarchs” (FRDLC, 1991:38). Of these monarchs, it was
during the reign of Emperor Minilik II (1889–1914) that the modern administrative
system in Ethiopia was established with the formation of the first cabinet on 25
October 1907 (Marcus, 1994:110). The cabinet comprised of ministries of war,
justice, pen (performing duties and responsibilities related to state public relations),
finance, commerce and foreign affairs, agriculture, public works, and the ministry of
the imperial court (Zewdie, 1991:153). There was no specific administrative agency
to deal with public human resources as the council was intended to strengthen the
imperial foundation, expand the power of the sovereign and ensure the continuity of
the imperial state (Zewdie, 1991:153). The ministers were members of the Emperor‟s
trusted advisors and confidants. They were not up to date enough to run the modern
ministerial agencies as they lacked proper education and training in modern public
administration other than war-time and traditional leadership skills. A year later, in
achieving these objectives, the Emperor introduced, among others, the first

28
educational institution in his name Minilik II School in the capital city, Addis Ababa
(Adejumobi, 2007:33).

The last monarch after Emperor Minilik, Hailesilassie I, also pushed forward the
agenda “to educate the elite as he believed that the effect of education would
transform his feudal empire into a modern state” (Marcus, 1994:160). He attempted
to strengthen the national government by introducing a new generation of educated
Ethiopians into new and enlarged ministries (FRDLC, 1991:52). The first written
Constitution for Ethiopia was introduced and a bicameral legislature with a senate
and a chamber of deputies was established for the first time in the history of the
country during the reign of Emperor Hailesilassie in 1931 (Adejumobi, 2007:54). This
and the revised Constitution of 1955 provided for the establishment and growth of
ministries to execute new state policies. The Emperor was both head of state and
government with all powers to decide upon the duties and responsibilities of the
ministries, appoint and dismiss ministers and their deputies. The personnel
administration of all other government officials was dealt with through regulations
made by the cabinet and approved and proclaimed by the Emperor (Hailesilassie
1955:11). The Emperor also introduced major structural reforms that included
professionalisation of the bureaucracy, and ordered for the establishment of the first
administrative agency, the Central Personnel Agency (CPA), responsible for
governing the state civil service with general rules and regulations, and entrusted
with the most technical work of personnel administration (Paulos, 2001:80). The
agency regulated the recruitment and selection of personnel for employment,
promotion and transfer that took place through competitive examination (Paulos,
2001: 85). The agency also kept personnel records of all employees in the civil
service. It planned, organised and carried out training programmes for all levels of
the civil service through seminars, conferences, lectures, and correspondence
courses (Afework, 1969:75). The training programmes were conducted by the
Imperial Ethiopian Institute of Public Administration (IEIPA), an institution established
to organise the CPA and to support the civil servants with training as the need
arose(Afework, 1969:82). Both agencies were poorly staffed with educated
personnel, and rules and regulations approved to process major functions that were

29
related to human resource management were frequently abused by the ministers
and other high officials (Afework, 1969:64–74).

With the end to the imperial administration in 1974, the political system and
economic structure of Ethiopia were dramatically changed towards a socialist system
where the activities of the country were to be guided through a central plan
(Ofcansky, 2004:163). Consequently, a planning commission, later the Office of the
National Council for Planning (ONCCP) chaired by the head of state, Colonel
Mengistu Hailemariam, was given the power and responsibility to prepare the
directives, strategies and procedures for all plans (Ofcansky, 2004:163). The human
resource plan and implementing procedures were, thus, made and approved, by the
Office of National Council for Planning (ONCP). The agency recruited graduates
from colleges and universities into the civil service and most bureaucrats who had
served the Emperor were allowed to remain at their posts. Army officers were
appointed in every ministry to monitor activities of the bureaucrats. Yekatit 66, an
ideological school named after the month (Yekatit, which means February in the
English language), and 66 (which indicates the year 1966 in the Ethiopian calendar
when a change in regime occurred), was established in 1976 to train people in the
civil service in the Marxist–Leninist doctrine and to encourage and monitor their
political education and productivity (Ofcansky, 2004:231–236). The imperial CPA
was also renamed the Public Service Commission (PSC) with a new organisational
structure (MCS, 2007:14). It was, however, highly politicised to the extent that it
routinely by-passed the basic laws it established to support its own system
(Taffesse, 2008:397).

The ADB (2009:4) reports that the quality of the Ethiopian public administration
during the times of both the imperial and military regimes was characterised by “a
highly centralized and control oriented civil service”. Ministers in both regimes were
responsible for every act done in their respective ministerial administrative agencies.
Employees‟ arbitrary dismissal, punishment without inquiry and promotion without
competition, irrespective of personnel administrative rules and regulations, were
common features in all ministries.

30
The civil service was decentralised with the formation of a federal parliamentarian
form of government after the socialist system had collapsed in 1991. The country
was restructured into nine states along the ethnic origins of the Oromo, Amhara,
Tigray, Afar, Benshangul, Gumuz, Gambela, Somali and the Southern Nation,
Nationalities and Peoples State (comprising peoples of various ethnic origins other
than those mentioned) (HPR, 1995a: 113). The states adopted their own Constitution
and had their own legislative, executive and judicial powers (HPR, 1995a:105).
Accordingly, each state established a state civil service administrative agency. The
federal capital, Addis Ababa, and the city of Dire Dawa were given self-
administrative status and have instituted their own civil service agencies (HPR,
1997:613; HPR, 2004:2808). The federal civil service administrative agency should
provide the necessary support and advice to state agencies in the formulation and
implementation of civil service administrative rules and regulations as the agencies
are poorly organised in terms of the required trained personnel and limited resources
(HPR, 2010:5630).

The Ethiopian civil service can furthermore also be classified as having a closed
career-based civil service system (MCS, 2008:38) that makes the standard of civil
service appointment rigorous and allows for internal promotions and lifelong
employment (Oda, 2009:100). Ethiopia is a country with a long history of absolutist
or despotic political regimes that strongly emphasise the principle of equal access
based on merit and implementation through formal and fixed regulations.
Accordingly, the government of Ethiopia declares a vacant position in the civil
service to be “filled only by a person who meets the qualifications required for the
position and scores higher than other candidates” (HPR, 2007:3540). The
recruitment procedures set up in the system, therefore, attempt to practice the
principle of the right to equal access whereby every citizen has a right to public
employment, provided that he/she meets the general requirements established by
law as well as the specific requirements set out in the vacancy notice (Cardona,
1998:2). The procedures are distinct between external and internal recruitment.
External recruitment emphasises new entry and is open to every person meeting the
general requirements displayed in the vacancy notice, while internal recruitment is
restricted to civil servants already in office, and is used mainly as a way of

31
promotion. Promotion is given for the purpose of enhancing organisational
performance and motivating civil servants (HPR, 2007:3544). The Ethiopian civil
service recruitment procedure requires candidates for mid-career and above posts to
hold a relevant degree or academic credentials and to sit for an entrance exam
(Cardona, 1998:3).

The performance of the federal civil servants is legally based on a comprehensive

and detailed piece of legislation, Proclamation number 515 of 2007. The
proclamation states (HPR, 2007:3537–3571) that civil servants and government
institutions should comply with the following;

1. Government institutions in Ethiopia should:

1 decide their structure and staffing to ensure positions of equal value have equal
base pay (Articles 4 and 7);

2 prepare and execute human resource plans based on which vacancies have to
be filled and ensure that a person who meets the qualification required and
scores higher than other candidates be appointed(Articles 12 and 13);

3 determine the regular working hours of civil servants, their annual and other
leaves, and medical benefits (Articles 32–46);

4 ensure the safety of civil servants and provide them with protective devices and
instructions on the usage, which they are obliged to observe (Article 48);

5 ensure that civil servants receive the necessary training and furnish information
thereon to the Ministry of Civil Service, which prepares the civil service training
policy, submit it to the Council of Ministers, and supervise its implementation up
on approval (Article 58);

6 according to Article 57 of the proclamation, the objectives of the Ethiopian civil

service training are to improve the capacity of civil servants and attain better
performance or to prepare them for higher responsibility based on career
development;

32
7 manage personnel records containing all relevant information regarding each
civil servant to which only he/she and the authorised staff have access to in
order to review and copy (Article 59). The Ministry of Civil service organises the
civil servants‟ human resource database at national level, and every government
office have a duty to send information to this database (Article 60);

8 Investigate disciplinary charges against civil servants and take measures

irrespective of any court proceedings or decisions, and establish a grievance
handling committee to handle grievance inquiries and submit recommendations
to the head of the institution that makes the final decision in any case (Articles 72
and 73).

2. Civil servants in Ethiopia should:

 devote their abilities to the service of the public, perform government policy
efficiently, and observe civil service laws and regulations (Article 61);

 take medical examination, with the exception of HIV/AIDS, when required on

sufficient grounds related to the service at the monetary expense of the
institution (Article 63);

 handle and use equipment and materials provided to them by the government
institution to carry out their duties properly, and be liable for any damage or
loss caused by negligence or intentional acts (Articles 64 and 65);

 be suspended or dismissed from duty if they have committed an alleged

offence against government material resources, and moral and public trust
towards civil servants (Article 70);

 may appeal to an administrative tribunal established to hear, litigate and

decide cases brought to it (Article 74);

 may terminate their services on the grounds of inefficiency, force majeure

situations, retrenchment, disciplinary measures, retirement, illness, death,
and/or resignation (Articles 78–86).

33
3. The Ministry of Civil Service supervises the implementation of civil service laws,
regulations and directives issued (Article 92).

As mentioned above in this section, Ethiopia has a closed civil service system with
government institutions, and civil servants are regulated and guided by proclamation
515 of 2007. Promotion and transfer of jobs within the service are based on merit
and assessment through an appraisal system (MCS, 2008:1). Recruitment takes
place externally for hiring and internally for promotion and transfer based on the
skills or competencies associated with specific position or area of work. Sometime,
however, appointments are based on nepotism or political influence with all ministers
and almost all senior officials from the ruling political party. Policy decisions are for
the Council of Ministers, as advised by the ministry concerned to the issue raised,
and responsibility to parliament rests only with the council (HPR, 1995a:28).

Since 2005, the number of civil servants in Federal Ethiopia has increased to
854 316 (MCS, 2012:4), which results in one civil servant for every one hundred
citizens. This number is therefore too small in terms of ratio for the entire population
of about 85 million (PCC, 2007: 25), specially when compared to other African
countries like Mauritius (1:22), and Egypt (1:12) (MCS, 2007:3). Constitutionally,
these civil servants are servants of the Ethiopian nation, nationalities and people
whose powers are exercised by government and its Council of Ministers. Therefore,
the civil service has no constitutional responsibility apart from the government of the
day. The number of civil servants employed in the regional states constitute 789 078
or 92.36% of the country‟s total number of civil servants (MCS, 2012:4). The large
number of civil servants in the regional states can be ascribed to decentralisation of
civil services among regional states in the desire to provide the public with basic
services like shelter and health in its vicinity (Junedin, 2012). Accordingly, more
populous and densely populated states require more service provision and hence
more civil servants (see Table 2.2).

34
 Table 2-2: Relationship between government service recipient size/density and
the number of civil servants in Ethiopia

Population Area in km2 Pop. Civil servants

State Male Female Total density Ratio
Number % Number %
Number % Number % Number %
Oromia 15 761 997 50.37 15 532 995 49.63 31 294 992 37.16 284 537.84 27.88 110 273 488 32.01 114
Amhara 9 461 005 50.15 9 404 997 49.85 18 866 002 22.40 154 708.96 15.16 122 170 951 20.01 110
SNNP 8 640 005 49.77 8 719 003 50.23 17 359 008 20.61 105 887.18 10.37 164 169 133 19.80 103
Somali 2 863 994 55.62 2 284 995 44.38 5 148 989 6.11 279 252.00 27.36 18 23 805 2.79 216
Tigray 2 425 997 49.21 2 504 002 50.79 4 929 999 5.85 41 409.95 4.06 119 60 129 7.04 82
Addis Ababa 1 449 002 47.65 1 592 000 52.35 3 041 002 3.61 526.99 0.05 5771 39 554 4.63 77
Afar 892 998 55.71 709 997 44.29 1 602 995 1.90 72 052.78 7.06 22 15 931 1.86 101
Benshangul 499 004 50.81 483 000 49.19 982 004 1.17 50 698.68 4.97 19 16 368 1.92 60
Dire Dawa 194 000 50.13 193 000 49.87 387 000 0.46 1 558.61 0.15 248 6 250 0.73 62
Gambela 200 998 52.07 184 999 47.93 385 997 0.46 29 782.82 2.92 13 8 819 1.03 44
Harari 106 000 50.48 104 000 49.52 210 000 0.25 333.94 0.03 629 4 650 0.54 45
State level 789 078 92.36
Federal level 65 238 7.64
Total 42 495 000 50.46 41 712 988 49.54 84 207 988 100 1 020 749.75 100 83 854 316 100.00 99

Source: CSA (2012:3–31), MSC (2012:2–3) and Mussa (2005:6)

From the table above, it is clear that states with a high number of citizens and high
population density, like the States of Oromia and Amhara and Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples (SNNP) have the highest number of civil servants. Least
populous but densely populated states, like Harari, populous but sparsely populated
states like Somali, and least populous and sparsely populated states like Afar have
fewer civil servants. Nevertheless, the least populous states are better served than
those states with a greater number of population and civil servants since the ratio of
population to civil servants in the least populous states on average (1:62), by far
exceeds that of the ratio in those of the populous states (1:129).

Upon entry into a government office, civil servants are expected to take an oath of
fidelity to “serve the people and execute government policy, and to respect at all
times the Constitution and the laws of the country” (HPR, 2007:3542). This implies
that the civil service should serve the government of any political outlook under the
Constitution. From the above it can be deduced that the accessibility of public policy
capacity building interventions are, inter alia, determined by the number and size
(area) of the distinct geographical area (state), the population density of a
geographical area, and the number of civil servants in a geographical area. The role
and function of the Ethiopian civil service are discussed next.

35
2.4 ROLE AND FUNCTION OF THE ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE

The civil service is in charge of carrying out functions, which usually involve
proposing or advising on public policy issues, coordination and monitoring of their
implementation, and the management of training for civil servants (Trendafilova,
2008:2). A civil service has four main functions, namely “advising government
ministers on policy matters; managing the use of government resources; making
decisions in the name of their ministers; and carrying out the day-to-day
administration of government departments” (Pilkington, 1999:2). In performing such
functions, a professional civil service system relies upon mechanisms and
institutions that are able to set up and assure the application of best public personnel
management practices (Group for Legal and Political Studies, 2012:4).Accordingly, a
consolidated institutional arrangement for regulation and supervision of the
personnel management in the Ethiopian civil service is defined in primary legislation
(HPR, 2010:5638). This function of the civil service in the federal state involves the
relationship and division of roles between an administrative agency with central civil
service management capacity, the Ministry of Civil Service (MCS), and other
individual ministries responsible for employing and administering civil servants in
their jurisdictions (HPR, 2010:5638).

The MCS is accountable to the Prime Minister and the Council of Ministers (HPR,
2010:31) and has the power and duty, among others, to (HPR, 2010:38–39):

 initiate civil service policies and laws, prepare its plans and budgets, to
implement these upon approval by the Council of Ministers or parliament as
required, and to ensure their enforcement;

 undertake study and research, and capacity building activities;

 provide assistance and advice to regional states, and provide coordinated

support to the state designated eligible for affirmative support;

 ensure that the recruitment and selection of employees of the federal civil
service are effectively based on a merit system, and that a competence- and

36
 performance-related pay and reward system and a competent and effective
civil service be established;

 monitor and ensure the proper enforcement of civil service administrative laws
since every ministry is responsible for the recruitment of its employees and
the MCS plays the role of a regulatory body in such recruitment processes by
the individual ministries; and

 issue general criteria on education and work experience necessary for civil
service positions.

Each ministry in the Ethiopian Council of Ministers is expected to submit periodic

performance reports to parliament after the head of government and the council
have gone through (HPR, 2010:5618) it. It is the duty of civil servants to prepare
such and other ministerial briefs. The civil service plays a major role in helping the
ministry for which he or she works to initiate policies and laws, carrying out and
coordinating their execution, and guiding legislations through parliament (HPR,
2010:5638). In 2010, Ethiopia had government departments which included the
following twenty ministries (HPR, 2010:5629):

 National Defence  Communications and Information

 Federal Affairs Technology
 Foreign Affairs  Urban Development and Construction
 Justices  Water and Energy
 Civil Service  Mines
 Finance and Economic Development  Education
 Agriculture and Rural Development  Health
 Industry  Labour and Social Affairs
 Trade  Culture and Tourism
 Science and Technology  Women, Children and Youth Affairs
 Transport

Each of these ministries has common powers and duties, among others, to
undertake capacity building activities, commence studies and research, and collect,

37
compile and disseminate information (HPR, 2010:5604). Each ministry also has
specific powers and duties pertinent to its need for establishment, to initiate policies
and laws, prepare plans and budgets, and implement these after approval by
parliament or the Council of Ministers as required (HPR, 2010:5630–5661). Linking
to this are public policy and law making, two important aspects in Ethiopia.

2.5 PUBLIC POLICY AND LAW MAKING IN ETHIOPIA

Generally, policy making is the process by which governments translate their political
vision into programmes and actions to deliver desired change (ICS, 2008:4).
Anderson (2011:3) describes policies developed by governmental bodies and
officials as “public policies”. What makes these policies „public‟ (Brikland, 2001:4) is
the coercive powers of the state that facilitate the process by which choices and
outcomes or actions of particular decisions are made. Public policy, for Brikland, is
therefore a response to a perceived societal problem. A policy making process
involves understanding the broader context, as elaborated by Jann and Wegrich
(2007:44), identifying the problem and putting it on the agenda; developing, adopting
and implementing policies; and assessing policies against their effectiveness and
efficiency. Public policies enacted in such a process guide socio-economic and
political decision-making and thus determine which services will be provided to the
public and the level of those services, which kinds of development will occur in the
state, and what the country‟s future will be (MRSC, 1999:1). The Northern Ireland
civil service (ICS, 2008:7), in discussing the characteristics of good policy making
states that for policy making to be effective, civil servants involved in policy
development need to be familiar with relevant laws and practice, understand the
views of key stakeholders, and have the capacity to design implementation systems.
They must understand the priorities of the relevant minister and the way policies
work out in practice, the way organisations are structured, and processes and culture
that influence the policy making process.

A public policy sets out what a government agency visualises to attain and the ways
and instruments it will apply in due process. A government agency often identifies
new laws that are needed to achieve these objectives and implement the policy. In

38
doing so, the agency drafts the required law. Hence, laws derive their validity from
the authority that their respective makers possess (Partington, 2011:31).
Accordingly, laws made by the organ of government with an inherent constitutional
power to do so are categorised as primary legislation and reside on top of the
hierarchy (pyramid) as can be seen for example in Figure 2.1. Laws made by those
bodies with delegated power from the legislature are classified under secondary
legislation. Such legislation is required because it required because they contain
necessary details for the implementation of the primary legislation (Tesfaye,
2008:110). According to HPR (2014), proclamations enacted in the years 1996 to
2012 number 774, and 147 or 19% of the proclamations got amended within the
same period. Lack of trained civil servants among other factors contributed to this
high frequency and number of amendments in effect.

Ethiopia is a federal state with a parliamentary form of government having a clear

differentiation between the head of the state (the president) and the head of
government (the prime minister) (HPR, 1995a:71 & 74). In such a political system,
the prime minister is the chief executive and, together with the cabinet, exercises
executive power or has the authority to form and implement policies and
programmes. He/she is usually the leader of the political party that wins the majority
of votes in the legislature, either assuming the post automatically or getting elected
by the legislature (Macasaquit, 2006:1).

The central feature of a parliamentary political system emanates from its nature to
establish the executive from within the legislature and making it responsible to the
parliament (Winfield et al., 2004:425). Within a parliamentary government, the
legislative and executive functions overlap, as the members of the executive organ,
the ministers, are drawn by the prime minister from the parliament. The fusion serves
to facilitate the exercise and coordination of governmental powers and functions to
formulate desired policies and implement programmes of government (Hogwood &
Roberts, 2003:125) The success of this fusion depends largely, though, on the
reform of the country‟s political party and electoral systems (Macasaquit, 2006).

In this political system, the Constitution grants the parliament legislative power
(Yusuf, 2014:219). The parliament passes legislation and decides on whether it has

39
agreed on the proposed laws to become law. Gerring (2008:19), in the theoretical
debate over systems of government, concludes that the parliamentary system leads
to better governance because it possesses strong political parties and corporatist
interest organisation; exercises tighter principal–agent relationships within the
various arms of the bureaucracy, electoral accountability; and enjoys the capacity for
flexible policy making, a more institutionalised political sphere, and decisive
leadership.

The Constitution of Ethiopia grants both the federal government and the states with
legislative, executive and judicial powers (HPR, 1995a:101). It identifies (HPR,
1995a:102) the legislative body as the House of Peoples‟ Representatives (HPR),
and is the highest authority of the government of FDRE responsible to the nation,
nationalities and people of the federal state. The HPR is the sole legislator on
matters that underlay the federal jurisdiction, which implies the fact that responsibility
for approving all new or amended federal legislation lies with this chamber.

The highest executive powers of the government of FDRE are vested in the prime
minister and in the Council of Ministers, both of which are responsible for the HPR.
The council has the power to formulate and implement federal policies and strategies
and to declare a state of emergency (HPR, 1995a:121). It also enacts regulations
pursuant to powers vested in it by the HPR.

The State Council, in its part, is the highest organ of state authority with the power to
draft, adopt and amend the state Constitution where it is inconsistent with the
provisions of the federal Constitution, and make legislation on matters falling under
its jurisdiction(HPR, 1995a:112). The state administration constitutes the highest
organ of executive power, and the federal Constitution expects both federal and
state structures to respect the powers of one another (HPR, 1995a:108).

In the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (HPR, 1995a:9), sovereignty of the

people is expressed through the federal Constitution, which identifies and delimits
the highest authority of the FDRE government to be accountable to the people. The
Constitution allows no organ of the state and nobody in the country to alter any of its
content and/or structure unilaterally but ensures obedience to its entire observance
(HPR, 1995a:102). The sovereign (the Ethiopian nations, nationalities, and peoples)
40
is therefore at the top of the hierarchy followed by the organ composed of its direct
representatives at both federal and local levels. The executive is accountable to
these representatives (HPR, 1995a:125).

The order of importance of laws is related to the order of importance of state organs
that make laws (Tesfaye, 2008:110). Laws have a hierarchal arrangement as some
laws carry more weight than other laws depending on their sources, which implies
the hierarchies the law-making bodies possess in the government (McConnell,
2010:36). Hence, the federal Constitution as adopted by the sovereign is the
supreme law of the land (HPR, 1995a:79), with the subordinations of federal statutes
and state Constitutions as they are adopted by the federal parliament (HPR,
1995a:109) and the peoples of member states (HPR, 1995a:108) respectively.
Regulations and directives formulated and conducted by the federal executive (HPR,
1995a:123) are found at the bottom of the hierarchy of Ethiopian federal laws. On the
left-hand side, Figure 2.1 indicates the hierarchy of laws with their corresponding
law-making bodies in Federal Ethiopia, namely:

 the Ethiopian nation, nationalities and people who adopted the federal
Constitution and thereby established the federal and democratic state structure
(HPR, 1995a:76–77) at the top of the hierarchy;

 the HPR, being directly elected by the Ethiopian nation, nationalities and people
(HPR, 1995a:109), which has the power of legislation (proclamations and
international treaties) (HPR, 1995a:110) that do not contravene the Constitution
(HPR, 1995a:79) and thus can be found in the middle of the hierarchy;

 the Council of Ministers is at the bottom of the hierarchy as it is responsible to the

HPR (HPR, 1995a:120), and enacts regulations pursuant to the powers vested in
it by this chamber of the government (HPR, 1995a:124);

 On the right-hand side of the pyramid, Figure 2.1 shows the laws in their
hierarchical order: the federal Constitution, which is the supreme law of the land,
duly observed and obeyed by all as it is adopted by the sovereign (the Ethiopian
nations, nationalities, and peoples according to the FDRE Constitution), is at the

41
 top of the hierarchy and any law, customary practice or decision which
contravenes it has no effect (HPR, 1995a;79);

 proclamations and international treaties as laws, are adopted and ratified by the
direct representatives of the sovereign, and are meant to ensure the observance
of and obedience to the Constitution (HPR, 1995a:79, 110), placing them at the
secondary level in the hierarchy of laws; and

 regulations and directives, which are enacted by the Council of Ministers to

enforce proclamations and treaties, are at the bottom of the hierarchy.

Figure 2-1: Hierarchy of law-making bodies (left) and laws (right) in Federal
Ethiopia

The Ethiopian nation,

nationalities, and peoples The Federal Constitution

The House of Peoples' Proclamations and

Representatives treaties

Council of Ministers Regulations and directives

Source: Adapted from the FDRE Constitution (HPR, 1995a:79, 108–109)

In Figure 2.2 below it can be seen that the Council of Ministers, headed by the prime
minister, formulates and implements economic, social and development policies and
strategies and submits it to the HPR for final approval. The prime minister will follow
up and ensure the implementation of laws, policies, directives and other decisions
adopted by the HPR, and exercises overall supervision over the implementation of

42
policies, regulations, directives and decisions adopted by the Council of Ministers (HPR,
1995a:122–123). Figure 2.2 explains the public policy and law-making process currently
being used in Ethiopia.

Figure 2-2: Public policy and law-making process in Federal Ethiopia

The prime minister The HPR

 Follows up and ensures the Approves general policies and strategies of
implementation of laws, policies, economic, social and development nature,
directives and decisions and the fiscal and monetary policy of the
adopted by the HPR. country

 Exercises overall supervision

over the implementation of
policies, regulations, directives
and decisions adopted by the The Council of Ministers
Council of Ministers.
Formulates and implements economic,
social and development policies and
strategies.

Source: Adapted from FDRE Constitution (HPR, 1995a:122–123)

In Figure 2.2, it is clear that the Council of Ministers is a principal body with the right to
initiate all laws, and with exclusive power to propose draft financial laws. In addition, the
Council of Ministers has the power to initiate and submit drafts on a declaration of war
to the HPR, and the latter may declare a state of war if necessary. Other bodies like the
House of Federation, the Federal Supreme Court, and other governmental institutions
that are directly accountable to the HPR have the power to initiate and submit drafts on
matters that fall under their jurisdiction. The Speaker, the committees and members of
the HPR may also initiate laws, for example laws on the HPR working procedure and
members‟ code of conduct, and a definition of powers and duties of the executive
organs (HPR, 2006:3248).

38
A draft law would be submitted to the HPR through the Speaker after it is has been
written and if it is supported by the signatures of at least twenty members of the HPR,
including that of the initiator (HPR, 2006:3248).

Deliberations, the second step in the process of law making, are conducted in three
phases of readings (HPR, 2006: 3215). In the first reading, the Speaker presents the
summary of the draft law and opens the floor for deliberation on the content of the draft
law in general. Upon winding-up of the deliberations, the draft law will be numbered and
referred to the concerned committee. The HPR has organised standing committees
accountable to it to deal with the affairs of capacity building, trade and industry, rural
development, natural resources and environmental protection, infrastructure
development, the budget and finance, legal and administrative matters, foreign affairs,
defence and security, women, information and culture, the social and pastoralists affairs
(HPR, 2006:3257). The concerned committee having received a draft law, subsequent
to the first reading, itemises the matter on its agenda, and gives notice for hearing,
invites persons and bodies directly concerned with the matter, and arranges public
opinion-collecting forums to comment.

During the second reading of the draft law, the leadership or representative of the
pertinent committee submits and reads its report and recommendations to the HPR
after twenty working days of inspecting the draft law referred to it, in accordance with
the orders forwarded by the Speaker, unless the draft law to be passed is urging for an
immediate enactment. The Speaker opens the floor for discussions on the
recommendations made by the committee, and members of the HPR will then discuss
the report and recommendations regarding the draft law presented to them thoroughly,
and provide suggestions or pass final decisions (HPR, 2006:3248).

The third reading phase takes place when the draft law is referred to the pertinent
committee for further scrutiny by the HPR for a final decision. Upon completion of
scrutinising the draft law, the committee that received it for the second time reads out
the amended version and its final decision to the HPR. The HPR, after a thorough
discussion, decides on this final proposal (HPR, 2006:3249).
39
Final decisions on adoption of the draft law are made in the presence of more than half
of the members of the HPR and by a majority vote of those present and voting (HPR,
2006:3248).

After the final decision on the draft law, the Speaker transmits the draft to the head of
state for signature suggesting that it has been discussed and approved by the HPR.

The head of state in the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is the president.
He/she is nominated as a candidate from among the deputies of either chamber of the
parliament and is elected as a president by the HPR. After the election has been
completed, the seat which has been occupied by the electorate would be left vacant. It
is with the agreement passed in a joint session of the HPR and the House of Federation
that the presidency gets approval (HPR, 1995a:119), in which case these Houses can
also withdraw their approval if found negating the interests of the people they directly
represent, as the HPR is the highest authority of the FDRE government and responsible
to the people (HPR, 1995a:105).

The parliament (HPR and HF) elects the head of state, the President, who is therefore
expected to sign a law submitted to him/her within fifteen days of submission of laws
deliberated upon and passed by the people through its direct representatives, the HPR.
The decision will take effect with technical correction, where deemed necessary,
undertaken by the Speaker of the HPR if the president declines to sign within the days
described (HPR, 2006:3244).

In the final step of the law-making process, the Speaker assigns a number to the ratified
law, after which it is published in the working language of the FDRE government and in
English. The publication will be made known through print media, specifically the
Federal Negarit Gazeta, which is the official federal government law gazette for the
publication of all Federal laws, and all federal or regional legislative, executive and
judicial organs as well as any natural or juridical person are expected to take judicial
notice of the law (HPR,1995b:42). However, for all these processes to take place,
legislative and policy knowledge and skills are required.

40
2.6 POLICY CAPACITY IN THE ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE (ECS)

The capacity to govern the public as described by Cheung (2004:19), includes the
capacity of government to manage resources and to formulate, implement and enforce
sound policies that are performed by such government‟s capacity at policy, state and
administrative levels, which are mutually supportive and form the building blocks for
effective governance. According to Painter and Pierre (2005:3), the three concepts of
policy capacity, administrative capacity and state capacity are interdependent
components of governing capacity, and policy capacity (intellectual choice) can be seen
as a pivot around which the administrative capacity (effective resource management)
and state capacity (appropriate outcomes) revolve (see Figure 2.3 below). Cheema
(2004:1) further emphasises that the more governments grow and extend into the
economic and social life of the populace, the greater the impact of public policy making
on the well-being of ordinary citizens will be.

Figure 2-3: Levels of governing capacity

Policy capacity (the „pivot‟)

Administrative capacity

State capacity

Source: Adopted from Painter and Pierre (2005:3–5)

Accordingly the Ethiopian government “has articulated „democratic developmental state‟

as its policy to take centre stage in Ethiopia” (Fiseha, 2014), and that it attempts to play
a key role in the process of structural and economic transformations (Sehen & Tesfaye,
2012:4;Teshome, 2012). Accordingly, the state needs have the required policy and

41
state (strategic) capacities, and administrative (organisational and technical) capacity
attained through building a strong civil service (ETU, 2013).

The public relies on the civil service to respond to its changing demands. However, to
be able to respond to these demands, policy capacity and professionalisation are
required by the civil service. Professionalisation, in terms of policy making process in
the Ethiopian civil service (ECS), is still in its beginning stage. It was only since the
launching of the Civil Service Reform Programme in 1994 that the performance
incompetence of civil servants was mentioned for the first time since the Imperial era
(Adebabay, 2011:6). This was further emphasised when the Ethiopian Growth and
Transformation Plan (GTPE) was launched in 2010 that called for superior
organisational performance through the mobilisation of professional employees,
including those in the civil service (Adebabay, 2011:9). Furthermore, Table 2.3 below
indicates that the majority of civil servants do not have professional status and they are
not all graduates since only 20% of the federal civil servants hold degrees (MCS,
2012:4–6).

Table 2-3: Professional qualification levels in the Ethiopian Federal Civil Service (EFCS)
Number of qualified federal civil servants (%)
Educational qualification
No Male Female Total
level
# % # % # %
1. PhD 603 1.54 40 0.15 643 0.99
2. 612 1.56 86 0.33 698 1.07
Medical doctor
3. Veterinary doctor 91 0.23 9 0.03 100 0.15
4. Master‟s and bachelor‟s
11 897 30.38 2 562 9.82 14 459 22.16
degree
5. Diploma and/or certificate 10 109 25.82 9 682 37.12 19 791 30.34
6. 15 048 38.43 13 128 50.34 28 176 43.19
High school and below
7. Unidentified 798 2.04 573 2.20 1 371 2.10
Total 39 158 60.02 26 080 39.98 65 238 100
Source: MCS (2012:4–6)

Apart from the professional qualifications, Table 2.3 also indicates that the numbers of
qualified female civil servants who provide public services are far less than male civil
servants. The table also indicates that the majority of civil servants have only high

42
school or lower education, which has a negative effect on the capacity of the ECS. Due
to the capacity problem being experienced, government services in Ethiopia rarely if
ever address the basic needs of the public (UNECA, 2009:170), for example maternal
care services. According to the Ethiopian Demographic and Health Survey, only eleven
per cent of births in the country are delivered with the assistance of a trained health
professional (CSA & ICF, 2012:14).

Capacity building in policy making can contribute significantly to improved public policy
outcomes (Gleeson, 2011:2). Accordingly, the issue of policy capacity in the ECS needs
to be addressed properly, and mainly through capacity building programmes. Capacity
building programmes can include, for example, education and training and civil service
reform (MoInf, 2004:1).

Grindle (1997:110) identifies the purpose of capacity building with an increase in

efficiency, effectiveness and responsiveness of government performance. According to
Dodd and Boyd (2001:7), the purpose of capacity building includes learning new skills,
collaboration with others, reforms of institutional and legal systems, and direct provision
of recourses. Dodd and Boyd (2001) distinguish between capacity building involvement
areas towards personal, system and community policy capacity development as
indicated in Table 2.4. For Dodd and Boyd (2001:8), personal capacity includes
attitudes, skills and knowledge (based in experience and interpersonal skills), while
capacity of the system can be seen in the ability of the system to plan, monitor and
address public problems. The ability to identify, mobilise and address socio-economic
issues signifies community/structural capacity.

In Table 2.4, the factors that build personal capacity, systems capacity and
community/structural capacity can be seen. This table also shows that every capacity
can be influenced by every factor in another capacity. For example, structural capacity
to identify and present the most salient policy information to policy makers has an
influence on institutional system capacity to assess the effect of public policies.
Personal capacity to understand how policy decisions are made also affects and is

43
influenced by institutional system capacity to use plain, accessible language to clarify
and de-mystify written policy, and the structural ability to create a vision of how policy
issues should be addressed.

Table 2-4: Personal, system, and community abilities required in the process of
public policy making

INDICATIVE FACTORS OF BUILDING CAPACITY TO DEVELOP POLICY

COMMUNITY/STRUCTURAL
PERSONAL CAPACITY SYSTEM CAPACITY
CAPACITY

A commitment to engage The ability to identify and name

communities in the creation of the issue
An understanding of how Allies in other sectors who can
1. policy decisions are public policy at all stages, and
to use community input in a assist communities in
made
meaningful and transparent developing strategies to
way influence policy
The capacity to recognise
A willingness to increase
one‟s own strengths and The ability to create a vision of
2. weaknesses, and to know public confidence by
how the issue should be
encouraging open and
and set one‟s own addressed
consistent communication
boundaries
Knowledge of best practices
on policies that are most The ability to articulate that
The communication skills
effective in addressing a vision to help identify needs,
3. of listening, particular issue, and a understand and communicate
understanding and
willingness to listen to issues, and assess effects of
assertiveness
community expertise on best policy and interventions
practices
An ability and willingness to Knowledge of government and
assess the influence of non-government structures
policies in references to (such as hospitals) and
The ability to resolve
gender, age, culture, income systems and the role they play
conflicts with the intention
4. of both achieving goals levels and other factors, and a in the policy development
willingness to use holistic process
and improving
approaches that cross sectors
relationships
and consider the whole Knowledge of best practices to
person, the whole community
address a particular issue
and the whole environment
Planning and evaluation Facilitation skills to support The ability to work
collaborative processes for collaboratively across sectors
5. skills for understanding working across sectors and to identify opportunities for
issues and strategic
outside of traditional strategic intervention and ideal
interventions government silos methods for intervention

44
 The ability to identify the most
salient information and present
it in the most useful format for
Leadership skills to policy makers
motivate others
The ability to use various
Credibility in and An ability to use plain, approaches simultaneously to
6. knowledge of one‟s accessible language to clarify
influence policy (for example
community and de-mystify written policy
generating information through
The ability to work community-based research,
collaboratively preparing policy briefs,
circulating petitions, and
making presentations at
government-initiated
consultations).
Adapted from: Dodd and Boyd (2001:7–11)

In 2004, the Ethiopian government issued a national capacity building strategy in which
it recognised that policy capacity gaps prevailed for years, and stated that its policy
capacity is the combined result of proper organisational structure, system and human
resources, of which human capacity remains the major problem (MoInf, 2004:3–5). The
civil service policy capacity is thus the combination of the civil service system, its
structure, and the ability of civil servants. The latter significantly influenced the process
of public policy making. Consequently, policy capacity building in the ECS emphasises
primarily on the civil servants (MINF, 1994:211).In Ethiopia, the lead agency to build
capacity of these civil servants is the Ethiopian Civil Service University (ECSU) (UNDP,
2003:10). The ECSU was established in 1995 with a mission of “building the capacity of
the public sector through education, training, research, consultancy and professional
certification services. Since its establishment the university has graduated more than
18 600 civil servants through face to face and via video conferencing modes on topics
which are relevant to the needs of the public sector (ECSU, 2012b). Departments of
Public Administration in other universities throughout the country and the Ethiopian
Management Institute (EMI) significantly increase the number of graduates and trainees
capable of efficiently delivering public services as will be seen in Chapter 5 of this
research. Despite this fact, public needs and effective policy processes are still not met
45
by the ECS, as was indicated by the Federal Public Expenditure and Financial
Accountability Repeat Assessment Report, which states, “notwithstanding and despite
positive results, it appears that Ethiopia will not achieve some of the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs) by 2015, given the country‟s very low starting point”
(Caprio &Getnet, 2010:15).

2.7 POLICY SKILLS REQUIRED BY CIVIL SERVANTS

As stated (see section 2.5) previously policy making is a fundamental function of any
government, and the civil service is the major role player in any government. According
to the Northern Ireland civil service (NICS, 2000:6), good public policy making features
forward/outward looking, innovative, flexible and creative thinking, experience and
evidence-based and inclusive policy, and should take a holistic view, and be
communicative and evaluative. The UK civil service (UKCS) (2012a) states that
successful policy depends on –
 the development and use of a sound evidence base;
 understanding and managing the political context; and
 planning from the outset for how the policy will be delivered.

Indeed, the irony of politics–policies relationship lays in the fact that “the expectations of
policy makers often exceed their abilities to perform” (Gerston, 2010:72). Public policies
design must draw on a wider range of views and expertise and thus should be able to
be implemented practically as well. In that regard, civil servants engaged in the process
of policy making should have the skills and tools to understand what works based on
vigorous evidence, they should scan the horizon for threats and opportunities ahead,
and focus on ministerial priorities (UKCS, 2012a:). The UK Cabinet Office (1999:4)
emphasises policy capacity as an important asset for civil servants, especially for those
who are actively involved in the public policy process because it encourages better
mutual understanding among ministers and policy makers regarding what is possible
and what is not possible. Policy skills need to be integrated into civil service training
programmes and get civil servants trained since most professional civil servants lack

46
the ability to understand the policy process to which all are part directly or indirectly
(The UK Cabinet Office, 1999:4). Sutcliffe and Court (2005:2) also state that policy
making in developing countries like Ethiopia tends to be less well established and not
based on evidence. Civil servants in such countries need to have the skills for increased
communication and interaction between research and policy works, notably through
training for the efficiency and effectiveness of their public policies. Bullock, Mount ford
and Stanley (2001:21) state that modernisation of government requires the
development of new and different skills among policy makers, and policy capacity
training enables the progress towards modernisation of policy development. Such
training (see section 3.4) in the ECS will prepare civil servants in the policy process with
the skills and knowledge to perform properly in the civil service. Ethiopian civil servants,
as those in the UK (UKCS, 2012b) work across the country and overseas but all support
the government there by providing advice to help shape its policies and ensuring
seamless and practical implementation in line with those policies. This requires of them
to have public policy capacity (knowledge and skills). These public policy capacities
(knowledge and skills) are categorised as follows (see Table 2-5):

 Bring together communication stakeholders

 Evidence: Research analysis and surveying and modelling
 Politics and strategic management
 Policy delivery: Strategic and accountability, advocacy and project management.
The various elements of these capacity areas and their descriptions have been deduced
from the following texts: The UKCS (2013), Harrison Institute for Public Law (2013) and
Chinthochi (2013).

47
 Table 2-5: Framework for assesssing the applicability of public policy capacity building

The UKCS Harrison Institute for Public Law Wilfred Chinthochi

Public policy capacity (2013) (2013) (2013)
area
Description Element Description Element Description Element
Organise documents and
Bring together presentations logically, meet Identify those who have the rights,
evidence, politics Communicating audience needs for context in interests, resources, skills and
and delivery to in a way that the introduction, relate the abilities to take part in and
Bring together Mull over and balance among
analysis through stories, Analysing influence the course of the policy
Communication support ministers policy evidence, policy politics empowers the
examples. Use appropriate stakeholders Potential winners and losers as a
Stakeholders in achieving and policy delivery public to act language in terms of tone, result of the policy and reduce or
outcomes for objectivity, and conclude actively hopefully remove potential
government to support public decision- negative policy impact
making

Evaluate previous policies, new

Investigate, assess and advise Identify policy questions, learn Making quality
Analysing the research, existing statistics and
Evidence Developing and on the political and practical the policy context efficiently, use information
problem in a way get information from several
Research and Analysis using a sound implications of government diverse sources to avoid bias, available;
sources
Surveying and policy using evidence and ideas that empowers explain analytic methodology, designing policy
evidence base Deal with the likely results of two
Modelling from a wide range of sources to the public to act use a logical framework, draw questions relevant
or more variables on the
meet required outcomes conclusions to the policy
outcomes of the policy

Focus on the ever-changing

Monitor developments in the environmental situation, including
Understanding political context and give timely, technology, politics, the economy,
and managing the Understanding the
Politics honest, objective and impartial social dimensions and the natural
Plan work for strategic outcomes environmental
Strategic management political context advice and recommendations to environment
respond to the changing context Deal with the likely results of two
in which ministers operate or more variables on the
outcomes of the policy
Understanding the
Policy delivery Develop sound policy, fast, in a
Planning from the Determining costs and benefits Mobilise resources needed for
Strategy and public and political arena, and
outset how the whose needs a of the policy; implementation of the policy
accountability convert this policy into robust Manage supervision meetings,
Gaining political Monitor and evaluate
Advocacy and project policy will be deliverable plans at whatever policy should managing effort and deadlines
support and will implementation of the policy
management delivered stage the policy is at, using serve and minimising
creativity and confidence
opposition

Source: Adapted from: UKCS, 2013; Harrison Institute for Public Law, 2013; Chinthochi, 2013)

48
Table 2.5 indicated the public policy capacity required by civil servants as adopted from
the UK Civil Service, the Harrison Institute for Public Law, and Wilfred Chinthochi. From
the table, it is clear that civil servants need to have the knowledge to consider and
balance policy evidence skills acquired through research and analysis, surveying and
modelling and stakeholders‟ analysis, and be able to communicate in a way that
empowers the public to act, to understand and to manage the political context. The
table also emphasises that civil servants need to possess the policy capacity to
determine –
 whose needs a public policy should serve as well as the costs and benefits of the
policy;
 how to gain political support and will with minimised opposition; and
 the skill plan required from the outset for the ways a public policy is executed to
the level of performance they are expected to achieve in the organisational
structure.

In addition, the following are also mentioned as important policy skill areas by the UK
civil service, the Harrison Institute for Public Law and the Wilfred Chinthochi:
 monitoring developments and providing advice and recommendations in
response to the changing political context in which ministers operate;
 planning for the strategic performance outcomes; and
 focusing on the ever-changing environmental situation to deal with policy
knowledge and skill effects on the variables of policy outcomes.

Along with this, the civil service institutions dealt with the policy skills by which sound
public policies are developed and converted into deliverable plans, with the skill to –
 manage and supervise meetings and deadlines;
 mobilise resources needed for implementation of the policy; and
 monitor and evaluate implementation of the policy.

The UK civil service (2013), the Harrison Institute for Public Law (2013), and the Wilfred
Chinthochi (2013) have also respectively emphasised policy capacity areas regarding
the ability to conduct new research in order to –
49
  understand the public policy context;
 identify public policy issues;
 assess and advise on the practical implications of public policies based on
evidence and ideas from several sources using analytic methodology to existing
statistics; and
 evaluating previous policies and drawing conclusions.

The civil service institutions also dealt with the policy capacity to enhance the balance
among policy evidence acquired through research and analysis, surveying and
modelling. Policy politics and strategic management, and policy delivery thereby for
example, identifying those who have the rights and skills to influence the policy process
in reducing or removing undesired policy impacts, organising documents and
communicating the analysis through stories, examples and slides use appropriate
language in terms of tone and objectivity and conclude actively to support public
decision-making.

Policy evidence capacity acquired through research and analysis, surveying and
modelling, which are also mentioned by the UKCS (2013), the Harrison Institute for
Public Law (2013), and the Wilfred Chinthochi (2013) in Table 2-5, include:
 the ability to investigate, assess and advise on political and practical implications
of government policy using evidence and ideas;
 identifying policy questions;
 learning the policy context efficiently;
 using diverse sources to avoid bias;
 explaining analytic methodology;
 using a logical framework;
 drawing conclusions; and
 the capacity to evaluate previous policies, new research, existing statistics and
get information from several sources.

In general, Table 2.5 serves as a conceptual framework for understandingthe

applicability of public policy capacity building. This framework can serve as an
50
instrument to assess the applicability of capacity building interventions for equipping
civil servants to monitor developments in the political context and give timely, honest,
objective and impartial advice and recommendations to respond to the changing context
within which ministers operate. He or she needs the capacity to develop good policy
fast, in a public and political arena, and to convert this policy into robust deliverable
plans at whatever stage the policy is at, using creativity and confidence. The civil
servant in the policy making process also needs to explore, consider and recommend
on the political and practical implications of government policy. The civil servant should
have the capacity to consider and balance the process of developing and using sound
evidences with regard to the political context and ways of delivery as well. This research
aimed to determine whether Ethiopian civil servants obtain the above-mentioned policy
knowledge and skills (capacity) through the education and training that are provided to
them.

2.8 CONCLUSION

This chapter showed the origin and characteristics of civil service as a system. Various
authors contributed and wrote extensively about the development of the civil service in
general and the Ethiopian civil service (ECS) in particular. Ethiopia is a federal state
with a parliamentary form of government with a closed career-based civil service system
that makes the standard of civil service appointment precise and allows for internal
promotions and lifelong employment. This chapter also indicated the need for a well-
trained civil service that has the ability to participate actively in the public policy process.
Policy is an important aspect of governance that can be used for the development of
any country, including Ethiopia.

This chapter reported on the finding that there is currently a policy capacity shortage in
the ECS with very few civil servants having formal qualifications since the majority of
civil servants only have a high school qualification. This chapter has identified some
indicators that may determine the accessibility of public policy capacity building
interventions such as the number and size (extent of area) of the distinct geographical
areas (state), the population density of a geographical area, and the number of civil
51
servants in a geographical area. Furthermore, it proposed a framework (Figure 2-5) for
assessing the applicability of interventions aimed at building the public policy capacity
(skills and knowledge) that a civil servant should have. The next chapter, Chapter 3,
reflects on what civil service education and training are, the role as well as the
advantages of education and training, and the ways these can benefit any government.

52
 3 CHAPTER 3

CIVIL SERVICE EDUCATION AND TRAINING

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 2 provided an overview of the Ethiopian civil service (ECS), the way it functions
and what it does. The chapter also reflected a discussion on policy capacity, the way
policy is currently being used in the ECS, and reasons for the importance of public
policy.

Chapter 3 focuses on education and training. The history, development and role of
education and training will be considered as well as the advantages education and
training can have in the civil service. This chapter will also look at how training can
benefit any government, including the ECS. The standards of excellence for public
administration/civil service training and its requirements with regard to international
standards of quality assurance will also form part of Chapter 3.

A comprehensive literature study that relied heavily on the reading and analysis of
books and journal articles was done for this chapter. The literature study was done in
order to get a clear understanding of civil service education and training as well as its
relevance in the policy making process. The literature study further provided relevant
information about the standards, guidelines and requirements for public
administration/civil service training internationally.

3.2 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

According to Allen (1988:13), the word “education” was derived from the Latin word
educare meaning “to raise”, “to bring up” or “to train”. Olaniyan and Ojo (2008:326)
believe in the importance of training and development to enable employees to work
more efficiently and effectively towards achieving organisational objectives, and state
that training (see section 1.5) is “a systematic development of knowledge, skills and
attitudes required by employees to perform adequately on a given task or job”.
53
According to Sleight (1993), training is perceived to have taken place since prehistoric
times when adult people used to prepare their children for adulthood jobs regarding the
kinds of work to be done, the skills needed, and the tools used to perform the work.
Sleight (1993), also states that changes in the complexity, volume and content of work
that resulted from societal developments throughout the centuries require proper
management. Tanke (1976:169) states that, with the invention of weapons, clothing,
shelter and language, training of others regarding these inventions became an
indispensable feature in the process of the civilisation, and the training began to vary in
accordance with the change in the complexity of the tools through years. Depending on
the training need and the situation, some of these different training practices are still
used today. Examples of this include the earliest kind of training where someone who
knew how to do a task would show another how to do it – on-the-job training – and in
the Middle Ages, the practice of apprenticeship came to the fore when people were
apprenticed to someone who had specialised skills and tools for a particular task
(Tanke,1976:169). Sleight (1993) states that the emergence of vocational education and
training during the Industrial Age replaced the traditional apprentice system as division
of labour based on specific job tasks required specific training.

According to the Encyclopaedia of Business (2012), training and development emerged

as a profession in the early 20th century and resulted in the formation of training
associations [for example the American Management Association (AMA, 2014) and the
National Management Association in the United States(NMA, 2014)], and in the creation
of tasks that require specific training. The rise of organisational development in the
1970s shifted the focus of training toward the organisation as a whole (Encyclopaedia of
Business, 2012). The Encyclopaedia of Business (2012) further states that socio-
economic and political changes in the 1980s and early 1990s resulted, among others, in
the increment of governmental regulations that required a greater breadth of training
programmes to reflect the greater diversity of employees. Currently, highly effective
training methods are widely used to familiarise new employees, convey new skills, and
advance existing skills (Liraz, 2012). This includes “structured on-the-job training, role

54
playing, self-instruction, team building games and simulations, computer-based training,
mentoring, and job rotation” (Encyclopaedia of Business, 2012).

The historical development of training can be studied along with the continuous
development of training methods. Accordingly, training methods appear to have been
changed in response to changes in the kinds of work being done through the years
(Encyclopaedia of Business, 2012). Sleight (1993) discusses these changes, starting
with the practice of on-the-job training, moving on to apprenticeship as practiced in the
Middle Ages, and to the classroom and vestibule training in the years of the Industrial
Revolution. The changes continued from systematic training during the two world wars
and the individualised instruction after World War II (Horn, 2007), to modern types of
individualised instruction and job support at the end of the 20th century(Treat et al.,
2006), and then to integrated performance support during the days of the information
revolution (Singhal & Prasanna, 2013).

Education and training specifically relevant to the civil service system are discussed
next.

3.3 CIVIL SERVICE EDUCATION AND TRAINING

The need to provide some form of professional education and training in public
administration to support the work of civil servants has been recognised as far back as
the eighteenth century since the education of civil servants as well as Public
Administration as an academic subject has gone through many phases of development
(Adedeji & Baker 1974:119). One of the first schools for the education of civil servants
of high rank was established in the Kingdom of Siam (Thailand) in the nineteenth
century (Adedeji & Baker 1974:117).

The importance of a study of public administration can be derived from the key role that
public administration plays as “the organised non-political, executive functions of the
state” (Pauw 1999:22). According to Pauw (1999:22), these functions comprise “a
higher order or abstract category under which concrete services, institutions, activities
and people may be subsumed. A function is something that the state should do or can
55
conceivably do”. Through the subject Public Administration, students are thus guided to
study all the non-political executive activities that the state does or should do for
example the implementation, review and analysis of public policy (International
Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, 1968).

Education and training in public administration therefore entail the improvement of

employee performances in the civil service system. Vemić (2007:211) believes that
training in a civil service system implies –
 obtaining new knowledge, abilities and skills;
 supporting and introducing civil servants to attitudinal changes and
entrepreneurship and encouraging them;
 introducing civil servants to important public policy decisions; and
 involving them actively in the process of policy decision-making.

According to the United Nations Public Economics and Public Administration Division
(DPEPA, 1995:90), civil service training, particularly in-service training, has significantly
increased in the second half of the twentieth century. DPEPA (1995:91) also notes that
the expansion of civil service training programmes, particularly in developing countries,
is associated with the commencement of their independence, national development and
modernisation efforts. The training in some of these countries has deep historical roots
and is limited to a small number of civil servants destined to occupy senior management
posts in the elite party. The conceptual framework and substantive content of the civil
service training activity – even for the limited number of trainee civil servants – is
provided by bilateral and multilateral technical cooperation programmes from services
outside of national authorities (GPAB, 1994: 90).Over time, civil service education has
come to offer formal education qualifications that are being provided by universities,
while training has come to represent a wide variety of training needs, possibilities and
programmes that have to be considered along with key variables in civil service training,
such as the training stages, the contents, methodologies, groups and objectives and
value system (DPEPA, 1995:91).

56
Effective civil service training, according to Armstrong (2009:676), uses a systematic
model (see Figure 3.1) within which such training is specifically designed, planned and
implemented to meet the desired needs. These needs emphasise not only improving
knowledge, capability and skills, but also bringing about attitudinal change, preparing
civil servants for promotion, inculcating positive values, and engendering an excellent
working culture in government institutions (UNPAN, 2010:25). Figure 3.1 indicates how
systematically organised trainings, in general, and civil service training in particular are
processed.
Figure 3-1: Systematic training model

1. Identify training needs

2. Plan training programmes

Techniques Facilities Locations Trainers

3. Implement training

4. Evaluate training

Source: Armstrong (2009:677)

As illustrated in Figure 3.1, systematic training consists of a simple four-stage model in

which training programmes are planned based on the identified training needs. The
training plan considers the training techniques and facilities to be used, identifies the
quality and number of trainers, and indicates the place where the training is to be
conducted beforehand. The training techniques are supported by training facilities
available, depend on the quality of the trainers, and vary with the training locations
(FAO, 2012). The training is then implemented in accordance with the training plan, and
is subsequently evaluated against the plan (Coultas et al., 2012:495). Therefore, it is
clear that a systematic process to training is followed and training in the civil service as
a system is processed accordingly. Salas and Stagl (2009:61) further identify the
57
system of training in terms of phases along with essential principles required to guide
the training process, as can be seen in Table 3.1.

Table 3-1: Summary of training phases and corresponding guiding principles

Civil service training
Training phase Guiding principles
Conduct due diligence
Define performance requirements
1 Analyse training needs Define cognitive and affective states
Define knowledge, skill and ability (KSA) attributes
Define learning objectives
Plan training programmes Design learning architecture
2 Establish instructional experiences
(develop training content) Develop assessment tools

Set the stage for learning

3 Implement training Deliver blended solutions
Support transfer and maintenance
Execute evaluation plan
Gauge trainee learning
4 Evaluate training
Gauge team learning
Gauge organisational effect
Disseminate training results

Source: Salas and Stagl (2009:61–64)

Table 3.1 above presents the phases through which civil service training as a system
goes to achieve its objectives. Each phase is completed with the accomplishment of
various interrelated tasks that serve as guiding principles as well. The first phase,
training need analysis, for example, is conducted with due diligence and determination
of the training performance requirements, cognitive and affective states, and the
learning objectives. Once the training needs have been analysed, the training
architecture is designed, instructional experiences are established, and assessment
tools are developed to decide what the training should contain. At the implementation
phase, the stage for the training gets set, blended solutions are delivered and transfer
and maintenance are supported. After the implementation has been completed, an
evaluation plan is prepared. Subsequently, the trainees‟ learning and the training impact
on the public agency are measured in accordance with the evaluation plan. From this
table, therefore, it is clear that what makes the civil service training systematic relies on
58
its flow through phases with curious and guided execution of detailed tasks. Hence, the
systems approach is based on a careful identification of training needs and emphasises
learning rather than teaching (Smith, 1977:383). The systematic nature of effective civil
service training thus requires “institutional structure that encompasses overall strategic
guidance at the political level and a national body responsible for defining training
needs, guiding the training curricula, contracting out training delivery, monitoring quality
and evaluating impact” (UNDP 2007:4). The provision of appropriate and effective
training enhances professionalisation of the civil service that can, for example, improve
the effectiveness of public policies by providing knowledge and skills relevant to policy
making process (Brans & Vancoppenolle, 2005). Baskoy, Evans and Shields (2011:227)
identify professional training as one of the major indigenous factors to influence policy
capacity of the civil service.

Training in a civil service system can be viewed in different ways. It can be seen on the
basis of the level, content and style of education the civil servant has obtained before
joining the civil service (pre-service training), like the French national schools of public
administration (UNDP, 2007:3). It can also be seen in terms of tailored courses provided
to ensure the skills, knowledge and ideas of civil servants are kept up to date (in-service
training), like the civil service training in the UK (UNDP, 2007:3). Likewise, Finci
(2006:7) classifies civil service training into three main categories on the basis of the
aims they intend to achieve as can be seen in Table 3.2.

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Table 3-2: Main categories of civil service training
Civil service training
Category Aim is to develop:
1. General cross-cutting general skills and knowledge required by all civil servants
training working in different institutions across administration

 specific skills and knowledge of civil servants related

2. Common substance to a policy field implemented by several institutions
training
 specific skills and knowledge related to horizontal
management systems
3. Sector-specific Specific skills and knowledge required by civil servants
training working in specific policy areas in the same institution.

Source: Adapted from Finci (2006:7)

As is clear in Table 3.2 above, all civil servants need to have skills and knowledge that
will enable them to perform the duties they are obliged to fulfil as civil servants
irrespective of the differences in their working institution‟s objective across
administration. A general cross-cutting civil service training programme helps civil
servants achieve this. Tasks that require general skills and knowledge are also fields of
duties, for example modernising the process of public policy making, or setting
recruitment philosophy which “move[s] horizontally across various departmental lines
and functional responsibilities in public institutions”, which necessitates the specific
skills and knowledge of the civil servant (Denton, 1991:31). Common substance training
aims at developing the skills and knowledge of the civil servant (Finci (2006:7). With
sector-specific training, civil servants get the required skills and knowledge to work in
specific policy areas like public policy capacity building in their institutions.

Apart from its categorical differences, a civil service training system varies from country
to country since the structure, size and costs are influenced by the systems of civil
service, government and recruitment philosophy (Bowman et al., 2010: 100 & 108) .
These factors also have an effect on developing, monitoring and controlling civil service
training objectives, strategies and contents (OECD, 1998:7–8). Variation in national
size, wealth and diversity, degrees of centralisation and decentralisation, and the ways
people enter the civil service and advance through it also significantly cause differences
60
among countries‟ approaches to civil service education and training (Kolisnichenko,
2005:3). In the UKCS, for example, each government department is responsible for the
education and training of its employees (UKCS, 2012b). Each department may also
outsource the training programmes to external trainers, or use the Civil Service College
(GICAG, 2000:14). Apart from the views that different countries have on civil service
education and training, there are other additional factors that influence civil service
training. These are considered in the next section.

3.3.1 Factors influencing civil service education and training

Civil service education and training can be influenced by various interdependent factors,
which include, for example, the government system, organisational philosophy on which
employee recruitment is undertaken, and the system of the civil service itself. These
factors are explained next:

3.3.1.1 The civil service system

The decision to improve qualifications, training and human resource development of

government employees prevails among a number of structural elements to be attained
by a civil service system (Cardona, 2002:2). Whether the system of civil service is
career-based or position-based influences the civil service training system. A career-
based civil service system, where each civil servant has a good expectation of spending
much of his or her working life in one public administration, implies a training system
which offers training to allow for career development (Lucking, 2003:8). This system
requires a career-path development programme since each individual in the civil service
needs to be developed through promotion, better qualification and improved financial
rewards (OECD, 1997:7; 1998:8). In view of that newly recruited personnel do not need
to possess specific expertise to qualify for the job. Once the recruits are in the civil
service system, a continual process of training and retraining is provided to them. In a
position-based civil service system, on the other hand, application is open for both
internal and external candidates (Lucking, 2003:9). The selection is made on the basis
of the level of expertise each candidate possesses before taking the job (pre service

61
training) (Lucking, 2003:10). Hence, in a position-based civil service system, a
programme for in-service training is unlikely to be offered to the civil servants, except at
the very start of their service (OECD, 1997:8; 1998:9). Therefore, while a career-based
civil service system usually entails an in-service training system, a pre-service training
programme facilitates employees‟ performance in a position-based civil service system.

3.3.1.2 The system of government

Another important factor influencing the civil service training system is the system of
government. The system of government a country has, for example a unitary or federal
system indicates the extent to which its civil service system is decentralised or
centralised. In a unitary system of political organisation, the governing power resides in
a centralised government, which commonly delegates authority to local government
units and channels policy decisions down to them for implementation (Encyclopaedia
Britannica, 2012a). Examples of unitary states include Britain and France (Griffiths,
2000:3). In federal system countries, for example Ethiopia and India, political authority is
divided between two autonomous governments in which institutional arrangements for
shared rule are combined with those for regional self-rule (Brinkerhoff, Johnson & Hill,
2009:10).

No unitary state is wholly homogenous and completely centralised, and decentralisation

is a common strategy for coping with diversity (Rhodes, Carmichael, McMillan &
Massey, 2003:4). The type of decentralisation could be that of administration, implying a
set of policies that transfer dispensation of such social services as education and
training to sub-national governments (Falleti, 2010:36), or fiscal decentralisation
(Blochliger, 2013:11) or political decentralisation, in other words, the extent to which
political institutions track and collect citizens‟ interests and turn them into policy
decisions (White, 2011:2). As discussed by Falleti (2010:37), organisational capacities
of sub-national governments will increase with the fostering of training for local
authorities, or with the facilitation of learning through practicing how to deliver
responsibilities.

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Civil service training systems therefore tend to be centralised in a unitary system of
government, and the training institute at the centre usually sets the civil service training
objectives and develop the training strategies and its contents. Both the central and
local governments in a federal system can set their own training objectives and
strategies and determine their own training facilities (OECD, 1998:7).

3.3.1.3 The recruitment philosophy

The process of employee recruitment and selection identifies whether the new civil
servant has a specific educational background in terms of the civil service system, and
helps the public office to determine how and on which points of focus the civil service
training should be provided to the new entry into the civil service (Bowman et al., 2010:
100 & 108). After the recruitment of new government employees for a vacancy follows
their selection and many authors describe the two processes of recruitment and
selection together. Hays and Sowa (2005:97) refer to recruitment and selection as “the
processes by which suitable candidates for jobs are attracted and screened”. These
processes are based on the philosophy, which the institution identifies in its recruitment
policy. According to (Stredwick, 2005:117), a recruitment policy represents the
organisation‟s code of conduct, particularly in the areas of

 handling and processing internal application;

 current employees‟ development management;
 ensuring the selection of applicants with proper refinement, and
 a transparent job advertisement.

The Northern Ireland civil service in its Recruitment policy and procedures manual
(NICS 2011b:7) for example states “the rapidly changing environment requires civil
servants to quickly adapt to change whilst also requiring new people to be recruited who
have the necessary skills and experience to help deliver quality services to the people
of Northern Ireland”. The Liberian government (1980:1) declared its commitment to the
systematic development of a competent civil service through continuous training and

63
organisational development to meet challenges of socio-economic and political
development, and ensures peace and stability with a smaller but better government.

The civil service systems in most countries require new recruits to possess a specific
educational background, which prepares them for the civil service or provide them with
long-term and comprehensive civil service training immediately after they had been
recruited (OECD, 1998:6). Others, like the civil service system in Britain, take into
account the level but not the content of prior education, and acknowledge an adaptation
training system rather than long-term initial training immediately after recruitment
(OECD, 1998:7). The training of new recruits, as stated by Brandenberg (2012), is
important since it teaches new employees about the mission, operational and strategic
goals of the government office and its organisational culture, and motivates them to
work hard. The training also gives the relevant department an opportunity to promote
efficiency and consistency in its effort to provide the public with proper services.

Apart from the factors mentioned above regarding civil servants‟ education and training,
there are also some elements that play a role in civil service education and training.
These elements are considered in section 3.3.2.

3.3.2 Elements of civil service education and training

The main elements determining civil service education and training are the training
objectives, legal frameworks, training institutions and appropriate status, regulation of
status of civil service trainers, and the contents of the training curriculums (OECD,
1998:8). Dujic' (2006:25) agrees that these elements of a civil service training system
are interrelated and that a change in one of them affects the other elements and
subsequently features of the education and training being provided.

3.3.2.1 Training objectives

Since education is being provided by universities as the formal qualifications that

student enrol for, training and development are used by organisations to improve the
skills of employees and their capacity to cope with the constantly changing demands of

64
the work environment. Training in particular can be targeted to help employees learn
new job-specific skills, improve their performance, or change their attitudes (Pynes,
2009:283–284). As the civil service system differs from country to country, the training
objectives will also differ in content and concreteness. In spite of this, training objectives
stated in civil service legislations or acts or in specific regulations usually emphasise the
need to support the implementation of administrative reform and modernisation (OECD,
1998:8). Hence, the fundamental aim of training is to help an institution achieve its
organisational objectives by increasing the value of its major resource, namely its
employees (Stredwick, 2005:376). The GICAG in its report on the value for money
examination (2000:4) states that, for a training programme to be effective, it should
conform to the training objectives identified and achieve performance improvement
expected of the planning process. According to the University of Maryland, training
objectives emanate out of fissure and deficiencies identified in the process of training
needs assessment and declare what should be accomplished as a result of the training
in the light of those needs declared (UM, 2002:7). These needs can be, for example,
skills, knowledge or attitudinal change that training objectives can address.

Civil service training objectives are associated with the training resources allocated, the
results achieved, and consequences experienced (GICAG, 2000:4).The relationships
between and among these elements are indicated in Table 3.3 below.

Table 3-3: Civil service training objectives, input-output-outcome relationships

CIVIL SERVICE SYSTEM
Training Associated example
The reason which the training is  to improve public policy capacity of civil
Objective
conducted servants
Resources allocated to produce an  financial, human, institutional resources
Inputs
output required to carry out training
The product of a process or that  trained and developed civil servants
Output which results from processing with a significant role in the public
inputs policy making process

The ultimate effect or consequence

Outcome  improved public policy capacity
of an action or process

Source: Adapted from the GICAG (2000:4)

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Table3.3 shows that training in a civil service system is planned and structured with its
objectives set ahead. Resources, for example human input, are used to produce results
which may ultimately reveal the effectiveness of training.

3.3.2.2 Legal frameworks

Public administration is subject to the law, as determined by the political body of a

community for whose benefit it acts (GPAB, 1994:11). Marcou (1995:4), speaking at the
United Nations twelfth meeting of experts on public administration and finance, stated
that law as a framework establishes institutions of public administration, defines their
competences and powers, and regulates their duties regarding the rights guaranteed to
legal subjects, and there is no efficiency without an appropriate legal regulation of public
administration activities, which include civil service trainings. The administrative law
framework in countries with a civil law system (unlike countries with a common law legal
system) is an autonomous branch of the legal system (GPAB, 1994:160). Common
principles that characterise both systems include principles of legality, equality before
the law, proportionality, legal security, and administrative procedure based on the rule of
law (Marcou, 1995:10–11). Both systems also necessitate professional and efficient civil
servants to achieve their goal.

The creation of a professional and efficient civil service is conditional, among others,
upon a basic legal framework, usually provided with a comprehensive civil service law
(OECD, 1997:19). The legal framework specifies the right and/or obligation of civil
servants to undergo in-service training (OECD, 1998:10). Accordingly, modern states
adopt a broad overview of interlinked and enforceable rules that support training of their
civil servants to possess the required skills and knowledge and to deliver government
services efficiently in conformity with the law of the state and public policy. In this
regard, civil service training institutions play a major role in empowering civil servants
with the skills and knowledge required to facilitate civil service deliveries (Finci, 2006:5).

66
3.3.2.3 Civil service education and training institutions

A series of institutions offer a variety of training programmes for civil servants in

different countries, for example
 the Canada School of Public Service (DPADMa, 2006:12);
 the National School of Public Administration in Poland (OECD, 1997:146); and
 the Civil Service College in the United Kingdom (GICAG, 2000:14).

Civil service education, or in some instances public administration education, is also

conducted through state training institutions, namely universities (UNPAN, 2010:3). The
Encyclopaedia Britannica (2012b) describes a university as a higher education institute
having a broader curriculum and the authority to offer undergraduate, postgraduate and
professional degrees (see also section1.5). The Encyclopaedia Britannica (2012b) also
states that training institutions are educational bodies but with special devotion to brief
intensive courses of instruction on selected topics relating to a particular field, for
example short courses on policy or human resource management or budgeting. Models
of education and training associated with university and institute models are indicated in
Table 3.4 below as presented by the United Nations Public Administration Network
(UNPAN, 2010:3).

Table 3-4: Models of universities and institutes of education and training

Wisdoms associated with civil service training models
University model Institute model
 different environments favourable to  close to service needs
self-assessment
 sense of wider public interest;  adapted to public service values;
addresses a large and steady public create sense of purpose

 capacity to keep abreast of scientific  danger of losing touch with

developments scientific innovations
Source: United Nations Public Administration Network (UNPAN, 2010:3)

From Table 3.4, it is clear that university departments of public administration offer their
education to people from different environments for the purpose of self-assessment.
Their curricula include a comprehensive public interest. The table also shows that
67
institutes are close to civil servants to provide training to them and adaptable to the
values in the civil service. Universities, on the other hand, are attached to different
environments and address a larger and steady public not the civil service alone.
Institutions are usually engaged with survival or immediate training tasks, and thus
could lose opportunities for scientific innovations. The university model keeps abreast
of scientific developments and addresses a large and steady public interest with
academic knowledge and standardisation.

Government institutions in the institute model are mostly concerned with mounting
public service values and practices and upgrading qualifications and adaptations to
service needs and performances. The institute model frequently distracts civil service
training with survival activities and thus the danger of losing touch with scientific
innovations is clear (UNPAN, 2010:3).

Lucking (2003a:23) explains that the prevalence of such institutionalised programmes in

the civil service training structure makes the training programme efficient since the
institution appears to be responsible mainly for defining training needs, guiding
curricula, monitoring the quality of the training programme and evaluating its outcomes.
Hence, whether or not these training institutions form part of the hierarchical structure in
administration greatly influences the ultimate effect or consequence of civil service
training on the government policy capacity (OECD, 1998:16).

3.3.2.4 Contents of the civil service education and training curricula

A civil service education and training programme requires specific methods and/or
techniques to ensure its curricula meet the education and training needs (OECD,
2008:24). Universities are responsible for determining the Public Administration
curriculums that will be provided to undergraduate and postgraduate students. For
training institutions, training needs may be identified for at least a large number of civil
servants (horizontal needs) or for specific categories among them (OECD, 2008:23).
Once the training objectives and expected outcomes are clearly defined, the training
curricula can be developed. The civil service training curriculum addresses the skills

68
and knowledge behind the training that the civil servants undergo. These could be soft
skills training (for example leadership training), technology training (such as proprietary
software), or training on processes like public policy making, and procedures (such as
compliance) (Intulogy, 2005). In developing these curriculums, training institutions
attempt to identify why and what the impetus behind the training programme are, and
how this relates to the civil service performance outcomes. Accordingly, the content of
the training relies on the training purposes and goals, learning outcomes, information
sources, delivery options and methodologies selected (Prioritysky, 2007:5). University
and civil service training curricula should be assessed and evaluated continuously,
thereby evaluating training activities and institutions of public administration in terms of
their relevance, technical and methodological quality, effectiveness and impact (OECD,
2008:24).

3.3.2.5 Status of civil service trainers

In carrying out their responsibilities, civil service training institutions need stable
financial resource, appropriate organisational structure and, importantly, efficient
training capacity. According to the OECD(1997:22–23), governments should entrench
their training systems into their national and international environments and establish
cooperation so that the civil service can react to and counteract socio-economic and
political developments. The OECD (1998:11) also states that such cooperation usually
involves strategies other than promoting professionalism in training activities, like
learning from the private sector, developing public–private partnerships, drawing on
foreign expertise, and involving international organisations. These strategies help to
determine the status of the trainers used by the civil service training institutions, and
enhance efficiency and effectiveness of the civil service training system.

Apart from the elements involved in civil service education and training, the relevance of
civil service education and training is important, and this is discussed next.

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3.4 THE RELEVANCE OF CIVIL SERVICE EDUCATION AND
TRAINING

Civil service education and training is an aspect related to public human resource
management, and the leadership in a government office may approach such education
and training as a cost which it needs to bear and thus governments could perceive
education and training as a waste of organisational resources, or contrarily as an
investment to provide the organisation with a competitive advantage (Cartwright,
2003:2). Planned and organised civil service education and training develop a civil
servant‟s professional competency and contribute to institutional goal achievement
(Hoff, 1970:29). Education and training further enable civil servants to perform a range
of jobs, engender enthusiasm and commitment for public objectives, execute change,
meet service standards, and attract better recruits to the civil service (Green, 1997:1).
Effective civil service education and training benefit government organisations and their
civil servants with increased efficiency, motivation, satisfaction, morale and innovation in
the process of public policy making (Zabriskie, 2002:3).

According to Aguinis and Kraiger (2009:451), the relevance of civil service education
and training can be observed in the benefits rendered to individual civil service
employees and teams. These benefits are clear in the job performance and
performance factors of civil service employees and teams and in benefits for the public
institution and the general public. The authors emphasise that civil service education
and training may affect both the knowledge of “what” and “how”, and could enhance a
strategic understanding when applying specific knowledge or skills. Civil service
education and training in a cross-cultural context also enable civil servants to perform
their jobs in different cultures and/or to adjust psychologically to living in the different
culture, for example some of the Ethiopian civil servants are twinned with Southern
Sudanese civil servants, to perform civil service duties while giving education and
training (UNDP, 2012:1).

Civil service education and training are directly related to the satisfaction of civil
servants, the government and the general public as well as to an objective measure of
70
civil service delivery whose relevance is associated with the performance of the
government office. Civil service education and training also influence the reputation of
the government office, which in turn influences how the public and even the civil
servants interact with the government office (Aguinis & Kraiger, 2009:458). Civil service
education and training efforts produce improvements in the calibre and competence of
individuals managing public bureaucracy, which contributes to the effectiveness of the
delivery of services by public agencies (Mishra, 2012:2). The development of long-term
strategic policies raises the need for a strengthened and strategic policy capacity to
analyse societal trends, and tries to predict them. This demands professionalism,
competences on the part of civil servants involved in policy making, which in turn
necessitates civil service education and training to build governments‟ capacity for
improving the effectiveness of policies by means of better policy design and evaluation
(Brans & Vancoppenolle, 2005:175–178).

In developing countries, where the private sector is poorly developed, more is expected
from government in managing and properly delivering public services (ILO, 2000:47).
The civil service plays a major role particularly in such states (Xingbo, 2009:179).
Professionalising the civil service and making it socially responsive is therefore not only
a matter of duty but also a necessity of the government. OECD (1997:17) emphasises
the relevance of civil service education and training, especially in periods of
transformation and modernisation, and explains that the advantages of civil service
education and training are to:

 create the capacity to govern as the system of civil service rely on a well-trained
and motivated civil servant whose performances may affect the whole array of
public policies;

 ensure the success of reform policies, for example civil service reform, which
depends on the availability of civil servants sufficiently trained to formulate, execute
and evaluate public policies;

 induce stability with uniform application of administrative rules and regulations as

instruments of public policies over both time and space, determining public
71
 confidence with predictability, and with adaptability of the civil service system to the
changing environment;

 guarantee continuity in the institutional and personnel setting with a regulatory

framework as a prerequisite for societal development so that policy formulation and
implementation serve as a sound basis for the development of legitimacy and
acceptance of the civil service system as a whole; and

 mitigate the disruptive effects of free market behaviour and secure core civil service
tasks and the protection of societal values.

These advantages of civil service education and training set out by the OECD (1997:17)
can be regarded as a conceptualisation of the civil service education and training
system in the context of public policy capacity building. Apart from the advantages of
civil service education and training, quality should also be assured.

3.5 QUALITY ASSURANCE FOR CIVIL SERVICE EDUCATION AND

TRAINING

According to the Canadian Office of the Auditor-General (OAG, 2005:1), the civil service
is most importantly responsible for providing the best quality policy services and
products, and for providing vigorous advice that will enable government to make
informed decisions on public policy issues. Subsequently, policy development is a
process of bringing together and balancing various considerations that may require
quality assurance to prevent an increased risk of having poor quality policy services and
products. The implementation of quality assurance can promote improved practices in
the delivery of policy services and products as far as policy development necessitates
the civil service system to have a trained civil servant (OAG, 2005:2). For Krogt
(2005:6),quality assurance refers to “a regulatory mechanism with a continuous process
of evaluating the quality of a higher education system, institutions, or programmes
focusing on both accountability and improvement, providing information and judgments
through an agreed upon and consistent process and well-established criteria”.

72
Quality assurance of civil service training is usually explained in terms of countries (for
example Slovenia and Hungary), in terms of both the quality of training itself, and in
terms of service delivery. For effective civil service training to prevail in a civil service
system institutional structure, it needs, among other factors, to encompass technical
regulations regarding the training system and ensure the most effective use of scarce
training resources (UNDP BiH, 2003:21–23).

The quality assurance requirements for civil service training emanate from the quality
standards of universities, training institutions or public agencies offering the training as
defined by the legitimate public office in the government.

3.6 STANDARDS OF EXCELLENCE FOR CIVIL SERVICE EDUCATION

AND TRAINING

Standards of excellence for public administration education and training refer to the
standards at which the education and training should take place. The UN Department of
Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA, 2008:2), in partnership with the International
Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration (IASIA), has set standards of
excellence for public administration education and training that include criteria for the
assessment of an institution‟s progress towards achieving the standards of excellence,
and a checklist that institutions can utilise for promoting these standards. IASIA is an
association of organisations and individuals whose activities and interests focus on
public administration and management (IASIA, 2012). The Association aims to respond
to the institutional development needs of public management and public administration
(IIAS, 2007:8). Both UNDESA (2008:68) and IASIA (2012) believe government
institutions as public sector organisations must perform proficiently to provide the public
with high-quality services. Consequently, civil servants working in such institutions need
to possess the highest level of public policy knowledge, skill and preparation.
Government institutions and universities should therefore strive for a high level of
education and training to promote excellence in the civil service system.

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The standards of excellence for public administration education and training set by
UNDESA and IASIA (UNDESA, 2008:5–6) include the following:

 commitment: to the advancement of public interest and the building of

democratic institutions;

 advocacy: advancement of public service through advocacy and efforts to create

participation, commitment, responsiveness and an accountability culture in all
organisations and institutions; drawing

 combining scholarship, practice and community service: integration of

theory and practice and preparing the training programme upon knowledge and
understanding generated both by research and practical experience;

 faculty centrality: a full-time core faculty committed to the highest standards of

teaching, training and research, and possessing the authority and responsibility
appropriate to accepted standards;

 intellectual and participatory inclusiveness: ideas, concepts, theories and

practices in the training representing a broad variety of intellectual interests and
approaches, being sensitive to issues of ethnicity, nationality, race, gender and
accessibility to all;

 a purposeful and responsive curriculum: training programmes need to have

coherent mission to drive programme organisation and curriculum development,
and trainers must be communicative and responsive to trainees;

 adequate resources: availability of adequate financial resources to sustain a

full-time teaching body and/or full-time trainers, providing needed assistance to
students and ensure the availability of adequate classroom, research, training
and meeting space as well as individual offices for each faculty member and, as
needed, for trainees; and

 balancing collaboration and competition: a sense of common purpose and

mission deriving from the commitment of the training programme to the

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 advancement of public interest among the programme teaching body, trainers,
administrators and trainees.

According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs and
IASIA(UNDESA, 2008:7), the main criteria for measuring these standards of excellence
are categorised as institutional criterion and programme-related criterion, subdivided
into sub-categories of programmes of development and review, content, management
and performance.

The institutional criterion deals with the organisational nature and characteristics of the
institution that provides the public administration education and training programmes
and the criterion regarding the education and training programmes related to the actual
programmes being delivered by the government institution. For the purpose of studying
the civil service policy capacity building, curriculum content and management of civil
service education and training programmes is the main focus area (UNDESA, 2008:7).
According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs and IASIA
(UNDESA, 2008:9), curriculum components of training programmes in public
administration/civil service systems should enhance skills and competencies,
knowledge and value among trainee civil servants. This will enable the civil servants to
perform their duties with efficiency and effectiveness, equity and ethics. Table 3.5 below
displays what a public administration education and training curriculum should include
as stated by the UN and IASIA (2012).

Table 3-5: Standardised public administration education and training curriculum

components
CURRICULUM COMPONENTS
CATEGORY SUB-CATEGORIES
Human resource management
Budgeting and financial processes
Information management, new technology applications and
The management of policy
public service Administrative and Constitutional law
organisations Effective communication skills
Organisation and management concepts and behaviour
Not-for-profit and private sector relationships and grant
management

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 Development of high-performing organisations
Management of networks and partnerships
Improvement of public The delivery of public goods and services
sector processes Management of projects and contracts
Supporting workforce diversity
Motivation and design of public sector organisations
Creative and innovative problem solving
Leading institutional and organisational transformation
Conflict prevention and resolution strategies
Leadership in the public
Promoting equity in service delivery
sector Developing approaches to poverty alleviation
Promoting democratic institutional development
Public sector ethics
Institutional and developmental economics
The application of Management of networks and partnerships
quantitative and Policy and programme formulation, analysis, implementation
qualitative techniques of and evaluation
analysis Decision-making and problem solving
Strategic planning
Political and legal institutions and processes
Understanding public Economic and social institutions and processes
policy and the Historical and cultural context
organisational The management of economic development
environment The implications of the “third-party government”
Acknowledging and reconciling cultural diversity
Source: United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA, 2008:9–10)

Table 3.5, shows that the categories and sub-categories of curriculum components
prescribe general areas, not specific courses, that deal with public administration
education and training programmes. Each major category should be assessed and
understood with reference to the sub-categories of the components as, for example,
civil servants can be trained on aspects of leadership in the public sector from the
creative and innovative problem solving dimension. They can also be trained on the
application of quantitative and qualitative techniques of analysis, on aspects of policy
and programme formulation, analysis, implementation and evaluation and strategic
planning.

Accordingly, Table 3.5 reveals that the UNDESA/IASIA standards of excellence for
public administration education and training also give due consideration to public policy
capacity building in the civil service as the standards include training components
dealing with the application of quantitative and qualitative techniques as manifested
through civil service training on public policy and programme formulation, analysis,
76
implementation and evaluation, and understanding public policy and the organisational
environment.

The standards of excellence also recommend that public administration education and
training curriculum contents should address the public sector ethos expressly in terms
of, for example, democratic values and sustainable development and public sector skills
that enable civil servants to build policy capacities for:

 applying analytical and critical thinking;

 dealing with complexity;
 working with flexibility;
 dealing with uncertainty and ambiguity;
 operating in a political environment;
 building high-performing organisations;
 involving other groups and institutions in society to realise policy goals;
 engaging themselves in lifelong learning; and
 applying life experiences to academic and training activities (UNDESA, 2008:11).

The UNDESA and IASIA standards of excellence for public administration education
and training (UNDESA, 2008:12) also contain criteria for measuring the management
and administration of education and training programme, which include:

 the prevalence of a clear structure of responsibility for and an adequate system

of communication between all persons involved in the education or training
programme;
 the availability of a budget in terms of finance, personnel and facilities, and the
presence of programme administration in an adequate manner; and
 the provision of users with timely and up-to-date information on the programme.

Apart from the standards of excellence for public administration education and training
set by the UNDESA and IASIA, the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and

77
Administration (NASPAA) also provide standards for public administration education
and training, which include the civil service training system.

NASPAA is a professional education association dedicated to the advancement of

education, training and research in public affairs, policy and administration (NAPAA,
2009:1). The desire to ensure excellence in public administration education and training
among civil and public servants contributed to the establishment of NASPAA in 1970
with the main purposes of (NASPAA, 2012):

 developing appropriate education and training standards for programmes in

public affairs, public administration and public policy;

 encouraging curriculum development and innovation and providing a forum for

the publication and discussion of education scholarship, practice and issues;

 undertaking surveys that provide information on educational and training issues;

and

 promoting internship opportunities for students and employment for graduates of

public administration.

According to NASPAA (2012), public administration education and training programmes

prepare civil servants for career objectives that include:

 an understanding of economic, legal, political and governmental institutions,

systems and processes;
 the development of analytical and quantitative abilities and skills for defining and
solving problems;
 the development of communication abilities and skills, for example written, oral
and electronic skills;
 an understanding of human behaviour and the development of abilities and skills
for analysing and coping with behavioural situations; and
 an understanding of administrative and/or management systems and processes.

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Consequently, the public administration education and training curriculum content
should cover and aim to provide knowledge and skills in five major subject areas
perceived in terms of their interrelationships, namely (NASPAA, 1997:6):

 the political, social, economic and legal environment of public administration;

 analytical tools: quantitative, qualitative, and computer applications;
 individual and/or group and organisational dynamics;
 policy analysis; and
 administrative and/or management processes and ethical considerations.

With this curriculum content as a foundation, NASPAA (2009a:7) adopted universally

required competencies in five domains, namely the ability to:

 lead and manage in public governance;

 participate in and contribute to the policy process;
 analyse, synthesise, think critically, solve problems and make decisions;
 articulate and apply a public service perspective; and
 communicate and interact productively with a diverse and changing workforce
and citizenry.

Accordingly, it can be seen that NASPAA emphasises the development of civil servants
with knowledge and skill to participate and to contribute to the public policy process in
the civil service system. Policy analysis, for instance, is important and should be
reflected in public administration education and training curriculums (Ayee, 2012).

Moreover, it can be seen that the UNDESA, IASIA and NASPAA view civil servants‟
abilities to articulate and apply a public service perspective, and to participate in and
contribute to the policy process with analytical and critical thinking in addressing
democratic values and sustainable development as important domains in the contents
of the public administration education and training curriculum. In line with this, Wessels
(2012:170) highlights the possibility of a core curriculum that deals with the intellectual,
educational and practical needs of a civil servant in a developmental state such as
Ethiopia. He further proposes a module on, for example, public policy for solving service
79
delivery challenges with related competencies of advanced reading and writing,
interpretation, implementation, decision-making and planning.

3.7 CONCLUSION

This chapter provided an overview of the development and origin of education and
training in general and public administration education and training in specific.
Education and training can be approached using either pre-service training or in-service
training. Aspects like the system of civil service, the recruitment philosophy and the
system of the government that influences education and training, and the main
elements and requirements that influence civil service education and training also
formed part of this chapter.

The last part of this chapter focused on the standards of excellence for civil service
training, and guidelines were considered by focusing on the UN Department of
Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA) and the International Association of Schools
and Institutes of Administration (IASIA) and the National Association of Schools of
Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA). The standards of excellence help to
ensure excellence in public administration education and provide guidelines to ensure
that the curricula being used provide the skills and knowledge needed in the civil
service.

Linking to this, Chapter 4 will provide an overview of civil service education and training
programmes in the People‟s Republic of China (PRC) and the United States of America
(USA). This will assist in providing examples of what an education and training
programme for civil servants can look like and what it could possibly include.

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 4 CHAPTER 4

CIVIL SERVICE EDUCATION AND TRAINING

PROGRAMMES IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The history and development of education and training in general and civil service
education and training in particular were discussed in the previous chapter. The
relevance of civil service education and training were also explained along with the
requirements for quality assurance and the standards of excellence being used.

The current chapter will provide an overview and examples of public administration
education programmes that are currently being used by the United States of America
(USA) and the People‟s Republic of China (PRC) to improve the policy capacity of civil
servants. These two countries were selected since the USA, on the one hand was the
first country to lay the foundation for a systematic study of public administration in 1887
(Van Jaarsveldt, 2010:44). The PRC, on the other hand, is a country in which the origin
of the civil service dates back to the administrative system of its government in the Qin
dynasty (221–207 BC), which “established the first centralised Chinese bureaucratic
empire and thus created the need for an administrative system to staff it”
(Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2012). The USA and the PRC are also the leading
economies of the world (CNN, 2014) and both place high emphasis on administration,
and were therefore selected as examples to get an understanding of what civil service
education and training look like internationally.

This chapter relied heavily on the reading and analysing of books and journal articles to
get a clear understanding of policy capacity building programmes in the USA and the
PRC. This chapter also made use of a comprehensive internet search to find relevant
information about the current public administration curricula that are used by universities
in the USA and the PRC.
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4.2 OVERVIEW OF THE PEOPLE‟S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

The PRC was founded on 1 October 1949, when the communists took over mainland
China and set the scene for building a new society built on a Marxist–Leninist model
complete with class struggle and proletarian politics as fashioned and directed by the
China Communist Party (CCP) (Library of Congress, 2014). Currently the PRC has a
population of 126 743 billion (21% of the world population) residing over an area of 9.6
million square kilometres and an adjacent sea area of 4.73 million square kilometres. Of
these, 37.66 per cent of the citizens reside in urban areas in 23 provinces (including
Taiwan), five autonomous regions, four municipalities directly under the central
government and two special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macao (Chinese
Government, 2004:17; Dyck&Levinge, 2010:2).

The Constitution of the PRC (NPC, 1954:19) declares the National People‟s Congress
(NPC) to be the highest organ and the only legislative authority in the PRC. It also
pronounces the State Council of the PRC as the executive organ of the highest state
authority and the highest administrative organ of the state. The council is the Central
People‟s Government (CPG) composed of a premier, vice-premiers, state councillors,
ministers in charge of ministries and commissions, the auditor-general and the
secretary-general (CPG, 2012). The ministries include (CIIC, 2014):

 Ministry of Agriculture
 Ministry of Civil Affairs  Ministry of Industry and Information
Technology
 Ministry of Commerce
 Ministry of Justice
 Ministry of Culture
 Ministry of Land and Resources
 Ministry of Education
 Ministry of National Defence
 Ministry of Environmental Protection
 Ministry of Public Security
 Ministry of Finance
 Ministry of Science and Technology
 Ministry of Foreign Affairs
 Ministry of State Security
 Ministry of Housing and Urban–Rural
Development  Ministry of Supervision

 Ministry of Human Resources and  Ministry of Transport

Social Security  Ministry of Water Resources

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The PRC is a country with 56 nationalities, and the Han nationality accounts for about
91.59 per cent of the total population (United Nations, 2014a). Fairbank and Goldman
(2006:343) state that the development and change of political and economic situations
in the PRC can be traced to the following periods:
 firstly the Socialist Transformation period, a creative period of reconstruction,
growth and innovation (1949–1956);
 secondly the Socialist Construction, a periods of disaster and great disorder
among the people with years of economic recovery (1957–1966);
 thirdly the Cultural Revolution (1966–1976); and
 lastly the New Socialist Construction (from 1976 onwards).

In all these periods, the policy capacity of the Chinese government to decide on
strategic policy issues was well built as can be seen, for example, in the speech by Mao
Zedung in the early 1950s (Walsh, 2009:7) which confirmed China‟s policy not to
eliminate capitalism but to control and use its elements to help the Chinese national
economy, its capacity to formulate public policy, and the high motivation of Chinese
workers to surpass policy targets and capacity to implement, and to evaluate public
policy (Walsh, 2009:12). This contributed greatly to develop China as a leading
economy (WEF, 2012:385).

4.3 OVERVIEW OF THE CHINESE CIVIL SERVICE

The Chinese civil service system conferred stability in the Chinese government for
centuries and served as a model for the civil service systems in other countries as well
(Encyclopedia Britania, 2011:157). Members in the administrative system of the long-
established Chinese government were, for instance, selected by way of a competitive
examination (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2013). The civil servant law of the PRC (NPC,
2005:1) declares the civil servant system of the country to follow “Marxism, Leninism,
Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory and the important thought of „Three
Represents‟ [representativeness] to advanced social productive forces, advanced
culture and the interests of the overwhelming majority] as its guide”. The law also

83
identifies civil servants in China as those workers who perform public duties according
to laws in Chinese Communist Party (CCP) organisations, in the people‟s congresses,
in administrative agencies, in the people‟s political consultative conferences, in judicial
organisations, in procuratorial organisations, and personnel in Democratic Party
organisations (NPC, 2005:1; Yang, Wu, Xu & Chen, 2012:171).Yang et al. (2012:169)
also agree that China has built up competent civil servants that will help its civil service
ensure fast economic growth and social stability.

To this end, the Chinese Civil Service Law has made in-service education and training
compulsory (Brodsgaard& Gang, 2009a:2). Accordingly, the system of civil servant
education and training in the PRC aims to keep a balance between political
accountability and professional competence with a central task to improve the “abilities
of civil servants in areas such as political awareness, lawful administration, public
service, research, innovation, communication, coordination, problem solving, and
psychological adaptation” (Yang et al., 2012:173). The civil service training system in
the PRC is centralised; therefore, civil service education and training policies are made
at national level (Brødsgaard & Gang, 2009). The system nevertheless encounters
problems such as “inadequate training needs assessment, low motivation on the part of
employees, and difficulty in measuring training outcomes” (Liou et al., 2013). In May
2013, the number of regular colleges and universities in the PRC totalled 879, and they
are divided into general university, technical university, and specialised university such
as for teacher training (CEC, 2014). Admission to these institutions is based on scores
obtained in the unified national university/college entrance examination (FNBE,
2004:11).

According to the IRG (2006), civil service/public administration education (long-term

professional training) in PRC is offered either by ordinary colleges and universities or by
other specialised formal schooling. In both cases, recruits need to sit for a college
entrance examination. Newly graduates of such colleges and universities are admitted
into the civil service after taking a special examination designed for that purpose only.

84
In the next section, the universities that provide public administration education in the
PRC and their curriculum are discussed.

4.4 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION EDUCATION AND TRAINING

PROGRAMMES IN THE PEOPLE‟S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

Currently there are 743 universities (excluding colleges) in the PRC (see Appendix 1/a,
for more information). The universities offer degree programmes in eleven different
fields, sub-fields and specialties that include Political Science and Law, of which public
administration is part. Curriculum guidelines are prepared nationally and the universities
are expected to follow the guidelines accordingly (FNBE, 2004:11). The Chinese
government has classified universities in the PRC into a four-tier hierarchy of institutions
with the two best universities at the top, followed by a group of seven in the second tier,
a group of thirty universities in the third tier, and a group of eighty-five universities in the
fourth tier (WES, 2010:12) (see Appendix-1/b for more information). Entry into
universities is very competitive regardless of the tier of the university.

The higher education entrance system for undergraduate students (bachelor‟s degree)
in Chinese universities shows that the universities recruit senior high school graduates
according to their scores in the national entrance examination for higher education
(Chen & Lin, 2014). A Chinese citizen who aspires to join a graduate school (for a
master‟s degree after attaining the bachelor‟s degree and for doctoral studies after
attaining a master‟s degree) needs to pass the admission examination organised by the
universities respectively (Zhang, 2004:6).

Chinese universities are located throughout the country. Among the high-ranking
universities (WCTC, 2013), those which offer public policy courses in the field of public
administration and which contribute to policy capacity building of the Chinese
government are the Universities of Peking (Northern China area), Zhejiang (Eastern
China),Huazhong (South-Central China), and Sichuan (Western China). All of these
universities have a Department of Public Administration and offer policy courses like
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 Public Policy Analysis to students at undergraduate and postgraduate level. Table 4.1
below indicates four of the top-ranking Chinese universities as determined by the
Chinese government ranking system, where Public Policy as an undergraduate (UG)
and postgraduate (PG) subject is included in their Public Administration curriculum.
Table 4-1: Examples of Chinese universities that include Public Policy as a
subject in their Public Administration curriculum
Education and Public administration
Course name
training institute academic unit where
including policy Reference
Area, city public policy course is
capacity
Name Tier offered

Department of Analysis of
UG Public Policy
North, Peking Politics and PU (2013)
st
Beijing University 1 Public
PG Policy Science
Administration

UG Public Policy ZU (2013)

Department of
East, Zhejiang Public Public Policy
nd
Hangzhou University 2 Governance making and
PG
Analysis

Huazhong Policy Analysis

South rd Department of UG
University of 3 HUST (2013)
Central, Public
Science and Policy Analysis
Wuhan Administration PG
Technology
Public Policy
Department of
rd UG Analysis
West, Sichuan 4 Public
Chengdu University Administration SU (2013)
Public Policy
and Public Policy PG
Analysis

Source: Adapted from Wikipedia.org (2013)

In Table 4.1 it is clear that Public Policy Analysis is the main policy course offered in
public administration degree programmes and departments at the four high-ranking
Chinese universities. It can therefore be concluded that policy analysis will also be
offered by low-ranking universities since it is viewed as important by the high-ranking
universities. For these universities, Public Policy Analysis includes aspects on
conceptual foundations of policy analysis as well as aspects of China‟s public policy.
These policy analysis knowledge and skills are also in line with the emphasis on policy
knowledge and skills mentioned in Table 2.5, in the reference to the UK government,
the Harrison Institute of Public Law and the Wilfred Chinthochi. According to Wu, Lai

86
and Choi (2012:384), Public Policy Analysis in China has a strong practical orientation
that essentially requires an individual to have policy skills to:
 identify policy problems;
 determine the criteria for making policy decisions;
 develop policy options; and
 predict policy outcomes as components of public policy education and training.
These authors also believe that “given the practical orientation in the study of public
policy, the development of skills and craft in conducting policy analysis is an essential
component of public policy education” (Wu et al., 2012:385). The Public Administration
departments mentioned above aim to –
 educate students with special abilities in theory studies and practical applications
in public affairs;
 foster research talents of public policy studies; and
 work to cultivate elites in the fields of public administration to form good leaders
in government.

Chinese civil service training is organised by the Organisational Department in the

Central Committee of the Communist Party of China as well as the local Communist
party committees (IRG, 2006). Categorically, civil service training is classified into
ministry, bureau or country-level officials on the basis of managerial hierarchies and
with different content and themes (IRG, 2006). The types of civil service training include
different course contents grouped either into basic course categories (such as political
theory, administrating according to law, public administration, and economic and social
development) or grouped into special courses offered to civil servants in different
groups and at different levels with different requirements. The training is provided to:
 newly recruited civil servants;
 those civil servants busy preparing for higher positions or after a promotion has
been made;
 in meeting the requirements of a specific position; and
 getting up to date on service provisions (IRG, 2006:).

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Special training is also provided to civil servants in accordance with the knowledge and
skills they need in their specific work (Yang et al., 2012:175). Table 4.2 below indicates
how the civil service training curriculum in the PRC approaches different categories of
the civil service training system with varied course groups and course content.
Table 4-2: Civil service training curriculum in the PRC
Category
Course group Course content
of training
 classical works of Marxism
 establishing and carrying out the scientific development
 Political Theory
outlook
 building a harmonious society
 constructing a government of law
 Administrating
 administrative institutional reform
according to law
Basic  Civil servant law and civil servant system
course  improvement of government‟s public administration
 Public level
Administration  government‟s urgent administration
 government‟s function
 Economic and  establishing and perfecting the socialist market
Social economy
Development  regional economy and social development

Determined by different requirements of civil servant in different groups and at different

levels such as:
 the position of governmental function
Special  Newly appointed
 investigation and research
course civil servants
writing of official documents
 methods and art of leadership
 In-service public
 improvement of ability of public administration
officers
 improvement of ability of making decisions
Determined by the knowledge and skills needed by the civil servants in their special work
such as:
 Special training of  administration of non-governmental organisations
Special social  governmental reform in global administration
training administration  method choice of social administration
 Special training for
emergency  governmental emergency management
management of  correct treatment of media
unexpected
Source: IRG (2006)

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 Table 4.2 shows that the curriculum contents of the training are designed with basic
courses grouped into Political Theory, Administration according to the Law, and Public
Administration, and specialty courses determined by different requirements of civil
servants in different groups and at different levels and according to the knowledge and
skills needed by the civil servants in their specific work. Subjects dealing with public
policy are categorised as basic courses, and are identified particularly for the public
administration course group since public policy course content mainly addresses the
issues of improving government policy performance as an aspect of public
administration.

Civil service training in PRC takes place in administrative colleges at national and local
level or other training institutes (DPADM, 2006c:11). Yang et al. (2012:173) state that
schools at all levels of administration, Chinese civil service training centres like the
China Executive Leadership Academy, as well as institutions of higher learning,
scientific research institutes and training centres currently undertake the training of civil
servants. Table 4.3 depicts the civil service training institutions in the PRC as presented
by Yang et al. (2012:174).

Table 4-3: Party schools of administration to train civil servants in the PRC

Independently Institutions established through Civil servant training centres Type of Places for
established combination of party schools with trainees training
schools of public
administration
Schools of Other training Main centre Sub-centres
administration institutes

Example Example
Example China Provincial Senior National School
Executive and civil of Public
Nanning Shanxi Provincial
National School of Leadership municipality servants
Institute of Institute of Public Administration
Public Academy training
Administration Administration
Administration centres Mid-level
(in cities of and junior Local schools
Yan‟an, civil of public
Jinggangsha, servant
administration
and Pudong)

Source: Yang, Wu, Fan, Xu, Xiaolin, Chen and Tao (2012:174)

89
Table 4.3 shows that training is being provided to Chinese civil servants through a
number of training institutions, for example universities, colleges, party schools and
schools of administration in which senior, mid-level and junior civil servants are
separately trained. Such training institutions can be new establishments like the
National School of Public Administration or those established as a result of the merging
of schools of administration either with party schools or other education and training
institutions (such as institutes for economics and management) to result in the
establishment of the Nanning Institute of Administration and the Shanxi Provincial
Institute of Public Administration respectively. The table also indicates that senior and
mid-level civil servants can join further capacity building schemes at the three Chinese
national education and training centres, namely the China Executive Leadership
Academy, found in the cities of Yan‟an, Jinggangshan and Pudong (Yang et al.,
2012:174).

From the party schools and schools of administration comes the Chinese Academy of
Governance (CAG), formerly the China National School of Administration. CAG was
established in 1994 following the decision by the First Session of the National People‟s
Congress in 1988 to create a civil service system at national level (IRG, 2006). The
Academy is a ministerial-level institution as its leadership comprises the state councillor
and secretary of the communist party committee to ensure that the views of the
Communist Party of China are closely follow in the institute (IRG, 2006). The CAG
undertakes scientific research on theories of public administration, consults with
government on public policy issues, and trains strategic- and tactical-level civil servants
and high-ranking policy researchers. The Departments of Research and of Public
Administration and Policy in the CAG are among those internal bodies created in order
to assist the Academy to carry out the tasks mentioned above (CAG, 2010).

The CAG specifies its main functions to include the following (GAG, 2010):
 training to:
o civil servants at provincial and ministerial level and at department and
bureau level;

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 o reserve a force of outstanding young and middle-aged party members;
o civil servants from the Hong Kong and Macao special administrative
regions on behalf of their governments;
o high-level and mid-level civil servants of foreign governments who have
come to China for training;
o leaders of major state-owned enterprises, and carry out training
programmes commissioned by departments and localities; and
o state emergency management personnel;
 consultative research as regards:
o emergency management policy and engagement in international
exchanges and cooperation; and
o important issues concerning the training of civil servants, and participation
in formulating government‟s principles and policies concerning the training
of civil servants;
 scientific research as regards:
o major issues concerning the work of the Communist Party of China and
government; and
o areas where education is needed;
 policy suggestions and recommendations to the Central Committee, the State
Council and other relevant departments;
 the development of master‟s and PhD programmes in its main fields of work, and
accepting international students and visiting scholars;
 the provision of professional guidance for local academies of governance, and
training of faculty members of those academies; and
 the carrying out of exchanges and cooperation with institutes of governance and
civil servant management bodies of foreign countries (regions) and relevant
international organisations and academic organisations.

This means that the CAG is the Communist Party (CP) training and research institute
which was mainly established to train department- and bureau-level civil servants and

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leading cadres with communist-based administrative capacity. Figure 4.1 shows the
system of training used in the academy and the way it is structured.
Figure 4-1: The CAG system of civil service training in the PRC

Source: Chinese Academy of Governance (2010)

Figure 4.1 shows that the training programmes for civil servants include in-service
training programmes, refresher courses, symposiums on special topics, and training
programmes on special topics (training courses for department- and bureau-level civil
servants), training programmes for leading party members in the western region, for
young and middle-aged leading party members in Chinghai Province, and courses on
regional development in social administration (for party members in Tibet), and
intensive English programmes and symposiums on special topics (for provincial and
ministerial-level leading party members).
In the PRC, policy courses are included in formal education at top universities and in
training programmes for leading cadres and high-ranking civil servants. Since policy
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education is included in both formal degree programmes and informal training
programmes it can be concluded that the PRC views policy education as important
knowledge for civil servants.

After the overview of policy education and training in the PRC, public administration
education and training programmes in the USA, which might include policy knowledge
and skills are discussed.

4.5 OVERVIEW OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The present day USA, commonly referred to as the United States (US), was recognised
as the new nation state when Britain‟s American colonies became independent in 1776
following the Treaty of Paris (CIA, 2014). More new states were added as the nation
expanded across the North American continent. The US government is identified as a
Constitution-based federal republic with a representative democratic tradition (CIA,
2014). The Constitution divides the FGE into legislatives that makes laws, the executive
branch which carries out the laws, and the judicial branch referring to the courts that
evaluate laws (U.S. Federal Government, 2014). The system of checks and balances to
distribute power among these three branches of government whereby each branch
exercises some form of power over the others is the defining characteristics of the US
Constitution (Ster, 2004:4). The US Senate and the US House of Representatives
constitute the legislative branch. The executive branch includes the president, vice-
president, and 15 departments enumerated below and numerous agencies (Ster,
2004:15):

 Department of Agriculture (USDA)

 Department of Commerce (DOC)
 Department of Defence (DOD)
 Department of Education (ED)
 Department of Energy (DOE)
 Department of Health and Human Services (HHS)

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 Department of Homeland Security (DHS)
 Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD)
 Department of the Interior (DOI)
 Department of Justice (DOJ)
 Department of Labour (DOL)
 Department of State(DOS)
 Department of Transportation (DOT)
 Department of the Treasury
 Department of Veterans Affairs (VA)

These departments and agencies run the administration of the US government and thus
constitute the US civil service system. The next topic presents an overview of the US
civil service.

4.6 OVERVIEW OF THE CIVIL SERVICE IN THE USA

The administration of the US government is based on major principles of checks and

balances, competence, and the need for systems to protect against human unreliability
(UNDESA, 2003:4). In view of this, the US government established a system of checks
and balances in its civil service with a major government-wide Civil Service Reform Act
(CSRA) in 1978(Profession in Perspective, 2013). Management flexibility with a focus
on the civil service efficiency on the one hand and the protection of a merit-based civil
service, with a focus on individual rights on the other, needs to be balanced (Profession
in Perspective, 2013). This was performed through interactive relationships among
separate agencies, namely the Office of Personnel Management (OPM), the US Merit
Systems Protection Board (MSPB), the US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
(EEOC), and the Office of the Special Council (OSC), formed with responsibilities
derived from the former Civil Service Commission.

Accordingly, the Civil Service Reform Act established the OPM to administer the federal
government human resources and work to execute the federal human resource policies
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(DPADM, 2006a:11). The US OPM states that the merit system principle provides a
framework for responsible behaviour and is a key factor to mission success (OPM,
2014). The OPM asserts that merit system principles reinforce and directly support civil
service performance management toward effectiveness. Accordingly, appropriate public
administration education and training programmes aimed at providing knowledge and
skills are being undertaken in the US.

4.7 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION EDUCATION AND TRAINING

PROGRAMMES IN THE USA

The USA has a history of formal civil service education that dates back to an article
entitled “The study of administration” by Woodrow Wilson that led to the study of public
administration. In this article, Wilson (1887:197) emphasises that only careful study of
administration enables a government to identify things it can properly and successfully
do and determine the ways by which it can efficiently and economically perform the
things it discovered as proper. In doing so, the history and subject matter of
administrative study, its methods of development and political concepts that are useful
to government need to be established.

The premise that, for new knowledge to have an effect on the real world there should
necessarily exists a specific group or class of agents as a social moderniser sparked
Wilson‟s ideas about administration (Thorsen, 1989:21). Wilson (1887:198) considers
political administration as government in action and argues that administration should
be treated as a science field of study by its own. For Wilson (1887:199), the science of
administration properly positions the government course of action, makes government
business less business-like, reorganises its institutional setup, and accomplishes its
duties with achievements. In his article, Wilson advocates for merit-based assessment,
arguing that the effectiveness of public service is improved only through management
and by training civil servants (Wilson, 1887:201). The separation of politics and
administration, one of the concepts which Wilson advocated, remained as a subject of
lasting debate.

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Currently, education and training in the US are decentralised and that it is under the
discretion of each federating state system (Malgorzata & Simon, 2010:28). The country
has 1 700 public universities and colleges (Statistics Brain, 2014), and has public
administration programmes and national associations for practitioners such as the
American Society for Public Administration (ASPA), the National Academy of Public
Administration (NAPA), the Association for Public Policy Analysis and Management
(APPAM), and the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration
(NASPAA) (Raadschelders, 2011:140). NASPAA originated out of ASPA, which is the
largest professional association in public administration (NASPAA, 2014). The
Association changed its name from American Society for Public Administration to
Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs and Administration in June 2013 (NASPAA,
2014). It is a network of schools (currently 285 member schools across the US and in
14 other countries) offering education in public policy, public affairs, public
administration, and public and non-profit management, with a global standard guideline
for public service education to ensure excellence in education and training for the public
service (NASPAA, 2014). Currently, 170 master‟s degrees in public administration,
public policy and public affairs are accredited by the Network of Schools of Public
Policy, Affairs, and Administration (See Appendix 2/b for more information) (NASPAA,
2014).

For an eligible admission, universities in the US require students to have completed a

high school diploma or examination results of English language ability, and usually a
good score on one of the US university admissions tests like the Scholastic Aptitude
Test (SAT) and the American College Testing Achievement (ACT) in specific subject
areas. Admission decisions are made by the institution and its staff on a case-by-case
basis upon receipt of completed applications for admission by prospective students (US
Department of State, 2014; EuroEducation.net, 2014).

Like those of China, US universities are also situated throughout the country and are
also ranked according to quality (WCTC, 2013). Among the top ten universities those

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 which offer public policy courses in the subject of public administration and therefore
contribute to policy capacity building of US civil servants include:
 the Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs at the Syracuse
University;
 the Department of Public Administration and Policy at the University of
Georgia;
 the School of Public Affairs and Administration at the University of Kansas;
 the School of Public and Environmental Affairs at Indiana University; and
 the John F Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University (Best Grad
Schools, 2014; NASPAA, 2014).
All these universities have a Department of Public Administration and offer policy
courses that include Public Policy Analysis as can be seen in Table 4.4 below.

Table 4-4: Examples of US universities that include public policy subject in their
Public Administration curriculum
Education and
training institute Public administration Course name including Reference
Area, city
Name Rank academic units policy capacity

An Introduction to the
Maxwell School UG
Analysis of Public Policy (Syracuse
Syracuse st of Citizenship
New York 1 University,
University and Public
Fundamentals of Policy 2014)
Affairs PG
Analysis

School of Public UG ----- (University of

University nd and Georgia, 2014)
Georgia 2
of Georgia International Economic Foundations of
PG
Affairs Policy Analysis

School of Public UG Policy Analysis

(Indiana
Indiana rd and
Indiana 3 University,
University Environmental
PG Public Policy Analysis 2014)
Affairs

John F Kennedy UG ---- (Harvard

Harvard th
Massachusetts 4 School of Policy Analysis University,
University PG
Government 2014)
th Policy Analysis
5 School of Public UG (University of
University
Kansas Affairs and Kansas, 2014)
of Kansas Policy Analysis and
Administration PG
Programme Evaluation
Source: Adapted from NASPAA (2014); US News Grad Compass (2013)

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Table 4.4 shows that policy analysis is the main policy course offered in public
administration degrees at the five high-ranking public administration universities in the
USA. Policy analysis is offered at both undergraduate level and postgraduate level at
the universities of Syracuse, Indiana and Kansas, while the University of Georgia and
Harvard University offer policy education at postgraduate level only. These policy
analysis courses include practice in the skills of applied policy analysis, fundamental
research techniques associated with analysing possible solutions to policy problems,
the techniques to identify, dissect and evaluate policy effectiveness and improve policy
outcomes (Harvard University, 2014; University of Kansas, 2014). Policy analysis also
focuses on knowledge about government regulations of social and economic activities
as well as interpreting public policy, defining policy problems and generating
alternatives for possible solutions, public policy and uncertainty, efficiency, distribution
and general competitive analysis (University of Georgia, 2014). Policy alternatives and
making an analysis of policy are also included by the UK government, the Harrison
Institute of Public Law and Wilfred Chinthochiin the policy knowledge and skills
mentioned in Table 2.5 as important knowledge and skills for civil servants.

As far as training by government is concerned, each government office in the US has

the authority to administer its own education and training programmes (DPADM,
2006a:13). Each government office is thus expected to establish policies governing its
employees‟ education and training, and each employee in the office is responsible to
complete and apply for authorised education and training in an effective way (USGPO,
2013). The Training and Executive Development Group at the US OPM ensures that the
civil service training and education programmes in the country are designed to facilitate
human capital investment in government leadership, knowledge and talent management
(USGPO, 2013). The group is responsible for developing and promulgating training and
development policy frameworks and strategic advice and guidance that enhance
effective learning and development programmes in government offices and support
leadership–employee engagement strategies (OPM, 2013).

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Academies, such as the US National Academy of Public Administration (NAPA) and the
US OPM Centre for Leadership Development, provide support in addressing significant
management challenges in areas that include strategy development and implementation
(NAPA, 2013) and transforming leaders to serve the federal government better. NAPA
was established in 1967 as an independent, non-profit and non-partisan organisation
with the aim of assessing government leaders as chartered by the US Congress to
provide non-partisan expert advice and insights on major issues of public management,
as well as advisory services to government agencies (NAPA, 2013). The US OPM
Centre for Leadership Development offers educational programmes on leadership, an
executive master‟s in public administration (MPA) and courses accredited by the
American Council on Education (ACE) for undergraduate or postgraduate students that
include, among others, conflict resolution skills and leadership skills.

Policy awareness is also provided by the OPM‟s Centre for Leadership Development.
Policy awareness includes courses covering subjects such as the Dynamics of Public
Policy, Federal Budgetary Policies and Processes, Federal Regulatory Policy, National
Security Policy, and Science and Technology Policy(CLD, 2014). The courses are
offered with a particular emphasis on improving civil service policy competencies, such
as the competence to understand national and international policies. The objectives and
competencies emphasised in policy awareness courses are indicated in Table 4.5.

Table 4-5: Objectives and competencies in policy awareness courses

Policy awareness course category

Course Central objective Competencies emphasised in the course

 Dynamics of In-depth view of

Creativity/innovation, external awareness,
Public Policy how government
influencing/negotiating, political knowhow
works
 Federal
Budgetary Preparing and Conflict management, external awareness,
Policies and presenting a influencing/negotiating, flexibility, and
Processes winning budget problem solving
 Federal
Regulatory Realising key Customer service, external awareness
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 Policy points of decision, flexibility, influencing/negotiating, political
access and knowhow
influence

 National Understanding External awareness, influencing/negotiating,

Security Policy national security political knowhow, problem solving, strategic
in a global context thinking
 Science,
Responding to the Accountability, external awareness,
Technology, and
challenges of the influencing/negotiating, political knowhow,
Public Policy
21st century problem solving
Source: Centre for Leadership Development (2014)

Table 4.5 shows that the US OPM Centre for Leadership Development trains civil
servants in awareness of the federal budgetary, regulatory policy, national security, and
science and technology policies of the country in particular and the dynamic nature of its
public policies in general. The courses are intended to –
 provide civil servants with an in-depth view of how the US government works;
 help civil servants understand the factors that affect national security in a global
context;
 develop a sound budget and secure government support;
 realise key points of decision, access and influence; and
 anticipate and respond to the contemporary social, economic and political
challenges.

All the policy courses emphasise the policy capacities to understand and keep up to
date on local, national, and international policies and trends. The US does not have a
higher educational institution specifically and only dedicated to the education of civil
servants but the Centre for Leadership Development (CLD) in the OPM has established
a partnership with the American University (a private, coeducational, liberal arts
curriculum, doctoral and research-based university in Washington) to provide civil
servants with a degree programme (CLD, 2014). The School of Public Affairs in the
American University offers certificate programmes, undergraduate and postgraduate
degrees in the fields of political science, government, justice and society, public policy,
and public administration and policy (American University, 2014). Undergraduate policy
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degrees in the subjects of Public Administration and Policy include advanced studies in
Public Policy, Implementation of Environmental Policy, and courses on justice, woman
and politics, drug and crime (American University, 2014). Postgraduate policy courses
at master‟s level include Policy Analysis, Policy and Management (focusing on social,
health, science and technology and environmental policies) and Foundations of Policy
Analysis (American University, 2014). The doctorate in Public administration includes
Public Policy courses that focus on subjects like Economics for Policy Analysis and
Quantitative Methods for Policy Analysis, and a seminar in policy implementation.

As far as the executive MPA degree at the School of Public Affairs in American
University is concerned, policy education and knowledge forms an important part of the
curriculum as can be seen in Table 4.6.

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 category

3. Flexibility
for policy awareness course

4. Strategic thinking
2. External awareness
Competencies emphasised in OPM
executive core qualifications (ECQ)

1. Creativity & innovation

curriculum
Executive leadership MPA

Leadership for key executives

X
X
X
X
Executive Clarity – thinking and writing

X
X
Legal issues in public administration

X
Public Managerial Economics

Budgeting & Financial Management

X
X
Managing Technology in the Information Age

X
Organisation Diagnosis and Change

X
X
X
X
ECQ 1. Leading Change

Executive Problem Solving

X
X
X
X
Table 4-6: Executive MPA curriculum in the School of Public Affairs

Language of Statistics

Acquisition Management
X

Politics, Policy making and Public Administration

X
X
X

Programme Evaluation
X
X

Strategic HR Management for Executives

Public Marketing & Strategic Communications

X
X
X
X

Ethics for Public Managers

X

Action Learning
X
X
X
X

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 ECQ 2. Leading People

5. Conflict management X X X X X X X X X

ECQ 3. Results Driven

6. Accountability X X X X X X X X X
7. Customer service X X X X X X
8. Problem solving X X X X X X X X X X X X X X

ECQ 4. Business Acumen: No policy competency is tied to this

ECQ 5. Building Coalition

9. Political knowhow X X X X X X X X
10. Influencing/negotiating X X X X X X X X X X X
Source: Adapted from the American University School of Public Affairs (American University, 2014).

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Table 4.6 shows the policy competencies emphasised in the executive MPA curriculum
at the School of Public Affairs, American University. For example external awareness,
flexibility and strategic thinking (in ECQ 1 Leading Change), conflict management (in
ECQ 2 Leading People), accountability, customer service and problem-solving (in ECQ
3 Result Driven), and political knowhow and influencing/negotiating (in ECQ 5 Building
Coalition) were emphasised along with policy making and public administration. The US
News & World Report ranks the School of Public Affairs at American University 12 th top
school in public affairs, and 8th top school in public management and administration in
the United States (Best Grad Schools, 2014).

From the above it is clear that Public Administration as a subject of study has deep
roots in the USA. Policy analysis and making is offered extensively as part of public
administration degrees at universities in the USA. The policy education provided in the
USA supports the statements made in Chapter 1 of this research by Wessels (2010:182
& 188) and Yildiz et al. (2011:343 & 344) that policy education and training is becoming
increasingly important around the world and that modules in policy making skills, policy
analysis, applying theory and analysing data to solve policy problems, and becoming
effective policy makers or policy analysts could benefit any civil servant or government.
Both the PRC and the USA provide formal policy education in universities as well as
additional training in policy for civil servants. It can therefore be concluded that, if two of
the world‟s leading economies view policy knowledge and education and training as
important for the effective and efficient functioning of the civil service, other countries,
such as Ethiopia, could also benefit in this regard.

4.8 CONCLUSION

This chapter provided an overview and examples of public policy education and training
programmes that are currently being used by the USA and the PRC to improve the
policy capacity of civil servants. It was shown that public policy knowledge and skills are
increasingly being used in the civil service. Public administration education and training
courses that address public policy capacity of civil servants in both the US and the PRC
are provided by universities and colleges that are distributed throughout the countries.
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Public policy making and analysis are offered in public administration education and
training programmes in both the USA and the PRC indicating the importance of studying
policy.

The next chapter provides an overview of higher education in Ethiopia and civil service
education and training programmes at universities and training institutions in the
country. The chapter will consider whether the programmes currently being used
include public policy capacity to provide incumbent civil servants with the policy
knowledge and skills that they need to perform properly when executing public policy
processes.

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 5 CHAPTER 5

PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION EDUCATION AND

TRAININGPROGRAMMES IN THE ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVICE

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Public policy education and training programmes being undertaken to improve the
policy capacity of civil servants in the USA and the PRC were discussed in Chapter 4.
Chapter 5 considers education and training programmes currently being used in
Ethiopia. The chapter therefore provides a comprehensive overview of the education
and training programmes provided to civil servants in Ethiopia.

Chapter 5 refers to public administration education especially since a number of

universities in Ethiopia have a department responsible for public administration
education. This chapter will include an overview of educational degrees awarded to
students after completing undergraduate and postgraduate public administration
education at a number of Ethiopian universities. These degree and training programmes
will be evaluated to determine whether they include any public policy knowledge and
skills that can support civil servants when executing public policy processes. The
chapter further provide an overview of the higher education landscape in Ethiopia as
well as the civil service education and training setting in Ethiopia in order to propose a
framework for assessing the accessibility of public policy capacity building interventions
for Ethiopian civil servants.

The chapter consists of a comprehensive literature study that relied on the reading and
analysing of books and journal articles to get a clear understanding of the civil service
education and training setting in Ethiopia. Preparation for the chapter also included a
comprehensive internet search to find relevant information about the civil service
education and training programmes in Ethiopia. Where the curriculums of an education
and training institution were not available, the institution was contacted by telephone to
obtain the curriculums being used. After obtaining the calendar or yearbook of a

106
particular education and training institution, the curriculum being used was analysed to
determine whether public policy knowledge, education and skills were included.

5.2 OVERVIEW OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN ETHIOPIA

Higher education in Ethiopia has a short history going back to the 1950s, which makes it
relatively young (Teshome, 2003:1) The Ethiopian Ministry of Education (MoE) states,
“Higher Education in Ethiopia includes education programmes which are offered as
undergraduate degree for three, four or more years and specialisation degrees such as
Masters and PhD programmes” (MoE, 2012:57).According to Saint (2004:84) Higher
education in Ethiopia was initiated only in 1950 with the founding of the University
College of Addis Ababa followed by the establishment of six specialised technical
colleges during the 1960s and 1970s. In 1961, the University College of Addis Ababa
was restructured to expand into a university (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2013:) and
Teshome (2003:2) describes that postgraduate-level education and training at Addis
Ababa University started in 1979, followed by Haromaya University in 1984.

More recently, in conformity with the formation of a federal parliamentarian form of

government and decentralisation of the state system (HPR, 1995b: 102), a national
policy to guide education and training activities in general, the National Education and
Training Policy, was adopted in 2001. This policy (MoE, 1994:15) states that the
objective of education and training in Ethiopia is to –

 Develop the physical and mental potential and the problem-solving capacity of
individuals;
 Develop citizens who:
o Can take care of and utilise resources wisely, who are trained in various
skills;

o Respect human rights, stand for the well-being of people, as well as for
equality, justice and peace, endowed with democratic culture and discipline;

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 o Differentiate harmful practices from useful ones, seek and stand for truth,
appreciate aesthetics and show a positive attitude towards the development
and dissemination of science and technology in society; and

 Cultivate the cognitive, creative, productive and appreciative potential of citizens.

Subsequently, the number of education and training institutes at university level has
increased mainly due to the mergers and expansion of former colleges and the
establishment of new universities in each federating state. Consequently, the number
and area coverage of higher education and training institutions have increased and
expanded, giving more opportunities for higher education and training in Ethiopia
(Mekasha, 2005:104).

Admission to university-level education requires a student to complete tenth grade plus

two/three preparatory school levels successfully, and to pass the Ethiopian Higher
Education Entrance Examination (MoE, 2011).The curriculums or training, which the
Ethiopian universities develop, contain programmes leading to the awarding of
diplomas, first degrees, second degrees or medical specialties, master‟s degrees and/or
doctoral (PhD) degrees (HPR, 2003:2237). According to the Ethiopian Ministry of
Education (MoE, 2011), the first stage of education at university level leads to the
bachelor‟s degree after three to four years of study. A student in any Ethiopian
university is eligible to graduate with a bachelor‟s degree provided he or she earns a
cumulative grade point average of 2.00 out of 4.00 or better in all coursework taken
throughout the three or four years of study. The University Senate of each university,
therefore, awards credentials above undergraduate diplomas and provides
undergraduate and postgraduate degrees or diplomas (HPR, 2009:4985).

All Ethiopian universities award undergraduate degrees with different qualifications for
example Bachelor of Arts (BA), Bachelor of Sciences (BSc) in various disciplines, and
Bachelor of Law (LLB) as the first stage of university-level education. The Ministry of
Education (2011) also states that the second stage of education at university level leads
to a master‟s degree after a minimum of two years of further study. The qualifications at
this level include a master‟s in arts (MA), a master‟s in Sciences (MSc) and a master‟s
108
in law (LLM). Currently, not all departments in Ethiopian universities award masters or
doctoral degrees. The third stage of university level education, a doctoral degree, is
conferred after three years of study beyond the master‟s degree at selected universities.

The merging and expansion of colleges into universities and the establishment of new
universities that started in 1995 resulted in the formation of the following higher
education and training institutions, which provide general undergraduate and
postgraduate education in a number of subjects in Ethiopia (MoE:2012:57).

1. Universities established before 1991

 Addis Ababa University, one of the only three universities before 1991
 Haromaya University, one of the only three universities before 1991
 Asmara University, now in the sovereign state of Eritrea

2. Colleges expanded to be Universities after 1991

 Adama University, which expanded from Nazareth Technical College
 Ambo University, the former Ambo Agricultural College
 Arba Minch University, the former Arba Minch Water Technology Institute
 Dilla University, the former Dilla College of Teachers‟ Education and Health
Sciences
 ECSU, formerly the Ethiopian Civil Service College
 Gondar University, expanded from Gondar Public Health Education and
training College

3. Universities established as a result of a merging process after 1991

 Bahir Dar University was inaugurated on 6 May 2000 as a result of the
merger of Bahir Dar Polytechnic College and Bahir Dar Teachers‟ College
 Hawassa University was established at Hawassa city in April 2000 by
merging Awassa College of Agriculture and Wondogenet College of Forestry
 Jimma University was established in December 1999 after the merger of
Jimma College of Agriculture and Jimma Institute of Health Sciences
109
  Mekelle University was established in May 2000 as a result of the merger of
Mekelle Business College and Mekelle University College

4. Universities established after 1991

 Addis Ababa Science and Technology University

 Adigrat University
 Aksum University
 Assosa University
 Bule Hora University
 Debre Berhan University
 Debre Markos University
 Debre Tabor University
 Dire Dawa University
 Jigjiga University
 Mada Walabu University
 Metu University
 Mizzan Tepi University
 Semara University
 Wachemo University
 Weldya University
 Welkite University
 Wolaita Sodo University
 Wollega University
 Wollo University

From the above it is clear that there are currently 32 public universities in Ethiopia.
Figure 5.1 below indicates where these universities are situated in Ethiopia.

110
Figure 5-1: Public universities in Ethiopia

Adigrat University
Aksum University

Mekele University
Gonder University

Debre Tabor University Weldya University

Bahir Dar University

Semera University

Debre Birhan University Wollo University

Debre Markos University

Assosa University Dire Dawa University

Civil Service University

Ambo University

Addis Ababa University, Jigjiga University

Wollega University Ethiopian Management
Institute

Haromaya University
Metu University
Adama University KEY

Welkite University New universities

Mada Walabu University
established after 1991

Mizan Tepi University Universities

Hawassa University established after
1991as the result of a
Jima University merging process

Universities
Wachamo University established before
Bule Hora University 1991
Wolaita Sodo University
Colleges expanded to
Universities after 1991

Arba Minch University

Dila University

Source: Adapted from IDP (2012:)

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Figure 5.1 shows that public universities in Ethiopia are distributed throughout the
country, even in remote areas. This gives many opportunities for higher education and
training throughout the country. All these universities are administered by the Ministry of
Education or the FGE organ since each one of them has been established by the
regulations of the Council of Ministers (HPR, 2003:2237).

Currently, Ethiopia has 443 618 students, of which 116 212 are female, enrolled in the
above-mentioned thirty-two government universities undertaking undergraduate and
postgraduate education (MoE, 2012:58 & 61). In the next section, the requirements for
civil service education and training in Ethiopia are considered.

5.3 REQUIREMENTS FOR CIVIL SERVICE EDUCATION AND

TRAINING IN ETHIOPIA

Any higher education and training institution in Ethiopia may develop a curriculum which
has programmes leading to the awarding of a diploma or degrees (HPR, 2003:2237).
The same institution may also give short-term training to improve qualifications or for
imparting knowledge and skills in specific fields (HPR, 2003:2239). With respect to the
content of a curriculum, the Higher Education Proclamation No. 650/2009 (HPR,
2003:2238) emphasises that higher education or training offered at any institution in
Ethiopia should:

 focus on experience and student (trainee) participation;

 appreciate practice-oriented training;
 take the social, economic and political situation of the country into consideration;
 encourage independent thinking and reflect modern views; and
 aim at problem solving.

The Ministry of Council Regulation No.261/2011 provides for the establishment of a

quality assurance body for higher education and training in Ethiopia, namely the Higher
Education Relevance and Quality Agency (HERQA) (Council of Ministers, 2011). This
agency has the power and duty to guide and regulate the higher education sector in the

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country. The objective of the agency is to supervise the relevance and quality of higher
education offered by any institution, and its functions include (HPR, 2006:5039–5041):

 ensuring that higher education and training offered at any institution are in line with
economic, social and other relevant policies of the country;
 developing and implementing clearly designed evaluation and accreditation criteria
and procedures;

 evaluating whether the relevance and quality enhancement system of institutions

are capable of ensuring quality in higher education; and

 advising the MoE in respect of merger, division, closure or change of name of

institutions in accordance with the provisions of this Proclamation;

Among the key aspects of operation, which HERQA identified as points of focus while
conducting quality audits in the Ethiopian higher education institutes, is internal quality
assurance. This focus area requires any institution offering higher education and
training to (HERQA, 2006:12):

 have a policy and associated procedures for the assurance of the quality and
relevance of their programmes;
 commit their resources explicitly to the development of a culture which discerns the
importance of relevance, quality and quality assurance in all their work; and
 develop and implement a strategy for continuous enhancement of quality.

HERQA has not given particular prominence to public administration education and
training. It has however audited the ECSU from 27–30 December 2011 (ECSU, 2012a).
The audit had a bearing on the relevance and quality of the education that the ECSU
offers in general. This general approach, however, does not help to ensure a specific
high quality and relevant education and training system in public administration
(HERQA, 2006:3). HERQA only considers inputs and processes as well as outcomes
regarding what public administration education and training should look like and how it
should function in Ethiopia (HERQA, 2006:4). Unfortunately, HERQA does not perform

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as other accreditation institutions in other parts of Africa, such as the South African
Qualification Authority (SAQA) does for public administration education and training in
the Republic of South Africa (RSA) (Van Jaarsveldt, 2010:67). Amongst others, SAQA
states that public administration education should emphasise policy capacity building
with the inclusion of policy analysis and management as one of the eleven main
categories of unit standards proposed for public administration education (Van
Jaarsveldt, 2010:68).

For a government to get its civil servants trained and educated, the standards of public
administration education and training and the quality of the higher education system,
particularly public administration education and training, need to be enhanced by
adopting innovative methods which include the periodic revision of the public
administration curriculum in higher education and training institutions (Mishra, 2012:2).
Accordingly, Departments of Public Administration at the Ethiopian universities are
expected to produce skilled work force in quantity and quality that will serve the country
and provide quality civil service (HPR, 2003:2237). This necessitates having and
meeting standards of excellence for civil service training. The civil service education and
training setting through which the requirements for civil service education and training
are met in Ethiopia is discussed next.

5.4 THE CIVIL SERVICE EDUCATION AND TRAINING SETTING IN

ETHIOPIA

Education and training in the ECS began with the establishment of the Imperial Institute
of Public Administration (see section 2.4) in July 1956 to improve the performance of
government through education and training services rendered to civil servants at all
levels (EMI, 2012). Since 1967, the EMI took over the role of educating and training civil
servants. EMI ceased to play this role with the establishment of an ideological school
entrusted to train professional civil servants according to Marxist–Leninist doctrine in
1976 (Keller, 2014: 231). The EMI was reorganised in 1984 as a national management
development organisation to serve the private sectors and non-governmental

114
organisations (NGOs) as well (EMI, 2012). The ideological school was closed down in
1991, and the Ethiopian Civil Service College, later the ECSU, along with the EMI and
other state education and training institutes in the country, took over the responsibility in
1995 to carry out the education and training of Ethiopian civil servants (ECSU, 2012a).

The types of education and training institutions during the time of both the imperial and
military regimes were mainly those of pre-service education and training (see section
2.4) through which individuals were prepared to enter a certain kind of professional job
and earn a certificate, diploma or degree (Halim & Ali, 1988:171). In those periods, pre-
service education and training dealt with certain professional jobs such as agriculture
(Agricultural Colleges of Haromaya, Ambo and Dilla), public health (Public Health
Colleges of Gonder and Jima) and technology (Arba Minch Institute of Water technology
and Bahir Dar Polytechnic College).

Addis Ababa University (AAU) was the only higher education institute offering degrees
in public administration and law along with other faculties such as the Faculty of Social
Science, the Faculty of Medicine, and the Faculty of Natural Sciences. Currently,
Ethiopia has 32 universities as indicated in section 5.3 of this chapter.

As stated above, the National Education and Training Policy directs all the public higher
education and training institutes in Ethiopia and provides general guidelines to
administer education and training in the country (MoE,1994b:3). Other than this National
Education and training Policy, there is not a specifically adopted general guide to
administer education and training programmes for civil servants in Ethiopia like that of
the Ugandan Public Service Education and Training Policy (RUMoPS, 2006:1).

However, the objectives which the Ethiopian government pursues regarding the
education and training of its civil servants are defined in federal civil service legislation.
The legislation (HPR, 2007:3557) states that the objective of civil service education and
training is to improve the capability of the civil servants. It presumes that, with improved
competency, Ethiopian civil servants can perform better and prepare themselves for
higher responsibility based on career development. The legislation was enacted in 2007

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after the government embarked on a comprehensive Civil Service Reform Programme
(CSRP) in 1996 and reformulated its objectives in 2003 (Hailemariam & Common,
2006:6). The CSRP focused on –
 the capacity of the civil service in the public policy process;
 basic weaknesses ingrained in the existing civil service;
 transparency and accountability;
 gender and ethnic equality and rights; and
 the civil service being ethically sound and free of corruption, nepotism and
favouritism (Hailemariam & Common, 2006:7).

The CSRP objectives underlies government‟s intention to achieve better civil service
performance with a new perception among civil servants regarding the changes in its
role from providing services to facilitating and enabling the services, and from defending
law and order to servicing society (OECD, 1998:8; Junedin, 2012). Among others, the
objective of civil service education and training in Ethiopia is meant to help civil servants
change their mentality fundamentally and to adapt to the new desires of the public, such
as the demand for transparency of administrative decisions, the right to appeal, data
protection, providing information in citizen offices and citizen hot lines(MoE, 1994b:7).
Moreover, civil service education and training are intended to improve the management
capability of the civil service in managing its budget, devolving responsibilities, and
investing in human resource development (OECD, 1998:9–10).

Accordingly, civil service legislation (HPR, 2007:3558) states that a government

institution is expected to assess its education and training needs, prepare education
and training plans and budget, and ensure civil servants get the required training. As to
whether education and training in the civil service refer to the right and/or obligation of
the civil servants is not clearly and specifically stated in the legislation. However,
according to Article 61, Sub-article 2 of the legislation (HPR, 2007:3559), a civil servant
is obliged to discharge specified functions and accomplish tasks ordered legally which
may include undergoing training. Such education and training are usually facilitated and
provided by higher education institutes, as well as professional training institutes. The

116
education and training programmes provided at Ethiopian higher education and training
institutions are considered next.

5.5 CIVIL SERVICE EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAMMES IN

ETHIOPIA

In most countries around the world, including Ethiopia, public administration education
and training are offered to students who will become future civil servants to initiate
public policies and laws, prepare plans and budgets, and upon approval implement and
public policies and laws; undertake public policy research; and manage information so
as to meet the requirement of providing the public with essential goods or services such
as electricity and public transportation, and directing and monitoring the proper and
adequate delivery of such services (HPR, 2010:5629). In this regard, civil service as a
system refers to all government resources and functions in departments of a state with
authority to initiate, and up on approval by the parliament, implement public policies and
laws governing infrastructures such as public transport, power supplies, water supplies,
broadcasting, radio, telecommunications, road and rail networks, transportation
(Encarta, 2009; HPR, 2010:5629). Therefore, the rest of this chapter will focus on the
public administration curriculums being offered by universities and training institutions to
students and civil servants in order to determine whether policy is included.

As mentioned above, education and training in Ethiopia are provided by education and
training institutions that certify the accomplishment of education and training by way of
degrees or diplomas (pre-service education at colleges and universities) and by way of
certificates or statements of testimonials (in-service training at professional education
and training institutions and education and training centres of government departments).

5.5.1 Universities

A university (also see section1.5) is a higher education institution having the authority to
confer degrees in various fields of study (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2012b). According
to the government of Ethiopia (HPR, 2009:4983 & 4992), university refers to a higher

117
 educational institution with a national standard curriculum and a minimum enrolment
capacity of two thousand students in at least four academic units. It carries out research
in various fields of studies and has the ability to put the knowledge and skill that the
university has at the service of the public through different methods, such as the
education and training of civil servants. Table 5.1 below indicates which of the 32
universities in Ethiopia currently has a Department of Public Administration that
provides undergraduate or postgraduate public administration education to students.
Table 5.1 also indicates whether the department that provides public administration
education includes policy capacity as part of its curriculum to students.

Table 5-1: Public universities with public administration curriculums including

policy capacity

Course name
Education and
including policy Reference
State training institute Public administration academic unit
capacity
where public policy course is offered

UG (ADU, 2012)
Oromia Adama University No
PG
Addis Ababa UG
Science and
Oromia No (AASTU, 2012)
Technology PG
University
Policy making and
Department of Public UG
Addis Ababa analysis
Oromia Administration and (AAU, 2012)
University Policy making and
Development Management PG
analysis
UG
Tigray Adigrat University No (ADiU, 2012)
PG
UG
Tigray Aksum University No (AKU, 2012)
PG
Department of Public Policy making and
UG (AMBOU,
Oromia Ambo University Administration and analysis
2012)
Development Management PG
Arba Minch
Oromia No UG (AMU, 2012)
University

Benishangul PG
Assosa University No (ASU, 2012)
/Gumuz
UG

Bahir Dar PG
Amhara No (BDU, 2012)
University UG
Oromia Bule Hora No PG (BHU, 2012)

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 University UG
Amhara Debre Berhan PG
No (DBU, 2012)
University UG
Amhara Debre Markos PG
No (DMU, 2012)
University UG
Amhara Debre Tabor PG
No (DTU, 2012)
University UG
PG
Department of Public Public Policy
SNNP Dilla University Administration and (DU, 2012)
UG making, Analysis
Development Management
and Evaluation

PG (DDU, 2012)
Department of Public
Dire Dawa Public Policy
Oromia Administration and
University UG making, Analysis
Development Management
and Evaluation
Public Policy
Ethiopian Civil Department of Public PG making and (ECSU, 2012b)
Oromia Analysis
Service University Management
UG
PG
Amhara Gonder University No (GU, 2012)
UG
PG
Department of Public
Haromaya Public Policy
Oromia Administration and (HU, 2012)
University UG making, Analysis
Development Management
and Evaluation
Hawassa PG
SNNP No (HWU, 2012)
University UG
PG
Jigjiga University No (JGU, 2012)
UG
Policy making and
Oromia PG
Jimma University, Department of Management analysis (JU, 2012)
UG

Oromia Mada Walabu PG

No (MWU, 2012)
University UG
PG
Programme of Public
Tigray Mekelle University Administration and Public Policy (MKU, 2014)
Development Management UG making, Analysis
and Evaluation
PG
Oromia Metu University No (MTU, 2012)
UG
Benishangul Mizan Tepi PG
No (MU, 2012)
/Gumuz University UG
PG
Afar Semera University No (SMU, 2012)
UG
Wachemo PG
SNNP No (WU, 2012)
University UG

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 PG
Amhara Weldya University No (WLU, 2012)
UG
SNNP PG
Welkite University No (WKU, 2012)
UG
PG
Wolaita Sodo Department of Public
SNNP Public Policy
University Administration and (WLSU, 2014)
Development Studies UG making, Analysis
and Evaluation
Public Policy Issues
PG
Department of Public and Approach
Oromia Wollega University Administration and Public Policy (WLGU, 2012)
Development Management UG making, Analysis
and Evaluation
PG
Amhara Wollo University No (WOLU, 2012)
UG

Table 5.1 above reveals that of the 32 public universities that are currently found in
Ethiopia, ten universities (Addis Ababa University, Ambo University, Dilla University,
Dire Dawa University, the ECSU, Haromaya University, Mekelle University, Jimma
University, Wolaita Sodo University and Wollega University) offer public administration
education to students. These ten universities also include policy capacity in their
curriculums to public administration students at an under- or postgraduate level. These
ten universities are indicated in Figure 5.2 below to get a clear understanding of where
they are situated in Ethiopia.

120
Figure 5-2: Ethiopian universities that offer public administration education

Mekelle
University

Ambo
Wollega University Addis Ababa
University University Dire Dawa
University
KEY
Jimma
New universities
University
with public
Civil Service administration
University Haromaya education after 1991
University
Wolaita Sodo Expanded or merged
University universities with
public
administration
Dilla education after 1991
University
Universities with public
administration
educationbefore 1991

Pre-1991 universities
with public
administration
educationafter 1991

Source: Adapted from IDP (2012)

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Figure 5.2 shows that seven of the ten universities that offer public administration
education are situated in the State of Oromia, two in the State of the Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples (the name by which the state is constitutionally recognised)
(SNNP), and one in the State of Tigray. It can also be seen that universities in the
States of Afar, Amhara, Somalia, Benshangul-Gumuz, Gambela People and Harari
People do not provide any education in public administration. The accreditation of
Public Administration departments only in three regional states could lead to a disparity
in access to public administration and policy education among civil servants of the
different states in the country. Most of the citizens, students and civil servants in
Ethiopia therefore do not have access to public administration or policy education.
Considering that public administration education could benefit civil servants in
performing their duties more effectively and the Ethiopian government to transform to a
middle-income economy and to develop more universities could benefit from providing
public administration education.

The Departments of Public Administration that do exist in the above-mentioned ten

universities are now discussed in detail to assess the policy education that they provide.

 Addis Ababa University (AAU)

AAU offers undergraduate public administration students a BA degree in public
administration and development management and postgraduate public
administration students, a master‟s degree in public management and policy
(MPMP) with majors in Development Management and Public Policy, as well as a
PhD in public management and public policy.

The undergraduate Public Administration curriculums used by the Department of

Public Administration and Development Management at AAU include public
personnel administration, research methods in public administration, public policy
making and analysis, urban development and management, principles of public
administration, and project planning and administration (AAU, 2012:25).
The postgraduate Public Administration curriculums (AAU, 2012:21) used by the
same department for the MPMP for students majoring in public policy includes
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 comparative policy analysis, social policies and institutional policies. The PhD
programme in Public Management and Policy includes, advanced research
methods (qualitative and quantitative), comparative policy analysis, organisational
management and behaviour, advanced human resource management, and urban
governance and management.

From the above it is clear that the Department of Public Administration and
Development Management at AAU includes policy education at both undergraduate
and postgraduate level. It can therefore be concluded that the Department of Public
Administration and Development Management at AAU views policy education as an
important part of a student‟s education.

 Jimma University (JU)

JU has more than 100 bachelor‟s degree and 30 master‟s degrees and three PhD
degrees. It offers BSc degrees in the fields of engineering and technology,
agriculture and veterinary medicine, natural science, public health and medical
science, BA and BEd in the fields of social science, and an LLB in law. Master‟s
degrees at the university include MSc degrees in the fields of agriculture and
veterinary medicine, natural sciences, MPH (a master‟s degree in public health)and
an MSc in public health medical sciences. It further offers MA degrees in social
sciences, law, business and economics. The university also offers a PhD in
horticulture, in environmental health, and in applied ecology (JU, 2013).

The Department of Management in the College of Business and Economics

provides students with an MA in Public Management (MPM) and in Business
Management (MBA). Students from any nationally accredited university with a
background in management, economics, accounting, public administration or social
science, such as governance and development, sociology or law can apply for
admission for the master‟s degree in public management at JU. The university does
not offer undergraduate or doctoral degrees in the field of public administration (JU,
2013).
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 The Public Management curriculums for the master‟s degree include public policy
formulation, implementation and evaluation, urban governance and management,
research methods in public management, human resource management, local
governance and development, and principles of public management (JU, 2012:4).

From the above it is clear that unlike AAU, where students are provided with public
policy education at undergraduate and postgraduate level, at JU only postgraduate
policy education is offered.

 Dilla University (DU)

DU offers an undergraduate BSc degree in the fields of technology, agricultural

sciences, life and sport sciences, mathematics and computational sciences and
physical science. BA degrees are offered in social science and humanities,
languages and journalism, and an LLB in law. The university further awards
postgraduate MBA degrees in business management, and in accounting and
finance. MSc degrees are offered in biology, chemistry and physics. An MA degree
in educational leadership and management can also be obtained (DU, 2012a). DU
does not offer any PhD degrees.

At DU, students can enrol for a BA degree in public administration in the

Department of Public Administration and Development Management. The content
of the public administration curriculums in the department includes public personnel
administration, research methods in public administration, public policy making and
analysis, new public administration and public sector reforms, local government and
administration, introduction to public administration; foreign policy and national
interests, and project planning and administration (DU, 2012b).
From the above, it can be concluded that, although DU provides a wide variety of
degrees to students, the Department of Management only provides undergraduate
public administration education including policy education.

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 Haromaya University (HU)

Currently, HU is offering 59 undergraduate, 56 master‟s and 13 PhD degrees (HU,

2013). Undergraduate degrees offered at HU include BSc degrees in the fields of
agriculture and environmental sciences, computing and informatics, health science,
medical science, natural and computational science and veterinary medicine. It
further offers BA degrees in the fields of business and economics, social sciences
and humanities, and law.

Postgraduate degrees offered at HU include MSc degrees in the fields of rural

development, plant sciences, natural resources management and environmental
studies, food science and postharvest technology, natural resource and
environmental engineering, animal and range science, natural and computational
sciences, computing and informatics, health sciences, and veterinary medicine. The
university also awards MA degrees in the fields of social science and humanities,
foreign language studies and educational and behavioural sciences.

HU also awards PhDs in the fields of agricultural economics and agribusiness, rural
development, plant sciences, animal and range science, natural resource
management and environmental studies, natural resources and environmental
engineering, and health sciences (HU, 2013).

HU further awards a BA degree in public administration in the Department of Public

Administration and Development Management. This degree includes introduction to
politics and government, research methods in public administration, public policy
making and analysis, urban development and management, and public finance
administration (HU, 2012:3).
From the above discussion, it is clear that the Department of Public Administration
and Development Management at HU includes policy education as part of a
student‟s education but only at undergraduate level.

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 Dire Dawa University (DDU)

DDU provides undergraduate degrees in different fields of studies, including

business and economics. The university does not offer any postgraduate degrees
at master‟s or doctoral level.

At DDU, students can enrol, as at the other universities, for a BA degree in public
administration and development management. The degree includes an introduction
to public administration, research methods for public administration, public
personnel administration, public policy making; analysis and evaluation,
development administration (DDU, 2010:6).

The Department of Public Administration and Development Management at DDU

therefore provides public policy education as part of the BA degree in public
administration, but only at undergraduate level.

 Ambo University (AMBOU)

AMBOU has recently become independent with the status of a university organized
into five colleges, three institutes and two schools with 38 academic departments
that include the Department of Public Administration and Development
Management at the Collage of Business and economics. The department offers a
BA degree in public administration and development management. The degree
includes an introduction to public administration, research methods for public
administration, public personnel administration, public policy making, analysis and
evaluation, development administration (AMBOU, 2014). AMBOU in addition to
undergraduate degrees also offers a postgraduate master‟s degree in crop
protection, plant pathology, agronomy, animal production, cooperative
management, cooperative accounting, and analytical chemistry in environmental
sciences, aqua-culture and fisheries, and teaching English as a foreign language
(AMBOU, 2014).

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 The Department of Public Administration and Development Management at
AMBOU therefore provides public policy education as part of the BA degree only to
students at an undergraduate level.

 Wolaita Sodo University (WLSU)

WLSU offers an undergraduate degree in the field of business and economics

(economics, accounting and finance, management, and public administration and
development studies), social sciences and humanities, health sciences, and law.
The university further awards a postgraduate master‟s degree in educational
planning and management (WSU, 2014). WLSU does not offer any PhD degrees.
The curriculums for this degree includes public policy making, implementation and
evaluation, public personnel management, public finance and accounting, research
methods in public administration, and urban governance (AMBOU, 2014).

The Department of Public Administration and Development Studies at WLSU is

responsible for the undergraduate degree in public administration and development
studies. The curriculums for this degree includes public policy making,
implementation and evaluation, public personnel management, public finance and
accounting, research methods in public administration, and urban governance
(WLSU, 2014).

The Department of Public Administration and Development Studies at WLSU

therefore provides public policy education as part of the BA degree only to students
at an undergraduate level.

 Mekelle University (MKU)

MKU offers 90 undergraduate and 70 graduate degrees. These include

undergraduate degrees in business and economics, dry land agriculture and natural
sciences, engineering and technology, veterinary medicine, health sciences, natural
and computational sciences, law and governance. Postgraduate master‟s degrees
at the university include a master‟s degree in the fields of business and economics

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 (finance and investment, economics, cooperative marketing, business
administration, and development studies), health sciences, social sciences and
language, dry land agriculture and natural sciences, veterinary medicine, and
natural and computational sciences. The university also offers a PhD in public
health (MKU, 2014).

In the Department of Public Administration and Development Management, MKU

provides students with a BA degree in public administration. This degree includes
public personnel administration, public policy making and analysis, urban
development and management, leadership and conflict management, research
methods in public administration, and public finance administration (MKU, 2014).

The Department of Public Administration and Development Management at MKU

therefore provides public policy education as part of the BA degree only to students
at an undergraduate level, like most universities in Ethiopia that offer public
administration education.

 Wollega University (WLGU)

WLGU currently offers 47 undergraduate and five graduate degrees that include
business and economics. The university offers a postgraduate master‟s degree in
public administration and does not offer any postgraduate degree at doctoral level.

The Department of Public Administration and Development Management at WLGU

provides undergraduate public administration students with a BA degree in public
administration and development management, and postgraduate public
administration students with a master‟s degree in public administration. The Public
Administration and Development Management curriculums at WLGU at
undergraduate level include administrative law, public budgeting and controlling,
administration of public enterprises, public policy making and analysis, and
development administration (WLGU, 2010:2).

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 The postgraduate Public Administration (WLGU, 2014) curriculums used by the
same department for the master‟s degree in public administration include, public
policy issues and approaches, advanced research methods in public management,
public personnel management, public finance and accounting (WLGU, 2014).

Unlike most universities in Ethiopia, at WLGU, public policy education is provided to

students at undergraduate and postgraduate (master‟s) levels.

 The Ethiopian Civil Service University (ECSU)

The Departments of Public Management and Public Policy at ECSU are organised
under the Institute of Public Management and Development Studies (IPMDS) with
the main objective of educating “public managers capable of attuning to implement
the government development policies in the interest of the public at large” (ECSC,
2012a:3). The ECSU is structured into different academic institutes and centres, for
example –
 the IPMDS (which includes the Department of Public Management)
 the Institute of Tax and Customs Administration;
 the Institute of Federalism and Legal Studies;
 the Institute of Leadership and Good Governance;
 the Centre for Public Policy Studies; and
 the Centre for Education and Training and Consultancy.

The Department of Public Management provides students of management and

economic sciences, peace and security, federalism and legal studies with an MA
degree in public management and an MA in public policy (ECSC, 2012b). The
curriculum for the MA degree includes governance and Ethiopian public
management, public policy formulation and implementation, public sector
information management, human resource management, and public sector strategic
management (ECSU, 2012b). The ECSU has recently started to offer a PhD in
public management but still does not offer a BA degree in public management at
undergraduate level.
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 Although the purpose of this section is only to consider the undergraduate and
postgraduate degrees being offered to public administration students it is however
important to mention that the ECSU has also organised a special unit for civil
service training, the Centre for Education and Training and Consultancy (CTC).
This education and training centre is governed by a Civil Service Education and
Training Policy with the objective of contributing to the federal and regional efforts
of government. The centre aims on building public sector capacity through short-
term education and training programmes extending to two weeks, one or three
months, and consultancy services in areas of civil service programmes. The
education and training programmes include amongst others Policy Development
and Management, Decision-Making Skills, Public Finance Management, Legal
Studies, and Urban Development (ECSU, 2012b).

Details of the training programmes currently being offered by the Centre for
Training and Consultancy at the ECSU are indicated in Table 5.2.

Table 5-2: Education and training programmes offered at the Centre for Training and
Consultancy (CTC) at the ECSU
Areas of civil service training
Public financial Urban development
Civil service reform Legal studies
management studies
 Change Management  Accounting and
 Administrative  Contract
Reporting
Law and Administration
 Civil Service Ethics Contracts
 Customs
 Information
 Communication Skills Administration
 Basic Concept Technology and
of Law of Techniques for
 Community  International Contracts Urban
Participation and Organisations and
Management
Development Conventions
 Basic Concepts
of Criminal Law  Integrated
 Conflict Management,  Customs Laws and
Infrastructure
and Decision-Making Enforcement
 Basic Principles Provision and
Skills of Property Law Management
 Debt and Aid
 Diversity and Civil Management
 Civil Procedure  Integrated Urban
Service Organisations Development
 Ethiopian Tax
 Constitutional Planning and
 Employees‟ Laws
Law Implementation
Recruitment and
Selection  External Auditing
 Criminal  Local Economic

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  Good Governance  Government Procedure Development
Accounting
 Government  Introduction to  Municipal
Expenditure  Harmonized Law and Law of Finance
Management System Persons
Classification and  Solid Waste
 Human Resource Coding System  Labour Law Management
Management and
Development  In-year Fiscal  Law of Business  Surveying
Adjustment Organisation
 Human Resource  Urban
Planning, and Job  Legislature and  Law of Evidence Governance
Grading Accountability
(transparency)  Law of Extra-  Urban Housing
Contractual
 Management Liability  Urban Land
 Leadership Control and Management
Development Internal Audit  Law of Family
Programme and Succession  Urban Law
 Payroll and Human
 Performance Planning Resource  Law of Trade  Urban
and Management Management and Competition Management
and Regulation
 Performance-Related  Procurement  Urban Social
Pay  Special Development
 Revenue Raising Contracts
 Policy Development and Management  Urban Transport
and Management
 Revenues and
 Project Planning and Expenditures
Management Forecasting

 Public Property  Rules of Origin

Management
 Sector Allocation
 Public Service Delivery
 Sector Planning
 Strategic Planning and and Budgeting
Management
 Standard
 Tolerance, Top Integrated
Management System Government

 Education and Training  Tax Accounting

Needs Assessment and Tax Auditing
and Evaluation
 Tax Administration
 Customs
Administration  Tax Administration
System (SIGTAS)
 International
Organisations and  Treasury, Cash
Conventions Management

 Customs Laws and

Enforcement

Source: Adapted from ECSU (2012b)

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Table 5.2 shows that training at the Centre for Training and Consultancy (CTC) in the
ECSU mainly considers operations management and administrative aspects like
employees‟ recruitment and selection, accounting and reporting, surveying, and civil
procedures. Training with regard to policy only forms part of civil service reform training;
however, policy training could also benefit the other education and training programmes
being provided by the centre since policy education and training can help trainees
acquire basic skills required in the public policy process that could benefit them in the
work that they do.

It can therefore be concluded that all ten universities in Ethiopia that offer courses in
public administration include policy knowledge and skills in their curriculums to students.
It can also be concluded that policy is viewed as an important part of public
administration education in Ethiopia. It was further determined that of the ten
universities that offer public administration education, six universities, namely Ambo,
Dilla, Dire Dawa, Haromaya, Mekelle and Wolaita Sodo only offer undergraduate public
administration education to students, which limits students‟ access to education in
public administration further. One university, namely Jimma University, offers master‟s
degrees in public administration. Whereas Wollega University offers both undergraduate
and master‟s degrees in public administration, the ECSU offers only master‟s and PhD
degrees in the field of public administration. Addis Ababa University is therefore the only
university in Ethiopia that offers undergraduate, postgraduate master‟s and PhD
degrees in the field of public administration.

It can therefore be concluded that, although public policy knowledge and skills are being
provided by all ten universities that offer courses in public administration in Ethiopia,
public administration education is still very limited, especially considering it is only being
provided in three of the ten federating states, namely in the State of Oromia, the State
of Tigray and the State of SNNP. Public policy knowledge and skills in public
administration is very limited in relation to the need for a properly educated and trained
civil service, staffed with civil servants that meet a clear understanding of and who are

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competent enough to actively engage in the process of public policy making (MCS,
2007:75).

5.5.2 Professional training institutions

Apart from the universities mentioned above that provide education at an under- and
postgraduate level, training institutions were established with the objective of providing
in-service training to incumbents of specific professional jobs, such as public
administration and management, law, medicine and engineering. These institutions in
Ethiopia include amongst others the Ethiopia Management Institute (EMI), the Ethiopian
Federal Justice Organs Professionals Training Centre (EFJOPTC), the Ethiopian
Institute of Financial Studies (EIFS), the Ethiopian Aviation Academy (EAA), the
Ethiopian National Public Health Training Centre (ENPHTC), and the Graduate School
of Telecommunications & Information Technology (GSTIT).

Most in-service training institutions are found in Addis Ababa and offer tailor-made and
regular training programmes. The EMI provides training programmes focusing on
Ethiopian civil servants working in ministerial office (EMI, 2012).

Along with the EMI, at federal level, some regional states with a large population and
large territories, such as the State of Oromia, the State of Amhara and the State of
SNNP, have management institutions to train their civil servants. However, Ethiopian
public institutes at the federal level of government are by far stronger in infrastructural
development and have more human and material resources than any of the federating
states in the country to accomplish their mission and provide training.

With more than fifty years of experience, the EMI works with a mission to enable the
civil service and other institutions so that they can provide sustained, efficient and
effective services, by rendering training, research and consultancy services (EMI,2012).
EMI provides a number of training programmes annually on a number of relevant topics,
for example Strategic Planning and Management (SPM), Project Planning,
Implementation, Monitoring and Evaluation to help address the Public Service Capacity

133
Building Programme in the country (EMI, 2012). Table 5.3 below presents a detailed list
of the short training programmes provided by the EMI (EMI, 2012).

Table 5-3: Training programmes (regular/tailor-made) carried out by the EMI

EMI: TAILOR-MADE TRAINING PROGRAMMES

COURSE NAME OBJECTIVE TARGET GROUP

Enhance the capacity of
1. Transformational leaders to transform Leaders, directors, team
Leadership and themselves so that they can leaders and members of same
Coaching effectively realise their organisation
mission
Enhance participants‟
awareness of change and
2. Facilitating Change Current and future
support the change process
Through Team organisational leaders, team
by building an effective team
Building members and change agents
in their respective
organisations
3. Managing Provide participants with
Senior, middle and first-line
Organisational understanding of change
managers
Change management
Provide trainees with
conceptual, technical and
4. Business Process practical knowledge, Senior, middle and first-line
Engineering (BPR) methodology and tools used managers and change agents
to process the business
engineering
Enable trainees to acquire
Senior, middle and first-line
5. Development of New knowledge and skills on new
managers, human resource
Values and Beliefs values and beliefs as bases of
experts and change agents
organisational transformation
Enable participants to
6. Management formulate and implement
Executive, managers
Performance organisational strategies and
operational plans
Provide participants with
7. Job and Job analysts, consultants,
knowledge, skills and tools
Organisational human resource management
required to design jobs and
Design officers
organisational structures
Make participants understand
8. Result-based results the chain, indicators, Senior, middle, first-line
Management (RBM) and performance managers, planning officers
management framework
Develop participants‟ skills on
9. Goods and goods and equipment Public sector procurement
Equipment procurement to carry out staff, World Bank
Procurement procurement functions of the coordinators, financial
Management World Bank and other projects development partners
partners

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 Equip participants with the
10. Managing Meeting knowledge, skills and attitude Individuals attending/leading
for Result in managing meeting for meetings frequently
result
EMI: REGULAR TRAINING PROGRAMMES
Increase the efficiency and
Executive assistants,
effectiveness of executive
11. Advanced Office administrative assistants,
secretaries and assistants in
Operations executive secretaries and
helping their managers and
senior secretaries
serving customers
Enable participants to
understand their role and
12. Basic Management improve their managerial Current and potential first-line
Skills performance based on some managers
practical concepts and skills
of management
Increase understanding and
skills on contemporary
managerial communication
13. Managerial Current and potential
issues and improve
Communications managers
managerial performance
through effective
communication practices
14. Competency-based Provide a comprehensive Managers, supervisors,
Human Resource view about competency- process owners and human
Management (HRM) based HRM resource professionals
Information desk staff, public
relations officers, customer
15. Customer Service Upgrade participants‟
service representatives,
for Business Sector, knowledge, skills and
financial clerks, cash
and Non-Business attitudes about customer
collectors, cashiers, front-line
sector service
staff, administrative and
clerical staff, team leaders
Provide basic understanding
Non-financial managers/non-
16. Accounting for Non- of accounting and finance to
accounting background
Accountants communicate effectively with
managers
financial executives
Familiarise concepts and
Accountants involved in the
17. Financial principles of financial
preparation of financial
Accounting accounting and describe its
reports
functions, nature and purpose
Enhance understanding of the
18. Gender and concept and process of Women affairs managers and
Development gender and its interrelations staff, gender focal persons,
Management with macro- and micro-level development project planners
development process
Strengthen the response of
19. HIV/AIDS institutions in actions,
Managers, professionals
Mainstreaming preventions and control of
HIV/AIDS
20. Human Resource Recognise human resources HRM leaders and
Management for competitive advantage professionals

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 Enable target group to
21. Incentive Scheme Human resource specialists,
establish/develop incentive
Development experts and consultants
systems
22. Information
Enable leaders and managers
Systems and Managers, experts, decision-
to tackle ICT problems and
Technology makers
challenges
Management
Enable target group –
 to set up effective
internal audit system;
23. Internal Auditing
and
(Finance & Non- Auditors
 to ensure efficient,
Finance)
effective and economic
use of organisational
resources
24. Job Evaluation and Enable target group to
Human resource managers,
Salary Scale undertake job evaluation and
job analysts
Construction salary-scale constructions
Equip target group with
25. Managing Conflict in knowledge and skills on how Organisational leaders, team
Organisation to convert organisational leaders
conflicts into opportunities
26. Management Equip participants with
Advisors/consultants
Consultancy Skill consulting skills
Enable target group to
27. Physical Resource Senior and middle managers,
manage total materials at
Management material operation officers
optimum cost
Enable target group to play
28. Productivity Middle and first-line managers
expected roles in productivity
Improvement and experts
improvement programmes
Enable target group to use
29. Programme programme budgeting
Budget experts
Budgeting techniques and prepare
annual budget
Provide target group with
Project managers, planners,
30. Project Monitoring concepts, tools, techniques
coordinators, monitoring and
and Evaluation and systems to carry out
evaluation professionals
project-monitoring evaluation
Provide with the techniques
and tools to formulate a
31. Project Planning, project proposal, plan Project planners, managers,
Implementation, implementation, prepare department heads in federal
Monitoring and project, effectively design and ministries and regional
Evaluation manage project monitoring bureaus
and conduct project
evaluation
32. Public Expenditure Introduce public expenditure Budget and finance
Management management concept government staff
Develop systematic control of
33. Records creation, receipt, maintenance Records office manager,
Management use and disposition of records officer
records

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 Advisors/consultants, board
34. Strategic Planning Help target group in
members, general managers,
and Management formulating strategies fitting
heads, planning Officers,
(SPM) specific situations
analysts
Align overall work on the
35. Strategic Customer
needs and requirements of Leaders, department heads
Management
customers
Enable target group to
Leaders,
36. Time and Stress manage time effectively and
supervisors/managers, team
Management efficiently, and decrease
leaders
stress
37. Total Maintenance Implement effective Operation maintenance senior
Management maintenance system and middle managers

38. Total Quality Develop TQM as one of Top and middle managers,
Management (TQM) management philosophy quality professionals
Trainers, education and
39. Education and Enable participants to
training officers, human
Training of Trainers become qualified trainers
resource heads and experts
40. Education and
Trainers, education and
Training Effectively manage education
training officers, human
Management in and training in organisations
resource heads and experts
Organisations
41. Employee Develop and apply employee
Performance performance management Managers
Management system
42. Managing Enable target group to
Organisational leaders, heads,
Organisational perform duties with required
ethics officers, experts
Ethics mode of ethics
Source: Adapted from the EMI (2012)

Table 5.3 shows that the EMI provides training to both the public sector and business
sector organisations on a regular and tailor-made basis. The training programmes target
those people in managerial and leadership positions, professionals and experts, and
focus on major aspects of management and accounting functions such as human
resource management, public expenditure management and auditing. The objectives of
the training mainly give due emphasis to enabling incumbents to perform their duties
well. Some training programmes, for example on strategic planning and management
and project management can help advisors/consultants, board members, general
managers, department heads, planning officers and analysts acquire some basic policy
skills in formulating and implementing strategies and projects fitting specific situations.

137
However, as far as policy training is concerned, the EMI does not focus on training civil
servants specifically in the process of public policy making, implementation and
analysis.

5.5.3 Government ministries training units

The Ethiopian ministries and the council they constitute altogether form the executive
branch of government in the federal state (HPR, 1995a:89). The executive branch
comprises the cabinet and the bureaucracy, and carries out government business,
manages its actions, performs day-to-day actions and implements the laws of the land
(HPR, 1995a:85). Accordingly, the council (see section 2.5), among its other powers
and functions, formulates and implements policies and strategies (HPR, 1995a:89).
Each ministry initiates policies, prepares and implements plans and budgets,
undertakes capacity building activities, conducts studies and research, and collects and
disseminates information in its jurisdictions (HPR, 2010:5630). Table 5.4 shows the
working unit responsible for facilitating and undertaking civil service training in each of
these ministries.

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Table 5-4: Training units in the Ethiopian government ministerial offices

Ministry Training facilitating/Undertaking section Areas of training underway

1. Government
Communication Media Research & Capacity Building Awareness of government policies and strategies; public
Communication Affairs
Directorate relation tools
Office
Awareness of government policies and strategies;
2. Ministry of Federal Affairs Management and Administration
conflict resolutions
Awareness of government policies and strategies;
Human Resource Management Directorate
finance; administration
3. Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Ethiopian International Institution for Peace and
Diplomacy
Development (EIIDP)
Human Resource Development & Administration Awareness of government policies and strategies;
4. Ministry of Justice Directorate administration; audit
The Justice Sector Personnel Training Centre Justice system
Awareness of government policies and strategies; human
Human Resource Development Sector Office
5. Ministry of Civil Service resource use
ECSU Training Centre (see Table 5.2)
6. Ministry of Finance and Human Resource Development & Administration Awareness of government policies and strategies;
Economic Development Directorate finance; procurement
Human Resource Development & Administration Awareness of government policies and strategies;
7. Ministry of Agriculture
Directorate environment;
Awareness of government policies and strategies;
Management and Administration
8. Ministry of Industry performance measure
Ethiopian Kaizen Institute Production materials handling
Awareness of government policies and strategies;
9. Ministry of Trade Civil Service Reform Office
investment; licensing
10. Ministry of Science and Awareness of government policies and strategies;
Human Resource Capacity Building Directorate
Technology networking; web
Awareness of government policies and strategies;
11. Ministry of Transport Sector Capacity Building Directorate transport management

Awareness of government policies and strategies;

12. Ministry of Human Resource Management Department
communications
Communications and
Communication & Information Technology Capacity
Information Technology Public relations
Building Directorate
13. Ministry of Urban Awareness of government policies and strategies; urban
Research and Capacity Building Department
Development and planning
Construction Urban Good Governance and Capacity Building Bureau Urban sewerage management
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 Awareness of government policies and strategies; water
14. Ministry of Water and Research and Development Directorate
resource use
Energy
Water Technology Training centre Water technology management
Awareness of government policies and strategies; audit;
Human Resource Development & Management Process
15. Ministry of Mines procurement
Mines Sector Research & Development Core Process Mining management
16. Ministry of Education Human Resource Development & Administration Awareness of government policies and strategies;
Directorate administration; finance
Awareness of government policies and strategies;
Health Regulatory Bodies Capacity Building Directorate
17. Ministry of Health procurement; finance
National Public Health Training Centre Public health care
18. Ministry of Labour And Awareness of government policies and strategies; labour
Management and Administration
Social Affairs laws; finance
Awareness of government policies and strategies;
19. Ministry of Culture and Management and Administration
communications
Tourism
Catering and Tourism Training centre Catering and tourism
20. Ministry of Women, Awareness of government policies and strategies,
Management and Administration
Children and Youth children‟s rights, family law

Source: Adapted from MoFED (2012)

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Table 5.4 shows that all the ministries undertake training in the current public policies
and strategies of the country. The objective of this training is to ensure that civil
servants become aware of government key policy and strategy documents. Such
government documents include the national strategy and policy documents on capacity
building, trade and industry policy and strategy documents, and documents on the
national foreign relations and security policy and strategy.

Table 5.4 also shows that civil service training in all Ethiopian ministerial offices is
facilitated by a section entrusted with the authority to develop human resources in each
ministry and in coordination with the Ministry of Civil Service. The training programme is
usually undertaken either by training centres or training institutes of the ministries
themselves or by the ECSU Training Centre or by the EMI or by some other bodies as
organised and facilitated by the ministries‟ training unities. Table 5.4 further indicates
those ministries with a specific section to facilitate training activities as well as a
professional training institute, for example the Justice Sector Personnel Training Centre
for civil servants in the Ministry of Justice, the Ethiopian International Institution for
Peace and Development (EIIDP) for Foreign Affairs, and the National Public Health
Training Centre (NPHTC) for civil servants in the Ministry of Health. The table also
shows those ministries with facilitating sections only such as the Ministries of Trade,
Education, Industry and Transport.

Training programmes offered in the training sections and by internal training experts of
each ministry mainly focus on issues such as awareness creation in areas of
government strategy documents, affirmative action, performance management,
HIV/AIDS prevention, complaints handling and anti-corruption procedures (MCS,
2014:). As far as policy is concerned, the training units in the ministries mainly provide
an awareness of policies within government. No formal public policy training is being
provided. The civil servants in the ministries thus are not provided with training in the
process involved in public policy making, implementation and analysis in government.

After evaluating the education and training programmes offered by universities,

professional training institutions and the training provided by government ministries, it is
141
clear that the universities of Addis Ababa, Jimma, Dilla, Dire Dawa, Haromaya, Mekelle,
Wolaita Sodo, Wollega and the ECSU include public policy knowledge and skills in their
public administration curriculum at undergraduate and postgraduate level. The EMI
does not include any public policy in its courses, and the training units responsible for
training in government ministries mainly emphasise awareness of civil servants
concerning government policies and strategies.

Since universities in Ethiopia are the institutions that predominantly provide policy
education to future civil servants of the country and only ten universities in selected
regions offer public administration education that includes policy education, it could
result in a lack of competent policy-skilled civil servants. The education these
universities deliver is of pre-service format and does not comprise in-service training,
which students obtain before joining the civil service. This is concerning since as
indicated in Table 2.3, a large number of civil servants are appointed after leaving
school and never attend a university. Those civil servants will therefore not have any
policy knowledge or skills. As also indicated in Chapter 2, Ethiopia needs quality
educated and trained civil servants to strengthen the policy capacity of its government.
Successful policy implementation depends on policy skills and knowledge and planning
from the outset how the policy will be delivered. Accordingly, civil servants engaged in
the process of policy making should have the skills and tool to understand what works,
based on vigorous evidence. They should also be able to scan the horizon better for
threats and opportunities ahead (see section 2.7). The awareness of policies, as
provided by the training institutions, will not provide a civil servant with enough policy
knowledge and skills to be competent in the performance of policy tasks.

5.6 CONCUSION

Chapter 5 provided an overview of the public administration education and training

setting in Ethiopia. The chapter indicated that universities in Ethiopia are the main
providers of public policy education through the Departments of Public Administration at
ten universities in three states. The geographical concentration of these providers of
capacity building programmes is thus a major indicator of the accessibility of these
142
interventions to civil servants. In addition to the other indicators of accessibility identified
in chapter 2 (the size (extent of area) of the distinct geographical areas (states), the
population density of a geographical area, and the number of civil servants in a
geographical area), this research thus has shown that the accessibility of capacity
building interventions can be assessed through the following framework:

 the number and size (extent of area) of the distinct geographical areas (states)
(chapter 2)
 the population density of a geographical area (state) (chapter 2)
 the number of civil servants in a geographical area (state) (chapter 2)
 the geographical concentration of providers of capacity building interventions
(universities)
By applying the above accessibility framework, this chapter has shown that only ten out
of the 32 universities in Ethiopia offer public administration as a subject. Furthermore,
this chapter has shown that these ten universities are geographically concentrated in
three of the nine states of Ethiopia. Consequently, it is evident that most of the citizens,
students and civil servants in Ethiopia have restricted access to public administration or
public policy education. Since no in-service training on policy is being provided to civil
servants, it was concluded that the accessibility of public policy education and training in
Ethiopia is restricted and consequently does not meet the needs of the country.

The next chapter, Chapter 6 reports on an analysis of the policy curriculum used by the
ten Ethiopian universities that offer public administration education at under- and
postgraduate level to determine which policy knowledge and skills are being provided to
public administration students who will become future civil servants.

143
 6 CHAPTER 6

PUBLIC POLICY CURRICULAFOR ETHIOPIAN CIVIL SERVANTS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 5 reviewed all the public administration education and training programmes
currently being provided to Ethiopian civil servants. Chapter 5 showed that the training
institutions in Ethiopia only provide an awareness of policy and do not focus on
providing policy knowledge and skills; therefore, policy education is only provided by
universities.

This chapter provides an overview of the public policy curriculums that are being used
by the ten Ethiopian universities to teach public policy making and analysis to
undergraduate and postgraduate public administration students. In addition to
consideration of the curriculums of public policy being taught to students in Ethiopia, this
chapter also provides an evaluation of the public policy content being taught to students
against the public policy knowledge and skills which a civil servant in Ethiopia should
have, as identified in 2.7. This review is done to determine whether the public policy
curriculums being taught support the public policy knowledge and skills that a civil
servant in Ethiopia should have.

Chapter 6 relies heavily on the reading and analysis of the policy curriculums contained
in the public administration degrees offered in Ethiopia. Each of the ten universities
offering public administration courses was contacted to obtain the policy curriculums
that they were using at the time of the study before analysing the content to see what
was included.

6.2 PUBLIC POLICY CURRICULUMS

As was indicated in Chapter 5, the following universities offer public administration

education: Addis Ababa University, Ambo University, Dilla University, Dire Dawa
University, ECSU, Haromaya University, Jimma University, Mekelle University, Wolaita
144
Sodo University, and Wollega University. Chapter 5 also indicated that the public
administration curriculums being provided by these universities include policy education
to students. The course, Public Policy making, Analysis and Evaluation, forms part of
the degree in public management at undergraduate level, and public management and
public policy at postgraduate level. Next the content of the undergraduate policy
curriculum will be explained.

6.2.1 Undergraduate curriculums: Public Policy making, Analysis and

Evaluation (PPAE)

As previously mentioned, six of the ten universities only offer public policy education to
public administration students as part of the undergraduate degree in public
administration and development management. Wollega University and Addis Ababa
University provide public policy education to public administration students as part of
both the undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. However, since both these
universities offers policy education at undergraduate level, the content of their
undergraduate policy education is discussed here as well.

After evaluating the curriculum of the different universities, it was found that the
curriculums that were being used for undergraduate students in the subject Public
Administration at the time of the current research were the same for all eight
universities. The course Public Policy making, Analysis and Evaluation is provided to all
students enrolled for a BA degree in public administration and development
management in the fourth semester of study at all universities that provide
undergraduate public administration education. The course Public Policy making,
Analysis and Evaluation comprises seven units of study, namely:

 Unit 1: Basic Concepts in public policy

The outcomes of this unit are–

 defining the concept of public policy (students of public administration should
be able to explain the reason why public policy should be studied);
 understanding the features of making a good policy;
145
  understanding the different types of public policies; and
 understanding the impacts that public policies can have(PPAE, 2012:2)

This unit furthermore explains the meaning and nature of public policy by looking at
the various definitions of public policy as provided by different authors like Nicholas
Henry, Marshal Dimock, James Anderson and Yehezkel Dror. The origin of public
policy, reactive and proactive policy responses and the need for public policy are
discussed. The implications of public policy are explained in terms of its nature that
states public policy is goal oriented (PPAE, 2012:3)

This unit provides public administration students with knowledge about the
significance of and rationales for the study of public policy. Specific reasons for
studying public policy include the need to:
 understand the causes and consequences of policy decisions scientifically
(scientific reasons);
 apply social science knowledge professionally to solve societal problems
(professional reasons); and
 ensure that the country adopts the “right” policies to achieve the “right” goals
( PPAE, 2012:4).

The need for a strengthened and strategic policy capacity that demands
professionalism and competences on the part of civil servants involved in the policy
making process as a rationale for studying public policy were also highlighted (see
section 3.4), and the responsibility of the civil service in providing vigorous advice
that will enable government to make informed decisions on public policy issues (see
section 3.5).

In addition, this unit discusses the features of public policy making and asserts
policy making as a continuous set of interrelated activities that involve many
components which are interconnected by communication and feedback. Policy
making differs from decision-making since it deals with macro level or broader

146
 issues within a relatively longer period and provides a policy framework within which
decisions are made (PPAE, 2012:5–9).

 Unit 2: Models of public policy making

The outcomes of this unit are:

 an understanding of how public policies are analysed with the application of
policy models, for example the institutional model, systems model, process
model, rational model;
 knowledge of theoretical and conceptual policy frameworks through which
societal problems are analysed;
 an understanding of how policy models are constructed;
 reasons why a certain policy model is preferred to others, and
 an understanding of the varieties of policy models and how they are used in
public policy processes ( PPAE, 2012:12)

This unit facilitates the learning of various perspectives of conceptual models,

namely the institutional model, process model, group model, elite model, rational
model, incremental model and systems model (PPAE, 2012:13–19).

The unit indicates the importance of model applications in the public policy process,
for example to simplify and clarify students‟ thinking about politics and public policy,
to identify important aspects of policy problems, and to direct students‟ efforts to
understand public policy. It also discusses that each policy model provides a unique
life. The incremental model‟s existing programmes, policies and expenditures are for
instance considered as a base that can help to understand the different aspects of
public policy.

 Unit 3: Powers and actors in public policy making

The outcomes of this unit are:

 an understanding of how power is exercised in the policy making process;

147
  the ability of policymakers to win in social conflicts and secure policy goals in
the face of opposition;
 reasons why power is the central theme in policy making and administration;
and
 an understanding of what is meant when the term policy making power is
being used (PPAE, 2012:21).

This unit explains the perspectives from which power can be seen. for example the
capacity to define public problems and place them on governmental agendas for
action, or the ability to secure a desired outcome over all opponents in an open
conflict situation, the possession of resources to prevail in future conflict situations,
and the capacity to direct groups and institutions. The elitist, pluralist, bureaucratic
and coalitional nature of power structure and its sources are also discussed in this
unit (PPAE, 2012:22). .

In addition, the unit explains how citizens, institutions and authorities influence the
policy making process. This includes official role players such as legislators,
executives and judges who are largely empowered in the process of policy making.
See in this regard also section 2.5, which states that a public policy sets out what
the legislators, the executives and the judges as government agencies visualise to
attain, while unofficial role players, such as interest groups, political parties and
individual citizens also influence public policy process without possessing legal
authority to make binding policy decisions (PPAE, 2012: 29).

 Unit 4: Public policy process

The outcomes of this unit are:

 an understanding of the public policy process;
 knowledge of how public policies are made;
 an understanding of the various stages in the policy process, namely
problem identification, agenda setting, policy formulation, policy/adopting
policy legitimating, implementing policy; and

148
  policy evaluation and change (PPAE, 2012:31).

Determining the gap between the actual and the desired situation is the first stage in
the public policy process, and forms part of this unit (PPAE, 2012:32). Many people
in the policy making process are deeply involved in problem identification, and their
personal ideology and values are likely to influence how the problem is defined
(PPAE, 2012:32). The activity of listing issues that warrant serious consideration for
the making of a policy agenda as the second stage in the public policy process (see
section 2.5) is also considered in this unit. Other stages of policy making explained
include policy formulation, implementation and evaluation (PPAE, 2012:35–40). The
content of this unit is thus relevant to public policy making in the civil service that
could benefit public administration students and is in line with the focus of the
course, namely to provide students with public policy making, analysis and
evaluation knowledge.

 Unit 5: The Process of policy analysis and policy inquiry

The outcomes of this unit are:

 an understanding of the reason and ethics in public policy analysis;
 knowledge of the forms and principles of policy analysis;
 an understanding of how the creation and critical assessment of knowledge
claims based on the information are important in analysing public policies;
 knowledge of the methodology of policy inquiry;
 an understanding of what is meant by policy analysis; and
 knowledge of the processes and strategies of policy communication (PPAE,
2012:45–58).

Policy analysis requires a systematic, reasoned and critical examination of values

that is relevant as well as information that is interpreted depending on assumptions
contained in the frame of reference, theory or ideology of policy analysts and other
policy stakeholders (PPAE, 2012:50). Values are best considered as non-rational

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 expressions of individual desires or emotions. Policy papers are explained in terms
of points that indicate, for example (PPAE, 2012:50) –
 how policy problems are formulated in their scope and severity;
 the extent of public actions a policy requires and the likely consequences if
the public fails to act;
 the goals and objectives that should be pursued in solving the problem;
 major policy options available; and
 the ways policy implementations are monitored and evaluated.

The unit specifically focuses on policy analysis and the processes involved in policy
analysis, and provide public administration students with knowledge and skills on
policy analysis processes that can be followed to analyse a policy.

 Unit 6: Ascertaining the quality of policy making process and standards of

appraising policy making

The outcomes of this unit are:

 an understanding of policy ascertainment;
 knowledge about the criteria for ascertaining the quality of public policy
making; and
 an understanding of the different standards of appraising policy making
(PPAE, 2012:60–71).

According to this unit, ascertainment of policy making processes involves

determining the actual level of quality of the policy process using and appraising the
ascertained quality standards (PPAE, 2012:60–71).

Standards to appraise the ascertained policy quality are also considered. Some
standards are identified as a tool for policy ascertainment, which include past
qualities, quality of other systems, desired quality, professional standards of quality,
survival quality, planned quality and optimal quality (PPAE, 2012:72–78).

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 Unit 7: Public policy making: Ethiopian experiences and cases

The outcomes of this unit are:

 an understanding of the major policy provisions in the Ethiopian constitutional
framework and their intended implications or effects in the lives of the
Ethiopian citizenry;
 the types of public policies practiced in Ethiopia; and
 the principal policy making bodies (PPAE, 2012:80–84).

In this unit, policy provisions are explained in detail indicating the federal
Constitution as the prime source to ensure that sectorial public policies, specific
case studies and comments on particular public policies are made accordingly
(PPAE, 2012:65). Apart from the constitutional framework of policy provisions, the
three important features of the federal Constitution, namely federalism, democratic
republicanism, and socio-economic political philosophy are also explained (PPAE,
2012:83). The structure of government is explained along with the separation of
power and justifications why federal arrangement is important for Ethiopia. This was
also mentioned in chapter two (see section 2.5),where it was stated that Ethiopia is
a federal state with a parliamentary form of government having a clear
differentiation between the head of the state and the head of the government
(PPAE, 2012:69).

The unit explains the thrust areas of the Ethiopian Constitution in terms of
eradication of poverty, civil rights, environmental protection, peaceful foreign
relations, and the defence forces to protect sovereignty and democracy, and
establishing a socially, economically, politically and culturally prosperous and
enriched country (PPAE, 2012:85).National policy principles and objectives, stated
in the federal Constitution of Ethiopia, regarding external relationships, national
defence and socio-cultural and environmental, economic and political objectives are
also discussed in this unit.

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 Lastly, general provisions regarding plurality and compositeness of public policy
making are considered in this unit. Several persons and institutions involved in the
policy making process such as the HPR, the prime minister and the Council of
Ministers, civil servants, pressure groups and professionals are also discussed in
this unit.

From the above it is clear that the content of the curriculums for Public Policy
making, Analysis and Evaluation include aspects of policy knowledge and skills that
can benefit students. For example, the students learn which aspects form part of the
public policy process starting from delineating the policy issue and setting the policy
agenda to policy evaluation and change (PPAE, 2012:89). Different models of
public policy making are explained that constitute frameworks within which social
processes and problems are identified and the process of policy analysis, which
includes policy argumentation, communication and the methods of policy enquiry, is
explained (PPAE, 2012:93). Information is also provided on public policy making in
Ethiopia, specifically that which includes the legislative structure of government
(PPAE, 2012:92).

Next, the curriculums provided at master‟s level are evaluated to determine whether
the content offered to master‟s students in public administration include the policy
knowledge and skills that they need. The master‟s degrees are offered by Addis
Ababa University, Jimma University, Wollega University and the ECSU. All these
universities make use of the same curriculum, namely Public Policy making and
Analysis.

6.2.2 Masters curriculums: Public policy making and analysis (PPA)

The Master‟s curriculum for Public Policy making and Analysis is divided into six
units, namely:

 Unit 1: The study of public policy

The outcomes of this unit are:

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  an understanding of the „what‟ and the „why‟ of public policy; and
 Public policy categories and the approaches to policy studies.

In this unit, the meaning of public policy and its objectives are explained in detail.
This includes definitions of public policy by different scholars like Anderson
(1975:38) who explains decisions or courses of action made by a government to
solve a social problem and adopt a specific strategy for its planning and
implementation as public policy (PPA, 2012).

This unit provides postgraduate students of public administration with knowledge

about the objectives as to why public policies are made, such as reducing poverty,
promoting economic competitiveness, or protecting the environment (PPA,
2012:23). The unit indicates that politics and public policies have strong
relationships that cannot be isolated from each other. Public policies, for example
help to reconcile conflicting claims over scarce resources, establish incentives for
cooperation and collective action and that government influence in that regard
remains vital. The unit also explains the categories of public policies that are based
on purposes, and identifies the types of public policies as distributive, regulatory,
self-regulatory and redistributive (Milakovich & Gordon, 2013: 378). Approaches to
policy making, such as innovative and creative approaches and forward and
outward-looking approaches are also discussed in the unit (PPA, 2012:26).

 Unit 2: The Process of Public Policy Formulation and Adoption

The outcomes of this unit are:

 an understanding of the policy environment;
 the process of policy making;
 identifying the role players in the policy process; and
 standards for evaluating public policy making (PPA, 2012:25).

This unit provides students with information about the political context within which
public policy is formulated, and the perspectives (normative/empirical,
intended/unintended consequences, direct/indirect impacts and costs) through
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 which public policies are appraised (Sidney, 2007: 81). This unit includes the stages
of interrelated activities involved in public policy making, for example defining the
problem, agenda setting and policy formulation (Milakovich & Gordon, 2013: 386).

This unit further includes aspects on the agenda-setting process. It explains an

agenda as issues or problems that warrant serious consideration for the making or
remaking of policy, and that public and policymakers must recognise the issue as a
problem (PPA, 2012:21). The mere existence of a problem is no guarantee that it
will attract government attention. Many problems that government could potentially
address never capture its attention due to the competition for agenda space
(Birkland, 2007:65). Energy issues are, for instance, rarely raised on the policy
agenda while the underlying problems remain for years (PPA, 2012:26).

 Unit 3: Models of public policy making

The outcomes of this unit are:

 an understanding of the models of public policy making and knowledge of
how public policies are made;
 understanding how theories such as rational–comprehensive, disjoint–
incremental, Lindblom‟s science of muddling through (Lindblom, 1959:81),
Arrow‟s impossibility theorem, (Geanakoplos, 2005: 213 & 214), bounded
rationality and mixed scanning (Ezioni, 1999:318; Selten, 2001:14) can be
used in the process of public policy making.

Providing an understanding of the role of models in the process of public policy

making forms an important part of this unit (PPA, 2012:31–46) and the different
types of models of public policy making are explained in detail.

A model is a simplified representation of some aspect of the real world (PPA,

2012:31). This content of the unit is thus relevant to monitor developments in the
actual political context and to provide advice and recommendations to respond to
the changing context, to focus on the ever-changing environmental situation, or to
plan and work for strategic outcomes that could benefit public administration
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 students. The content is therefore in line with the focus of the module, namely public
policy analysis (PPA).

 Unit 4: Policy Implementation

The outcomes of this unit are:

 an understanding of the public policy implementation process;
 knowledge of government and nongovernment institutions and role players
in the policy process;
 an understanding of a conceptual framework of the implementation process;
and
 the criteria for policy recommendation as well as the recommendations for
policy actions and decisions (PPA, 2012:47:47).

The aspects important for policy recommendation like conciseness, readability and
accuracy of the recommendation, and the form and quality of argumentation are all
part of this unit. The way policy objectives and resources are related to the
prevailing socio-economic and political conditions and to the characteristics of the
implementing agencies (see section 3.3.1) are also looked at in this unit (PPA,
2012:58).

 Unit 5: Evaluating Policy Performance and Monitoring

The outcomes of this unit are:

 an understanding of public policy evaluation;
 knowledge about the nature and functions of evaluation in public policy
analysis;
 an understanding of the criteria that can help to evaluate policy;
 knowledge about the effect that the public policy may have;
 knowledge about policy issues; and
 problems in the policy evaluation and monitoring process.

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 Evaluation in policy analysis is explained in this unit as the major component in the
policy process that principally focuses on the effects of a policy (PPA, 2012:59). The
evaluation of policy analysis is explained in terms of –
 policy accomplishments;
 consequences that the policy could have;
 people and the public policy beneficiaries;
 consequences of the policy evaluation;
 demands for change and repeal; and
 identification of new policy problems.

Policy making approaches that reveal a pledge to policy evaluation comprise among
others a clearly identified purpose, delineated success criteria, means of evaluation
built into the policy making process from the beginning, and the use of pilots to
sway the effect the policy might have (PPA, 2012:59–67).

This unit focuses on the evaluation of public policy making and analysis. It provides
a public administration student with knowledge on the nature and characteristics of
public policy, the approaches and models of public policies, and ways to consider
and balance policy elements that are identified as evidence, politics and delivery.

 Unit 6: Special Topics in public Policy making and Analysis

The outcomes of this unit are:

 an understanding of issues and challenges of policy making in developing
countries;
 knowledge about a policy paper; and
 a policy memorandum (PPA, 2012:68–84).

In this unit, issues and challenges of policy making in developing countries, for
example a lack of a strong bureaucratic base and concentration of power in the
hands of government coupled with less responsiveness to policies and the
legislature are explained in detail to ensure that students can identify policy
problems in their states. Apart from the issues and challenges, issues regarding
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policy papers are also explained (PPA, 2012:69–74). Focus and forms of policy
papers are explained before looking at elements of the policy paper. Policy papers
can address policy problems in a variety of issues areas such as education and
health, crime and human rights. The policy papers may take the form of staff
reports, White Papers, briefing papers or option papers, and may focus, for
example, on whether a city manager should install a computerised management
information system, or whether the HPR should support a bill restricting migration of
Ethiopians to Arab states to be employed as domestic helps (Young & Quinn, 2002:
18). Elements of the policy paper, along with policy informational components of
policy outcome, policy performance, policy futures and policy actions and policy-
analytic methods of monitoring, evaluation, problem structuring, forecasting and
recommendations are discussed in this unit (PPA, 2012:75–86).

Lastly, this unit provides students with a checklist designed as a practical guide for
the preparation and evaluation of policy papers. The checklist activates the
guidelines, presents brief examples, and includes a rating scale that may be used to
evaluate policy papers (PPA, 2012:84).

From the above, it is clear that master‟s students are provided with policy
knowledge and skills on a broad variety of topics, including –
 identification of the political context within which the policy is formulated;
 an understanding of how public policies are made and implemented;
 the way policy analysis is evaluated; and
 the criteria for policy recommendations that will benefit the students to be
actively involved in the preparation and evaluation of public policies.

Next, the content of the PhD degree is considered to determine the policy
knowledge and skills that are being provided to doctoral public administration
students.

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6.2.3 PhD Curriculum: Comparative public policy

The module Comparative Public Policy is provided to students enrolled for a PhD
degree in public management and policy in the first year of study at Addis Ababa
University (AAU). The module Comparative Public Policy is subdivided into four units
(blocks) of study, namely:

 Unit 1: Comparative ideological basis for public policy management

This unit focuses on an understanding of complexity, uncertainty and triangulation in

Public Governance (CPP, 2012:17). Accordingly, the outcomes of this unit are:
 an understanding and background knowledge of comparative public policy;
 knowledge of a range of intellectual, practical and transferable skills
necessary to assess different policy options; and
 an understanding of the origins and developments of policies within their
national and international contexts (CPP,2012:1).

Apart from these outcomes, the unit also offers detailed information about the
meaning and scope of comparative politics, the ideological basis for public policy
management, and policy making rules and institutions. The unit also provides a
cross-national analytical perspective on the activities of government and other role
players with specific focus on policies relating to a welfare state.

Comparative policy is explained in terms of a subdivision in the field of political

science distinguished by an empirical approach based on the comparative method
that can be used to test the validity of general empirical propositions(Pavletic,
2010:6). The strategies used in comparative research include most similar and most
different systems design along with some major works in comparative politics, for
example the works of Aristotle, Montesquieu and Alexis de Tocqueville are also
discussed in the unit (CPP, 2012:8).

This unit provides PhD students public administration with knowledge and
information about legitimacy, which implies the popular acceptance of a governing

158
law or regime as an authority (CPP, 2012:12). The unit denotes that political
legitimacy is considered as a basic provision for governing, without which a
government will suffer legislative impasse and tumble (CPP, 2012:13). Legitimacy
relevant to public policy making was also highlighted in 2.5 of this research, which
explained that the Constitution of Ethiopia legitimately authorises the HPR as the
highest authority of the FDRE government responsible to the Ethiopian nation,
nationalities and people, as vested in the highest executive legitimate powers of the
FGE, namely the prime minister and the Council of Ministers. The concept and
aspects of international relations that deal with the study of relationships between
countries and the roles which states, international and non-international government
organisations, and multinational corporations play in the public policy making
process of a country are also discussed in this unit (CPP, 2012:19).

In this unit, the ideological basis for public policy management and political
philosophy is discussed as study topics like liberty, justice, property, rights, law, and
the enforcement of a legal code by authority (CPP, 2012:19). The unit inter alia –
 examines the nature and significance of these topics;
 considers what makes a government legitimate;
 considers what the nature of rights and freedoms are that government should
protect, and the rationale behind its actions;
 what nature the law demonstrates; and
 the duties citizens owe to their legitimate government.

Historically, the ideological basis for public policy management is referred to in

terms of the philosophies of the West, the Far East, Medieval Christianity and Islam,
the European Renaissance, industrialisation and the Modern Era (Fox, 2006: 6).
Apart from the history of political philosophy, the evolution of contemporary political
philosophy and issues about influential philosopher like Confucius, Socrates and
Plato, Thomas Aquinas, Niccole Machiavelli, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau come under consideration in this unit (CPP, 2012:25). The unit provides

159
 an abundance of information about the developmental state and very little policy
information.

 Unit 2: Public policies in democratic and developmental states

The outcomes of this unit are:

 acquisition of the skills required to assess various policy options;
 comprehension of the process of public policy making within its national and
international frameworks;
 knowledge of the systematic assessment of public policies from an
international perspective;
 getting acquainted with topical issues such as policy evaluation, policy
learning, and policy transfer;
 an understanding of how the activities of policy role players are analysed from
a cross-national perspective;
 knowledge and skills on methods of comparative analysis;
 ways to analyse datasets and policy documents;
 knowledge of various forms and principles of policy making comparisons;
 in-depth comparative knowledge of policy areas; and
 comprehension of policy study and transfer (CPP, 2012:23).

Students are taught to identify nationalism, which signifies the desire to catch up
with developed countries and strengthen the resource base for national defence, as
it recognises that security is the driving force behind a developmental state ideology
and thus provides the principal rationale for public policies in such a state.

In this unit, the ideological and structural components of developmental states,

whose relationships differentiate such a state from other forms of states, are
explained in depth (CPP, 2012:24). In terms of ideology, a developmental state
conceives its mission to be ensuring economic development, and structurally it
emphasises policy capacity as influenced by aspects of state capacity (political,
institutional) and administrative capacity (technical and administrative) (CPP,

160
 2012:27). The structural component emphasises capacity to implement economic
policies wisely and effectively as determined by institutional, technical and
administrative factors and the environment within which the state is found. The
divergence between an analytical practice that perseveres on the impossibility of
developmental states in Africa and a prescriptive literature that presumes the
existence of such states and a lack of technical and analytical capacity (that
includes public policy analysis) is also discussed in the unit (CPP, 2012:29).

 Unit 3:Public Policy and Institutional Reform – Theories of governance and

new public management (NPM)

The outcomes of this unit are:

 discussing the concepts of governance and public administration;
 being able to elaborate how the effectiveness of the authority is enhanced;
 understanding the fact that good governance engages improvements in the
technical competence and efficiency of the public sector with actions to make
public policy more accountable, apparent and conventional to society (CPP,
2012:32).

This unit emphasises the concept of governance in Ethiopia. The relationship of

governance to the role of political role players, civil society and the business
community in the context of civic education, political participation and conflict
management, communication, information management and the media is a point of
focus in the unit (CPP, 2012:38). This unit also addresses the legislature at federal
and state level and the functions of the public sector, and explains the theories of
governance and NPM and the role of the international community (CPP, 2012:47).
The unit discusses the concept of public administration by looking at the various
definitions which have been offered to the term as “the study of government
decision-making, the analysis of the policies themselves, the various inputs that
have produced them, and the inputs necessary to produce alternative policies”
(CPP, 2012:56). The unit also briefly considers the history of public administration
from antiquity to the 19th century. The fields of public administration in the academia
161
consists of core branches that include public policy analysis, which serves as an
empirical approach to decision-making, and the goals of public administration as a
field of study comprise the efficiency and effectiveness of public services (CPP,
2012:61). In discussing policy implementation, the unit accentuates that the
flexibility given to states by most legislation results in the complexity and variation of
welfare policy structures and changes the centre of attention from emphasising
education and training to a work-fit approach that stresses the importance and self-
sufficiency (CPP, 2012:65).

This unit focuses on NPM whose reform wave emphasises that “more market
orientation in the public sector will lead to greater cost-efficiency for governments,
without having negative side effects on other objectives and considerations” (CPP,
2012:69). It was emphasised that NPM is more outcomes-and efficiency-oriented
through better management of public budget when compared to other public
management theories (Velsen, 2012:76). In addition, NPM addresses public service
beneficiaries and citizens as shareholders (CPP, 2012:73). The controversy over
NPM and the digital era of governance that focuses on reintegrating agencies into
government control, joined-up government and digitisation is also discussed in the
unit. The unit further explores government structure and NPM strategies, and
confers integrating implementation issues in the context of governance and NPM.
Governance here refers to the development governing styles and, unlike NPM, it is
about process, not outcomes (CPP, 2012:75). Governance is about developing
strategies to sustain government‟s capacity to act and identifying the power
relationships between institutions engaged in collective action. It is about
autonomous self-governing networks that involve influencing government (CPP,
2012:79). NPM is discussed as an arrangement of the public sector bureaucracy
into competition among public institutions with inducement on economic terms and
leadership principles (CPP, 2012:84). From the above, it is clear that this unit
emphasises theories of governance and NPM with no focus on their relationship to
public policy.

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 Unit 4: Public Policy and Institutional Reform –The Nature of the State and
Public Management
The learning outcomes for this unit are:
 an understanding of theory on the nature of the state;
 shortcomings of the research into the nature of the state;
 research methodology;
 operationalizing rules and dimensions of organisations;
 sustainable reform processes; and
 knowledge of how to adopt a process-oriented approach (CPP, 2012:91).

This study unit provides students with information about the main analytical
arguments to frame the political economy and for reform discussion, which includes
the rational choice and political science perspectives on the economy. The link
between the political science perspective (power-based approach) and economic
models is considered as a substantial number of development studies in political
economy build on these models (CPP, 2012:91).

The unit considers the nature of state emphasis on political institutions, socio-
economic structures, and contingent political dynamics as distinct sets of factors
determining how the transition to good public management, policy and institutional
reform takes place (CPP, 2012:93).For example, the emergence of a supportive set
of political institutions gives shape and regularity to politics as these persist and
value the patterns of political behaviour (CPP, 2012:95).The study unit argues that
good public management requires a plural set of political institutions to ensure
control of the state executive.

Lastly, this unit explains the common set of tools adopted into the methodology of
comparative public policy research to enable cross-national analysis of the study,
for example, types of rules that promote and operationalise good public
management, policy and institutional reform such as rules concerning administrative
accountability, transparency and predictability, participation and competition, and
constitutional, legislated, and administrative rules (CPP, 2012:105).
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 This unit focuses on the research methodology used in the study of the nature of
the state and public management, and provides public administration students with
knowledge of the systematic comparison of public policies and policy research
skills.

After considering the undergraduate and postgraduate curriculums being provided

to students, it can be concluded that the undergraduate and postgraduate policy
curriculums include some policy capacity building aspects that can benefit students.
However, it was also evident that some of the units found in these undergraduate
and postgraduate policy curriculums do not include any policy knowledge and skills.
The question can therefore be asked, how the content of the undergraduate and
postgraduate policy curriculums compares to the public policy knowledge and skills
that are required by a civil servant to function properly in the civil service.

6.3 AN EVALUATION OF THE POLICY CURRICULUMS AGAINST

PUBLIC POLICY SKILLS REQUIRED

As indicated in section 2.7 of this research report, the UK Civil Service, the Harrison
Institute for Public Law and the Wilfred Chinthochi provide a framework on public policy
skills and knowledge that a civil servant should possess. The public policy skill content
found in the courses, namely Public Policy making, Analysis and Evaluation, Public
Policy making and Analysis, and Comparative Public Policy is evaluated against the
public policy skills mentioned by the UK Civil Service, the Harrison Institute for Public
Law and the Wilfred Chinthochi to determine which of the public policy skills and
knowledge a civil servant should have are currently included in the curriculums for
students and which public policy skills and knowledge are lacking in the curriculums that
could be included to benefit students. Table 6.1 below shows the public policy skills
required by a civil servant against the undergraduate and postgraduate policy
curriculums currently being offered in Ethiopia.

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Table 6-1: Public policy skills compared to undergraduate and postgraduate policy curriculums

Harrison Institute Courses on public policy making,

Public policy for Public Law, Wilfred Chinthochi, analysis, and evaluation
UK Civil Service, (2013)
capacity area (2013)
(2013)

BA MA PhD

Organise

Yes, Public Policy making, Analysis, and

documents and
presentations

No, not included in the curriculum

No, not included in the curriculum

logically, meet
audience needs for Identify those who have the
context in the rights, interests, resources,

Evaluation, unit 4, pp. 23-31

Reconcile introduction, relate skills and abilities to take part
Mull over and balance
evidence, the analysis in and influence the policy
policy evidence, policy
politics and through stories and potential winners and losers
politics and policy
delivery examples, use as a result of the policy and
delivery
appropriate reduce or hopefully remove
language in terms potential negative policy
of tone and impact
objectivity, and
conclude actively to
support public
decision-making

Identify policy
Investigate, assess and
questions, learn the

No, not included in

No, not included in

No, not included in

advise on the political
policy context
and practical
efficiently, use Evaluate previous policies,

the curriculum

the curriculum

the curriculum
implications of
diverse sources to new research, existing
Evidence government policy using
avoid bias, explain statistics and get information
evidence and ideas from
analytic from several sources
a wide range of sources
methodology, use a
to meet required
logical framework,
outcomes
draw conclusions

Analysis, and Evaluation, unit 4,

Yes, Comparative Public Policy,

Yes, Public Policy making and
Monitor developments in Focus on the ever-changing

Yes, Public Policy making,

Analysis unit 2, pp. 23–37

the political context and environmental situation
give timely, honest, including technology, politics,
objective and impartial the economy, the social
Plan of work for
Politics advice and dimension and the natural
strategic outcomes

unit 1 pp. 18–21

recommendations to environment, deal with the
respond to the changing likely results of two or more
context in which variables on the outcomes of
pp. 45–58

ministers operate. the policy

Yes, Comparative Public Policy, Unit 2, pp.

Yes, Public Policy making, Analysis, and

Yes, Public Policy making and Analysis

Develop sound policy,

fast, in a public and
Evaluation, unit 3, pp. 21–30

political arena, and Mobilise resources needed for

convert this policy into Manage supervision implementation of the policy;
Delivery robust deliverable plans meetings, managing monitor and evaluate
5–7 & unit 2, pp. 12–17

at whatever stage the effort and deadlines implementation of the policy

policy is at, using
unit 2, pp. 23–37

creativity and
confidence

Source: Adapted from UK Civil Service (2013), the Harrison Institute for Public Law (2013), Wilfred
Chinthochi (2013), and Public Policy making, Analysis, Implementation, and Evaluation courses
in public administration in Ethiopia
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Table 6.1 indicates the public policy skills which the UK Civil Service, the Harrison
Institute for Public Law, and Wilfred Chinthochi propose a civil servant should have.
Evaluated against the policy capacity contents of the undergraduate curriculum (Public
Policy making, Analysis and Evaluation), the postgraduate master‟s curriculum (Public
Policy making and Analysis) and the PhD curriculum (Comparative Public Policy), it is
clear that only two policy skill areas are included in the content of the curriculums for
undergraduate and postgraduate students, namely skills in policy politics and strategic
management and policy delivery (including skills on policy advocacy, policy
accountability and project management).

Policy politics, strategic management policy skills (including the understanding and
management of the political context within which public policies are made) can be
explained as general basic public policy skills, which include elements like monitoring
developments in the political context. This should also give advice and make
recommendations to respond to the changing context within which ministers operate,
and is included in the undergraduate and postgraduate courses (Public Policy making,
Analysis, and Evaluation, Public Policy Analysis, and Comparative Public Policy
respectively).

Public policy skills are also mentioned by the UK Civil Service, the Harrison Institute for
Public Law and the Wilfred Chinthochi as important skills for civil servants to have, and
include the ability to understand and manage the political context within which public
policies are processed. These basic public policy skills can benefit civil servants since
they work with the government in power. Understanding and managing the political
context was mentioned in section 3.4 as some of the benefits of civil service education
and training in a cross-cultural context that enable civil servants to perform their jobs in
a different culture and/or to adjust psychologically to living in that culture.

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The second policy skill included by all the institutions mentioned in Table 6.1 and
included in public policy delivery skills that allow a civil servant to plan from the outset
for how the policy will be delivered is also included in the undergraduate and
postgraduate public administration public policy curriculums, namely public policy
making, analysis and evaluation. In Public Policy making, Analysis, and Evaluation
(2012:39), it is stated that those who are in charge of processing public policy (which
includes the civil service as a major role player in government) are constantly subject to
influences, first and foremost of the environment in which a political system operates.
Understanding and managing policy environment was also mentioned in section 3.3.2.1
as important skills and knowledge for a civil servant to cope with the constantly
changing demands of the policy environment and to be effective and efficient in the civil
service. The skills that assist a civil servant to deliver public policy are included in Public
Policy making, Analysis and Evaluation, Public Policy making and Analysis, and
Comparative Public Policy. The policy delivery skills as stated in Table 6.1 by UK Civil
Service, the Harrison Institute for Public Law and the Wilfred Chinthochi and also
mentioned in 2.7, help to adapt public policy into vigorous deliverable plans using
creativity and confidence. The use of policy delivery skills as indicated in Public Policy
making and Analysis (2012:36) is an important skill for civil servants to have, since it
helps to mobilise resources needed to monitor and evaluate the process of policy
implementation. According to Comparative Public Policy (2012:24), the skill to deliver
public policy forms the strength of civil service character throughout the world and is
something that every civil servant should have.

Table 6.1 also indicated the two public policy skills that are not provided to
undergraduate and postgraduate public administration students: the skill to bring the
evidence, politics and delivery together, and the skill to develop and use a sound
evidence-based policy, as by the UK Civil Service, the Harrison Institute for Public Law
and the Wilfred Chinthochi. This includes:
 keeping the balance between policy politics and strategic management;
 policy evidence acquired through research and analysis;

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  surveying, modelling and policy delivery at whatever stage the policy is;
 logical organisation of documents and presentations;
 relating policy analysis to political context and perspectives through experience;
 using appropriate bodily communication;
 conclude actively on policy processes to support public decision-making;
 identifying those who have the rights, interests, resources, skills and abilities to
take part in and influence the course of the policy; and
 reduce potential negative policy impact.

From the above, it can be concluded that the content of the undergraduate policy
curriculum (Public Policy making, Analysis and Evaluation), and the postgraduate
curriculum public (Policy Analysis and Comparative Public Policy) provides students of
public administration and civil service trainees with some of the public policy skills
needed but not all of the policy skills needed. Since only ten universities in Ethiopia
have Public Administration departments and provide public policy as part of their
curriculums and only some of the policy curriculum is relevant to the public policy skills
needed, revision might be necessary to make the curriculum more relevant to meet the
policy capacity needs of the Ethiopian government.

The remaining 22 universities that do not have a Department of Public Administration

and thus do not provide any public policy education might benefit by including public
policy education in their curriculums, since, as stated by Yildiz et al. (2011:357), public
policy research, as a field of research and teaching, has become increasingly popular
and a global phenomenon, and public policy knowledge and skills are important assets
for public administration graduates and civil servants.

6.4 CONCLUSION

Chapter 6 indicated the policy curriculums that are currently being used by universities
in Ethiopia. After reviewing the contents of the undergraduate policy curriculum (Public
Policy making, Analysis and Evaluation), the postgraduate MA curriculum (Public Policy

168
making and Analysis), and the PhD curriculum (Comparative Public Policy), it was found
that some useful policy skills and knowledge are being provided to students. However,
not all the policy skills and knowledge needed by a civil servant to be successful in
his/her work is being provided in the current curriculums.

Chapter 7 provides a conclusion, an evaluation of the literature reviewed and the

findings of this research. Recommendations are also made with regard to improving the
policy capacity of Ethiopian civil servants.

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 7 CHAPTER 7

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 INTRODUCTION

This research set out to determine whether the available university offerings to build the
public policy capacity of civil servants in Ethiopia are sufficient to meet the expectations
of the Ethiopian government. Subsequently, the research problem was formulated as
the following question: How does one determine the sufficiency (applicability and
accessibility) of the various offerings of public policy capacity building interventions in a
developing country such as Ethiopia? In answering this question, various secondary
questions (see section 1.3) were asked:

1. What policy knowledge and skills should a public servant in the ECS have?
2. What role does civil service education and training play with regard to the
policy capacity of civil servants?
3. Are policy education and training internationally viewed as important for an
effective and efficient functioning civil service?
4. Does the number of universities offering public administration education and
training and the geographical distribution of these universities meet the needs
of the ECS?
5. Do policy education and training programmes for Ethiopian civil servants
include all the skills and knowledge needed to improve policy capacity?

The main objective of this study was to propose and apply a framework for determining
the sufficiency of the various offerings aimed at building public policy capacity in a
developing country such as Ethiopia (see section 1.4). In order to operationalise the
research, this main objective was divided into interrelated aims (see section 1.4),

170
namely to design a framework for assessing applicability of these interventions, and a
framework for determining the accessibility of these interventions to civil servants.

This chapter will consequently summarise and evaluate the findings of the various
chapters of this thesis in terms of the abovementioned objective and aims, and draw the
final conclusion in answering the question whether public administration curriculums
assist to improve public policy capacity building in the ECS. This chapter will also
provide recommendations to improve policy capacity at Ethiopian universities.

7.2 RESEARCH SUMMARY

Chapter 2 was devoted to answering the first research question (see section 1.3),
namely “What policy knowledge and skill should a public servant in the Ethiopian civil
service have?” The last part of Chapter 2, section 2.7 was dedicated to answering this
question by indicating the policy knowledge and skills required by civil servants as
mentioned by the UK Civil Service, the Harrison Institute of Public Law and the Wilfred
Chinthochi (see section 2.7 and Table 2.5 specifically). These institutions concluded
that every civil servant including an Ethiopian civil servant should:
• have the ability to monitor developments in the political context and give timely,
honest, objective and impartial advice and make recommendations to respond to
the changing context within which the government operate;
• have the ability to develop sound policy, fast, in a public and political arena, and
convert this policy into robust deliverable plans at whatever stage the policy is at,
using creativity and confidence;
• be able to investigate, assess and advise on the political and practical
implications of government policy using evidence and ideas from a wide range of
sources to meet required outcomes; and
• understand, consider and balance the process of developing and usage of sound
evidences with the political context and ways of delivery.

In addition, Chapter 2 also provided an overview of the origin and characteristics of the
civil service in Ethiopia (see section 2.3) and the role and functions of the civil service in
171
Ethiopia (see section 2.4). This included an overview of what the ECS system looks like,
discussing the origin of the civil service in general, which dates back to the
administrative system of the traditional Chinese government. However, since 1991, the
ECS was decentralised with the formation of a federal parliamentarian form of
government (see section 2.3). As far as the civil service is concerned, Ethiopia has a
closed system that declares a vacant position in the civil service to be filled only by a
person who meets the qualification required for the position and who scores higher than
other candidates (see section 2.2).

Chapter 2 also considered public policy and law making in Ethiopia (see section 2.5) by
assessing the central feature of the state political system as well as the characteristics
of public policy making that require civil servants involved in policy development to be
familiar with relevant laws and practices, understand the views of key stakeholders, and
have the capacity to design and implement systems (see section 2.5). Related to the
civil service role in the policy making process, Chapter 2 also reflected on the policy
capacity of the Ethiopian civil service (see section 2.6) and found that most civil
servants join the ECS after completing school and they do not attend a university and
therefore do not have any policy knowledge and skills.

The work done by the UKCS (2013), the Harrison Institute for Public Law (2013), and
the Chinthochi (2013) were consequently used to develop a conceptual framework
(Table 2-5) for understanding the applicability of public policy capacity building. This
framework has been used as an instrument to assess the applicability of capacity
building interventions for civil servants (see Chapter 6). This framework is the first
original contribution of this study to the literature on the appropriateness of public policy
capacity building interventions.

In addition to the above-mentioned framework, this research identified some indicators

that may be useful for determining the accessibility of public policy capacity building
interventions. These indicators include the number and size (area) of the distinct

172
geographical areas (state), the population density of a geographical area, and the
number of civil servants in a geographical area.

In Chapter 3, the focus was narrowed from the civil service in general to civil service
education and training, and more specifically to answer the second research question,
namely, what role does civil service education and training play with regard to the policy
capacity of civil servants? The purpose of this chapter was to find the direct relationship
between civil service education and training and policy capacity. In section 3.4 it was
indicated that civil service education and training programmes indeed contribute to
improve policy skills, policy knowledge and policy attitude of civil servants. The
performance of civil servants is important as they have to provide the best quality policy
services and vigorous advice that will enable government to make informed decisions
on public policy issues as stated by various authors including Cartwright, Hoff, Green,
Zabriskie, Aguinis and Kraiger.

This chapter also gave an overview of the development of education and training (see
section 3.2) from prehistoric times until the present day‟s highly effective education and
training methods that are widely used to familiarise new employees, convey new skills,
and advance existing skills. Section 3.3 includes a reflection on the need for qualified,
trained and motivated civil servants, the model for effective civil service training and the
phases through which civil service education and training as a system goes. Factors
that influence the civil service education and training (see section 3.3.1) were discussed
with emphasis on the system of government, government‟s employment recruitment
philosophy, and the system of civil service itself. Section 3.5 provided an overview of
the quality assurance measures for civil service education and training as reflected by
inter alia the deliberations of the UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs
(UNDESA), the International Association of Schools and Institutes of Administration
(IASIA), the National Association of Schools of Public Affairs and Administration
(NASPAA). It came to the fore that understanding public policy and the organisational
environment, policy analysis, and analyse, synthesise, think critically, solve problems
and make decisions are included in some of the unit standards, which form part of the
173
civil service education and training programme. All these international organisations
view civil servants‟ ability to articulate and apply a public service perspective, and to
participate in and contribute to the policy process with analytical and critical thinking as
important aspects in the contents of the curriculums for public administration education
and training. They consequently recommend the inclusion of public policy competencies
in the education and training curriculums for students. The fact that various public
administration scholars wrote about the use of public policy knowledge, skills and
attitudes in the civil service was presented as an indication of the necessity of the
inclusion of public policy competency in public administration education and training
curriculums.

Chapter 4 was devoted to an overview of the contribution of civil service education and
training on the policy capacity of civil servants, with reference to the PRC and the USA.
Chapter 4 also answered the third research question, namely “Are policy education and
training internationally viewed as important for an effective and efficient functioning civil
service?” Chapter 4 answered this question by indicating that internationally, two of the
leading economies of the world – the PRC and the USA – view policy education as
important for an effective and efficient functioning civil service. Other countries, for
example Ethiopia, can therefore benefit from this practice.

Chapter 4 also indicated that the USA was the first country to lay the foundation for a
systematic study of public administration in 1887. In the PRC, the origins of civil service
date back to the administrative system of its government in the Qin dynasty (221–
207 BC), which “established the first centralised Chinese bureaucratic empire and thus
created the need for an administrative system to staff it”(Encyclopedia Britannica,
2012). This chapter provided an overview and examples of public administration
education programmes that are currently being used by the PRC (see section 4.4) and
the USA (see section 4.7) to improve the policy capacity of civil servants in their
respective civil services. Both the PRC and the USA provide formal policy education in
universities as part of their Public Administration curriculums as well as additional
training in policy for civil servants. The policy education offered in both countries is also

174
in line with policy knowledge and skills mentioned by the UK Civil Service, the Harrison
Institute of Public Law and Wilfred Chinthochi regarded as important for current and
future civil servants.

In order to answer the fourth research question, “Does the number of universities
offering public administration education and training and the geographical distribution of
these universities meet the needs of the ECS?”, Chapter 5 was devoted to a detailed
overview of the universities in Ethiopia. Chapter 5 reported that of the 32 universities
that are currently found in Ethiopia, ten offer public administration education to students.
All ten universities include policy education to students at an undergraduate or
postgraduate level (see section 5.5.1). Territorially, seven of these universities are
situated in the State of Oromia, two in the State of the SNNP and one university is
situated in the State of Tigray (see Figure 5.2). In addition, Chapter 5 reported that
professional education and training institutions do not provide any policy training to civil
servants (see section 5.5.2). Based on Chapter 5, it was therefore concluded that the
number of universities and the geographical distribution of these universities do not
meet the needs of the ECS. Policy education, knowledge and skills are still very limited
in relation to the need for a properly educated and trained civil service, staffed with civil
servants that meet a clear understanding of and is competent in the process of public
policy making.

In addition, Chapter 5 also provided an overview of higher education in Ethiopia (see

section 5.2), which indicated the formation and establishment of all the universities
currently found in Ethiopia. The requirements for civil service education and training in
Ethiopia (see section 5.3) were also included. The main contribution of chapter 5 to the
understanding of the accessibility of public policy capacity building interventions is the
identification of the geographical concentration of providers of capacity building
programmes as a major indicator for accessibility.

In addition to the other indicators of accessibility identified in chapter 2 (the size (extent
of area) of the distinct geographical areas (states), the population density of a
geographical area, and the number of civil servants in a geographical area), this
175
research has thus shown that the accessibility of capacity building interventions can be
assessed through the following framework:

 the number and size (extent of area) of the distinct geographical areas (states)
 the population density of a geographical area (state)
 the number of civil servants in a geographical area (state)
 the geographical concentration of providers of capacity building interventions
(universities)
By applying the above accessibility framework, chapter 5 has concluded that the
accessibility of public policy education and training in Ethiopia is restricted and
consequently does not meet the needs of the country.

Chapter 6 answered the fifth research question, “Do policy education and training
programmes for Ethiopian civil servants include all the skills and knowledge needed to
improve policy capacity?” This chapter applied the applicability framework (see Table 2-
5) to do an in-depth content analysis of the Public Administration curriculums that
include policy knowledge and skills (see section 6.2). The undergraduate curriculum for
Public Policy making, Analysis and Evaluation (see section 6.2.1), the master‟s course
in public policy making and analysis (see section 6.2.2) and the doctoral curriculum for
Comparative Public Policy (see section 6.2.3) were analysed in detail to assess their
content. The curriculums content of these policy courses where then evaluated against
the policy skills as required by the UK Civil Service, the Harrison Institute of Public Law
and the Wilfred Chinthochi to determine whether the public policy curriculums provide
Ethiopian civil servants with policy knowledge and skills that they need to be successful
in their work (see section 6.3). This chapter reported that, although the current
curriculums include some policy knowledge and skills needed for civil servants to be
successful in their work, not all of the policy skills needed are incorporated. This is of
concern especially since the education these universities deliver is of a pre-service
format and not in-service training. In addition, as indicated in Chapter 2 (see Table 2.3),
a large number of civil servants are appointed directly after they have left school and
they never attend a university. The content analysis revealed that the current

176
curriculums of public policy capacity building interventions do not include all the skills
and knowledge that an Ethiopian civil servant needs. In determining this, this chapter
provided the applicability of the curricula for public policy capacity building interventions.
The public policy capacity of civil servants exposed to those interventions will therefore
be sufficient.

7.3 FINAL CONCLUSION

The main objective of this research was to propose and apply a framework for
determining the sufficiency of the various offerings for public policy capacity building in a
developing country such as Ethiopia. This objective has been achieved by proposing
two interrelated frameworks as an original contribution to the subject literature, namely
one for assessing the accessibility of these interventions and one for the applicability of
the curricula of these interventions.

Accessibility
This research has shown that the accessibility of public policy capacity building
interventions is determined by the following indicators:
 The number and size (area) of the distinct geographical area (state),
 The population density of a geographical area, and
 The number of civil servants in a geographical area.

By applying the above accessibility framework, this study has shown that not only ten
out of the 32 universities in Ethiopia offer public administration as a subject, but that
these ten universities are geographically concentrated in three of the eleven states of
Ethiopia. Consequently one can conclude that most of the citizens, students and civil
servants in Ethiopia have restricted access to public policy capacity building
interventions.

177
Applicability
The research has furthermore shown that the applicability of the curricula for public
policy capacity building interventions can be assessed by applying the following criteria
(see Table 2-5):
 The capacity to bring together communication stakeholders
 The capacity to develop and analyse policy using a sound evidence base through
research, analysis, surveying and modelling
 The capacity to understand the political and strategic context of public policy
 The capacity to implement public policy strategically, accountably and efficiently
By applying this framework within the context of Ethiopia, this research concluded that
the current curriculums of public policy capacity building interventions are not fully
applicable to needs of the Ethiopian government for building the public policy capacity
of their civil servant.

Considering that the main objective of this research was to determine whether the
available university offerings to build the public policy capacity of civil servants in
Ethiopia are sufficient to meet the expectations of the Ethiopian government, it can
thus be concluded that these offerings are not sufficient due to the restricted
accessibility to the offerings and the inadequate applicability of their curricula.

This conclusion is of concern since a lack of access to policy education and training as
stated by Denhardt and Denhardt (2011:90–94) may have a direct effect on the work of
civil servants. As stated in Chapter 1 of this research, Ethiopia is a country in need of
policy-educated and trained civil servants to successfully achieve its development
plans. This research has revealed that the capacity of the Ethiopian government to
implement transformational policies, may be seriously hampered by not only the few
public policy education and training offerings in Ethiopia, but also by the geographical
concentration of these few offerings. This research has therefore made a decided
contribution not only to the policy skills and knowledge required by the Ethiopian civil

178
service but also to the Public Administration curricula that is being offered to students in
Ethiopia.

7.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

Recommendations that could assist in improving public policy capacity building in the
ECS include the following:

 Taking into consideration that UNDESA, IASIA and NASPAA and a number of
academic institutions in countries like the Peoples‟ Republic of China and the
United States of America and bodies like ASPA and NAPA have standards for
public administration and policy education and training, it is recommended that
Ethiopia also consider adopting such standard for education and training. These
standards will ensure that all public administration and policy education and
training is of a high quality throughout the country.

 It is also recommended that more universities in Ethiopia, especially in remote

areas, consider offering Public Administration as a subject in order to meet the
needs of a public policy-educated and trained civil service. It is only through
education and training that the Ethiopian government will be able to implement
and execute policies properly and develop the country. Ethiopia currently has a
number of states that do not provide public administration or policy education.

 With only some of the proposed public policy skills present in the curriculums for
Public Administration (Public Policy making, Analysis and Evaluation, Public
Policy making and Analysis, and Comparative Public Policy), it is recommended
that more policy skills and knowledge be included. This will benefit all the
universities and encourage them to re-evaluate the current policy curriculums and
to include all the policy skills that a civil servant will need to be successful in
his/her work.

 Professional training institutions should consider providing policy education and

training or in-service training to civil servants since, as indicated in Chapter 2,most
179
 civil servants do not attend university but start working after completing schools.
Most civil servants in Ethiopia therefore never get the opportunity to gain policy
knowledge and skills. Training institutions have the ability to address this need
and to provide the training required, and

 This research finally recommends that, on-going research be undertaken to

ensure that the ECS improve on the current knowledge and skills that it has.
Improved skills, especially with regard to policy, will improve the functioning of civil
servants and help the country to develop as stated in Chapter 1.

180
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 APPENDIXES

Appendix 1/a: Public Universities in the People's Republic of China

PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES IN THE PEOPLE‟S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

 Tarim University Alar

 Ankang University Ankang

 Anqing Teachers College Anqing

 Anshan Normal University Anshan

 University of Science and Technology Liaoning

 Anshun University Anshun

 Anyang Institute of Technology

 Anyang Normal University Anyang

 Hezhou University Babu

 Baicheng Normal University Baicheng

 Baise University
 Youjiang Medical University for Nationalities Baise

 Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics Baixia ...

 Agricultural University of Hebei

 Baoding University Baoding
 Hebei College of Finance
 Hebei University

 Baoji University of Arts and Sciences Baoji

 Baoshan College Baoshan

 Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology Baotou

 Beihang University Beijing

223
 Beijing City University
 Beijing Dance Academy
 Beijing Electronic Science and Technology Institute
 Beijing Film Academy
 Beijing Foreign Studies University
 Beijing Forestry University
 Beijing Information Science & Technology University
 Beijing Institute of Fashion Technology
 Beijing Institute of Graphic Communication
 Beijing Institute of Petrochemical Technology
 Beijing Institute of Technology
 Beijing International Studies University
 Beijing Jiaotong University
 Beijing Language and Culture University
 Beijing Materials University
 Beijing Normal University
 Beijing Sport University
 Beijing Technology and Business University
 Beijing Union University
 Beijing University of Agriculture
 Beijing University of Chemical Technology
 Beijing University of Chinese Medicine
 Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture
 Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications
 Beijing University of Technology
 Capital Medical University
 Capital Normal University
 Capital University of Economics and Business
 Capital University of Physical Education and Sports
 Central Academy of Fine Arts
 Central Conservatory of Music
 Central University of Finance and Economics
 China Agricultural University
 China Conservatory of Music
 China Foreign Affairs University
 China Institute of Industrial Relations
 China University of Geosciences, Beijing
 China University of Mining and Technology, Beijing
 China University of Petroleum
 China University of Political Science and Law
 China Women's University
 China Youth University for Political Sciences
 Chinese People's Public Security University
 Communication University of China
 Graduate University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences
 Minzu University of China
 North China Electric Power University
 North China University of Technology
 Peking Union Medical College
 Peking University

224
 Renmin University of China
 Shougang Institute of Technology
 The Central Academy of Drama
 The National Academy of Chinese Theatre Arts
 Tsinghua University
 University of International Business and Economics
 University of International Relations
 University of Science and Technology Beijing
 Anhui University of Finance and Economics

 Bengbu College
 Bengbu Medical College Bengbu

 Liaoning Institute of Science and Technology Benxi

 Bijie University Bijie

 Binzhou Medical University

 Binzhou University Binzhou

 Changchun Institute of Technology

 Changchun Normal University
 Changchun University
 Changchun University of Chinese Medicine
 Changchun University of Science and Technology
 Changchun University of Technology
 Jilin Agricultural University
 Jilin Animation Institute Changchun
 Jilin Business and Technology College
 Jilin College of the Arts
 Jilin Huaqiao Foreign Languages Institute
 Jilin Institute of Architecture and Civil Engineering
 Jilin Institute of Physical Education
 Jilin Teachers Institute of Engineering and Technology
 Jilin University
 Jilin University of Finance and Economics
 Northeast Normal University

 Hunan University of Arts and Science Changde

 Changji College
 Hebei Normal University of Science and Technology Changji

225
 Central South University
 Central South University of Forestry & Technology
 Changsha University
 Changsha University of Science and Technology
 Hunan Agricultural University
Changsha
 Hunan First Normal University
 Hunan International Economics University
 Hunan Normal University
 Hunan University
 Hunan University of Commerce
 National University of Defence Technology

 Changzhi Medical College Changzhi

 Changzhi University Changzhi

 Changzhou Institute of Technology Changzhou

 Changzhou University
 Jiangsu Teachers University of Technology

 Chaohu University Chaohu

 Hanshan Normal University Chaozhou

 Chengde Medical University Chengde

 Chengdu Medical College

 Chengdu Sport University
 Chengdu University
 Chengdu University of Information Technology
 Chengdu University of Technology
 Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
 Sichuan Conservatory of Music Chengdu
 Sichuan Normal University
 Sichuan University
 Southwest Jiaotong University
 Southwest University for Nationalities
 Southwester University of Finance and Economics
 University of Electronic Science and Technology of China
 Xihua University

 Xiangnan University Chenzhou

 Chifeng University Chifeng

226
 Chongqing Jiaotong University
 Chongqing Medical University
 Chongqing Normal University
 Chongqing Technology and Business University
 Chongqing Three Gorges University
 Chongqing University
 Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences Chongqing
 Chongqing University of Posts and Telecommunications
 Chongqing University of Technology
 Sichuan Fine Arts Institute
 Sichuan International Studies University
 Southwest University
 Southwest University of Political Science and Law
 Yangtze Normal University

 Chuxiong Normal University Chuxiong

 Chuzhou University Chuzhou

 Sichuan University of Arts and Science Dachuan

 Dali University Dali

 Dalian Fisheries University

 Dalian Jiaotong University
 Dalian Maritime University
 Dalian Nationalities University
 Dalian Polytechnic University
 Dalian University Dalian
 Dalian University of Foreign Languages
 Dalian University of Technology
 Dongbei University of Finance and Economics
 Liaoning Normal University
 Liaoning University of International Business and Economics
 Neusoft Institute of Information

 Eastern Liaoning University Dandong

 Daqing Normal University Daqing

 Northeast Petroleum University Daqing city

 Shanxi Datong University Datong

 Chongqing University of Science and Technology Daxue

227
 Dezhou University Dezhou

 Dongguan University of Technology Dongguan

 Qiannan Normal College for Nationalities Duyun

 Anhui Science and Technology University Fengyang

 Foshan University Foshan

 Liaoning University of Petroleum and Chemical Technology Fushun

 Liaoning Technical University Fuxin

 Fuyang Teachers College Fuyang

 East China University of Technology

 Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University
 Fujian Medical University
 Fujian Normal University Fuzhou
 Fujian University of Technology
 Fujian University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
 Fuzhou University
 Minjiang University

 Gannan Medical University

 Jiangxi University of Science and Technology Ganzhou

 Civil Aviation Flight University of China Guanghan

 Guangdong Baiyun University

 Guangdong Peizheng College
 Guangdong Pharmaceutical University
 Guangdong Polytechnic Normal University
 Guangdong University of Business Studies
 Guangdong University of Finance
 Guangdong University of Foreign Studies
 Guangdong University of Technology Guangzhou
 Guangzhou Medical College
 Guangzhou Sport University
 Guangzhou University
 Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine
 Jinan University
 South China Agricultural University
 South China Normal University

228
 South China University of Technology
 Southern Medical University
 Sun Yat-Sen University
 The Guangzhou Academy of Fine Arts
 Xinghai Conservatory of Music
 Zhongkai University of Agriculture and Engineering

 Chizhou University Guichi

 Guangxi Normal University Guilin

 Guilin Medical University Guilin

 Guilin University of Electronic Technology Guilin

 Guilin University of Technology Guilin ...

 Guiyang College of Traditional Chinese Medicine Guiyang

 Guiyang Medical University

 Guiyang University
 Guizhou Normal University Guiyang
 Guizhou University
 Guizhou University for Nationalities
 Guizhou University of Finance and Economics

 Ningxia Teachers University Guyuan

 Haikou College of Economics

 Hainan Medical College
 Hainan Normal University Haikou
 Hainan University

 Handan College Handan

 Hebei University of Engineering

229
 China Academy of Art
 China Jiliang University
 Hangzhou Dianzi University
 Hangzhou Normal University
 Zhejiang Chinese Medical University
 Zhejiang Gongshang University
 Zhejiang Sci-Tech University Hangzhou
 Zhejiang Shuren University
 Zhejiang University
 Zhejiang University of Finance & Economics
 Zhejiang University of Media and Communications
 Zhejiang University of Science and Technology
 Zhejiang University of Technology

 Shaanxi University of Technology Hanzhong

 Harbin DeQiang College of Commerce

 Harbin Engineering University
 Harbin Institute of Physical Education
 Harbin Institute of Technology
 Harbin Medical University
 Harbin Normal University
 Harbin University
 Harbin University of Commerce Harbin
 Harbin University of Science and Technology
 Heilongjiang East University
 Heilongjiang Institute of Science & Technology
 Heilongjiang Institute of Technology
 Heilongjiang University
 Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine
 Northeast Agricultural University
 Northeast Forestry University

 Anhui Agricultural University

 Anhui Medical University
 Anhui Sanlian University
 Anhui University
 Anhui University of Architecture Hefei
 Anhui University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
 Anhui Xinhua University
 Hefei Normal University
 Hefei University
 Hefei University of Technology
 University of Science and Technology of China

 Heihe University Heihe

 Hengshui University Hengshui

230
 Changsha Medical University
 Hengyang Normal University Hengyang
 Hunan Institute of Technology
 University of South China

 Heze University Heze

 Gansu Normal University for Nationalities Hezuo

 Inner Mongolia Agricultural University

 Inner Mongolia Finance and Economics College
 Inner Mongolia Medical College Hohhot
 Inner Mongolia Nationality College
 Inner Mongolia Normal University
 Inner Mongolia University
 Inner Mongolia University of Technology

 Huaibei Coal Industry Teachers College Huaibei

 Huaihua University Huaihua

 Anhui University of Science and Technology

 Huainan Normal University Huainan

 Huaiyin Institute of Technology

 Huaiyin Normal University Huaiyin

 Huanggang Normal University Huanggang

 Huangshan University Huangshan

 Huangshi Institute of Technology

 Hubei Normal University Huangshi

 Wuhan Polytechnic University Huayuan

 Huizhou College Huizhou

 Liaoning Finance and Trade College Huludao

 Huzhou Teachers College Huzhou

231
 Jiamusi University Jiamusi

 Jinggangshan University Jian

 Wuyi University Jiangmen

 Henan Polytechnic University Jiaozuo

 Beihua University
 Jilin Agricultural Science and Technology College Jilin
 Jilin Institute of Chemical Technology
 Jilin Medical College
 Northeast Dianli University

 Shandong Institute of Light Industry

 Shandong Jianzhu University
 Shandong Jiaotong University
 Shandong Normal University
 Shandong Sport University
 Shandong University Jinan
 Shandong University of Arts
 Shandong University of Arts & Design
 Shandong University of Finance and Economics
 Shandong University of Political Science and Law
 Shandong University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
 Shandong Yingcai University
 University of Jinan

 Yangtze University Jingzhou

 Zhejiang Normal University Jinhua

 Jining Medical University Jining

 Jining Teachers College
 Jining University

 Bohai University
 Liaoning Medical University Jinzhou
 Liaoning University of Technology
 JiShou University

 Jiujiang University Jiujiang

 Henan University Kaifeng

232
 Kaili University Kaili

 Kashgar Teachers College Kashgar

 Kunming Medical University

 Kunming University
 Kunming University of Science and Technology
 Southwest Forestry University
 Yunnan Agricultural University Kunming
 Yunnan Arts University
 Yunnan Nationalities University
 Yunnan Normal University
 Yunnan University
 Yunnan University of Finance and Economics
 Yunnan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine

 Qingdao Agricultural University Laiyang

 Langfang Teachers College Langfang

 North China Institute of Aerospace Engineering

 Gansu Agricultural University

 Gansu College of Traditional Chinese Medicine
 Gansu Institute of Political Science and Law
 Lanzhou City University
 Lanzhou Jiaotong University Lanzhou
 Lanzhou University
 Lanzhou University of Finance and Economics
 Lanzhou University of Technology
 Northwest Normal University
 Northwest University for Nationalities

 Leshan Normal University Leshan

 Tibet University Lhasa

 Tibetan Traditional Medical College

 Huaihai Institute of Technology Lianyungang

 Liaocheng University Liaocheng

233
 Zhejiang Forestry University Lin'an

 Shanxi Normal University Linfen

 TaiZhou University Linhai

 Linyi Normal University Linyi

 Liupanshui Normal College Liupanshui

 Guangxi University of Technology Liuzhou

 Longyan University Longyan

 Hunan Institute of Humanities, Science and Technology Loudi

 West Anhui University Lu'

 Henan University of Science and Technology Luoyang

 Luoyang Institute of Science and Technology
 Luoyang Normal University

 Dalian Medical University Lushun

 Luzhou Medical College Luzhou

 Anhui University of Technology Ma'anshan

 Guangdong University of Petrochemical Technology Maoming

 Jiaying University Meizhou

 Honghe University Mengzi

 Mianyang Normal University Mianyang

 Southwest University of Science and Technology

 Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University Mishan

234
 Mudanjiang Medical College
 Mudanjiang Normal University Mudanjiang

 East China Jiaotong University

 Jiangxi Agricultural University
 Jiangxi BlueSky University
 Jiangxi Normal University
 Jiangxi Science and Technology Normal University Nanchang
 Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics
 Jiangxi University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
 Nanchang HangKong University
 Nanchang Institute of Technology
 Nanchang University

 China West Normal University Nanchong

 North Sichuan Medical College
 Southwest Petroleum University

 China Pharmaceutical University

 Hohai University
 Jinling Institute of Technology
 Nanjing Agricultural University
 Nanjing Audit University
 Nanjing Forestry University
 Nanjing Institute of Technology
 Nanjing Medical University
 Nanjing Normal University
 Nanjing Sport Institute
 Nanjing University
 Nanjing University of Finance and Economics
 Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology
 Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications Nanning
 Nanjing University of Science and Technology
 Nanjing University of Technology
 Nanjing University of the Arts
 Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
 Nanjing Xiaozhuang University
 Sanjiang University
 Southeast University
 Guangxi Arts Institute
 Guangxi Medical University
 Guangxi Teachers Education University
 Guangxi Traditional Chinese Medical University
 Guangxi University
 Guangxi University for Nationalities
 Guangxi University of Finance and Economics

 Nantong University Nantong

235
 Nanyang Institute of Technology
 Nanyang Normal University Nanyang

 Neijiang Normal University Neijiang

 Ningbo Dahongying University

 Ningbo University Ningbo
 Ningbo University of Technology
 The University of Nottingham Ningbo, China
 Zhejiang Wanli University

 Panzhihua University Panzhihua

 Henan University of Urban Construction Pingdingshan

 Pingdingshan University

 Putian University Putian

 Ocean University of China

 Qingdao Binhai University Qingdao
 Qingdao Technological University
 Qingdao University
 Qingdao University of Science and Technology

 Longdong University Qingyang

 Northeast University at Qinhuangdao Campus

 Yanshan University Qinhuangdao

 Qiqihar Medical University

 Qiqihar University Qiqihar

 Huaqiao University
 Minnan University of Science and Technology Quanzhou
 Quanzhou Normal University
 Yang-En University

 Qufu Normal University Qufu

 Qujing Normal University Qujing

 North China Institute of Science and Technology Sanhe

236
 Sanming University Sanming

 China Europe International Business School

 Donghua University
 East China Normal University
 East China University of Political Science and Law
 East China University of Science and Technology
 Fudan University
 Sanda University
 Shanghai Business School
 Shanghai Conservatory of Music
 Shanghai Dianji University
 Shanghai Finance University
 Shanghai Institute of Foreign Trade
 Shanghai Institute of Technology
 Shanghai International Studies University
 Shanghai Jianqiao College Shanghai
 Shanghai Jiao Tong University
 Shanghai Lixin University of Commerce
 Shanghai Maritime University
 Shanghai Normal University
 Shanghai Ocean University
 Shanghai Second Polytechnic University
 Shanghai Theatre Academy
 Shanghai University
 Shanghai University of Electric Power
 Shanghai University of Engineering Science
 Shanghai University of Finance and Economics
 Shanghai University of Political Science and Law
 Shanghai University of Sport
 Shanghai University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
 Tongji University
 University of Shanghai for Science and Technology

 Shangqiu Normal University Shangqiu

 Shangrao Normal University Shangrao

 Shangluo University Shangzhou

 Shantou University Shantou

 Shaoguan University Shaoguan

 Shaoxing University
 Zhejiang Yuexiu University of Foreign Languages Shaoxing
 Shaoyang University

237
 Jingchu University of Technology Shayang

 China Medical University

 Liaoning University
 Liaoning University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
 LuXun Academy of Fine Arts
 Northeastern University
 Shenyang Aerospace University
 Shenyang Agricultural University
 Shenyang Conservatory of Music
 Shenyang Institute of Chemical Technology Shenyang
 Shenyang Institute of Engineering
 Shenyang Jianzhu University
 Shenyang Ligong University
 Shenyang Medical College
 Shenyang Normal University
 Shenyang Pharmaceutical University
 Shenyang Sport University
 Shenyang University
 Shenyang University of Technology

 Shenzhen University Shenzhen

 Hubei University for Nationalities Shien

 Shihezi University Shihezi

 Hebei Institute of Communication

 Hebei Institute of Physical Education
 Hebei Medical University
 Hebei Normal University Shijiazhuang
 Hebei University of Economics and Business
 Hebei University of Science and Technology
 Shijiazhuang Railway University
 Shijiazhuang University
 Shijiazhuang University of Economics

 Hubei Automotive Industries Institute Shiyan

 Hubei University of Medicine

 Ningxia Institute of Science and Technology Shizuishan

 Weifang University of Science & Technology Shouguang

 Jilin Normal University Siping

238
 Suihua University Suihua

 Changshu Institute of Technology

 Soochow University
 Suzhou University Suzhou
 Suzhou University of Science and Technology
 Xi'an Jiaotong-Liverpool University

 Shandong Agricultural University

 Shandong University of Science and Technology
 Taishan Medical University Tai'an
 Taishan University

 Shanxi Agricultural University Taigu

 North University of China

 Shanxi Medical University
 Shanxi Traditional Chinese Medicine University
 Shanxi University Taiyuan
 Shanxi University of Finance and Economics
 Taiyuan Normal University
 Taiyuan University of Science and Technology
 Taiyuan University of Technology

 Hebei Polytechnic University

 North China Coal Medical University Tangshan
 Tangshan College
 Tangshan Teachers College

 Civil Aviation University of China

 Hebei United University
 Nankai University
 Tianjin Academy of Fine Arts
 Tianjin Agricultural University
 Tianjin Conservatory of Music
 Tianjin Foreign Studies University
 Tianjin Institute of Urban Construction
 Tianjin Medical University Tianjin
 Tianjin Normal University
 Tianjin Polytechnic University
 Tianjin Tianshi College
 Tianjin University
 Tianjin University of Commerce
 Tianjin University of Finance and Economics
 Tianjin University of Science and Technology
 Tianjin University of Sport
 Tianjin University of Technology
 Tianjin University of Technology and Education

239
 Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine

 Tianshui Normal University Tianshui

 Inner Mongolia University for Nationalities Tongliao

 Tongling University Tongling

 Tongren University Tongren

 Xin Jiang Arts University

 Xinjiang Agricultural University
 Xinjiang Medical University Urumqi
 Xinjiang Normal University
 Xinjiang University
 Xinjiang University of Finance and Economics

 Weifang Medical University

 Weifang University Weifang

 Weinan Teachers University Weinan

 Wenshan University Wenshan

 Wenzhou Medical College

 Wenzhou University Wenzhou

 China University of Geosciences

 Huazhong Agricultural University
 Huazhong Normal University
 Huazhong University of Science and Technology
 Hubei Institute of Fine Arts
 Hubei University
 Hubei University of Chinese Medicine
 Hubei University of Economics
 Hubei University of Education Wuhan
 Hubei University of Technology
 Jianghan University
 South-Central University for Nationalities
 Wuhan Bioengineering Institute
 Wuhan Conservatory of Music
 Wuhan Institute of Physical Education
 Wuhan Institute of Technology
 Wuhan Textile University
 Wuhan University
 Wuhan University of Science and Technology

240
 Wuhan University of Technology
 Zhongnan University of Economics and Law

 Anhui Normal University Wuhu

 Anhui Polytechnic University
 Wannan Medical College

 Jiangnan University Wuxi

 Wuyi University Wuyishan

 Qiongzhou University Wuzhishan

 Wuzhou University Wuzhou

 Northwest University of Politics and Law

 Xi'an Academy of Fine Arts
 Xi'an Conservatory of Music
 Xi'an Eurasia University
 Xi'an Fanyi University
 Xi'an International University Xi‟an
 Xi'an Physical Education University
 Xi'an Polytechnic University
 Xi'an Shiyou University
 Xi'an Technological University
 Xi'an University of Arts and Science
 Xi'an University of Posts & Telecommunications
 Xijing University

 Jimei University Xiamen

 Xiamen University
 Xiamen University of Technology

 Chang'an University
 Northwest University
 Northwestern Polytechnical University
 Shaanxi Institute of International Trade & Commerce
 Shaanxi Normal University
 Xi'an International Studies University Xi'an
 Xi'an Jiaotong University
 Xi'an Peihua University
 Xi'an Siyuan University
 Xi'an University of Architecture and Technology
 Xi'an University of Finance and Economics
 Xi'an University of Science and Technology
 Xi'an University of Technology

241
 Xidian University

 Hunan Institute of Engineering

 Hunan University of Science and Technology Xiangtan
 XiangTan University

 Hubei University of Arts and Science Xiangyang

 Xianning University
 Shaanxi University of Chinese Medicine Xianning
 Shaanxi University of Science and Technology
 Tibet Institute for Nationalities
 Xianyang Normal University

 Hubei Engineering University Xiaogan

 Xichang College Xichang

 Xingtai University Xingtai

 Xingyi Normal University for Nationalities Xingyi City

 Qinghai Normal University Xining

 Qinghai University
 Qinghai University for Nationalities

 Henan Institute of Science and Technology

 Henan Normal University Xinxiang
 Xinxiang Medical University
 Xinxiang University

 Xinyang Normal University Xinyang

 Qinzhou University Xinzhou

 Xinzhou Teachers University Xinzhou

 Xuchang University Xuchang

 China University of Mining and Technology

 Xuzhou Institute of Technology Xuzhou
 Xuzhou Medical College
 Xuzhou Normal University

242
 Sichuan Agricultural University Ya'an

 Yan'an University Yanan

 Yancheng Institute of Technology

 Yancheng Teachers University Yancheng

 Northwest A&F University Yangling

 Yangzhou University Yangzhou

 Yanbian University
 Yanbian University of Science and Technology Yanji

 Ludong University
 Shandong Institute of Business and Technology
 Yantai Nanshan University Yantai
 Yantai University

 Yibin University Yibin

 China Three Gorges University Yichang

 Yichun University Yichun

 Ningxia Medical University

 Ningxia University Yinchuan

 Yili Normal University Yining

 Hunan City University Yiyang

 Hechi University Yizhou

 Jinzhong University Yuci

 Hunan Institute of Science and Technology Yueyang

 Yulin Normal University

 Yulin University Yulin

243
 Yuncheng University Yuncheng

 Yuxi Normal University Yuxi

 Zaozhuang University Zaozhuang

 Hebei Institute of Architecture and Civil Engineering

 Hebei North University Zhangjiakou

 Hexi University Zhangye

 Zhangzhou Normal University Zhangzhou

 Guangdong Medical College

 Guangdong Ocean University Zhanjiang
 Zhanjiang Normal University

 Zhaoqing University Zhaoqing

 Henan Agricultural University

 Henan Institute of Engineering
 Henan University of Economics and Law
 Henan University of Technology
 Henan University of Traditional Chinese Medicine
 Huanghe Science and Technology College Zhengzhou
 North China University of Water Conservancy and Electric Power
 Zhengzhou Huaxin College
 Zhengzhou Institute of Aeronautical Industry Management
 Zhengzhou University
 Zhengzhou University of Light Industry
 Zhongyuan University of Technology

 Jiangsu University
 Jiangsu University of Science and Technology Zhenjiang

 Zhoukou Normal University Zhoukou

 Zhejiang Ocean University Zhoushan

 Huanghuai University Zhumadian

244
  Hunan University of Technology Zhuzhou

 Shandong University of Technology Zibo

 Shandong Wanjie Medical University Zibo City

 Sichuan University of Science & Engineering Zigong

 Tonghua Normal University Zunhua

 Zunyi Medical University

 Zunyi Normal College Zunyi

Source: Ministry of Education of the PRC, (2014)

245
Appendix 1/b: Top Universities in China as identified by Chinese Government

TIER INSTITUTION

1. Beijing University
FIRST
2. Tsinghua University
1. Fudan University
5. University of Science and Technology
2. Harbin Institute of Technology
of China
SECOND 3. Nanjing University
6. Xi'an Jiao Tong University
4. Shanghai Jiao Tong University
7. Zhejiang University

1. Tianjin University 18. Beihang University (also known as

2. Huazhong University of Science and Beijing University of Aeronautics and
Technology Astronautics)
3. Xiamen University 19. University of Electronic Science and
4. Hu'nan University Technology of China
5. Central South University (also 20. Lanzhou University
known as Zhongnan University) 21. North western Polytechnic University
6. Beijing Institute of Technology 22. Beijing Normal University
7. Nankai University 23. China Agriculture University
8. Southeast University 24. Central University of Nationalities
THIRD 9. Wuhan UniversityEast China Normal 25. Renmin University of China (also
University known as People‟s University)
10. Shandong University 26. Northwest Agricultural and Forestry
11. Ocean University of China University
12. Jilin University 27. National University of Defence
13. Dalian University of Technology Technology
14. Chongqing University 28. South China University of Science and
15. Sichuan University Technology
16. Northeast University 29. Sun Yat-Sen University (also known as
17. Tongji University Zhongshan University)
30. East China Normal University
1. Anhui University 44. Nanjing University of Aeronautics and
2. Beijing Foreign Studies University Astronautics
3. Beijing Forestry University 45. Nanjing University of Science and
4. Beijing Jiaotong University Technology
5. Beijing Sport University 46. Ningxia University
6. Beijing University of Chemical 47. North China Electric Power University
Technology 48. Northeast Agricultural University
FOURTH 7. Beijing University of Chinese 49. Northeast Forestry University
Medicine 50. Northeast Normal University
8. Beijing University of Posts and 51. Northwest University
Telecommunications 52. Peking Union Medical College
9. Beijing University of Technology 53. Peking University
10. Central Conservatory of Music 54. Qinghai University
11. Central University of Finance and 55. Second Military Medical University
Economics 56. Shaanxi Normal University

246
 12. Chang'an University 57. Shanghai International Studies
13. China Pharmaceutical University University
14. China University of Geosciences 58. Shanghai Jiao Tong University
15. China University of Mining and 59. Shanghai University
Technology 60. Shanghai University of Finance and
16. China University of Petroleum Economics
17. China University of Political Science 61. Shihezi University
and Law 62. Sichuan Agricultural University
18. Communication University of China 63. South China Normal University
19. Dalian Maritime University 64. Southwest Jiaotong University
20. Donghua University 65. Southwestern University of Finance
21. East China University of Science and and Economics
Technology 66. Suzhou University
22. Fourth Military Medical University 67. Taiyuan University of Technology
23. Fuzhou University 68. Tianjin Medical University
24. Guangxi University 69. Tsinghua University
25. Guangzhou University of Traditional 70. University of International Business
Chinese Medicine and Economics
26. Guizhou University 71. University of Science and Technology
27. Hainan University Beijing
28. Harbin Engineering University 72. University of Science and Technology
29. Harbin Institute of Technology of China
30. Hebei University of Technology 73. University of Tibet
31. Hefei University of Technology 74. Wuhan University of Technology
32. Hohai University 75. Xi'an Jiaotong University
33. Huazhong Agricultural University 76. Xidian University
34. Huazhong Normal University 77. Xinjiang University
35. Hunan Normal University 78. Xinjiang Medical University
36. Inner Mongolia University 79. Yanbian University
37. Jiangnan University 80. Yunnan University
38. Jinan University 81. Zhejiang University
39. Liaoning University 82. Zhengzhou University
40. Nanchang University 83. Zhongnan University of Economics
41. Nanjing Agricultural University and Law
42. Nanjing Normal University
43. Nanjing University

Source: World Education Service (2010:12)

The universities not enumerated in this list are ranked less and beyond the fourth tire that they
can be found in the general list at appendix-1/a.

247
Appendix 2/a: Public Universities in the United States of America

PUBLIC UNIVERSITIES IN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

 Air University
 Alabama A&M University
 Alabama State University
 Amridge University
 Athens State University
 Auburn University
 Auburn University at Montgomery
 Birmingham-Southern College
 Concordia College–Alabama
 Faulkner University
 Huntingdon College
 Jacksonville State University
 Judson College
 Miles College
 Oakwood University Alabama
 Samford University
 Southeastern Bible College
 Spring Hill College
 Stillman College
 Talladega College
 Troy University
 Tuskegee University
 United States Sports Academy
 University of Alabama
 University of Mobile
 University of Montevallo
 University of North Alabama
 University of South Alabama
 University of West Alabama

 Alaska Bible College

 Alaska Pacific University Alaska
 University of Alaska

 A.T. Still University of Health Sciences

 American Indian College of the Assemblies of God
 Arizona Christian University
 Arizona State University
 Art Center Design College
 DeVry University–Phoenix
 Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Arizona
 Frank Lloyd Wright School of Architecture
 Grand Canyon University
 Midwestern University-Glendale campus
 Northcentral University
 Northern Arizona University

248
 Prescott College
 Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine & Health Sciences
 Thunderbird School of Global Management
 University of Advancing Technology
 University of Arizona
 University of Phoenix
 Western International University

 Arkansas Baptist College

 Arkansas State University
 Arkansas Tech University
 Central Baptist College
 Crowley's Ridge College
 Harding University
 Henderson State University
 Hendrix College Arkansas
 John Brown University
 Lyon College
 Ouachita Baptist University
 Philander Smith College
 Southern Arkansas University
 University of Arkansas
 University of Central Arkansas
 University of the Ozarks
 Williams Baptist College

 Academy of Art University

 Alliant International University
 American Conservatory Theatre
 American Film Institute
 American Jewish University
 Antioch University–Los Angeles
 Antioch University–Santa Barbara
 Art Center College of Design
 Azusa Pacific University
 Bethesda University of California
 Biola University
 Brandman University
 California Baptist University California
 California College of the Arts
 California Institute of the Arts
 California Institute of Integral Studies
 California Institute of Technology
 California Lutheran University
 California North state University
 California State University
 Chapman University
 Charles R. Drew University of Medicine & Science
 Church Divinity School of the Pacific
 Claremont Consortium of Colleges

249
 Claremont School of Theology
 Cogswell Polytechnical College
 Concordia University–Irvine
 DeVry University–Long Beach
 DeVry University–Pomona
 Dominican School of Philosophy & Theology
 Dominican University of California
 Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising
 Fielding Graduate University
 Franciscan School of Theology
 Fresno Pacific University
 Fuller Theological Seminary
 Golden Gate Baptist Theological Seminary
 Golden Gate University
 Graduate Theological Union
 Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion
 Holy Names University
 Hope International University
 Humphreys College
 Irwell & Manila Graduate School of Biological Sciences
 John F. Kennedy University
 La Sierra University
 Laguna College of Art & Design
 Life Pacific College
 Loma Linda University
 Loyola Marymount University
 Marymount California University
 The Master's College
 The Master's Seminary
 Menlo College
 Mills College
 Mount Saint Mary's College
 National Hispanic University
 National University
 Naval Postgraduate School
 Notre Dame de Namur University
 Occidental College
 Olivet University
 Otis College of Art & Design
 Pacific Oaks College
 Pacific School of Religion
 Pacific Union College
 Pacifica Graduate Institute
 Palo Alto University
 Padre RAND Graduate School
 Patten University
 Pepperdine University
 Phillips Graduate Institute
 Point Loma Nazarene University
 Saint John's Seminary

250
 Saint Mary's College of California
 Saint Patrick's Seminary & University
 Samuel Merritt University
 San Diego Christian College
 San Francisco Art Institute
 San Francisco Conservatory of Music
 San Francisco Theological Seminary
 San Joaquin College of Law
 Santa Clara University
 Saybrook University
 Scripps Research Institute
 Simpson University
 Sofia University
 Soka University of America
 Southern California College of Optometry
 Southern California Institute of Architecture
 Southern California University of Health Sciences
 Stanford University
 Thomas Aquinas College
 Touro College Los Angeles
 Touro University California
 Touro University Worldwide
 Trident University International
 United States University
 University of California
 University of La Verne
 University of the Pacific
 University of Redlands
 University of San Diego
 University of San Francisco
 University of Southern California
 University of the West
 Vanguard University of Southern California
 Western State University College of Law
 Western University of Health Sciences
 Westminster Seminary California
 Westmont College
 Whittier College
 William Jessup University
 Woodbury University
 The Wright Institute

251
 Adams State College
 Art Institute of Colorado
 College for Financial Planning
 Colorado Christian University
 Colorado College
 Colorado Mesa University
 Colorado School of Mines
 Colorado State University
 Colorado State University–Pueblo
 Colorado Technical University
 Denver Seminary
 Fort Lewis College
 Iliff School of Theology Colorado
 Jones International University
 Metropolitan State University of Denver
 Naropa University
 Nazarene Bible College
 Regis University
 Rocky Mountain College of Art & Design
 United States Air Force Academy
 University of Colorado
 University of Denver
 University of Northern Colorado
 University of the Rockies
 Western State Colorado University

 Albertus Magnus College

 Central Connecticut State University
 Charter Oak State College
 Connecticut College
 Eastern Connecticut State University
 Fairfield University
 Goodwin College
 Hartford Seminary
 Holy Apostles College & Seminary
 Lincoln College of New England
 Lyme Academy College of Fine Arts
 Mitchell College
 Post University Connecticut
 Quinnipiac University
 Sacred Heart University
 Saint Joseph College
 Saint Vincent's College
 Southern Connecticut State University
 Trinity College
 United States Coast Guard Academy
 University of Bridgeport
 University of Connecticut
 University of Hartford
 University of New Haven

252
 Wesleyan University
 Western Connecticut State University
 Yale University

 Delaware State University

 Goldey-Beacom College
 University of Delaware
 Wesley College
 Wilmington University
 American University
 The Catholic University of America
 Corcoran College of Art & Design
 Dominican House of Studies
 Gallaudet University
 George Washington University
 Georgetown University
 Howard University
 Institute of World Politics
 National Defence University
 National Intelligence University
 Potomac College
 Strayer University
 Trinity University
 University of the District of Columbia
 Washington Theological Union
 Wesley Theological Seminary
 Adventist University of Health Sciences Delaware
 Ave Maria University
 The Baptist College of Florida
 Barry University
 Beacon College
 Bethune-Cookman University
 Carlos Albizu University–Miami Campus
 Clearwater Christian College
 DeVry University–Orlando
 Eckerd College
 Edward Waters College
 Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
 Everglades University
 Flagler College
 Florida Institute of Technology
 Florida Memorial University
 Florida National University
 Florida Southern College
 Hobe Sound Bible College
 Hodges University
 Jacksonville University
 Johnson University Florida


253
 Keiser University
 Lynn University
 Miami International University of Art & Design
 Northwood University
 Nova Southeastern University
 Palm Beach Atlantic University
 Rasmussen College
 Ringling College of Art & Design
 Rollins College
 Saint John Vianney College Seminary
 Saint Leo University
 Saint Thomas University Florida
 Saint Vincent de Paul RegionalSeminary
 South Florida Bible College & Theological Seminary
 Southeastern University
 State University of Florida
 Stetson University
 Trinity College of Florida
 University of Miami
 University of Tampa
 Warner University
 Webber International University

 Agnes Scott College

 Art Institute of Atlanta
 Bauder College
 Berry College
 Beulah Heights University
 Brenau University
 Brewton-Parker College
 Clark Atlanta University
 Columbia Theological Seminary
 Covenant College
 DeVry University–Georgia
 Emmanuel College
 Emory University Georgia
 Interdenominational Theological Center
 LaGrange College
 Life University
 Mercer University
 Morehouse College
 Morehouse School of Medicine
 Oglethorpe University
 Paine College
 Piedmont College
 Point University
 Reinhardt University

254
 Savannah College of Art & Design
 Shorter University
 South University
 Spelman College
 Thomas University
 Toccoa Falls College
 Truett-McConnell College
 University of Georgia
 Wesleyan College
 Young Harris College

 Brigham Young University–Hawaii

 Chaminade University Hawaii
 Hawaii Pacific University
 University of Hawaii

 Boise State University

 Brigham Young University–Idaho
 The College of Idaho
 Idaho State University Idaho
 Lewis-Clark State College
 Northwest Nazarene University
 University of Idaho

 Adler School of Professional Psychology

 American Academy of Art
 American College of Education
 American InterContinental University
 Argosy University
 Augustana College
 Aurora University
 Benedictine University
 Blackburn College
 Blessing-Rieman College of Nursing
 Bradley University
 Catholic Theological Union
 Chamberlain College of Nursing
 The Chicago School of Professional Psychology Illinois
 Chicago State University
 Chicago Theological Seminary
 Columbia College Chicago
 Concordia University–Chicago
 DePaul University
 DeVry University
 DeVry University–Addison
 DeVry University–Chicago
 Dominican University
 East-West University
 Eastern Illinois University
 Ellis University

255
 Elmhurst College
 Erikson Institute
 Eureka College
 Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary
 Governors State University
 Greenville College
 Harrington College of Design
 Hebrew Theological College
 Illinois College
 Illinois College of Optometry
 Illinois Institute of Art
 Illinois Institute of Art–Schaumburg
 Illinois Institute of Technology
 Illinois State University
 Illinois Wesleyan University
 Institute for Clinical Social Work
 John Marshall Law School
 Judson University
 Kendall College
 Knowledge Institute
 Knox College
 Lake Forest College
 Lake Forest Graduate School of Management
 Lakeview College of Nursing
 Lewis University
 Lexington College
 Lincoln Christian University
 Lincoln College
 Loyola University Chicago
 Lutheran School of Theology at Chicago
 MacMurray College
 McCormick Theological Seminary
 McKendree University
 Methodist College
 Midstate College
 Midwestern University
 Millikin University
 Monmouth College
 Moody Bible Institute
 National University of Health Sciences
 National-Louis University
 North Central College
 North Park University
 Northeastern Illinois University
 Northern Baptist Theological Seminary
 Northern Illinois University
 Northwestern University
 Olivet Nazarene University
 Principia College
 Quincy University

256
 Rasmussen College
 Resurrection University
 Robert Morris University–Illinois
 Rockford University
 Roosevelt University
 Rosalind Franklin University of Medicine & Science
 Rush University
 Saint Anthony College of Nursing
 Saint Augustine College
 Saint Francis Medical Center College of Nursing
 Saint John's College
 Saint Xavier University
 School of the Art Institute of Chicago
 Shimer College
 Southern Illinois University
 Spertus Institute of Jewish Studies
 Toyota Technological Institute at Chicago
 Trinity Christian College
 Trinity College of Nursing & Health Sciences
 Trinity International University
 University of Chicago
 University of Illinois
 University of St. Francis
 VanderCook College of Music
 Western Illinois University
 Wheaton College

 Anderson University
 Associated Mennonite Biblical Seminary
 Ball State University
 Bethany Theological Seminary
 Bethel College
 Butler University
 Calumet College of Saint Joseph
 Christian Theological Seminary
 Concordia Theological Seminary
 DePauw University
 Earlham College
 Franklin College Indiana
 Goshen College
 Grace College & Seminary
 Hanover College
 Holy Cross College
 Huntington University
 Indiana Institute of Technology
 Indiana State University
 Indiana University
 Indiana Wesleyan University
 Manchester University
 Marian University

257
 Martin University
 Oakland City University
 Rose-Hulman Institute of Technology
 Saint Joseph's College
 Saint Mary-of-the-Woods College
 Saint Mary's College
 Saint Meinrad Seminary & School of Theology
 Taylor University
 TCM International Institute
 Trine University
 University of Evansville
 University of Indianapolis
 University of Notre Dame
 University of Saint Francis
 University of Southern Indiana
 Valparaiso University
 Vincennes University
 Wabash College
 Western Governors University–Indiana
 Iowa
 AIB College of Business
 Allen College
 Ashford University
 Briar Cliff University
 Buena Vista University
 Central College
 Clarke University
 Coe College
 Cornell College
 Des Moines University-Osteopathic Medical Center
 Divine Word College
 Dordt College
 Drake University
 Emmaus Bible College
 Faith Baptist Bible College & Theological Seminary
 Graceland University
 Grand View University
 Grinnell College
 Iowa State University
 Iowa Wesleyan College
 Kaplan University
 Loras College
 Luther College
 Maharishi University of Management
 Mercy College of Health Sciences
 Morningside College
 Mount Mercy University
 Northwestern College
 Palmer College of Chiropractic
 Saint Ambrose University

258
 Simpson College
 University of Dubuque
 University of Iowa
 University of Northern Iowa
 Upper Iowa University
 Waldorf College
 Wartburg College
 Wartburg Theological Seminary
 William Penn University

 AIB College of Business

 Allen College
 Ashford University
 Briar Cliff University
 Buena Vista University
 Central College
 Clarke University
 Coe College
 Cornell College
 Des Moines University-Osteopathic Medical Center
 Divine Word College
 Dordt College
 Drake University
 Emmaus Bible College
 Faith Baptist Bible College & Theological Seminary
 Graceland University
 Grinnell College
 Iowa State University
 Iowa Wesleyan College Iowa
 Kaplan University
 Lora‟s College
 Luther College
 Maharishi University of Management
 Mercy College of Health Sciences
 Morningside College
 Mount Mercy University
 Northwestern College
 Palmer College of Chiropractic
 Saint Ambrose University
 Simpson College
 University of Dubuque
 University of Iowa
 University of Northern Iowa
 Waldorf College
 Wartburg College
 Wartburg Theological Seminary
 William Penn University

 Baker University
 Barclay College Kansas

259
 Benedictine College
 Bethany College
 Bethel College
 Central Baptist Theological Seminary
 Central Christian College of Kansas
 Cleveland Chiropractic College
 Donnelly College
 Emporia State University
 Fort Hays State University
 Friends University
 Haskell Indian Nations University
 Kansas State University
 Kansas State University–Salina
 Kansas Wesleyan University
 Manhattan Christian College
 McPherson College
 MidAmerica Nazarene University
 Newman University
 Ottawa University
 Pittsburg State University
 Southwestern College
 Sterling College
 Tabor College
 United States Army Command & General Staff College
 University of Kansas
 University of Kansas Medical Center
 University of Saint Mary
 Washburn University
 Wichita State University

 Asbury Theological Seminary

 Asbury University
 Bellarmine University
 Berea College
 Brescia University
 Campbellsville University
 Centre College
 Clear Creek Baptist Bible College
 Eastern Kentucky University
 Frontier Nursing University
 Georgetown College Kentucky
 Kentucky Christian University
 Kentucky Mountain Bible College
 Kentucky State University
 Kentucky Wesleyan College
 Lindsey Wilson College
 Louisville Presbyterian Theological Seminary
 Mid-Continent University
 Midway College
 Morehead State University

260
 Murray State University
 Northern Kentucky University
 Saint Catharine College
 Southern Baptist Theological Seminary
 Spalding University
 Sullivan University
 Thomas More College
 Transylvania University
 Union College
 University of Kentucky
 University of Louisville
 University of Pikeville
 University of the Cumberlands
 Western Kentucky University

 Centenary College of Louisiana

 Dillard University
 Grambling State University
 Louisiana College
 Louisiana State University
 Louisiana Tech University
 Loyola University New Orleans
 Cheese State University
 New Orleans Baptist Theological Seminary
 Nicholls State University
 Northwestern State University of Louisiana Louisiana
 Notre Dame Seminary
 Our Lady of Holy Cross College
 Our Lady of the Lake College
 Saint Joseph Seminary College
 Southeastern Louisiana University
 Southern University
 Tulane University
 University of Louisiana
 Xavier University of Louisiana

 Bangor Theological Seminary

 Bates College
 Bowdoin College
 Colby College
 College of the Atlantic
 Husson University
 Maine College of Art
 Maine Maritime Academy Maine
 Saint Joseph's College of Maine
 Thomas College
 Unity College
 University of Maine
 University of New England


261
 Capitol College
 College of Notre Dame of Maryland
 Goucher College
 Hood College
 Johns Hopkins University
 Loyola University Maryland
 Maryland Institute College of Art
 Maryland University of Integrative Health
 McDaniel College
 Morgan State University
 Mount Saint Mary's University
 National Labor College Maryland
 Saint John's College–Annapolis
 Saint Mary's College of Maryland
 Saint Mary's Seminary & University
 Soujourner-Douglass College
 Stevenson University
 Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences
 United States Naval Academy
 University of Maryland
 Washington Adventist University
 Washington Bible College/Capital Bible Seminary
 Washington College

 Changchun Institute of Technology

 Changchun Normal University
 Changchun University
 Changchun University of Chinese Medicine
 Changchun University of Science and Technology
 Changchun University of Technology
 Jilin Agricultural University
 Jilin Animation Institute Changchun
 Jilin Business and Technology College
 Jilin College of the Arts
 Jilin Huaqiao Foreign Languages Institute
 Jilin Institute of Architecture and Civil Engineering
 Jilin Institute of Physical Education
 Jilin Teachers Institute of Engineering and Technology
 Jilin University
 Jilin University of Finance and Economics
 Northeast Normal University

 American International College

 Amherst College
 Andover Newton Theological School
 Anna Maria College
 Assumption College Massachusetts
 Babson College
 Bard College at Simon's Rock
 Bay Path College

262
 Bay State College
 Becker College
 Benjamin Franklin Institute of Technology
 Bentley University
 Berklee College of Music
 Boston Architectural College
 Boston College
 Boston Conservatory
 Boston Graduate School of Psychoanalysis
 Boston University
 Brandeis University
 Cambridge College
 Clark University
 College of the Holy Cross
 Conway School of Landscape Design
 Curry College
 Dean College
 Eastern Nazarene College
 Elms College
 Emerson College
 Emmanuel College
 Endicott College
 Fisher College
 Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering
 Gordon College
 Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary
 Hampshire College
 Harvard University
 Hebrew College
 Hellenic College/Holy Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology
 Hult International Business School
 Labouré College
 Lasell College
 Lesley University
 Longy School of Music
 Massachusetts College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences
 Massachusetts Institute of Technology
 Massachusetts School of Law
 Massachusetts School of Professional Psychology
 Massachusetts State University
 Merrimack College
 MGH Institute of Health Professions
 Montserrat College of Art
 Mount Holyoke College
 Mount Ida College
 National Graduate School of Quality Management
 New England College of Business & Finance
 New England College of Optometry
 New England Conservatory of Music
 New England Institute of Art

263
 Newbury College
 Nichols College
 Northeastern University
 Pine Manor College
 Regis College
 Saint John's Seminary
 Simmons College
 Smith College
 Springfield College
 Stonehill College
 Suffolk University
 Tufts University
 University of Massachusetts
 Amherst
 Boston
 Dartmouth
 Lowell
 Medical School at Worcester
 Wellesley College
 Wentworth Institute of Technology
 Western New England University
 Wheaton College
 Wheelock College
 Williams College
 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution
 Worcester Polytechnic Institute

 Adrian College
 Albion College
 Alma College
 Andrews University
 Aquinas College
 Baker College
 Calvin College
 Central Michigan University
 Cleary University
 College for Creative Studies
 Concordia University–Ann Arbor
 Cornerstone University Minnesota
 Cranbrook Academy of Art
 Davenport University
 Eastern Michigan University
 Ferris State University
 Finlandia University
 Grace Bible College
 Grand Valley State University
 Great Lakes Christian College
 Hillsdale College
 Hope College
 Kalamazoo College

264
 Kettering University
 Kuyper College
 Lake Superior State University
 Lawrence Technological University
 Madonna University
 Marygrove College
 Michigan School of Professional Psychology
 Michigan State University
 Michigan Technological University
 Miller College
 Northern Michigan University
 Northwood University
 Oakland University
 Olivet College
 Rochester College
 Sacred Heart Major Seminary
 Saginaw Valley State University
 Siena Heights University
 Spring Arbor University
 Thomas M. Cooley Law School
 University of Detroit Mercy
 University of Michigan
 Walsh College
 Wayne State University
 Western Michigan University

 Alcorn State University

 Belhaven University
 Blue Mountain College
 Delta State University
 Jackson State University
 Millsaps College
 Mississippi College
 Mississippi State University Mississippi
 Mississippi University for Women
 Mississippi Valley State University
 Reformed Theological Seminary
 Rust College
 Tougaloo College
 University of Mississippi
 University of Mississippi Medical Center
 University of Southern Mississippi
 William Carey University

 A.T. Still University of Health Sciences

 Aquinas Institute of Theology
 Avila University
 Baptist Bible College Missouri
 Calvary Bible College & Theological Seminary
 Central Christian College of the Bible

265
 Central Methodist University
 College of the Ozarks
 Columbia College
 Conception Seminary College
 Concordia Seminary–Saint Louis
 Covenant Theological Seminary
 Cox College
 Culver-Stockton College
 DeVry University–Kansas City
 Drury University
 Eden Theological Seminary
 Evangel University
 Fontbonne University
 Forest Institute of Professional Psychology
 Global University
 Goldfarb School of Nursing at Barnes-Jewish College
 Hannibal-Lagrange College
 Harris-Stowe State University
 Kansas City Art Institute
 Kansas City University of Medicine & Biosciences
 Kenrick-Glennon Seminary
 Lincoln University
 Lindenwood University
 Logan University
 Maryville University of Saint Louis
 Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary
 Missouri Baptist University
 Missouri Southern State University
 Missouri State University
 Missouri Valley College
 Missouri Western State University
 Northwest Missouri State University
 Ozark Christian College
 Park University
 Ranken Technical College
 Research College of Nursing
 Rockhurst University
 Saint Louis College of Pharmacy
 Saint Louis University
 Saint Luke's College of Health Sciences
 Saint Paul School of Theology
 Southeast Missouri State University
 Southwest Baptist University
 Stephens College
 Truman State University
 University of Central Missouri
 University of Missouri
 Washington University in Saint Louis
 Webster University
 Western Governors University–Missouri

266
 Westminster College
 William Jewell College
 William Woods University

 Carroll College
 Montana State University
 Rocky Mountain College
 Salish Kootenai College Montana
 University of Great Falls
 University of Montana

 Bellevue University
 Bryan College of Health Sciences
 Chadron State College
 Clarkson College
 College of Saint Mary
 Concordia University–Nebraska
 Creighton University
 Doane College
 Grace University
Nebraska
 Hastings College
 Midland University
 Nebraska Christian College
 Nebraska Methodist College
 Nebraska Wesleyan University
 Peru State College
 Saint Gregory the Great Seminary
 Union College
 University of Nebraska
 Wayne State College
 York College

 Eastern New Mexico University

 Institute of American Indian Arts
 Navajo Technical College
 New Mexico Highlands University
 New Mexico Institute of Mining & Technology
 New Mexico State University
 Northern New Mexico College New Mexico
 Saint John's College–Santa Fe
 Santa Fe University of Art & Design
 Southwestern College
 University of New Mexico
 University of the Southwest
 Western New Mexico University

 Berkeley College
 Bloomfield College
 Caldwell College New Jersey
 Centenary College

267
 The College of New Jersey
 College of Saint Elizabeth
 Drew University
 Fairleigh Dickinson University
 Felician College
 Georgian Court University
 Kean University
 Monmouth University
 Montclair State University
 New Jersey City University
 New Jersey Institute of Technology
 Princeton Theological Seminary
 Princeton University
 Ramapo College of New Jersey
 Richard Stockton College of New Jersey
 Rider University
 Rowan University
 Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey
 Saint Peter's University
 Seton Hall University
 Somerset Christian College
 Stevens Institute of Technology
 Thomas Edison State College
 University of Medicine & Dentistry of New Jersey
 William Paterson University

 Adelphi University
 Albany College of Pharmacy & Health Sciences
 Albany Medical College
 Alfred University
 Bank Street College of Education
 Bard College
 Barnard College
 Boricua College
 Briarcliffe College
 Canisius College
 Cazenovia College
 Christ the King Seminary
 City University of New York New York
 Clarkson University
 Colgate University
 College of Mount Saint Vincent
 College of New Rochelle
 College of Saint Rose
 Columbia University
 Concordia College–Bronxville
 The Cooper Union for the Advancement of Science & Art
 Cornell University
 Culinary Institute of America
 Daemen College

268
 Davis College
 Dominican College
 Dowling College
 D´Youville College
 Elmira College
 Excelsior College
 Five Towns College
 Fordham University
 Hamilton College
 Hartwick College
 Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion
 Hilbert College
 Hobart & William Smith Colleges
 Hofstra University
 Houghton College
 Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai
 Iona College
 Ithaca College
 The Jewish Theological Seminary of America
 The Juilliard School
 Keuka College
 The King's College
 Le Moyne College
 LIM College
 Long Island University
 Manhattan College
 Manhattan School of Music
 Manhattanville College
 Maria College of Albany
 Marist College
 Marymount Manhattan College
 Medaille College
 Mercy College
 Metropolitan College of New York
 Molloy College
 Monroe College
 Mount Saint Mary College
 Nazareth College
 The New School
 New York Chiropractic College
 New York Institute of Technology
 New York Medical College
 New York University
 Niagara University
 Nyack College
 Pace University
 Paul Smith's College
 Pratt Institute
 Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
 Roberts Wesleyan College

269
 Northeastern Seminary at Roberts Wesleyan College
 Rochester Institute of Technology
 The Sage Colleges
 Saint Bonaventure University
 Saint Francis College
 Saint John Fisher College
 Saint John's University
 Saint Joseph's College
 Saint Joseph's Seminary
 Saint Lawrence University
 Saint Thomas Aquinas College
 Sarah Lawrence College
 School of Visual Arts
 Seminary of the Immaculate Conception
 Siena College
 Skidmore College
 State University of New York
 Syracuse University
 Teachers College, Columbia University
 Touro College
 Unification Theological Seminary
 Union College
 Union Graduate College
 Union Theological Seminary
 United States Merchant Marine Academy
 United States Military Academy
 University of Rochester
 Utica College
 Vassar College
 Vaughn College of Aeronautics & Technology
 Villa Maria College
 Wagner College
 Webb Institute
 Wells College
 Yeshiva University

 Barton College
 Belmont Abbey College
 Bennett College for Women
 Brevard College
 Cabarrus College of Health Sciences
 Campbell University
North Carolina
 Catawba College
 Chowan College
 Davidson College
 Duke University
 Elon University
 Gardner-Webb University
 Greensboro College
 Guilford College

270
 High Point University
 Johnson C. Smith University
 Lees-McRae College
 Lenoir-Rhyne University
 Livingstone College
 Mars Hill College
 Meredith College
 Methodist University
 Mid-Atlantic Christian University
 Montreat College
 Mount Olive College
 North Carolina Wesleyan College
 Peace College
 Pfeiffer University
 Queens University of Charlotte
 Saint Andrews Presbyterian College
 Saint Augustine's University
 Salem College
 Shaw University
 Southeastern Baptist Theological Seminary
 University of North Carolina
 Wake Forest University
 Warren Wilson College
 Wingate University

 North Dakota University

 Rasmussen College
 Sanford College of Nursing
 Sitting Bull College
 Trinity Bible College North Dakota
 Turtle Mountain Community College
 University of Jamestown
 University of Mary

 Air Force Institute of Technology

 Antioch College
 Antioch University–Midwest
 Art Academy of Cincinnati
 Ashland University
 Athenaeum of Ohio
 Baldwin-Wallace College
 Bluffton University
 Capital University Ohio
 Case Western Reserve University
 Cedarville University
 Chancellor University
 Cincinnati Christian University
 Cincinnati College of Mortuary Science
 Cleveland Institute of Art
 Cleveland Institute of Music

271
 College of Mount Saint Joseph
 College of Wooster
 Columbus College of Art & Design
 Defiance College
 Denison University
 Franciscan University of Steubenville
 Franklin University
 God's Bible School & College
 Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion
 Heidelberg College
 Hiram College
 John Carroll University
 Kenyon College
 Kettering College
 Lake Erie College
 Lourdes University
 Malone University
 Marietta College
 Mercy College of Northwest Ohio
 Methodist Theological School in Ohio
 Mount Carmel College of Nursing
 Mount Vernon Nazarene University
 Muskingum University
 Notre Dame College
 Oberlin College
 Ohio Christian University
 Ohio Dominican University
 Ohio Northern University
 Ohio Wesleyan University
 Otterbein University
 Pontifical College Josephinum
 Saint Mary Seminary & Graduate School of Theology
 Tiffin University
 Trinity Lutheran Seminary
 Union Institute & University
 United Theological Seminary
 University of Dayton
 The University of Findlay
 University of Mount Union
 University of Northwestern Ohio
 University of Rio Grande
 University of Ohio
 Urbana University
 Ursuline College
 Walsh University
 Wilberforce University
 Wilmington College
 Wittenberg University
 Xavier University

272
 Art Institute of Portland
 Concordia University–Portland
 Corban University
 Eastern Oregon University
 George Fox University
 Lewis & Clark College
 Linfield College
 Marylhurst University
 Mount Angel Seminary
 Multnomah University
 National College of Natural Medicine
 New Hope Christian College
 Northwest Christian University
 Oregon College of Art & Craft
 Oregon Health & Science University Oregon
 Oregon Institute of Technology
 Oregon State University
 Pacific Northwest College of Art
 Pacific University
 Portland State University
 Reed College
 Southern Oregon University
 University of Oregon
 University of Portland
 University of Western States
 Warner Pacific College
 Western Oregon University
 Western Seminary
 Willamette University

 Brown University
 Bryant University
 Johnson & Wales University
 New England Institute of Technology
 Providence College
 Rhode Island College Rhode Island
 Rhode Island School of Design
 Roger Williams University
 Salve Regina University
 United States Naval War College
 University of Rhode Island

 Albright College
 Allegheny College
 Alvernia University
 American College
 Arcadia University
 Art Institute of Pittsburgh Pennsylvania
 Baptist Bible College & Seminary
 Biblical Theological Seminary

273
 Bryn Athyn College of the New Church
 Bryn Mawr College
 Bucknell University
 Cabrini College
 Cairn University
 Calvary Baptist Seminary
 Carlow University
 Carnegie Mellon University
 Cedar Crest College
 Central Penn College
 Chatham College
 Chestnut Hill College
 Curtis Institute of Music
 Delaware Valley College
 DeSales University
 Dickinson College
 Drexel University
 Duquesne University
 Eastern University
 Elizabethtown College
 Evangelical Theological Seminary
 Franklin & Marshall College
 Gannon University
 Geneva College
 Gettysburg College
 Gratz College
 Grove City College
 Gwynedd Mercy University
 Harrisburg University of Science & Technology
 Haverford College
 Holy Family University
 Immaculata University
 Juniata College
 Keystone College
 King's College
 La Roche College
 La Salle University
 Lafayette College
 Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine
 Lancaster Bible College
 Lancaster Theological Seminary
 Lebanon Valley College
 Lehigh University
 Lincoln University
 Lutheran Theological Seminary at Gettysburg
 Lutheran Theological Seminary at Philadelphia
 Lycoming College
 Marywood University
 Mercyhurst College
 Messiah College

274
 Misericordia University
 Moore College of Art & Design
 Moravian College
 Mount Aloysius College
 Muhlenberg College
 Neumann University
 Peirce College
 Pennsylvania College of Art & Design
 Pennsylvania College of Health Sciences
 Pennsylvania State of Higher Education
 Philadelphia College of Osteopathic Medicine
 Philadelphia University
 Pittsburgh Theological Seminary
 Point Park University
 Reconstructionist Rabbinical College
 Robert Morris University
 Rosemont College
 Saint Charles Borromeo Seminary
 Saint Francis University
 Saint Joseph's University
 Saint Vincent College
 Salus University
 Seton Hill University
 Susquehanna University
 Swarthmore College
 Temple University
 Thiel College
 Thomas Jefferson University
 United States Army War College
 University of Pennsylvania
 University of Pittsburgh
 University of Scranton
 University of the Arts
 University of the Sciences in Philadelphia
 Ursinus College
 Valley Forge Christian College
 Villanova University
 Washington & Jefferson College
 Waynesburg University
 Westminster College
 Westminster Theological Seminary
 Widener University
 Wilkes University
 Wilson College
 Won Institute of Graduate Studies
 York College of Pennsylvania

 Allen University
 Anderson University South Carolina
 Benedict College

275
 Charleston Southern University
 The Citadel
 Claflin University
 Clemson University
 Coastal Carolina University
 Coker College
 College of Charleston
 Columbia College
 Columbia International University
 Converse College
 Erskine College
 Francis Marion University
 Furman University
 Lander University
 Limestone College
 Medical University of South Carolina
 Morris College
 Newberry College
 North Greenville University
 Presbyterian College
 Sherman College of Chiropractic
 South Carolina State University
 Southern Wesleyan University
 University of South Carolina
 Voorhees College
 Winthrop University
 Wofford College

 Dalian Fisheries University

 Dalian Jiaotong University
 Dalian Maritime University
 Dalian Nationalities University
 Dalian Polytechnic University
 Dalian University
 Dalian University of Foreign Languages South Dakota
 Dalian University of Technology
 Dongbei University of Finance and Economics
 Liaoning Normal University
 Liaoning University of International Business and Economics
 Neusoft Institute of Information

 Aquinas College
 Austin Peay State University
 Baptist Memorial College of Health Sciences
 Belmont University
 Bethel University Tennessee
 Bryan College
 Carson-Newman College
 Christian Brothers University

276
 Cumberland University
 East Tennessee State University
 Emmanuel Christian Seminary
 Fisk University
 Freed-Hardeman University
 Johnson University
 King College
 Lane College
 Lee University
 LeMoyne-Owen College
 Lincoln Memorial University
 Lipscomb University
 Martin Methodist College
 Maryville College
 Meharry Medical College
 Memphis College of Art
 Memphis Theological Seminary
 Mid-America Baptist Theological Seminary
 Middle Tennessee School of Anesthesia
 Middle Tennessee State University
 Milligan College
 Pentecostal Theological Seminary
 Rhodes College
 Richmont Graduate University
 South College
 Southern Adventist University
 Southern College of Optometry
 Tennessee State University
 Tennessee Technological University
 Tennessee Wesleyan College
 Trevecca Nazarene University
 Tusculum College
 Union University
 University of Memphis
 University of Tennessee
 University of the South
 Vanderbilt University
 Victory University
 Watkins College of Art, Design, & Film
 Welch College
 Western Governors University–Tennessee

 Abilene Christian University

 Ambassador University (closed spring 1997)
 Amberton University
 American College of Acupuncture & Oriental Medicine
 AOMA Graduate School of Integrative Medicine
 Arlington Baptist College Texas
 Art Institute of Dallas
 Art Institute of Houston

277
 Austin College
 Austin Graduate School of Theology
 Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary
 Baptist Missionary Association Theological Seminary
 Baylor College of Medicine
 Baylor University
 Brite Divinity School
 College of Biblical Studies–Houston
 College of Saints John Fisher & Thomas More
 Concordia University–Texas
 Criswell College
 Dallas Baptist University
 Dallas Christian College
 Dallas Theological Seminary
 DeVry University–Irving (Dallas)
 East Texas Baptist University
 Graduate Institute of Applied Linguistics
 Hardin-Simmons University
 Houston Baptist University
 Howard Payne University
 Huston-Tillotson University
 Jarvis Christian College
 LeTourneau University
 Lubbock Christian University
 McMurry University
 Midwestern State University
 Northwood University
 Oblate School of Theology
 Our Lady of the Lake University
 Parker University
 Paul Quinn College
 Rice University
 Saint Edward's University
 Saint Mary's University
 Schreiner University
 Seminary of the Southwest
 Southern Methodist University
 South Texas College of Law
 Southwestern Adventist University
 Southwestern Assemblies of God University
 Southwestern Baptist Theological Seminary
 Southwestern Christian College
 Southwestern University
 Stephen F. Austin State University
 Texas A&M University
 Texas Chiropractic College
 Texas Christian University
 Texas College
 Texas Lutheran University
 Texas Southern University

278
 Texas State University
 Texas Tech University
 Angelo State University
 Health Sciences Center
 Texas Tech University
 Texas Wesleyan University
 Texas Woman's University
 Trinity University
 University of Dallas
 University of Houston
 University of Mary Hardin-Baylor
 University of North Texas
 Health Science Center
 University of Saint Thomas
 University of Texas
 University of the Incarnate Word
 Wade College
 Wayland Baptist University
 Western Governors University–Texas
 Wiley College

 Brigham Young University

 Dixie State College
 Southern Utah University
 University of Utah
 Utah State University Utah
 Utah Valley University
 Weber State University
 Western Governors University
 Westminster College

 Bennington College
 Burlington College
 Castleton State College
 Champlain College
 College of Saint Joseph
 Goddard College
 Green Mountain College
 Johnson State College
 Landmark College
 Lyndon State College Vermont
 Marlboro College
 Middlebury College
 Norwich University
 Saint Michael's College
 School for International Training
 Southern Vermont College
 Sterling College
 University of Vermont
 Vermont College of Fine Arts

279
 Vermont Law School
 Vermont Technical College

 Averett University
 Bluefield College
 Bridgewater College
 Christendom College
 Christopher Newport University
 College of William and Mary
 DeVry University–Arlington
 Eastern Mennonite University
 Eastern Virginia Medical School
 ECPI University
 Emory & Henry College
 Ferrum College
 George Mason University
 George Washington University–Virginia Science & Technology Campus
 Hampden-Sydney College
 Hampton University
 Hollins University
 Institute for the Psychological Sciences
 James Madison University
 Jefferson College of Health Sciences
 Liberty University
 Longwood University
 Lynchburg College
 Marine Corps University Virginia
 Mary Baldwin College
 Marymount University
 Norfolk State University
 Old Dominion University
 Radford University
 Randolph College
 Randolph-Macon College
 Regent University
 Roanoke College
 Saint Paul's College
 Shenandoah University
 Southern Virginia University
 Sweet Briar College
 Union Presbyterian Seminary
 University of Mary Washington
 University of Richmond
 University of Virginia
 University of Virginia's College at Wise
 Virginia Commonwealth University
 Virginia Intermont College
 Virginia Military Institute
 Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University
 Virginia State University

280
 Virginia Union University
 Virginia Wesleyan College
 Washington & Lee University

 Antioch University–Seattle
 Art Institute of Seattle
 Bastyr University
 Bellevue College
 Central Washington University
 City University of Seattle
 Cornish College of the Arts
 Eastern Washington University
 Evergreen State College
 Gonzaga University
 Heritage University
 Northwest Indian College
 Northwest University
 Olympic College
 Pacific Lutheran University Washington
 Peninsula College
 Saint Martin's University
 Seattle Pacific University
 Seattle University
 Trinity Lutheran College
 University of Puget Sound
 University of Washington
 Walla Walla University
 Washington State University
 Western Governors University–Washington
 Western Washington University
 Whitman College
 Whitworth University

 Alderson-Broaddus College
 American Public University
 Appalachian Bible College
 Bethany College
 Bluefield State College
 Concord University
 Davis & Elkins College
 Fairmont State University
 Future Generations Graduate School West Virginia
 Glenville State College
 Marshall University
 Mountain State University (closed 01 January 2013)
 Ohio Valley University
 Salem International University
 Shepherd University
 University of Charleston
 West Liberty University

281
 West Virginia State University
 West Virginia University
 West Virginia University Institute of Technology
 West Virginia University at Parkersburg
 West Virginia Wesleyan College
 Wheeling Jesuit University

 Alverno College
 Bellin College
 Beloit College
 Cardinal Stritch University
 Carroll University
 Carthage College
 College of the Menominee Nation
 Columbia College of Nursing
 Concordia University–Wisconsin
 Edgewood College
 Herzing University
 Lakeland College
 Lawrence University
 Maranatha Baptist Bible College
 Marian University
 Marquette University Wisconsin
 Medical College of Wisconsin
 Milwaukee Institute of Art & Design
 Milwaukee School of Engineering
 Mount Mary College
 Northland College
 Rasmussen College
 Ripon College
 Sacred Heart School of Theology
 Saint Norbert College
 Silver Lake College
 University of Wisconsin
 Viterbo University
 Wisconsin Lutheran College
 Wisconsin School of Professional Psychology

 University of Wyoming Wyoming

 University of Guam
 American University of Puerto Rico
 Caribbean University
 Carlos Albizu University
 Centro de Estudios Avanzados de Puerto Rico y el Caribe Guam
 Colegio Universitario de San Juan
 Columbia Centro Universitario
 Conservatorio de Música de Puerto Rico
 Escuela de Artes Plásticas de Puerto Rico

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  EDP College
 Ponce School of Medicine & Health Sciences
 Pontificia Universidad Católica de Puerto Rico
 San Juan Bautista School of Medicine
 Seminario Evangélico de Puerto Rico
 Sistema Universitario Ana G. Méndez
 Universidad Adventista de las Antillas
 Universidad Central de Bayamón
 Universidad Central del Caribe
 Universidad del Sagrado Corazón
 Universidad Interamericana de Puerto Rico
 Universidad Politecnica de Puerto Rico
 University of Puerto Rico

 University of the Virgin Islands U.S. Virgin

Island

 Bacone College
 Cameron University
 East Central University
 Langston University
 Mid-America Christian University
 Northeastern State University
 Northwestern Oklahoma State University
 Oklahoma Baptist University
 Oklahoma Christian University
 Oklahoma City University
 Oklahoma Panhandle State University
 Oklahoma State University
 Oklahoma Wesleyan University
 Oral Roberts University
 Phillips Theological Seminary Oklahoma
 Phillips University (closed July 1998)
 Rogers State University
 Saint Gregory's University
 Southeastern Oklahoma State University
 Southern Nazarene University
 Southwestern Christian University
 Southwestern Oklahoma State University
 University of Central Oklahoma
 University of Oklahoma
 University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center
 University of Oklahoma–Tulsa
 University of Science & Arts of Oklahoma
 University of Tulsa

Source: The University of Texas at Austin, (2014)

283
Appendix 2/b: Colleges, Schools, and Departments of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Public
Affairs accredited by the Network of Schools of Public Policy, Public Affairs, and Public
Administration-NASPAA, 2013-2014

Auburn University at Auburn Northeastern University

Department of Political Science Department of Political Science
Auburn University at Montgomery Suffolk University
Dept of Political Science & Public Administration Department of Public Management
Jacksonville State University Central Michigan University
College of Arts and Sciences Department of Political Science
The University of Alabama at Birmingham Eastern Michigan University
Department of Government Department of Political Science
Troy University Grand Valley State University
Department of Political Science School of Public, Nonprofits, and Health
Administration
Arizona State University
School of Public Affairs Oakland University
Department of Political Science
The University of Arizona
School of Government & Public Policy Wayne State University
Department of Political Science
Arkansas State University
Department of Political Science Western Michigan University
School of Public Affairs & Administration
University of Arkansas at Little Rock
Institute of Government University of Minnesota
Humphrey School of Public Affairs
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
Political Science Department Jackson State University
Department of Public Administration
California State University, Bakersfield
Department of Public Policy & Administration Mississippi State University
Department of Political Science and Public
California State University, Chico Administration
Department of Political Science
Missouri State University
California State University, Dominguez Hills Political Science Department
Department of Public Admin and Public Policy
Saint Louis University
California State University, Fresno College of Education and Public Service
Department of Political Science
University of Missouri-Columbia
California State University, Fullerton Harry S Truman School of Public Affairs
Division of Politics, Administration, and Justice
University of Missouri-Kansas City
California State University, Long Beach Henry W. Bloch School of Management
Graduate Centre for Public Policy &
Administration University of Missouri-St. Louis
Public Policy Administration Masters
California State University, Los Angeles Programme
Department of Political Science
University of Nebraska at Omaha
California State University, San Bernardino College of Public Affairs & Community Service
Department of Public Administration
284
California State University, Stanislaus
Department of Political Science and Public University of Nevada, Las Vegas
Administration Department of Public Administration

Naval Postgraduate School Kean University

Graduate School of Business and Public Policy Dept. of Public Administration

San Diego State University Rutgers University, Camden

School of Public Affairs Graduate Department of Public Policy &
Administration
San Francisco State University
Department of Public Administration Rutgers University, New Brunswick
Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and
San Jose State University Public Policy
Department of Political Science
Rutgers University, Newark
University of La Verne School of Public Affairs and Administration
Department of Public and Health Administration
Seton Hall University
University of San Francisco Centre for Public Service
School of Management
New Mexico State University
University of Southern California Department of Government
Sol Price School of Public Policy
The University of New Mexico
University of Colorado, Colorado Springs School of Public Administration
School of Public Affairs
Baruch College/City University of New York
University of Connecticut School of Public Affairs
Department of Public Policy
Binghamton University
University of Delaware Department of Public Administration
School of Public Policy and Administration
Columbia University
American University School of International Policy and Affairs
Department of Public Administration and Policy
John Jay College of Criminal Justice, CUNY
The George Washington University Department of Public Management
Trachtenberg School of Public Policy and Public
Admin Long Island University, Brooklyn
School of Business, Public Administration and
The George Washington Info Sciences
Trachtenberg School of Public Policy and Public
Administration Long Island University
Department of Health Care & Public
Florida Atlantic University Administration
School of Public Administration
New York University
Florida Gulf Coast University Robert F. Wagner Graduate School of Public
Division of Public Affairs Service

Florida International University State University of New York, the College at

School of International and Public Affairs Brockport 2018-19
Department of Public Administration
Florida State University
Askew School of Public Administration & Policy Syracuse University
Maxwell School of Citizenship and Public Affairs

285
University of Central Florida
Department of Public Administration The New School
The Milano School of Int'l Affairs, Management,
University of North Florida and Urban Policy
Department of Political Science & Public
Administration & Policy University at Albany, SUNY
Nelson A. Rockefeller College of Public Affairs
University of South Florida
Dept of Government & International Affairs Appalachian State University
Department of Government & Justice Studies
Albany State University
College of Arts & Humanities East Carolina University
Department of Political Science
Clark Atlanta University
Department of Public Administration North Carolina State University
School of Public and International Affairs
Georgia College & State University
Department of Government and Sociology The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
School of Government
Georgia Regents University
Department of Political Science The University of North Carolina at Charlotte
Department of Political Science
Georgia Southern University
Dept of Political Science, Justice Studies, and The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Public Admin Department of Political Science

Georgia State University University of North Carolina, Wilmington

Andrew Young School of Policy Studies Department of Public and International Affairs

Kennesaw State University University of North Dakota

Department of Political Science and International Dept of Political Science & Public Administration
Affairs
Cleveland State University
Savannah State University Maxine Goodman Levin College of Urban Affairs
Department of Political Science and Public
Affairs Kent State University
Department of Political Science
The University of Georgia
School of Public and International Affairs The Ohio State University
John Glenn School of Public Affairs
University of West Georgia
Department of Political Science and Planning The University of Toledo
Department of Political Science & Public
Valdosta State University Administration
Department of Political Science
University of Dayton
Boise State University Department of Political Science

DePaul University Wright State University

School of Public Service Department of Urban Affairs & Geography

DePaul University Portland State University

School of Public Service Division of Public Administration

Governors State University University of Oregon

College of Business & Public Administration Department of Planning, Public Policy &
Management
Northern Illinois University
Department of Public Administration Willamette University
Atkinson Graduate School of Management
286
Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville
Department of Public Administration & Policy Carnegie Mellon H. John Heinz III College,
Analysis School of Public Policy and Management

Southern Illinois University, Carbondale The Pennsylvania State University at Harrisburg

Department of Political Science School of Public Affairs

The University of Illinois at Chicago University of Pittsburgh

Department of Public Administration Graduate School of Public and International
Affairs
University of Illinois at Springfield
College of Public Affairs and Administration Villanova University
Department of Political Science
Indiana University, Bloomington
School of Public & Environmental Affairs University of Puerto Rico - Rio Pederast Campus
Roberto Sanchez Vilella School of Public
Indiana University, Northwest Administration
School of Public and Environmental Affairs
College of Charleston
Indiana University, South Bend Campus Department of Political Science
School of Public & Environmental Affairs
University of South Carolina
Indiana University-Purdue University, Ft. Wayne Department of Political Science
Department of Public Policy
The University of South Dakota
Indiana University-Purdue University Department of Political Science
Indianapolis
School of Public & Environmental Affairs Tennessee State University
Department of Public Administration
Kansas State University
Department of Political Science The University of Memphis
Division of Public and Non-profit Administration
The University of Kansas
School of Public Affairs and Administration The University of Tennessee at Chattanooga
Dept of Political Science, Public Admin and
Wichita State University Nonprofit Mgmt
Hugo Wall School of Urban and Public Affairs
Texas A&M International University
Eastern Kentucky University Department of Public Affairs and Social
Department of Government Research

Kentucky State University Texas A&M University

School of Public Admin, Social Work, and Bush School of Government and Public Service
Criminal Justice
Texas Southern University
Morehead State University Barbara Jordan-Mickey Leland School of Public
School of Public Affairs Affairs

Northern Kentucky University Texas State University

Dept. of Political Science and Criminal Justice Department of Public Administration

University of Kentucky Texas Tech University

Martin School of Public Policy & Administration Department of Political Science

University of Louisville The University of Texas at Arlington

School of Urban & Public Affairs School of Urban and Public Affairs

The University of Texas at Austin

LBJ School of Public Affairs
287
 Western Kentucky University
Department of Political Science The University of Texas at Dallas
School of Economic, Political and Policy
Grambling State University Sciences
Department of Political Science and Public
Administration The University of Texas at El Paso
Institute for Policy and Economic Development
Louisiana State University
Public Administration Institute The University of Texas at San Antonio
Department of Public Administration
Southern University and A&M College
Department of Public Administration Brigham Young University
George W. Romney Institute of Public
University of New Orleans Management
Department of Political Science
The University of Utah
Bowie State University Department of Political Science
Dept. of Management, Marketing and Public
Administration The University of Vermont
Dept of Community Development & Applied
University of Baltimore Economics
School of Public and International Affairs
George Mason University
University of Maryland, Baltimore County Department of Public & International Affairs
Department of Public Policy
James Madison University
University of Maryland, College Park School of Public Policy and Administration
School of Public Policy
Old Dominion University
Bridgewater State University Department of Urban Studies and Public
Dept. of Political Science Administration

University of North Texas Virginia Commonwealth University

Department of Public Administration L. Douglas Wilder School of Govt. & Public
Affairs

Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University

Centre for Public Administration & Policy

Source: Network of Schools of Public Policy, Afairs, and Administration-NASPAA, (2014)

288
 ኢትዮጵያ

Source: Adapted from Google Internet Company, (2014)

The first study guide that inspired me, the „Fidel Gebeta‟, with Amharic and English
alphabets, numbers, and reading part-all in a single page, for Ethiopian kids of my time

289
About the Student

Teferi Hailemichael is a local council member at the

Addis Ababa municipal government, and a lecturer at
the Department of Management, College of Business
and Economics of Wollo University in Ethiopia.

He has been granted a Bachelor of Arts Degree in

Political Science & international Relations, and a Master
of Arts Degree in Public Administration by Addis Ababa
University, Ethiopia.

The student has previously served the Ethiopian public

service as an administrator, chief executive, and city
council member for more than a decade.

Teferi Hailemichael
P.O. Box 16019
Tel. +251 91 202 0384
49055518@mylife.unisa.ca.za
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

I
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