ELECTRICAL SAFETY STANDARDS AND PRACTICES IN COMMERCIAL/INSTITUTIONAL

ESTANLISHMENTS AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES FOR THE PREVENTION AND CONTROL

OF ELECTRICAL FIRE

CEBU CHAPTER
Fault Calculation:
A Tool in Determining Interrupting
Capacity and Momentary Rating of
Circuit Breakers and Fuses.
March 18, 2017

HOTEL PIER CUATRO

3rd Avenue, North Reclamation Area
Cebu City

By: Erwin J. Salvador, PEE,MEEE

Electricity can ignite and produce fire
because…

HEAT is proportional to Power and Time

Power is proportional to Current

Therefore Electrical Fault can cause FIRE

Overload - Above normal current at long period of time

Short Circuit - Very high current due to very low impedance in a very
short period of time (usually in terms of cycle of signal)
✓ Loose connections causing equipment overheating
✓ Voltage surges
✓ Presence of animal in the equipment
✓ Deterioration of insulation due to age
✓ Mechanical stresses applied to the equipment

✓ Accumulation of moisture and contaminants

✓ Improper installation of equipment
✓ A large assortment of
“undermined causes”
➢ It will introduce a significant amount of energy into the fault
➢ It damage the adjacent equipment and also possibly
resulting an arc-flash hazard to personnel working on the
equipment.
➢ All equipment carrying short circuit currents will
subjected to thermal and mechanical stresses due to
current flow. The Thermal Stress varies as a function of
the magnitude of the RMS current squared and the time
duration of the current flow (I2RMSt). The mechanical
stress is due to the magnetic forces and varies as a
function of the magnitude of the peak current squared
and the ratio of the length of the conductor to the spacing
between conductor centers (KI2peak L / S).
➢ System voltage levels drop in proportion to the magnitude of the short circuit
current flowing.
• Electric Utility System
- The remote generators of an
electric utility systems are a source
of short circuit current often
delivered through a supply
transformer.

• Synchronous Generators
- Since synchronous generator is
continuously driven by its prime
mover and to have its field
externally excited, the steady-state
value of short circuit current will
persist unless interrupted by some
switching means.
 • Synchronous Motors
It supplies to a fault current to a fault
much as synchronous generators do.
When a fault causes system voltage to
drop, the motor receives less power
from the system for rotating its load. At
the same time, the internal voltage
causes current to flow to the system
fault.

• Induction Motors
- Induction motors contribute current to a
power system short-circuit. This is generated
by inertia driving the motor in the presence of
field flux produced by induction from the
stator rather than from a DC field winding.
Since this flux decays on loss of source
voltage caused by a fault at the motor
terminals, the current contribution of induction
motor to a terminal fault reduces and
disappears completely after a few cycles.
 • The one line diagram is a
graphical representation of the
power system
• The diagram should show all
sources of short circuit current
and all other significant
elements
• Essential data such as equipment ID,
rated MVA, kV, impedances, and
other data found in every equipment
should also be reflected on the
diagram
• Positive Sequence Impedances
The positive sequence impedance of synchronous machines
varies depending on the time period after the machine
experiences fault
Subtransient at instant fault
Reactance ( 𝑋𝑑 ”)
Transient ½ to 4 cycles after or
Reactance (𝑋𝑑 ′) 0.0083 to 0.067 sec.
Synchronous more than 4 cycles or
Reactance (𝑿𝒅 ) 0.067 sec.
• Negative Sequence Reactance
Approximately a few percent higher or lower than the
positive impedance value

• Zero Sequence Reactance

Usually much less than the others (about 40 to 60% of

any of the above)

Equivalent
Zero-Sequence models
for Synchronous Machines
• The positive and negative sequence impedances of all
transformers are identical.

• The zero sequence impedance is either equal to the other two sequence
reactances or infinite – except for three-phase core-type transformers.

Equivalent
Zero-Sequence models for
Two Winding Transformers
impedance
impedance
 • The positive and • The zero sequence impedance is
negative sequence always different from the positive and
reactances are the same. negative sequence impedances.

• It is a loop impedance (conductor • Usual values is approximately 4 to 5

plus earth and/or ground wire times the positive (or negative
return). sequence values) as per actual
transmission lines installation.

Resistance and Reactances

for 600V cables
 The Per-Unit impedance of a utility is always
found 1.0 based on the available short circuit
MVA @ the utility voltage.
 The Per-Unit value of any quantity (volts, amps, ohms, watts, volt-
ampere, etc. ) is defined as the ratio of the quantity to its base
value expressed as decimal.

Actual Quantity
Per Unit Quantity
Base Quantity

Advantages of Per-Unit Values:

• Manufacturers usually specify the impedance • The Per-Unit impedance expressed in proper
of an apparatus in per-unit values. base is same on the either side of the
transformer.
• Per-Unit impedances of machines of the same
• The way which transformers are connected in
type and widely different rating usually lie
3-phase does not affect the per-unit
within a narrow range.
impedance.
 BaseKVA 3ph (Base kV LL ) 2

Base Current Base Z

3 Base kV LL Base MVA
3ph

2
æ CommonBaseMVA æ kV Rating 
Per-Unit Znew Per-Unit Z given
 MVA Rating  CommonBasekV
è  è 
The ratio per phase voltage drop of a machine
winding to that of per phase voltage.

𝑽𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑
% IZ = 𝑽 x 100%
𝒑𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆

𝑽𝒅𝒓𝒐𝒑 = 𝑰𝑭𝑳 x Z

Example
I. Three-phase fault or sometimes called Balance or
Symmetrical Fault

- Three phase fault happens when the three lines a, b, c are

shorted.

a
b
c
Ifa
Ifb 3-phase Fault

Ifc
II. Unsymmetrical Fault
A. Single Line to Ground Fault (SLG)

- SLG fault happens when a line is shorted

with the Ground
a
b
Ifa
c
N

SLG
B. Line to Line Fault (LL)
- Line to Line happens when two lines are shorted with
each other

c
Ifb
Ifc

LL
C. Double Line to Ground Fault (DLG)

- DLG happens when two lines are shorted with each other
together with the ground. This type is uncommon like the 3-
phase fault but has a lower resulting current compared to the
3-phase fault.

a
b
c
IbF
IcF

N
DLG
In the figure shown, calculate the fault current.
Utility
260 MVAsc @ 23kV

1.5 MVA , %IZ= 5.5%

23 kV – V

CB

3-Phase Fault
BASIC PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

The isolation of short circuits and overloads requires the application of protective equipment that
senses when an abnormal current flow exists and then removes the affected portion from the system.
The three primary protective equipment components used in the isolation of short circuits and
overloads are:
1. FUSES - both a sensing and interrupting device, but not a
switching device. It is connected in series with the circuit
and responds to thermal effects produced by the current
flowing through it. The fusible element is designed to open
at a predetermined time depending upon the amount of
current that flows. Different types of fuses are available
having time-current characteristics required for the proper
protection of the circuit components. Fuses may be
noncurrent-limiting or current-limiting, depending upon
their design and construction. Fuses are not resetable
because their fusible elements are consumed in the
process of interrupting the current flow.
1. CIRCUIT BREAKERS - Circuit breakers are interrupting and switching devices that require
overcurrent elements to fulfill the detection function. In the case of medium-voltage (1–72.5 kV)
circuit breakers, the sensing devices are separate current transformers (CTs) and protective relays
or combinations of relays. For most low-voltage (under 1000 V) circuit breakers, (molded-case
circuit breakers or low-voltage power circuit breakers) the sensing elements are an integral part
of the circuit breaker. These trip units may be thermal or magnetic series devices; or they may be
integrally mounted, but otherwise separate electronic devices used with CTs mounted in the
circuit breaker.

2. PROTECTIVE RELAYS - Overcurrent relays used in conjunction with

medium-voltage circuit breakers are available with a range of
different functional characteristics. Relays may be either directional
or nondirectional in their action. Relays may be instantaneous and/or
time-delay in response. Various time-current characteristics (e.g.,
inverse time, very inverse time, extremely inverse time, definite
minimum time) are available over a wide range of current settings.
Relays generally are used in conjunction with instrument
transformers.
Circuit Breaker Selection Criteria
The selection of any circuit breaker, for any given duty, is ultimately based on an
assessment of its ability to perform the following basic functions:
a) To carry the required full-load current without overheating (i.e., it should have the correct
current rating), A current that is expected to continue for three hours or more.
Note: Circuit breaker rating must be match up with the conductor rating depending on types of load.
b) To switch and isolate or disconnect the load
from the source at the given system voltage
(i.e., it should have the correct voltage rating),
 c) To interrupt any possible abnormally high operating current or short-circuit current likely to be
encountered during operation (i.e., it should have the correct interrupting rating), and
asymmetrical current: The combination of the
symmetrical component and the direct current
component of the current.
first cycle duty: The maximum value of calculated
short-circuit current for the first cycle with any
applicable multipliers for fault current X/R ratio.
fault point X/R: The calculated fault point X/R ratio
using separate reactance and
resistance networks.
interrupting current: The current in a pole of a switching
device at the instant of the arc initiation. Sometime referred to
as breaking current. The highest current at rated voltage that a
device is intended to interrupt under standard test conditions.
(NFPA 70-1996)
momentary current rating: The maximum rms current measured at the
major peak of the first cycle, which the device or assembly is required to
carry. Momentary rating was used on medium- and high-voltage breakers
manufactured before 1965.
Close & Latch Rating or Making Current - It is the capability of the breaker to close into a
fault and stay in that position without destroying its poles. This rating is same as the peak
asymmetrical current (during the first cycle) after the breaker closes.

frame size:
A term applied to a group of circuit breakers of similar physical conÞguration. Frame size is expressed in
amperes and corresponds to the largest ampere rating available in the group. The same frame size designation
may be applied to more than one group of circuit breakers. (UL 489-1991)

d) To be able to perform these functions over an

acceptably long period of time under the operating and
environmental conditions that will actually prevail in the
application (i.e., it should have the correct mounting
provisions, enclosure, and accessories for operation in the
environment in which it is to be applied).
Short-Circuit Withstand Calculation for Conductors

Evaluation of Temperature Limits of the cable during Short-Circuit:

ISC 2 T2 +234
(𝑡) = 0.0297log 10 T +234 , for copper
A 1
conductor

Isc = Short-circuit current, Amps

A = Conductor Area in Circular Mils (cmil)
t = Time of short-circuit, time of short-circuit = 1 sec.
T1 = Initial conductor temperature, ̊C
T2 = Final conductor temperature, ̊C
Temperature
Limits of Cables
Table
Conductor Termination on Device Terminals
Temperature limitation
 Branch circuit and feeder conductors will be typically terminated on the supply side by connection
to a circuit breaker terminal lug. On the load side, the conductor will typically terminate on a
device terminal such as the screw terminal of a receptacles or switches.

 By virtue of this connection, the heat produced by the conductor will be transmitted to the device
terminals, thereby causing heating of the terminal of the device itself.

 Electrical equipment such as circuit breakers, panelboards, receptacles, switches, terminal blocks,
wire nuts, lugs etc. have temperature rating that must have to observe. In cases where the
conductor temperature is greater than that of the device terminals, the terminal will act as the
heat sink. In this case heat will be transferred from the conductor to the terminals of the devices.
 If sufficient amount of heat is transferred to the device, false tripping of the circuit breakers,
nuisance blowing of fuses, or equipment damage may result.
 To minimize false tripping of circuit breakers and other possible effects mention
above, the temperature rating of the device terminals cannot be exceeded.
Typically, the maximum temperature rating of the device terminals is 60C for
device rated 100A or less or desired to accommodate wire sizes (38mm2) and
smaller. For the device rated greater than 100A, or devices having terminals
designed to accommodate wire sizes greater than (38mm2), the maximum rating
of the device terminals is typically 75C. If a termination is rated for 60C, this
means that the termination may rise up to 60C when the equipment is loaded to
its ampacity.

 Based on these restrictions, the maximum allowable current flow through a

conductor cannot produce a temperature that exceeds the maximum
permitted device temperature rating.
Example:
Determine the maximum allowable ampacity of a 14mm2 THHN copper conductor connected to
a breaker having a 60C terminal rating.

From table 3.10.1.16

14mm2 TW copper wire: max operating temperature = 60C, ampacity is 55A
14mm2 THW copper wire: max operating temperature = 75C, ampacity is 65A
14mm2 THHN copper wire: max operating temperature = 90C, ampacity is 70A

The data shown above can be viewed as an indication of the expected temperature of a conductor of a
certain current level. For example, if 70A flows in a 14mm2 conductor, the temperature would be 90C.
if 65A, the temperature will be 75C, lastly, if 55A the temperature would be 60C. Thus for THHN
copper wire, even if the insulation is rated at 90C, the ampacity must be limited to 55A because of
the breaker’s terminal temperature rating which is 60C.
EQUIVALENT ZERO-SEQUENCE MODELS FOR
SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

Back
Back
Back
A delta –wye power transformer is rated 100
MVA, 138 kV – 13.8 kV having percent
impedance of %IZ = 12%. What is the positive
sequence impedance referred to secondary
side?

Back
Formulas:
𝐸𝑎
𝐼3−φ𝐹 = x 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 , Amps.
𝑍1 +𝑍𝑓

Where:
𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 = 𝑀𝑉𝐴𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 =
3 𝑥 𝑘𝑉𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑍1

Z1 = Positive Sequence Impedance in p.u.

ZF = Fault Impedance in p.u.; equal to zero if bolted fault Back
Ea = Line to neutral voltage = 1.0 /0 at prefault
 Sequence Network for SLG Fault
Formulas:

𝐼𝑆𝐿𝐺 = 3𝐼𝑎0 𝑥 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 , Amps.

Where:
𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎𝑜 =
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍0 + 3𝑍𝑓

𝑍0 = 𝑍𝑔0 + 3𝑍𝑁
Z1 = Positive Sequence Impedance
Z2 = Negative Sequence Impedance
Zg0 = Zero Sequence Impedance
ZF = Fault Impedance; equal to zero if bolted fault
Ea = Driving voltage equal to 1.0 at pre-fault
Back
Note: ZF = 0 if bolted fault
: ZN = 0 if solidly grounded
 Sequence Network for LL Fault
Formulas:

𝐼𝐿𝐿 = 𝐼𝑏 = 3𝐼𝑎1 𝑥 𝐼𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 , Amps.

Where:
𝐸𝑎
𝐼𝑎1 =
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 + 𝑍𝑓

𝐼𝑐 = −𝐼𝑏

Z1 = Positive Sequence Impedance

Z2 = Negative Sequence Impedance
ZF = Fault Impedance; equal to zero if bolted fault
Ea = Driving voltage equal to 1.0 at pre-fault
Back
 Sequence Network for DLG Fault
Formulas:

• For solidly grounded neutral and no

impedance in the fault:

𝐼𝐷𝐿𝐺 = 𝐼𝐵𝐹 + 𝐼𝐶𝐹

3𝐸𝑎 𝑥 𝑍2
𝐼𝐷𝐿𝐺 =
𝑍1 𝑍0 + 𝑍1 𝑍2 + 𝑍2 𝑍0

• For solidly grounded neutral and with fault

through an impedance:

𝐼𝐷𝐿𝐺 = 𝐼𝐵𝐹 + 𝐼𝐶𝐹

3𝐸𝑎 𝑥 𝑍2
𝐼𝐷𝐿𝐺 =
𝑍1 𝑍2 + (𝑍1 𝑍2 )(3𝑍𝑥𝑍0 ) Back
Back