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 PHYSICS
PRACTICALS
For
Intermediate Part I & II
Ross Nazir Ullah
Ex- Assist ant Professor of Physics
F. C. College, Lahore
Revised by
Daniel Yousaf
Head of Department,
F. C. College, Lahore
Muhammad Iqbal Syed Iftikhar Hussain
Assistant Professor of Physics AssistantProfessorofPhysics
F. C. College, Lahore F. C. College, Lahore
Dr. Aamir Razaq
Assistant Professor
Physics Department
COMSATS
Institute of Information
Technology, Lahore

Nirali Kitaben
285/A Venus Housing Scheme, P O Ismail Nagar
Ferozepur Road, Lahore, Tele: (042) 35824536, 38468840
Website: www.niralikitaben.com; email: niralikitaben@gmail.com
All rights Reserved

Revised Edition 2014

 Preface
This notebook has been compiled for F.Sc. Physics students. For helping them in
their practicals in the Physics laboratory. Theory and lengthy procedures are
intentionally excluded.

Observations and calculations must be completed in the laboratory and get signed
by the teacher before the student leaves the laboratory.

I have entered the readings in the blank tables, just for guidelines. It’s a new
idea! These readings are not perfect. Some of these are taken from a normal
student’s practical notebook. If you want to take good marks in the exams, you
should take the readings by yourself.

I have made major diagrams of the apparatus in two dimensions, so that the
students can reproduce the figures easily.

There is no shortage of Physics practical note books in the market. But this
notebook presents a different approach. No claim of originality is laid, but some
pioneer work should be appreciated. Brevity is the soul of everything. It is hoped
that the teacher and taught will give the proper response for this work.

This manual has more than required practicals. It contains

standard experiments as new syllabus introduced by the Education Department.
And also exercises with home projects.

Useful suggestions will be appreciated to make this notebook more comprehensive

and helpful.

July 2012. Ross Nazir Ullah

I never did anything worth doing by accident, nor did any of my

inventions come by accident; they came by work. –
Edison
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 Contents
Part I
Graphs
7
A. Method for plotting a graph.
10
B. Graph Illustrated
11
C. Ten different graphs.
21
D. Graph Exercises

Mechanics
1. To find the volume of a cylinder using Vernier Calipers. 22
2. To find the area of cross section of a wire and volume of small 24
sphere using micrometer screw gauge
3. To find the unknown weight of a body by the method of vector 26
addition of forces.
4. Determination of value of ‘g’ by free fall using an electronic 28
timer/ticker timer.
5. Verification of following relations of the simple pendulum: 30
i) Time period is independent of the amplitude.
ii) Time period is independent of its mass or density of the bob.
iii) Time period is directly proportional to the square root of its length.
6. To find the acceleration due to gravity by oscillating mass spring 32
system.
7(a). To study the laws of conservation of momentum by colliding 34
trolleys and ticker timer for inelastic collisions.
7(b). To study the laws of conservation of momentum by colliding 36
trolleys and ticker timer for elastic collisions.
8. Verify the second condition of equilibrium using a suspended 38
meter rod.
9. To study the fall of a body through a viscous medium and hence to 40
deduce the coefficient of viscosity of the medium.
10. To determine Young’s Modulus of a wire by Searle’s apparatus. 42
11. To find the moment of inertia of a flywheel. 44
 Waves and Sound
12. Determination of frequency of A.C. by Melde’s experiment. 46
13(a). Investigation of the law of length of stretched strings by sonometer. 48
13(b). Investigation of the Law of tension stretched strings by sonometer. 50
14(a). To determine the wavelength of sound in air using stationary 52
waves and to calculate the speed of sound by one resonance
position and applying end correction.
14(b). To determine the wavelength of sound in air and to calculate the 54
speed of sound using resonance positions in stationary waves for
both ends open.

Light
15. To determine the focal length of a convex lens by displacement 56
method.
16(a). To determine the focal length of a concave lens using a concave 58
mirror.
16(b). To determine the focal length of a concave lens using a convex 60
lens.
17(a). To find the refractive index of the material of a prism using a 62
spectrometer.
17(b). To find the refractive index of the material of a prism using a 64
laser.
18. To find the refractive index of the material of a prism by critical 66
angle method.
19. To find the refractive index of a liquid using a concave mirror. 68
20. To determine the wavelength of sodium light by Newton’s rings. 70
21(a). To determine the wavelength of sodium light using a diffraction 72
grating.
21(b). To determine the wavelength of light by diffraction grating using 74
laser light.
22. To measure the diameter of a wire or hair using laser. 76
23. Setting up a telescope and determination of its magnifying power 78
and length.

Heat
24. To find the coefficient of linear expansion of the material of a rod by 80
Pullinger’s apparatus.
25. To measure the mechanical equivalent of heat by electrical method. 82
 Part II
Graphs
A. Method for plotting a graph.
94
B. Graph Illustrated
95-98
C. Ten different graphs
99-108

Standard Experiments
1. To find the resistance of a wire by slide wire bridge. 109
2. To find the resistance of a Galvanometer by half deflection method. 111
3. To find the resistance of a voltmeter by drawing graph between R and 1/V. 113
4. Variation of resistance of thermister with temperature. 115
5. Conversion of galvanometer into Ammeter. 117
6. Conversion of galvanometer into Voltmeter. 119
7. To find the internal resistance of a cell using a Potentiometer. 121
8. To determine the emf of a cell using a Potentiometer. 123
9. Relation between current passing through a tungsten filament lamp 125
and the potential applied across it.
10. Variation of magnetic field along the axis of a circular coil. 127
11. Charging and discharging of a capacitor and to measure 129
time constant.
12. Relation between current and capacitance when different 131
capacitors are used in A.C. circuit.
13. Characteristics of a semi-conductor diode and calculation of 133
forward and reverse current resistance.
14. Characteristics of a N.P.N. transistor. 135
15. Study of the variation of electric current with intensity of light 137
using a photocell.
16. To estimate the value of Planck’s constant by using photo cell 139
tube and coloured light filters.
17. Measurement of D.C. and A.C. voltage by Cathode Ray Oscilloscope. 141
18. a) To verify truth table for OR gate. 143
b) To verify truth table for AND gate. 145
c) To verify truth table for NOT gate. 147
19. To make burglar alarm using NAND gate. 149
20. To make a fire alarm using NOT gate. 151
21. Characteristics of a G.M. tube. 153
22. Determination of high resistance by Neon flash lamp. 155
23. To determine the e/m of electrons by deflection method (teltron tube) 157
 Exercises
More than 23 exercises for the standard experiments. 161-172

Appendix
A. i) Table of constants and useful data. 174-178
B. ii) Natural trigonometric functions. 179
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Part II
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 General Instructions for Electricity Experiments

To avoid shocks:

Please check that power sources are disconnected before you touch any wires or
components in the circuit. Even with circuits you think are not `live,' try to develop the
habit of working one-handed, with the other hand either in your pocket or in your lap.

To avoid current and power overloads:

If there is some doubt how much current is in a branch of a circuit, set the adjustable
resistors which affect that branch to values which will limit the current as much as
possible. Put an ammeter of sufficiently high range in the branch. Then slowly change the
resistor settings to increase the current by watching on the meter readings.

To know the limitations of equipment:

Every circuit component has limits of current, voltage, or power beyond which it will not
work properly and may be damaged. These limitations are clearly stated in the
manufacturer's catalogs which should be in the lab. Find these values and record them in
your lab notebook before wiring and powering the circuits. If some information is not
available in the files, ask the instructor for it.

To measure with voltmeters and ammeters:

Note the polarities of the meter probe leads with respect to the battery polarity of the circuit.
A good voltmeter has very high resistance, often in mega ohms. When it is connected
properly across a circuit element the voltmeter doesn't divert much of the circuit's current.
So the currents and potentials existing in the circuit are not changed so much..
An ideal ammeter has a very low resistance. When it is connected in series with a circuit
element, it doesn't add significant resistance to the circuit. Therefore the currents and
potentials existing in the circuit are not changed much. But most ammeters are not ideal
and change the circuit current.
When an ammeter is improperly connected, in parallel with a circuit element, its low
resistance allows considerable current to be diverted through the meter, possibly
damaging the meter or the circuit. Even if the current is within the range of the meter.
When a voltmeter is improperly connected, in series with a circuit element, its high
resistance limits the current in that branch of the circuit to a very low value. This alters
the currents and potentials of the circuit from their original values. The meter usually
won't be damaged, and will indicate a voltage very near to zero.
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 90
How Electrical Current Affects the Human Body
Three primary factors affect the severity of the shock a person receives
when he or she is a part of an electrical circuit:
1)Amount of current flowing through the body (measured in amperes).
2) Path of the current through the body.
3) Length of time the body is in the circuit.
Other factors that may affect the severity of the shock are:
1) The voltage of the current. 2) The presence of moisture in the environment.
3) The phase of the heart cycle when the shock occurs.
4) The general health of the person prior to the shock.
Effects can range from a barely perceptible tingle to severe burns and immediate cardiac
arrest. Although it is not known the exact injuries that result from any given amperage,
the following table demonstrates this general relationship for a 60-cycle, hand-to-foot
shock of one second's duration:
Current level (mA) Probable Effect on Human Body
1 mA Perception level. Slight tingling sensation. May be
dangerous under some conditions.
5mA Slight shock felt; not painful but disturbing. Average
individual can let go.
6mA - 16mA Painful shock, begin to lose muscular control. Commonly
referred to as the freezing current or "let-go" range.
17mA - 99mA Extreme pain, respiratory arrest, severe muscular
contractions. . If individual cannot let go death possible.
100mA - 2000mA Cardiac arrest, internal organ damage, and severe burns.
Death is probable.
Under dry conditions, human skin is very resistant. Wet skin dramatically drops the
body's resistance.
Dry Conditions: Current = Volts / Ohms = 120 / 100,000 = 1 mA
a barely perceptible level of current
Wet conditions: Current = Volts / Ohms = 120 / 1,000 = 120 mA
sufficient current to cause cardiac problem.
Time duration : When muscular contraction caused by stimulation does not allow the victim
to free himself from the circuit, even relatively low voltages can be extremely dangerous,
because the degree of injury increases with the length of time the body is in the circuit.
100mA for 3 seconds = 900mA for 0.03 seconds - in causing cardiac problem.
Note that a difference of less than 100 milli- amperes exists between a current that
is barely perceptible and one that can kill.
References: 1) NIOSH [1998]. Worker Deaths by Electrocution; A Summary of NIOSH Surveillance and Investigative
Findings. Ohio: US Health and Human Services.
2) Greenwald EK [1991]. Electrical Hazards and Accidents - Their Cause and Prevention. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
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The Fatal Current

The most obvious risk from electricity is electrocution through contact with a live circuit.
This is where an electrical current flows through the body which can result in the heart
stopping to work (cardiac arrest).
Strange as it may seem, most fatal electric shocks happen to people who should know
better. Here are some electro-medical facts that should make you think twice before
taking that last chance.
Electrical shock occurs when the body becomes part of the electric circuit, either when an
individual comes in contact with both wires of an electrical circuit, one wire of an
energized circuit and the ground, or a metallic part that has become energized by contact
with an electrical conductor

It's The Current That Kills

Offhand it would seem that a shock of 10,000 volts would be more deadly than 100 volts.
But this is not so! Individuals have been electrocuted by appliances using ordinary house
currents of 110 volts and by electrical apparatus in industry using as little as 42 volts
direct current. The real measure of shock's intensity lies in the amount of current
(amperes) forced though the body, and not the voltage. Any electrical device used on a
house wiring circuit can, under certain conditions, transmit a fatal current.

While any amount of current over 10 milliamps (0.01 amp) is capable of producing
painful to severe shock, currents between 100 and 200 mA (0.1 to 0.2 amp) are lethal.
Currents above 200 milliamps (0.2 amp), while producing severe burns and
unconsciousness, do not usually cause death if the victim is given immediate attention.
Resuscitation, consisting of artificial respiration, will usually revive the victim.
From a practical viewpoint, after a person is knocked out by an electrical shock it is
impossible to tell how much current has passed through the vital organs of his body.
Artificial respiration must be applied immediately if breathing has stopped.
The actual resistance of the body varies depending upon the points of contact and the skin
condition (moist or dry). Between the ears, for example, the internal resistance (less the
skin resistance) is only 100 ohms, while from hand to foot is closer to 500 ohms. The
skin resistance may vary from 1000 ohms for wet skin to over 500,000 ohms for dry skin.
References:
New Jersey State Council of Electrical Contractors Associations, Inc.
Bulletin VOL. 2, NO. 13
February, 1987
Submitted by Paul Giovinazzo
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