TRAINING TIER II

Government of India
Ministry of Water Resources, River Development & Ganga Rejuvenation
Rajiv Gandhi National Ground Water
Training & Research Institute
Central Ground Water Board
Raipur

REFERENCE MATERIAL

TRAINING COURSE ON
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT & MANAGEMENT
OF GROUND WATER RESOURCES

ORGANISED BY
Central Ground Water Board
……………………….REGION
……………………………………………

AT
…………………………………….
……………………………………………………
From ……………………to……………………..
Regional Director
Central Ground Water Board
……………………………………….
……………………………………….
……………………………………….
Phone: ……………………………..
Fax :………………………………….
Email: ………………………………
Web site : www.cgwb.gov.in


Government of India
Ministry of Water Resources, River Development &
Ganga Rejuvenation

Tier II Training Course on

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT & MANAGEMENT
OF GROUND WATER RESOURCES

Date .............

Central Ground Water Board

…………………………..Region

……………………………..
&
Rajiv Gandhi National Ground Water Training & Research Institute
Central Ground Water Board
Raipur

 Tier II Training on
Sustainable Development & Management of
Ground Water Resources

Contents
Sl. Topics Page
No Number
1 Aquifer Mapping & Development of Aquifer Information and 1-9
Management Plan in India – Initiative and Approach

2 Role of Aquifer Information System in ground water 10-20

development & management
3 Occurrence and Movement of Ground Water 21-35
4 Aquifer Information System - Data Acquisition, Identification of 36-40
Data Gap, Activity needed and future planning
5 Role of Remote Sensing in development of Aquifer Information 41-54
System
6 Application of Geophysical Studies in Aquifer Mapping 55- 70
7 Ground Water Exploration and Determination of Parameters for 71-77
Aquifer Mapping.
8 Pumping Test Methods and Analysis 78-92
9 Ground Water Regime Monitoring and its significance in aquifer 93-116
information system.
10 Ground Water Quality & its role in Aquifer information system 117-130
11 Ground Water Resources Estimation & its role in aquifer 131-136
mapping
12 Ground Water Management Problems encountered 137-141

13 Ground Water Conservation and Artificial Recharge of Ground 142-153

Water
14 Capacity Building and Awareness in relation to Aquifer Mapping 154-159
1. AQUIFER MAPPING & DEVELOPMENT OF AQUIFER INFORMATION &
MANAGEMENT PLAN IN INDIA - INITIATIVE AND APPROACH
INTRODUCTION

Aquifer mapping is a process wherein a combination of geologic, geophysical, hydrologic and

chemical field and laboratory analyses are applied to characterize the quantity, quality and
sustainability of ground water in aquifers.

First systematic geological mapping was carried out by Geological Survey of India. Also
systematic ground water survey programme was undertaken first by Geological Survey of India
and later by Central Ground Water Board. Subsequently Reappraisal Hydrogeological survey
and Ground Water Management studies were carried by Central Ground Water Board. Besides
this, hydrogeological survey was carried out by different state ground water agencies of
different states.

The proposed programme on aquifer mapping is designed to make a significant step forward in
groundwater resource management by identifying and mapping aquifer management units,
quantifying the available groundwater resources potential and proposing plans appropriate to
the scale of demand, aquifer characteristics and the institutional arrangements for
management.

This work will be systematically implemented in the country, by involving organisations /

institutions across India. Considerable work and investigations have been carried out by Central
and State Agencies, Universities & Research Institutions, NGOs etc. at different scales.
Generally various thematic maps related to ground water domain are available on 1:250,000
scale in the country. These maps have been used in limited way for regional planning and
decision support to ground water development rather than management.

The proposed project on aquifer mapping and creation of micro level aquifer information
system, the activities are planned such a way to facilitate formulation of the ground water
management plan for individual units of optimal size in accordance with the nature of the
aquifer, the stress on the resource and prevailing water quality. In areas having adequate data
base from the completed studies, aquifer map in 1:50,000 scale will be prepared and aquifer
information system will be created with minimal field data collection. At present the National
Project on Aquifer Mapping is under formulation and approval. The Central Ground Water
Board under the Ministry of Water Resources has taken up pilot projects on aquifer mapping in
six areas of different hydrogeological setups in the country during the Twelfth Plan.

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RELEVANCE AND BENEFITS

The detailed Aquifer Mapping Program will advance the knowledge of the regional hydrologic
system by providing State, country, and local water resource managers with a summary of the
hydrogeology of selected aquifers. The availability of detailed aquifer maps at 1:50,000 in an
electronic format will serve to support many activities within the Division of Water including:
delineation of ground water contributing areas as part of the Source Water Assessment
Program, assessing potential threats to aquifers from both point and non-point sources,
responding to contaminant spills or leaks from fuel-storage facilities, and providing
hydrogeological information to aid in assessing the need to permit new or expanded public
water supplies.

OBJECTIVE

The primary objective of the Aquifer Mapping Programme is to prepare micro-level aquifer
information system with 1:50,000 or larger scale aquifer map and develop Aquifer
Management Plans, which will allow institutions and stakeholders to effectively understand and
manage groundwater resources at regional and local level.

METHODOLOGY

The National Aquifer Mapping (NAQUIM) programme is proposed to have workflow in nine
major components as stated below:
1. Institutional and project management support.
2. Delineation of lateral and vertical extent of aquifers.
3. Definition of aquifer units in terms of natural boundary with super imposed administrative
boundaries.
4. Demarcation of optimal size aquifer management units (AMU).
5. Prioritisation and work programme definition in terms of quantity, quality and status of
development.
6. Investigation and data compilation for each / cluster of units.
7. Preparation of Aquifer Management Plan and supporting tools.
8. Development of Aquifer Information and management system.
9. Protocol for participatory ground water management.
These will be supported by three principal supplementary activities

1. Development of Regional/national data acquisition system for data collection,

interpretation and dissemination.
2. Development of a framework for aquifer management plans.
3. Capacity building and training.

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1. Institutional and project management support

The workflow of the project, envisaged for National Aquifer Mapping (NAQUIM) will be
accomplished on a Project Mode with multi-disciplinary approach and central state public
partnership. This would require a skeletal framework given below, which will be further
expanded on completion of benchmarking for the aquifer mapping based on the five pilots
project areas.
A. Institutional strengthening
1. National Level: A Project Director with required administrative and financial power
to take timely decisions for execution of the project who will be stationed at New
Delhi for proper co-ordination with agencies involved and states and MOWR. A
dedicated Project Secretariat under the Project Director comprising a team of
officers from CGWB/other identified institutions.
2. State level: A special cell with Nodal officer in Water resources/ PHED department,
and state level steering committees may be constituted for coordination.
3. Research and support Staff could be hired as per rules.
B. Capacity building
1. Technical upgradation of Institutions.
2. Capacity building of personnel through trainings
3. Strengthening of NGOs, para-hydrogeologists
C. Monitoring mechanism
1. National Level Committee.
2. State Level Committees.
3. District Level Committee.
4. Independent agency identified by MOWR.
2. Delineation of lateral and vertical extent of aquifers.

The major aquifer systems of India available in 1:2 million scale gives the national level
distribution of porous and fractured aquifers. There are number of sub-groups transgressing the
states and basins and also the country which are to be properly sub-divided in the lines of
National surface water under basins, sub-basins, water sheds and mini water sheds. The multi
layered aquifers in porous formation also needs grouping in space and depth. Conventionally,
geology and geomorphology plays key role in defining the aquifer units. It is proposed to
demarcate the aquifers in the country in a scientific way from provinces to regions and local
level to a optimal size management unit. Accordingly component of the project will include:-
i. Lithological model, to include depth and thickness of major aquifers and aquicludes,
significant structures, faults and lineaments.
ii. Attribution of geological model with basic aquifer properties (storage, transmissivity).
The priority areas for identification of the AMU as well as the scale of mapping shall be based

3
on the Aquifer map prepared on 1:250, 000 scale and input from the State Agencies. This work
of identification shall be taken up in consultation with the user Agency.

3. Definition of aquifer units in terms of natural boundary with super imposed

administrative boundaries.

The third task for the project will be the definition of Aquifer Management Units (AMU). An
Aquifer Management Unit is the basic component of both planning and project
implementation. Ideally an aquifer management unit will be defined on hydrogeological grounds,
encompassing aquifers as a whole, including their recharge areas and natural and
anthropogenic discharges. This gives the maximum scope for effective management.

4. Demarcation of optimal size aquifer management units (AMU).

This component is based on compilation of existing data from central/state agencies by

detailed desk and literature studies for each AMU the processed data will be used for updating
existing 1:250,000 scale hydrogeological map depicting sub-basin/basin level aquifer groups.
This will include digital spatial data, where possible at a larger 1:50,000 scale. Digital data will
include topographic mapping, administrative data, geological mapping, hydrological data and
the location of monitoring infrastructure. Reports and studies on hydrogeology and aquifer
management will be catalogued and reviewed. Spatial metadata should be prepared for major
datasets that are not available digitally, for instance the boundaries of existing hydrogeological
models.

The major output from this component, apart from the spatial database, will be a literature
review, conceptual model and technical report on each AMU. The conceptual model will
develop clarity regarding sources of recharge, interaction of surface and groundwater and their
movement, abstraction and natural losses from the aquifer unit. The report should assess its
hydrogeological characteristics, major stresses and environmental issues, and the availability
of detailed data. The different materials to be prepared are given in table below:
Task Outputs
1:50,000 base maps Digital GIS of base data at 1:50,000 scale

Literature Bibliographic database of regional level and local groundwater

compilation studies
Spatial metadata Digital GIS with boundaries of mapping and major groundwater
resource reviews, groundwater models

Conceptual model AMU specific conceptual model of hydrogeological characteristics

and problems
AMU review Technical report covering each AMU, summarising hydrogeological
characteristics and evaluating data availability

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5. Prioritisation and work programme definition in terms of quantity, quality and status
of development.
The project’s fifth major component is the prioritisation of AMUs for further investigation, and
the development of management plans and assessment of data gaps. Taking outputs from the
earlier component, a matrix of issues will be considered. Firstly importance of the aquifer
management unit will be assessed in accordance with prevailing socio-economic conditions
and ground water development status. The following criteria will be also used for planning the
work plan:-
i. aquifer yield
ii. water quality
iii. demands on the aquifer
iv. Available assessments (Natural or administrative boundary- Watershed/block) of
groundwater availability (AMUs with overexploited status will be a priority for mapping
and data base creation).

6. Investigation and data compilation for each / cluster of units

With work plans defined in the previous component, each identified AMU will be subject to a
program of data collection, collation and reporting. A range of hydrogeological and geophysical
techniques are already used for aquifer investigation, and the Aquifer Mapping Pilot studies are
being carried out to test the relative efficacy of existing techniques, pilot the use of new
technologies and prepare best practice guidance for this project. Specific works are given
below:
Data compilation from Primary and secondary data available
For each AMU an aquifer map will be prepared in GIS platform, the thematic maps will include
the following information:

i. Geological and Lithological model, to include depth and thickness of major aquifers and
aquicludes, significant geological structures like faults and lineaments etc.
ii. Attribution of geological model with basic aquifer properties (storage, transmissivity).
iii. Delineation of surface water systems, to include rivers, canals, tanks and artificial
recharge structures, with an assessment of surface water/groundwater interaction and
pollution potential
iv. Contours of Water level/ piezometric head in aquifers, and historical/seasonal variability
v. Spatial estimates of hydrometeorological parameters, in particular recharge and
evaporation.
vi. Identification of abstraction points, including dug wells and tube wells and quantification
of seasonal and annual draft for various purposes.
vii. Contours or zonation of groundwater quality.
viii. Vulnerability map of sea water ingress, pollution plume movement if any.

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 Additional Primary data generation

Where significant data gaps are identified, data collection is required to supplement existing
reports and digital data. Data collection will include digitisation of existing hard copy records
(for instance by processing basic data reports, or re-interpretation of existing VES data and
other field survey data.

Field of Study Details

Geological Studies
Drilling of exploratory bores drilling to confirm sub-surface geology, depth specific
sampling to fill up the data gaps in lithology
Satellite image analysis/ Remote Interpretation of available imagery to identify geological
Sensing (and hydrogeological) features
Validation of geological mapping Field validation of mapping and interpretation
Hydrogeological Studies
Well inventory and Inventory of existing ground water abstraction. Estimation
hydrogeological interpretation of weathering thickness and Lithological variation in
space.

Measurement of water level / Periodic measurements from existing wells, with

piezometric head attribution to aquifers tapped
Identification of artificial recharge Cataloguing location and status
structures
Water quality sampling and Collection of water / core samples, analysis of major
analysis ions, health risks (F, As) and isotopic age indicators
Field measurement of aquifer Pump tests on new boreholes or existing structures
properties
Geophysical Surveys
Surface geophysics VES including 2D Resistivity Imaging, EM,
Magnetometry, Passive Seismic
Airborne geophysics TEM, Magnetometry, Heliborn TEM*
Borehole geophysics Electrical logging to validate ground and airborne
geophysics inference, natural gamma, neutron, borehole
camera to identify Lithological features in existing well

Heliborn TEM will be applied in the selected area in accordance with the outcome of the pilot
studies of aquifer mapping in different hydrogeological terrain.

7. Preparation of Aquifer Management Plan and supporting tools.

The Aquifer Management Plan (AMP) shall include, but not limited to:

i. Feasible areas for ground water development along with yield potential Type and Depth
of drilling / safe yields etc.

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 ii. Feasible areas for rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge of groundwater vis a vis
subsurface storage space and surplus non committed surface water runoff available for
recharge.
iii. Aquifer wise vulnerability map indicating ground water stress areas in terms of water
availability and quality.
iv. Participatory Groundwater Management protocol, mechanism to involve community and
funding options.

8. Development of Aquifer Information and management system.

The Aquifer Information and Management System (AIMS) is a Scientific Specialized Data
Management System where information are kept in electronic record for most types of data
and documentation which ensures long-term data preservation, accessibility, and retrieval. It is
a logical and structured system to collect data which are subsequently entered into the
computer, checked and stored and where also data may be compared, associated, related and
combined to provide information in a form-suitable to users.
The objective of developing a AIMS is to use for the planning, designing and
management of water services for domestic, industrial and agricultural uses and its
protection. As the occurrence of water shows great variability in space and time , it
requires adequate monitoring in terms of quantity and quality.
A standardized national information system should be established with a network of data
banks and data bases, integrating and strengthening the existing Central and State level
agencies and improving the quality of data and its processing capabilities.
The NAQUIM will require three main information systems, addressing different elements of the
project workflow as given below;
i. Preparation of uniform template for Compilation of data for Aquifer Maps

ii. Models for Aquifer Management Plan

iii. Development of Aquifer Information Management System (AIMS)

For compilation of raw data, digitisation, GIS compilation and the interpretation of field
investigations a suite of software tools will be required. It is expected that this suite will
make extensive use of the CGWB and Hydrology Project’s digital hydrogeological database
GEMS, which stores data on monitoring boreholes, hydrometeorology and water quality.
Other key components will be a document management system, desktop GIS, a 3D
geological visualisation tool and geophysical interpretation packages. An IT management
framework will be required to allow for data management and progress monitoring with
management information reporting. This framework should be the only bespoke software
required for this element.
The second element of software required will be a suite of models in support of Aquifer

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 Management Plans. These models will range in scope and complexity and the selection of
the appropriate model will be part of preparing the AMP. For relatively unstressed aquifers
the CGWB Groundwater Estimation model is expected to be used. A version of this model
will be part of e-GEMS. Where water resources are more stressed a distributed recharge
model, focussing primarily on near surface hydrometeorological processes may be more
appropriate. In complex and highly stressed areas, a groundwater model (MODFLOW or
equivalent) may be used.
The third element will be an Aquifer Information System (AIMS). This system will be based
around a web-enabled GIS holding the interpreted data used in assessing each AMU,
along with key field data, viz groundwater monitoring information water level time series
and chemical analyses. It will also have online download facility. of the AMP. The interface
will facilitate access to data and reports for hydrogeological professionals, and to key AMP
recommendations for a wider community of governmental and non-governmental agencies
and the private sector. Details tabulated as follows:

Task Outputs

Project data management Suite of software linked by a simple interface with tools for
platform data storage and management reporting.

Modelling tools Suite of modelling software, and where appropriate standard

parameterisation.

AIMS Web based system for dissemination of AMU descriptions,

aquifer maps and AMPs.

Aquifer management is complex, especially from a social, administrative and political

perspective. The issues associated with managing over exploited resources, aquifer
degradation and competition for scarce resources have been studied extensively in an Indian
context.

Preparation of aquifer management plans in them, without effective implementation, will not
result in improved ground water management. This supplementary activity is designed to
prepare an intellectual and administrative framework for implementing aquifer management
plans. It will combine an academic assessment with experience from projects like the Andhra
Pradesh Farmers Participatory Ground Water Management System (APFPGMS).

APFPGMS is a Project implemented through nine NGO’S in providing knowledge to community

to increase their ground water resources optionally and take up steps to contain and manage
available limited resources. The negative impact of overdevelopment in the form of declining
ground water levels, reduced yield from bore well & and drying of few wells are demonstrated.

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Harnessing aquifer recharge will help rebuild ground water levels and provide farmers round the
year farm dependent labour. Ground water based initiation has been found to enable the
farmers to come together for initiating technical interventions.

Implementation of Aquifer management plan will be through participatory approach involving

state government agencies and NGO’S. Involvement of Para-hydrogeologists progressively is
proposed for the implementation of Aquifer management plan and capacity building of
stakeholder.

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2. ROLE OF AQUIFER INFORMATION SYSTEM IN GROUND WATER
DEVELOPMENT & MANAGEMENT
INTRODUCTION

Aquifer mapping is a scientific process wherein a combination of geologic, geophysical,

hydrologic, & chemical field and laboratory analyses are applied to characterize the quantity,
quality, and sustainability of ground water.

The objective is to provide critically needed information on the aquifers that are extensively
being exploited to meet growing water demand from domestic, industrial and irrigation sector.
The maps would help improve our understanding of the geologic framework of aquifers that are
repository of ground water, their hydrologic characteristics (transmissivity, storativity, specific
yield etc), depth to ground water levels and temporal and spatial fluctuations, suitability of water
for various uses, vulnerability in terms of resource depletion & quality deterioration including
contaminations due to anthropogenic and geogenic causes. Results of these efforts would help
identify the priority areas for evolution of mathematical modeling based management plan for
sustainable development. This will also help in implementation management plan and
monitoring of aquifer development by active involvement of stakeholders at grass root level.

Ground water resource estimation exercises carried out by Central Ground Water Board have
brought to notice depletion of the resource besides quality deterioration in many parts of India.
This is because of growing dependence on ground water for meeting water requirement due to
its ubiquitous nature, low cost of development, lack of awareness of the response of aquifer to
pumping and other stresses and the absence of effective Act for regulation and control. Millions
of tube wells / bored wells are pumping ground water round the clock to meet various water
needs. Moreover the uncertainty of rainfall, reduction in surface water storage area due to
encroachment and lack of a plan for conservation and augmentation of resource has reduced
per-capita availability of water. Thus many new areas are experiencing water stress by each
passing year. Development of ground water in India is in public domain controlled by need and
availability. Thus no consideration has been given to the aquifers. The record pertaining to
ground water structures and their uses are inadequate. Studies pertaining to response of
aquifers to various stresses in different aquifers are scanty.

Mapping of aquifers is to be done for entire country by involving organisations / institutions /

NGOs / PRIs and other stake holders. Over the years a plethora of data on aquifers has been
generated through works carried out by Central and State Agencies, Universities & Research
Institutions, NGOs etc. Various thematic maps related to ground water domain are available on
1:250,000 scale in the country. These maps have been used for planning ground water

10
development on regional scale rather than development of strategies or sustainable
management.

For the proposed project on aquifer mapping and development of micro level aquifer
information system, the activities have been planned in identified areas in such a way as to
formulate a management plan. In identified areas, detailed mapping with integrated
hydrogeological, geophysical, geochemical and remote sensing studies will be carried out for
preparation of large scale aquifer maps and aquifer information system for the entire country in
a period of 10 years i.e., 12th and 13th Five Year Plans.

Some aquifer management units may require significant investment on various scientific
tools like remote sensing, conventional hydrogeological, geophysical and hydro-chemical
studies. The accelerated aquifer information data generation will require significant investment
in organising the field work with state of art techniques and equipments, with dedicated team
involving central and state agencies. Creation of resource centre with local community
participation in implementation of the aquifer development plan would also require investment.

HYDROGEOLOGICAL SETUP OF INDIA AND THE PROBLEM OF WATER SCARCITY

Hydrogeological setting of the Indian sub-continent is highly complicated due to occurrence of
diversified geological formations with considerable lithological and chronological variations,
complex tectonic framework, climatological dissimilarities and various hydro chemical conditions
prevailing in the country. However, based on studies of mode of occurrence of ground water in
identical geological formations, nature and extent of aquifers and their hydrological properties in
relation to ground water flow characteristics under prevailing hydrodynamic and hydrochemical
conditions, it has been possible to broadly generalise hydrogeological framework of the country.
The term “hard-rocks” is generally used on ground water exploration point of view to include all
rocks without sufficient primary porosity and conductivity which are feasible for ground water
extraction. Hence the crystalline, volcanic and carbonate rocks along with precambrian
sedimentary rocks are commonly known as “hard rocks” which occupy nearly 68% of the total
Indian geographical area. The ground water in hard rocks mainly occurs in top weathered zone
and also within the joints and fractures at greater depths.

GEOLOGICAL SET UP
As already stated, the Indian craton was subjected to a number of tectonic disturbances through
its geological past. The major orogenies, namely Dharwar, Aravalli, Eastern Ghat, Satpura and
Delhi are mainly responsible for the emplacement of the Azoic and Proterozoic rocks which
form the basement of the Indian craton. These rocks include gneisses, schists, greenstones,
granites, granulites, quartzites, crystalline limestones and charnockites. The tectonic evolution
of the Indian Peninsular Platform started with the development of several major negative
structures with the deposition of a sequence of Proterozoic sedimentary rocks of Cuddapah

11
Super Group in Cuddapah depression. The equivalents of Cuddapah Super Group are known
as Bijawar Series, Pakhal Series, Kaladgi Series, Penganga Beds, Jagdalpur Series,
Chandrapur and Raipur Series, Kolhan Series, Gwalior System and Delhi System.
The Cuddapahs include conglomerates, quartzites, shales, slates, phyllites, schists and
limestones. These rocks exhibit epigrade rretamorphisrn and considerable folding, faulting and
thrusting especially in the Cuddapah basin. A thickness of about 6,000 m is attained by these
sediments in the Cuddapah depression.
The Vindhyan sequence (Upper Proterozoic-Lower Palaeozoic) overlies unconformably the
Cuddapah rocks or rests directly on the basement. The rock types include conglomerates,
sandstones, shales, quartzites and limestones, The Vindhyans show extensive development in
the Cuddapah basin, to the north of Son-Narmada lineament, West and part of East Uttar
Pradesh shelves and in the Rajasthan shelf. Simultaneous deposition has taken place in the
parts of Chhattisgarh, Bhima and Godavari basins. The Peninsular shield and northern
Vindhyan platform appear to be split into two segments by the Son-Narmada lineament.
The Cambrian system is well developed in Kashmir and in the Spiti valley where it is
represented by richly fossiliferous beds.
During the Middle to Upper Carboniferous came the Hercynian mountain building activity when
intense block movement took place along ancient faults, resulting in the formation of a set of
inter-cratonic grabens, including the reactivation of Godavari graben and the origin of a major
West Bengal shelf In the reactivated Godavari graben, a sequence of continental sediments
consisting of conglomerates, sandstones, shales and coal measures was deposited. In places
like Umeria and Mahendragarh in Madhya Pradesh and Daltonganj in Bihar, isolated outcrops
of thin marine beds occur at the base. The Gondwana sediments in parts are highly faulted,
with basic and ultrabasic intrusives.
The deposition of Middle and Upper Mesozoic sequence marks a distinct change in the trend of
further tectonic evolution of the Indian platform. The continental sediments (Upper Jurassic-
Lowei Cretaceous) were deposited in Rajasthan and Saurashtra-Kutch Shelves, Indo-Cylon
graben and Godavari delta area. The predominantly marine Mesozoic sediments were
deposited in parts of Narmada-Son-Damodar graben, Saurashtra-Kutch and Rajasthan shelves,
along the flanks of the Cambay and Indo-Ceylon graben and southern slopes of the Shillong
massif. The sequence is also present in the sub-surface of Jaisalmer (Rajasthan shelf),
Cauvery basin (Indo-Ceylon graben), Godavari delta and West Bengal shelf. Development of
marine Mesozoic sediments is expected along the peripheral parts of the Indian platform viz; in
the Carnbay graben below the Deccan Trap, the Laccadive Kerala graben, the Mahanadi delta
area and the Upper Assam depression.
A significant event in evolution of the Indian platform is marked by a very widespread igneous
activity, represented by the Deccan trap flows and their equivalents covering an extensive area

12
of the platform, mostly confined to the Central and Western India. They represent plateau
basalts with alternating inter-trappean sediments. The Deccan Traps probably range from
Cretaceôus to lower Eocene, though they are found to be mostly confined to Meso-Cenozoic
transition period. The Deccan Traps encompass an area of about 5,00,000 sq.km. In some
cases, the lava flows attain an aggregate thickness exceeding 2,000 m as in the central part of
the Cambay graben and western part of the Deccan synclines thus obliterating the earlier
tectonic history of these structures. The Evolution of Deccan syncline was completed with this
event. The Rajmahal (West Bengal shelf) and Syihet (southern Shillong Shelf) Traps however,
range from Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous in age.
Laterite is extensively distributed in Peninsular India. Low level laterite is mostly of detrital
nature, while high level laterite is of primary origin. Laterites form capping over bedrock and
most of the existing deposits in India may have originated during Pleistocene.

HYDROGEOLOGICAL SETUP OF THE COUNTRY

The ground water behaviour in the Indian sub-continent is highly complicated due to the
occurrence of diversified geological formations with considerable lithological and chronological
variations, complex tectonic framework, climatological dissimilarities and various hydrochemical
conditions. Studies carried out over the years have revealed that aquifer groups in alluvial / soft
rocks even transcend the surface basin boundaries. Broadly two groups of rock formations have
been identified depending on characteristically different hydraulic parameters of these
formations viz. Porous Formation and Fissured Formation.

Porous Formations
Porous formations have been further subdivided into Unconsolidated and Semi- consolidated
formations.

1. Unconsolidated Formations
The sediments comprising newer alluvium, older alluvium and coastal alluvium are by and large
the important repositories of ground water. These are essentially composed of clay, sand,
gravel and boulders, ferruginous nodules, kankar (calcareous concretions), etc. The beds of
sand and gravel and their admixtures form potential aquifers. The aquifer materials vary in
particle size, rounding and in their degree of sorting. Consequently, their water yielding
capabilities vary considerably. The coastal aquifers show wide variation in the water quality both
laterally and vertically. The piedmont zone of the Himalayas is skirted at some places by
artesian aquifers under free flowing conditions extending from Jammu and Kashmir in the west
to Tripura in the east. The hydrogeological conditions and ground water regime in Indo-Ganga-
Brahmaputra basin indicate the existence of large quantities of fresh ground water at least down
to 600 m or more below land surface, for large scale development through heavy duty
tubewells. Bestowed with high rainfall and good recharge conditions, the ground water gets

13
replenished every year in these zones. The alluvial aquifers to the explored depth of 600 m
have transmissivity values from 250 to 4000 m2/day and hydraulic conductivity from 10 to 800
m/day. The well yields range upto 100 litres per second (lps) and more, but yields of 40-100 lps
are common.

2. Semi-consolidated Formations

The semi-consolidated formations are chiefly composed of shale, sandstones and lime-stones.
The sedimentary deposits belonging to Gondwana and tertiary formations are also included
under this category. The sandstones form highly potential aquifers locally, particularly in
Peninsular India. Elsewhere they have only moderate potential and in places they yield meager
supplies. These sediments normally occur in narrow valleys or structurally faulted basins.
Though these formations have been identified to possess moderate potential, the physiography
of the terrain, normally restricts exploitation. Under favorable situations, these sedimentaries
give rise to artesian conditions as in parts of Godavari valley, Cambay basin and parts of west
coast, Pondichery and Neyveli in Tamil Nadu. Potential semi-consolidated aquifers particularly
those belonging to Gondwanas and Tertiaries have transmissivity values from 100 to 2300
m2/day and the hydraulic conductivity from 0.5 to 70 m/day. Generally the well yields in
productive areas range from 10 to 50 lps. Lathi sandstone and Nagaur sandstone in Rajasthan
and Tipam sandstone in Tripura State also form productive aquifers.

Fissured Formations (Consolidated Formations)

1. Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks Excluding Volcanic and Carbonate rocks
The most common rock types are granites, gneisses, charnokites, khondalites, quartzites,
schists and associated phyllites, slates, etc. Ground water generally occurs in the weathered
residuum, which serves as good and effective repository of ground water. It has been noted that
the fracture systems are generally hydraulically connected with the overlying weathered
saturated residium. Yield of Ground water depends on rock type and possibly on the grade of
metamorphism. Granite and gneisses are better sources that charnockite. Occurrence of
ground water in the fracture system has been identified down to a depth of 100m and even upto
200m locally. The yield potential of the crystalline and meta-sedimentary rocks shows wide
variations. Bore wells tapping the fracture systems generally yield from less than 1 lps to 10 lps.
The transmissivity value of the fractured rock aquifers vary from 10 to 500 m2/day and the
hydraulic conductivity varies from 0.1 to 10m/day. The ground water studies carried out in the
crystalline hard rocks reveal the existence, along certain lineaments, of deeply weathered and
fractured zones, locally forming potential aquifers. These lineament zones are found to be
highly productive for construction of borewells.

14
2. Volcanic rocks
The pre-dominant types of the volcanic rocks are the basaltic lava flows of Deccan Plateau. The
contrasting water bearing properties of different flow units controls ground water occurrence in
Deccan Traps. The Deccan Traps have usually poor to moderate permeabilities depending on
the presence of primary and secondary fractures.

3. Carbonate rocks
Limestones in the Cuddapah, Vindhyan and Bijawar group of rocks dominates the carbonate

15
rocks other than the marbles and dolomites. In carbonate rocks, the circulation of water creates
solution cavities thereby increasing the permeability of the aquifers. The solution activity leads
to widely contrasting permeability within short distances.

GROUND WATER REGIME MONITORING

Ground water level is one of the basic data-element which reflects the condition of the ground
water regime in an area. The CGWB monitors the ground water level and quality in a network
of 15640 domestic abstraction wells located all over the country. The data of May 2010
indicates that in Sub-Himalayan area, north of river Ganges and in the eastern part of the
country in the Brahmaputra valley, a general depth to water level range of 2-10 mbgl. In
major parts of north-western states (Indus basin), it varies from 10-20 m bgl with isolated
pockets of deeper water level as deep as more than 20 m bgl. In western Rajasthan and north
Gujarat deeper water level in the range of 20-40 mbgl and over the larger area of western
Rajasthan and northern Gujarat it is recorded more than 80 m to the maximum up to 140 m.

In the western coastal region water level is

generally less than 10 m and to the minimum of
2 mbgl where as in the east coastal region the
water level recorded in the range of 2-5 m bgl
and 5-10m in the South-eastern part of West
Bengal. In central India water level generally
varies between 5-10 m bgl .The peninsular part
of country the general water level observed in
the range 5-10 m bgl and at isolated patches the
water level recorded between 20-40 m bgl.

A perusal of past records reveal that there is a general decline in the water level as
observed mostly in northern, north western and eastern parts of the country covering Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana and in parts of Tamil
Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. It also observed some rise in water level at isolated areas and is
attributed to local causes or due to higher rainfall experienced in the area during the period of
observation.

16
GROUND WATER QUALITY (SHALLOW AQUIFERS)

The chemical quality of shallow ground water is being monitored through a network of 15640
observation wells and the samples collected from various studies, the analytical results
reveal that the ground water is mostly of calcium bicarbonate (Ca-HCO3) type when the total
salinity of water is below 500 mg/l (corresponding to electrical conductance of 750 µs/cm at
250C). They are of mixed cations and mixed anion type when the electrical conductance is
between 750 and 3000 µs/cm and waters with electrical conductance above 3000 µs/cm
are of sodium chloride (Na-Cl) type. However, other types of water are also found among
these general classifications, which may be due to the local variations in hydro-chemical
environments, human activities and ill managed drainage system. Nevertheless, the
occurrences of high salinity with concentrations of chloride, fluoride, iron, arsenic and nitrate
have been observed in some pockets in few states of the country.

The unconfined aquifers are extensively tapped for water supply across the country
therefore, its quality is of paramount importance. Chemical parameters like EC/TDS,
Chloride, Fluoride, Iron, Arsenic and Nitrate etc are the main constituents defining the quality
of ground water and their presence in ground water beyond the permissible limit inhibits their
use. In case of West Bengal & Bihar, Arsenic is a big deterrent in the use of ground water as
arsenic more than 0.05 mg/liter (permissible limit BIS 1983) is reported. Sporadic cases of
arsenic in Uttar Pradesh, Assam & Chhattisgarh States in excess of 0.05mg/l has also been
reported.

GROUND WATER RESOURCES

The dynamic ground water resources of the States and Union Territories have been assessed
taking consideration of 2008-09 as base year. The computed results reveal that the overall
contribution of rainfall to Annual Replenishable Ground Water Resource is 68% as the major
source of ground water recharge is the monsoon rainfall. South-west monsoon being the
most prevalent contributor of rainfall in the country, about 73% of country’s Annual Ground
Water Recharge takes place during the Kharif period of cultivation. The recharge from other
sources viz. canal seepage, return flow from irrigation, recharge from tanks, ponds, and water
conservations structures taken together is 32%. As such the Annual Replenishable Ground
Water Resource for the entire country has been assessed as 431 billion cubic meter
(BCM).The overall scenario of ground water resource utilization and availability computed as
on March, 2009 is depicted in figure. Keeping 35 BCM for natural discharge, the Net Annual
Ground Water Availability for the entire country has been worked out to be around 396 BCM.

The assessment of the resources indicate that the replenishable Groundwater resource is
estimated significantly high in the Indus–Ganga–Bramhputra alluvial belt in the North, East

17
and North East India covering the states of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West
Bengal and valley areas of North Eastern States, where rainfall is plenty and the aquifers found
have high storage capacity and favor the recharge. The coastal alluvial belt particularly Eastern
Coast also has relatively high replenishable ground water resources while in western India,
particularly Rajasthan and parts of northern Gujarat the annual replenishable ground water
resources are scanty as the region experiencing the arid climate. Similarly, in major parts of
the southern peninsular India covered with hard rock aquifers, the replenishable ground
water recharge is less which is attributed to comparatively low infiltration and storage capacity
of the rock aquifers. The Central Indian region is mostly accounted f o r moderate recharge.

There are significant variations over the ground water regime which can be attributed to
implementation of rainwater harvesting and water conservation measures and changes in
rainfall pattern and the addition of revised parameters employed in estimation methodology.

Ground Water Utilization

The assessment of ground water draft is carried out based on the Minor Irrigation Census data
and sample surveys carried out indicates the Annual Ground Water Draft as 243 BCM. Agriculture
sector remained the predominant consumer of ground water resources. About 91% of total annual
ground water draft i.e. 221 BCM is for irrigation use. Only 22 BCM is for Domestic & Industrial use
which is about 9% of the total draft. An analysis of ground water draft figures indicates that in the
states of Arunachal Pradesh, Delhi, Goa, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Jharkhand,
Kerala, North Eastern states of Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura,
Orissa, Sikkim, and Union Territories of Andaman & Nicobar Island, Dadra & Nagar Haveli,
Lakshadweep and Puducherry, ground water draft for domestic & industrial purposes are
more than 15%.There has been about 5% increase in the overall estimate of the annual ground
water draft of the country in 2009 as compared to 2004.

Stage of Ground Water Development

The stage of ground water development in the country is 61%. The status of ground water
development is very high in the states of Delhi, Haryana, Punjab and Rajasthan, where the

18
Stage of Ground Water Development is more than 100%, which implies that in the states the
annual ground water consumption is more than annual ground water recharge. In the states of
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh and UTs of and UT of Daman & Diu, Lakshadweep and
Puducherry, the stage of ground water development is 70% and above. In rest of the states / UTs
the stage of ground water development is below 70%. The ground water development activities
have increased generally in the areas where future scope for ground water development existed.
This has resulted in increase in stage of groundwater development from 58% in the year 2004 to
61% in 2009.

Categorization of Assessment Units

The overall assessment of resources reveal that out of 5842 numbers of assessed administrative
units (Blocks/Taluks/Mandals), 802 units are categorized as Over-exploited, 169 units as Critical,
523 units are Semi-critical, and 4277 units are categorized Safe. Apart from these unites, there
are 71 units observed completely Saline. Number of Over-exploited and Critical administrative
units are significantly higher in states of Delhi, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka,
Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu and also the UTs of Daman & Diu and Puducherry. The
reason for over-exploitation in the North Western part i.e. Punjab and Haryana is attributed to the
indiscriminate extraction of ground water for various purposes and in other parts caused by arid
climate resulting scanty and irregular rainfall and consequent less recharge.

19
AQUIFER MAPPING PROGRAM IN UNITED STATES
In 1980 the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) began a Detailed Aquifer Mapping Program with
an objective to define the hydrogeology of 21 extensively used (primary) stratified-drift aquifers
in upstate New York, and to present the information as individual sets of maps at 1:24,000-
scale. Each published report from this program describes the hydrogeology of a specific aquifer
or segment of aquifer, and depicts selected hydrogeologic characteristics. From 1983 to 1990,
reports covering 5 of these primary aquifers were published by the USGS. In 1987, eight
additional extensively used (principal) aquifers in New York were studied and a set of 1:24,000-
scale (or larger) maps that described the hydrogeology of a specific aquifer, and depicted
selected hydrogeologic characteristics, such as well and test-hole locations, surface geology,
bedrock-surface altitude, geologic sections, land use, soil permeability, altitude of the water
table or potentiometric surface, saturated thickness of the aquifer, and estimated well yields
were published. As of 2007, a total of 33 reports (including 2 summary atlases) from the
Detailed Aquifer Mapping Program since its inception in 1980 were prepared. This data, in
published reports, supports many NYSDEC Division of Water activities including delineation of
ground water contributing areas, assessing potential threats to the aquifer from both point and
non-point sources, responding to contaminant spills or leaks from underground fuel storage
facilities, and providing information to assess the need to permit new or expanded public water
supplies.

RELEVANCE AND BENEFIT

The Detailed Aquifer Mapping Program will advance the knowledge of the regional hydrologic
system by providing state, and local water resource managers with a summary of the
hydrogeology of selected principal aquifers. The availability of detailed aquifer maps at 1:25,000
in on GIS platform will serve to support many activities, viz., delineation of ground water surplus
and deficit areas, ground water polluted areas due either to industries or overuse of pesticides
and fertilisers for agriculture, for redefining strategies for ground water based water supplies. It
will help in prioritising investment in ground water sector. lf sustainable mechanism. The aquifer
model developed during the process will be a tool for decision makers in developing ground
water management plan by involvement of stakeholders in participatory mode and in
coordination with the local government agencies and NGOs. The aquifer information and
management system will also be formulated for the area.

20
 3. OCCURRENCE AND MOVEMENT OF GROUND WATER
INTRODUCTION

Groundwater is water that exists in the pore spaces and fractures in rocks and sediments
beneath the Earth’s surface. It originates as rainfall or snow, and then moves through the soil
and rock into the groundwater system, where it eventually makes its way back to the surface
streams, lakes, or oceans. Groundwater makes up about 1% of the water on the Earth (most
water is in oceans). But, groundwater makes up to 35 times the amount of water in lakes and
streams. Groundwater occurs everywhere beneath the Earth’s surface, but is usually restricted
to depth less than about 750 meters.

Figure 2.1 Distribution of water on Earth

Origin of Groundwater
The origin of groundwater is mainly one of the following:
Groundwater derived from rainfall and infiltration within the normal hydrological cycle. This kind
of water is called meteoric water. The name implies recent contact with the atmosphere.
Groundwater encountered at great depths in sedimentary rocks as a result of water having
been trapped in marine sediments at the time of their deposition. This type of groundwater is
referred to as connate waters. These waters are normally saline. It is accepted that connate
water is derived mainly or entirely from entrapped sea water as original sea water has moved
from its original place. Some trapped water may be brackish.

Groundwater and the Hydrologic Cycle

The hydrological cycle is the most fundamental principle of groundwater hydrology, the driving
force of the circulation is derived from the radiant energy received from the sun. Water
evaporates and travels into the air and becomes part of a cloud. It falls down to earth as
precipitation. Then it evaporates again. This happens repeatedly in a never-ending cycle. This
hydrologic cycle never stops. Water keeps moving and changing from a solid to a liquid to a

21
gas, repeatedly. Precipitation creates runoff that travels over the ground surface and helps to fill
lakes and rivers. It also percolates or moves downward through openings in the soil and rock to
replenish aquifers under the ground. Some places receive more precipitation than others do
with an overview balance. These areas are usually close to oceans or large bodies of water that
allow more water to evaporate and form clouds. Other areas receive less. Often these areas are
far from seawater or near mountains. As clouds move up and over mountains, the water vapor
condenses to form precipitation and freezes. Snow falls on the peaks. Figure 2.2 shows a
schematic representation of the hydrological cycle.

Figure 2.2 Schematic Representation of the Hydrological Cycle

Vertical Distribution of Groundwater

The subsurface occurrence of groundwater may be divided into zones of aeration and
saturation. The zone of aeration consists of interstices occupied partially by water and partially
by air. In the zone of saturation all interstices are filled with water, under hydrostatic pressure.
On most of the land masses of the earth, a single zone of aeration overlies a single zone of
saturation and extends upward to the ground surface, as shown in Figure 2.3. In the zone of
aeration (unsaturated zone), Vadose water occurs. This general zone may be further
subdivided into the soil water zone, the intermediate Vadose zone (sub-soil zone), and capillary
zone (Figure 2.3).
The saturated zone extends from the upper surface of saturation down to underlying
impermeable rock. In the absence of overlying impermeable strata, the water table, or phreatic

22
surface, forms the upper surface of the zone of saturation. This is defined as the surface of
atmospheric pressure and appears as the level at which water stands in a well penetrating the
aquifer. Actually, saturation extends slightly above the water table due to capillary attraction;
however, water is held here at less than atmospheric pressure. Water occurring in the zone of
saturation is commonly referred as groundwater, but the term phreatic water is also used.

Figure 2.3: A schematic cross-section showing the typical distribution of subsurface waters in a
simple “unconfined” aquifer setting, highlighting the three common subdivisions of the
unsaturated zone and the saturated zone below the water table.

Types of Geological Formations related to ground water

An aquifer is a ground-water reservoir composed of geologic units that are saturated with water
and sufficiently permeable to yield water in a usable quantity to wells and springs. Sand and
gravel deposits, and fractured sandstone, limestone and crystalline rocks are examples of
geological units that form aquifers. Aquifers provide two important functions: (1) they transmit
ground water from areas of recharge to areas of discharge, and (2) they provide a storage
medium for useable quantities of ground water. The amount of water a material can hold
depends upon its porosity. The size and degree of interconnection of those openings
(permeability) determine the materials’ ability to transmit fluid.
An Aquiclude is a saturated but relatively impermeable material that does not yield appreciable
quantities of water the best example being clay horizon.
An Aquifuge is a relatively impermeable formation that neither containing nor transmitting water,
ex. hard granite.
An Aquitard is saturated but poorly permeable stratum that does not yield water freely to wells
and impedes groundwater movement, ex. sandy clay.

23
TYPES OF AQUIFERS:
Most aquifers are of large areal extent and may be visualized as underground storage
reservoirs. Water enters a reservoir from natural or artificial recharge; it flows out under the
action of gravity or is extracted by wells. Ordinarily, the annual volume of water removed or
replaced represents only a small fraction of the total storage capacity. Aquifers may be classed
as unconfined or confined, depending on the presence or absence of a confining impervious
layer above or below the aquifer, while a leaky aquifer represents a combination of the two
types.
Unconfined Aquifer: An unconfined aquifer is one in which the aquifer rests on an impervious
formation which upper boundary is the water table. Water in this aquifer occurs under
atmospheric pressure and hence wells tapping this aquifer will have water level same as that of
the water table. Rises and falls in the water table correspond to changes in the volume of water
in storage within an aquifer. Contour maps and profiles of the water table determine the
quantities of water available and their distribution and movement.
A special case of an unconfined aquifer involves perched water bodies, as illustrated by This
occurs wherever a groundwater body is separated from the main groundwater by a relatively
impermeable stratum of small areal extent and by the zone of aeration above the main body of
groundwater. Clay lenses in sedimentary deposits often have shallow perched water bodies
overlying them. Wells tapping these sources yield only temporary or small quantities of water.

Figure 2.4 Schematic Cross-sections of Aquifer Types

Confined Aquifers: A confined aquifer is bounded by impervious formations both above and
below and ground water occurs under pressure greater than that of the atmosphere therefore
also known as artesian or pressure aquifers. In a well penetrating such an aquifer, the water
level will rise above the bottom of the confining bed, as shown by the artesian and flowing wells
of Figure 2.3. Water enters a confined aquifer in an area where the confining bed rises to the
surface; where the confining bed ends underground, the aquifer becomes unconfined. A region

24
supplying water to a confined area is known as a recharge area; water may also enter by
leakage through a confining bed. Rises and falls of water in wells penetrating confined aquifers
result primarily from changes in pressure rather than changes in storage volumes. Hence,
confined aquifers display only small changes in storage and serve primarily as conduits for
conveying water from recharge areas to locations of natural or artificial discharge.
Leaky Aquifer: Aquifers that are completely confined or unconfined occur less frequently than
do leaky, or semi-confined, aquifers. These are a common feature in alluvial valleys, plains, or
former lake basins where a permeable stratum is overlain or underlain by a semi-pervious
aquitard or semi confining layer. Pumping from a well in a leaky aquifer removes water in two
ways: by horizontal flow within the aquifer and by vertical flow through the aquitard into the
aquifer (see Figure 2.4).

Figure 2.5 Homogeneous, isotropic aquifer, rounded to sub-rounded sediments

Figure 2.6 Homogeneous, anisotropic aquifer, sediments in the direction of their long axis

WATER TABLE AND PIEZOMETRIC SURFACE

Water table is the surface of water level in an unconfined aquifer at which the pressure is
atmospheric. It is the level at which the water will stand in a well drilled in an unconfined aquifer.
The water table fluctuates whenever there is a recharge or an outflow from the aquifer. In fact,
the water table is constantly in motion adjusting its surface to achieve a balance between the
recharge and the out flow. Generally, the water table follows the topographic features and is
high below ridges and low below valleys. However, sometimes the topographic ridge and the
water table ridge may not coincide and there may be flow from one aquifer to the other aquifer,

25
called watershed leakage. Wherever the water table intersects the ground surface, a seepage
surface or a spring is formed.
Perched water table occurs when a small water body is separated from the main groundwater
body by a relatively small impermeable stratum. Wells drilled below the perched water table up
to the small impervious stratum yield very small quantity of water and soon go dry.
Piezometric surface: The water in a confined aquifer is under pressure. When a well is drilled
in a confined aquifer, the water level in it will rise above the top of aquifer. The piezometric
surface is an imaginary surface to which the water level would rise if a piezometer was inserted
in the aquifer. Thus, it indicates the pressure of the water in the aquifer. Hence, a piezometric
surface is the water table equivalent of the confined aquifer (see Figure 2.4).

AQUIFER PROPERTIES
The following properties of the aquifer are required for study of groundwater hydrology:
1. Porosity
2. Permeability
3. Transmissibility
4. Specific Yield
5. Specific Retention
6. Storage Coefficient

Porosity (n) is the percentage of rock or soil that is void of material. The larger is the pore
space or the greater their number, the higher the porosity and the larger the water-holding
capacity. It is defined mathematically by the equation:
Vv
n= × 100
V
Where,
n is the porosity (in percentage)
Vv is the volume of void space in a unit volume of earth materials (L3)
V is the unit volume of earth material, including both voids and solids (L3)

In sediments or sedimentary rocks it is also known as primary porosity (inter-granular or matrix

porosity) since it is the porosity provided by small spaces between adjacent grains of the rock. It
depends on the shape & size of the grains, the degree of sorting and the degree of
cementation.
Well-rounded coarse-grained sediments usually have higher porosity than fine-grained
sediments. The porosity of well-rounded and well sorted (all grains are about the same size)
sediments, is independent of particle size and depends only upon the packing. Poorly sorted
sediments (sediments contains a mixture of grain sizes) usually have lower porosity because
the fine-grained fragments tend to fill the open spaces. The porosity of sediments is affected by

26
the shape of the grains. Sphere-shaped grains will pack more tightly and have less porosity
than particles of other shapes. The fabric or orientation of the particles, if they are not spheres,
also influences porosity. Since cements tend to fill in the pore space, highly cemented
sedimentary rocks have lower Porosity. Porosity can range from zero to more than 60%.
Recently deposited sediments have higher porosity.

Figure 2.7 Relations Between Texture and Porosity A. Well - Sorted Sand Having High
Porosity; B. Poorly - Sorted Sand Having Low Porosity; C. Fractured Crystalline Rocks
(Granite); D. Soluble Rock-Forming Material (Limestone).

Effective porosity ne: In porous rock, some of the pores are not interconnected and in some
there can be no hydraulic gradient across them to cause bulk flow of groundwater. Thus
porosity which is useful for the movement of groundwater is known as effective porosity.
Generally consolidated rocks are devoid of primary porosity and porosity provided by discrete
rock mass discontinuities in the form of joints, fractures and faults are responsible for the
storage and flow of ground water and is often termed as secondary porosity. Thus the extent,
spacing and pattern of cracks and fractures control the flow of ground water in hard rock
aquifers.

27
 Table 2.1 Range of Values of Porosity (after Freeze & Cherry, 1979)
Formation n (%)

MOVEMENT OF GROUND WATER:

Groundwater in its natural state is invariably moving. The movement is governed by established
hydraulic principles. The flow of groundwater through aquifers can be expressed by Darcy’s law
(Henry Darcy, a French hydraulic Engineer, reported in 1856). Hydraulic conductivity is a
measure of the permeability of the media plays an important role in the flow equation. The
application of Darcy’s law enables rate of groundwater flow and direction of movements in an
aquifer.

DARCY’S LAW:
The flow through an aquifer media (Q) varies with the hydraulic gradient and cross sectional
area.
∂h
Q = − KAI = − KA = −vA
∂L
Q = Quantity of water discharged (m3/day)
A = Cross sectional area
K = Hydraulic conductivity/ permeability (m/day)
∂h
= Hydraulic gradient
∂L
v = Darcy’s velocity or Specific discharge or flux.
Thus permeability is defined as the flow of water per unit cross sectional area under unit
hydraulic gradient. This is applicable only in laminar flow condition.
dh / dl is the hydraulic gradient. The negative sign indicates the flow of water in the direction of
decreasing head.
The rate of groundwater flow is controlled by the two properties of the rock, porosity and
permeability. Low porosity usually results in low permeability, but high porosity does not
necessarily imply high permeability. It is possible to have a highly porous rock with little or no
interconnections between pores. A good example of a rock with high porosity and low

28
permeability is pumice, where the bubbles that once contained gas give the rock a high
porosity, but since these holes are not connected to one another, the rock has low permeability.
Typical values of hydraulic conductivity for unconsolidated and hard rocks are given in Table
2.3 taken from Marsily [1986].

Table: 2.3 Hydraulic Conductivity for Unconsolidated and Consolidated Rocks

Formation K (m/day)

Transmissivity (T) is the discharge rate at which water is transmitted through a unit width of an
aquifer under a unit hydraulic gradient. Thus,
T = Kh (unconfined aquifer)
T = Kb (confined aquifer)
Where, b is equal to the thickness of a confined aquifer and h is the saturated thickness of the
unconfined aquifer which is equal to the average thickness of the saturated zone. T is usually
expressed as m2/day.

Specific yield (Sy) is the ratio of the volume of water that drains from a saturated rock owing to
the attraction of gravity (or by pumping from wells) to the total volume of the saturated aquifer. It
is defined mathematically by the equation:
Vw
Sy = × 100
V
where,
Vw is the volume of water in a unit volume of earth materials (L3)
V is the unit volume of earth material, including both voids and solids (L3)

All the water stored in a water bearing stratum cannot be drained out by gravity or by pumping,
because a portion of the water is rigidly held in the voids of the aquifer by molecular and surface
tension forces.

29
Specific retention (Sr) is the ratio of the volume of water that cannot be drained out to the total
volume of the saturated aquifer. Hence addition of specific retention and specific yield equals
porosity.

n = S y + Sr
The specific yield and specific retention depend upon the shape and size of particle, distribution
of pores (voids), and compaction of the formation. The specific retention increases with
decreasing grain size.
It should be noted that it is not necessary that soil with high porosity will have high specific yield
because that soil may have low permeability and the water may not easily drain out. For
example, clay has a high porosity but low specific yield and its permeability is low.

Storage coefficient (S) is the volume of water released from storage, or taken into storage, per
unit of aquifer storage area per unit change in head. The storage coefficient is a dimensionless
as it is the ratio of the volume of water released from original unit volume. The storage
coefficient is also called Storativity.

The water-yielding capacity of an aquifer can be expressed in terms of its storage coefficient. In
confined aquifer, Storativity is the result of compression of the aquifer materials and expansion
of the confined water when the head (pressure) is reduced during pumping. The storage
coefficient equals the volume of water released from the aquifer when the piezometric surface
declines a unit distance. In most confined aquifers, values fall in the range 0.00005 < S <
0.005, indicating that large pressure changes over extensive areas are required to produce
substantial water yields. Storage coefficients can best be determined from pumping tests of
wells or from groundwater fluctuation in response to atmospheric pressure or ocean tide
variation. In unconfined aquifers, Storativity is the same as the specific yield of the aquifer and
ranges from 0.02 to 0.30.

30
 Table: 2.4 Specific yield values recommended by GEC-1997

Figure 2.8 Comparison of Specific Yield with Storage Coefficient

31
 Figure 2.9 storage coefficient of (a) confined and (b) unconfined aquifers

Figure 2.10 Illustration of the Coefficients of hydraulic conductivity and transmissivity

32
The transmissivity and storage coefficients are especially important because they define the
hydraulic characteristics of a water-bearing formation. The coefficient of transmissivity indicates
how much water will move through the formation, and the coefficient of storage indicates how
much can be removed by pumping or draining. If these two coefficients can be determined for a
particular aquifer, predictions of great significance can usually be made. Some of these are:
• Drawdown in the aquifer at various distances from a pumped well.
• Drawdown in a well at any time after pumping starts.
• How multiple wells in a small area will affect one another?
• Efficiency of the intake portion of the well.
• Drawdown in the aquifer at various pumping rates.

AGE OF GROUND WATER:

Age of ground water can be determined with the help of radioactive isotopes of which
Hydrogen-3 (tritium) and Carbon-14 isotopes are very important. Tritium with a half life period of
12.3 yrs is produced in the upper atmosphere by cosmic radiation, carried to earth by rainfall
and hence underground. This natural level of tritium begins to decay as a function of time.
Similarly Carbon-14 has a half life of 5730 yrs and is also produced at an established constant
level in the atmosphere. This isotope is present in ground water as dissolved bicarbonate
originating from biologically active layers of the soil where carbon dioxide is generated by root
respiration and the decay of humus. Tritium dating is applicable for estimating ground water
residence times of up to 50 yrs while Carbon-14 dating is applicable for ground water of several
hundred to about 50,000 yrs.

BASE FLOW TO RIVER

Base flow is the technical name for the dry weather flow in a stream or river. River base flow
results from ground water seeping into riverbanks or the riverbed. The flow may be significant
enough to allow the stream to flow year round (i.e., perennial or permanent stream). Streams
that flow only periodically in response to rainstorms or seasonal snowmelt events are known as
ephemeral or intermittent streams.
Water flowing into a stream from ground water is called a “gaining stream” and this is the most
common occurrence. However, there are also “losing streams” that “leak water from their
channel into the ground beneath. Losing streams are common in dry environments where
ground water may flow in a stream only during the “rainy season” of the year. In a gaining
stream, the ground water level is higher than the water level in the channel. In a losing stream,
the ground water is below stream level.
During storm, river level rises and water will flow from the river into the channel banks as the
water level in the channel rises above the pre-storm ground water level. After the storm, the
slow release of water from the surrounding saturated area maintains the base flow in the
channel. Tidal rivers may also induce a pattern of losing and gaining conditions as the elevation

33
of the water in the channel rises and falls twice per day with the tide. A stream may switch back
and forth between losing or gaining on a seasonal basis during the year and/or during the
course of its flow downstream from its headwaters. Conditions may change from gaining to
losing at the upstream end of a meander or at the top of an abrupt change in the gradient of the
channel. Pumping a well in the vicinity of a stream or lake may induce a “losing” condition when
the zone of drawdown around the well intersects the surface water body. Ground water and
surface water are not separate resources. When our activities use one of these resources, it
often affects the other in a relatively short time frame in terms of quantity and quality.

Figure 2.11 Losing and gaining streams

SPRING
A spring is formed when the water table intersects the land surface by the side of a hill, a valley
bottom or other excavation, below which the subsurface material is saturated with water. A
spring is the result of an aquifer being filled to the point that the water overflows onto the land
surface. Springs are also formed when an aquifer is suddenly exposed along the side slope of a
hill so that deeper aquifers will release water due to sudden reduction of pressure. A special
case of springs in karstic terrain developed on limestone and dolomite, where horizontal
fractures form underground channels which connect caverns and shed ground water in the form
of spring when cut across the ground. They range in size from intermittent seeps, which flow
only after much rain, to huge pools flowing hundreds of millions of gallons daily.
Thermal springs are ordinary springs except that the water is warm and, in some places, hot,
such as in the bubbling mud springs in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Many thermal
springs occur in regions of recent volcanic activity and are fed by water heated by contact with
hot rocks far below the surface. Even where there has been no recent volcanic action, rocks
become warmer with increasing depth. In such areas water may migrate slowly to considerable
depth, warming as it descends through rocks deep in the Earth. If it then reaches a large
crevice that offers a path of less resistance, it may rise more quickly than it descended. Water
that does not have time to cool before it emerges forms a thermal spring. Geysers are special
types of thermal springs characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and
accompanied by a vapour phase (steam).

34
Ground water discharges from springs in Old Faithful Geyser erupts approximately every
the Grand Canyon (R.D. MacNish, USGS) 91 minutes, Yellowstone National Park, State of
Wyoming, USA.
Figure 2.12 Springs and Geysers

35
 4. AQUIFER INFORMATION SYSTEM - DATA ACQUISITION,
IDENTIFICATION OF DATA GAP, ACTIVITY NEEDED AND FUTURE
PLANNING
INTRODUCTION

Aquifer is defined as a formation, group of formations, or part of a formation that contains

sufficient saturated permeable material to yield significant quantities of water to wells and
springs. For aquifer mapping collection of geological data such as lithology, structure,
hydrogeology etc is most to study the details of the aquifer.

Principal aquifers by rock type

Aquifers are mainly of three types: Consolidated, Semi-consolidated and Unconsolidated.

Broadly they are divided into two groups viz. Porous Formations and Fissured formations.
Porous formation comprises of both unconsolidated and semi- consolidated formations. In
porous formations ground water occurs in the primary pore spaces. The areas covered by
alluvial sediments of river basins, coastal and deltaic tracts constitute the unconsolidated
formations. The Indo - Ganga - Brahmaputra basin and the vast coastal aquifer forms the
porous aquifer. The Gondwana Group and the Tertiary rocks form the semi-consolidated
aquifer. The fissured or consolidated formations occupy almost two-thirds of the country.
Ground water occurs in the secondary fractures such as lineaments, faults, joints etc. Different
igneous and metamorphic rocks such as granite, gneiss, charnockites, khondalites, quartzites
etc. form the fissured formations. Major part of peninsular India is covered by consolidated
formations.

SELECTION OF AN AREA FOR AQUIFER MAPPING

First a manageable area has to be selected for aquifer mapping which may be cluster of
villages, administrative unit etc. If any chemical quality problem such as fluorosis, arsenic etc is
prevailing in any area it can be selected for aquifer mapping. Water logged areas, drought
prone areas can also be selected on priority basis.

After selection of the area Toposheets from Survey of India can be collected to delineate the
study area. Toposheets on 1: 2,50,000, 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 scale is available with Survey of
India. Toposheet gives a detailed picture of physical and drainage features of the area. Satellite
remote sensing techniques coupled with aerial photo interpretation have greatly aided in
identification of fractures/lineaments. Satellite and digital data of the area both hard and soft has
to be collected. The satellite data has to be processed and lineament map, land use map and
hydro-geomorphological map can be prepared. These maps shall be useful during
hydrogeological study of the area. Remote sensing study is discussed in detail in next chapter.

36
THE DIFFERENT DATA TO BE COLLECTED FOR AQUIFER MAPPING ARE:

A. Administrative Boundaries.
B. Demography.
C. Agriculture and irrigation.
D. Land use and land cover.
E. Hydrometeorological data.
F. Hydrological data.
G. Soil.
H. Geological data.
I. Hydrogeological data.
J. Ground Water Exploration data.
K. Pumping Test data.
L. Geophysical data.
M. Well census data.
N. Ground Water Resources Estimation.
O. Hydro-geochemical Data.
P. Data on springs.
Q. Mining/ Industry present in the area.
R. Data on salinity hazard in coastal areas.

A. Administrative Boundaries
First different maps of the study area such as district, taluka / block and village boundary
has to be collected from concerned state government department. This will be helpful in
delineation of the aquifer boundary and collection of other relevant data.
B. Demography
Demographic data from population census and district agencies can be collected. From
population data one can know the present water utilization pattern of the area and future
demand can also be worked out.

C. Agriculture and irrigation

Agriculture and irrigation data has to be collected from concerned state government
department. Whether it is ground water or surface water agriculture is the largest user.
Data on cropping pattern and irrigation has to be collected from state government
agencies. These data can be collected from irrigation, minor irrigation department etc.

D. Land use and land cover

Land use and land cover data can be collected from district statistical hand book and
from the concerned block/taluka. This data shall be useful to know the detailed land
utilization pattern of the area such as forest, barren and uncultivable land etc.

E. Hydrometeorological data
Data on rainfall, temperature, humidity, wind velocity and potential evapo-transpiration of
the study area has to be collected. Monthly rainfall data can be collected from Indian

37
 Meteorological Department (IMD) as well as state government agencies. This shall be
helpful to estimate the surface run off and the recharge by rainfall into the aquifer system.
Drought analysis of rainfall data can be done to know the frequency of droughts. If data
on infiltration rate of the soil is available, it can also be collected.

F. Hydrological data
Data on measurement of flow in streams/ water bodies has to be collected. If available
data on drainage patterns/ order of streams such as length and breadth of 1st, 2nd and 3rd
order streams would be collected. Data on water bodies Tanks/Ponds and other water
conservation structures are to be collected from different agencies.

G. Soil
Soil is the thin layer on the surface of the earth where living beings survive. It is the
weathered product of bed rocks occurring in the area. The data on different types of soil
their geochemical characteristics occurring in the area has to be collected. The type of
soil controls the rate of infiltration of rainfall and runoff.

H. Geological data
Lithology and structure controls the occurrence and movement of ground water in
crystalline rocks. In alluvial formation, occurrence of porous material like sand, gravel
forms very good aquifers. Geological map can be collected from Geological Survey of
India. It gives detailed information on lithology of the area. Detailed information on
structure like lineament, fault, fold is available in the geological map. Detailed report on
geology is also available with different state geological department which can also be
collected.

I. Hydrogeological data
Different state agencies like state ground water department etc. do hydrogeological
survey of the state. Data like pre and post-monsoon depth to water level and detailed
hydrogeological report can be collected. Data available with Central Ground Water Board
on Systematic Hydrogeological Survey, Ground Water Management studies can also be
collected. Data on well yield, areal extent and aquifer disposition has also to be collected.

J. Ground Water Exploration data

State ground water department & Public Health and Engineering Department is engaged
in drilling activities for different purposes. Data on depth of weathered zone, detailed
borehole lithology, depth of occurrence of fracture zones, well yield of individual fractures
can also be collected. Ground water exploration data available with Central Ground
Water Board can be collected and compiled.

38
K. Pumping Test data
A pumping test is performed to find out the behaviour of aquifer as well as the well in
response to the stress applied in the form of pumping. The pumping tests are generally
conducted to determine:

a. Yield and sustainability of well (Yield Tests).

b. Performance and efficiency of the well (Well Performance Tests).
c. Hydraulic properties of the aquifer (Aquifer Performance Tests).

The aquifer parameters are required for planning ground water development and
management. These are required for planning the type and nature of wells to be
constructed for various purposes. These are also required for developing a mathematical
model for any area, which in turn helps in designing ground water management strategies.
The different parameters to be collected are Hydraulic Conductivity or Permeability (K),
Transmissivity (T or KD), Specific Yield (Sy), Storativity or Storage Coefficient (S),
Hydraulic Resistance (C), Leakage Factor (L) etc.

L. Geophysical data
By geophysical investigation one can know the anomalies or signatures of the physical
properties of material beneath the earth surface. Geophysical measurements made
remotely or insitu, characterize subsurface geology, geological structures based on lateral
and vertical mapping of physical property variations. Geophysical data of the aquifer
available with state department has to be collected to know the lateral as well as vertical
extent of the aquifer. A variety of methods exists for collection of geophysical data of the
aquifer, viz., Schlumberger, Wenner, dipole-dipole etc. By geophysical studies one can
get the depth of weathered zone thickness, occurrence of fracture zone etc.
All available Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) data has to be compiled and analysed
from which different geo-electric layers can be deciphered. Available sub-surface logging
data has to be interpreted. 2-D imaging data, and Heliborne survey data can be acquired
from NGRI. From these studies vertical and lateral extent of different layers such as clay
can be determined.

M. Well Census data

Well census data regarding total number of ground water structures such as dug wells,
bore wells has to be collected. Data on well yield, depth and diameter has to be collected.
Ground water draft data of all the ground water structures available has to be collected.

N. Ground Water Resources Estimation

Ground water resources are estimated assessment unit wise. The assessment unit is
watershed in the states occupied predominantly with hard rocks. This is because the

39
 ground water balance equations recommended in GEC-1997 can be better applied in the
assessment units with hydrologic/ hydrogeologic boundaries. The ground water recharge
is estimated season-wise both for monsoon and non-monsoon season. The following
recharge and discharge components are assessed in the resource estimation. Recharge
from rainfall, recharge from canal seepage, return flow from irrigation, recharge from
water tanks & ponds and recharge from water conservations structures and discharge
through ground water draft. Ground Water Resource Estimation data available should
also be collected.

O. Hydro-geochemical Data
There are two major objectives of water quality studies:
1. To ensure safe water for various types of uses
2. As a tool for understanding, characterization and quantification for various natural
processes and parameters. The different chemical data available with the
organisation, state ground water department and other agencies can be collected
which will be helpful in delineation of chemical quality problem areas like fluoride,
arsenic, nitrate. On the basis of the data future sampling in the entire aquifer can be
done.

P. Data on springs.
A spring is a localized natural discharge of ground water issuing on the land surface
through well-defined outlets. The discharge may vary from a trickle to a stream. Data on
springs, auto-flow wells present in the area has to be collected.

Q. Mining/ Industry present in the area.

All data regarding mines both open cast and underground of the area has to be collected.
Any mining activities like coal etc affect the aquifer. By mining activities the ground water
of the surrounding aquifer is affected. So data on mine dewatering are to be collected.

R. Data on salinity hazard in coastal areas.

Salinity hazard is mostly common in coastal areas and in some inland areas. So data on
areas affected with salinity hazard has to be collected. All the collected data has to be
compiled and various thematic maps will be prepared. On the basis of these thematic
maps further studies will be carried out.

40
 5. ROLE OF REMOTE SENSING IN DEVELOPMENT OF AQUIFER
INFORMATION SYSTEM
INTRODUCTION

"Remote sensing may be broadly defined as the collection of information about an object
without being in physical contact with the object. Aircraft and satellites are the common
platforms from which remote sensing observations are made. The term remote sensing is
restricted to methods that employ electromagnetic energy as the means of detecting and
measuring target characteristics" (Sabins, 1987). Aerial photography in the visible portion of the
electromagnetic wavelength was the original form of remote sensing but technological
developments has enabled the acquisition of information at other wavelengths including near
infrared, thermal infrared and microwave. Collection of information over a large numbers of
wavelength bands is referred to as multispectral or hyperspectral data. The development and
deployment of manned and unmanned satellites has enhanced the collection of remotely
sensed data which offers an inexpensive way to obtain information of land surfaces and
environmental conditions over large areas. Hence remote sensing is an essential tool in natural
resource management.
In aquifer mapping satellite imageries can be used as an reconnaissance tool for the mapping
of hydrological & hydrogeomophological units, detection of lineaments and geological structures
and the delineation of soil moisture rich zones. Temporal changes like change in river courses,
changes in landuse such as agriculture & urbanization which are having bearing on the aquifer
can be detected from satellite data. Since most of the toposheets are old, up to date status of
drainage network and surface water storage and conservation structures can be mapped easily
from satellite data.

ELECTROMAGNETIC ENERGY

The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the continuous range of electromagnetic radiation,

extending from gamma rays (highest frequency & shortest wavelength) to radio waves (lowest
frequency & longest wavelength) and including visible light. The EM spectrum can be divided
into seven different regions; gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, visible light, infrared, microwaves
and radio waves.

Remote sensing involves the measurement of energy in many parts of the electromagnetic
(EM) spectrum. The major regions of interest in satellite sensing are visible light, reflected and
emitted infrared, and the microwave regions. The measurement of this radiation takes place in
what are known as spectral bands. A spectral band is defined as a discrete interval of the EM
spectrum. For example the wavelength range of 0.4μm to 0.5μm (μm = micrometers or 10-6m) is
one spectral band. Satellite sensors have been designed to measure responses within

41
particular spectral bands to enable the discrimination of the major Earth surface materials.
Scientists will choose a particular spectral band for data collection depending on what they wish
to examine. The design of satellite sensors is based on the absorption characteristics of Earth
surface materials across all the measurable parts in the EM spectrum.

REFLECTION AND ABSORPTION

When radiation from the Sun reaches the surface of the Earth, some of the energy at specific
wavelengths is absorbed and the rest of the energy is reflected by the surface material. The
only two exceptions to this situation are if the surface of a body is a perfect reflector or a true
black body. The occurrence of these surfaces in the natural world is very rare. In the visible
region of the EM spectrum, the feature we describe as the color of the object is the visible light
that is not absorbed by that object. In the case of a green leaf, for example, the blue and red
wavelengths are absorbed by the leaf, while the green wavelength is reflected and detected by
our eyes. In remote sensing, a detector measures the electromagnetic (EM) radiation that is
reflected back from the Earth’s surface materials. These measurements can help to distinguish
the type of land covering. Soil, water and vegetation have clearly different patterns of
reflectance and absorption over different wavelengths. The reflectance of radiation from one
type of surface material, such as soil, varies over the range of wavelengths in the EM spectrum.
This is known as the spectral signature of the material. All Earth surface features, including
minerals, vegetation, dry soil, water, and snow, have unique spectral reflectance signatures
which is useful for their delineation in multispectral imagery.

42
SENSORS AND PLATFORMS

A sensor is a device that measures and records electromagnetic energy. Sensors can be
divided into two groups. Passive sensors depend on an external source of energy, usually the
sun. The most common passive sensor is the photographic camera. Active sensors have their
own source of energy; an example would be a radar gun. These sensors send out a signal and
measure the amount reflected back. Active sensors are more controlled because they do not
depend upon varying illumination conditions.

ORBITS AND SWATHS

The path followed by a satellite is referred to as its orbit. Satellites which view the same portion
of the earth’s surface at all times have Geostationary orbits. Weather and communication
satellites commonly have these types of orbits. Many satellites are designed to follow a north
south orbit which, in conjunction with the earth’s rotation (west-east), allows them to cover most
of the earth’s surface over a period of time. These are Near-polar orbits. Many of these
satellites orbits are also Sun-synchronous such that they cover each area of the world at a
constant local time of day. As a satellite revolves around the earth, the sensor sees a certain
portion of the earth’s surface. The area imaged is referred to as the Swath. The surface directly
below the satellite is called the Nadir point. Steerable sensors on satellites can view an area (off
nadir) before and after the orbits passes over a target.

SATELLITE SENSOR CHARACTERISTICS

The basic function of most satellite sensors is to collect information about the reflected radiation
along a pathway, also known as the field of view (FOV), as the satellite orbits the Earth. The
smallest area of ground that is sampled is called the instantaneous field of view (IFOV). The
IFOV is also described as the pixel size of the sensor. This sampling or measurement occurs in
one or many spectral bands of the EM spectrum. The data collected by each satellite sensor
can be described in terms of spatial, spectral and temporal resolution.
Spatial resolution
The spatial resolution (also known as ground resolution) is the ground area imaged for the
instantaneous field of view (IFOV) of the sensing device. Spatial resolution may also be

43
described as the ground surface area that forms one pixel in the satellite image. The IFOV or
ground resolution of the Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) sensor, for example, is 30 m. The
ground resolution of weather satellite sensors is often larger than a square kilo-meter. There are
satellites that collect data at less than one meter ground resolution but these are classified
military satellites or very expensive commercial systems.
Temporal resolution
Temporal resolution is a measure of the repeat cycle or frequency with which a sensor revisits
the same part of the Earth’s surface. The frequency will vary from several times per day, for a
typical weather satellite, while for Landsat TM; the revisit time is 16 days. The frequency
characteristics will be determined by the design of the satellite sensor and its orbital pattern.
Spectral resolution
The spectral resolution of a sensor system is the number and width of spectral bands in the
sensing device. The simplest form of spectral resolution is a sensor with one band only, which
senses visible light. An image from this sensor would be similar in appearance to a black and
white photograph from an aircraft. A sensor with three spectral bands in the visible region of the
EM spectrum would collect similar information to that of the human vision system. The Landsat
TM sensor has seven spectral bands located in the visible and near to mid infrared parts of the
spectrum as given in the Figure.

AQUISION OF IMAGERY DATA

For aquifer mapping at a scale of 1:50,000, Indian Remote Sensing Satellite’s (IRS) Linear
Imaging and self scanning sensors (LISS-III & LISS-IV) images are required. LISS-III images
have 23.5 m special resolution and have four bands pertaining to green, red, near infrared (NIR)
and short wave infrared (SWIR) wavelengths. This data can be used for hydrogeological,
hydrogeomorphological, lineament and landuse mapping of the study areas. LISS-IV data has

44
three multispectral bands pertaining to green, red and near infrared (NIR) wavelengths at a
better spatial resolution of 5.8 m with a swath of 23.5 km. Hence LISS-IV image of the study
area is helpful in preparing large scale map of the study area depicting much detail features. All
these satellite data can be procured from National Remote Sensing Center (NRSC), Hyderabad
after browsing the NRSC website for the availability of satellite data for the required date and
area.

Another good choice is Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and Extended TH (ETM) data with a
ground resolution of 28.5 meter for Multispectral and 14.5 meter for Panchromatic data. The
data is freely downloadable from the website glcf.umiacs.umd.edu.

The Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) undertaken by NASA during February 2000,
obtained elevation data on a near-global scale to generate the most complete high-resolution
digital topographic database of Earth. There are three resolution outputs available, including 1
kilometer and 90 meter resolutions for the world and a 30 meter resolution for the USA. Digital
Elevation Models (DEM) is freely downloadable from the glcf.umiacs.umd.edu.

REVIST /
RESOLUTION SWATH
SENSOR TYPE BANDS REPETIVITY
(m) (Km)
(Days)
G, R, NIR,
LISS-3 Multispectral 23.5 24 140
SWIR
LISS-IV Multispectral G, R, NIR 5.8 5 23
PAN R 5.8 5 5
ETM G, R, NIR, 28.5
Multispectral 16 183
SWIR, TIR (60 for TIR)
Visible-NIR
PAN 14.5 16 183
(0.52-0.9µm)
DEM SRTM 90m (for India) 185

VISUALISATION OF SATELLITE IMAGERY

Satellite data in a digital format can be visualised by using any image visualisation software like
Windows Fax Viewer. However for the processing and visualisation sophisticated softwares like
ERDAS (Earth Resource Data Analysis System) from Intergraph Geospatial, IDRISI from Clark
Lab, ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) from ITC, Netherland are used ,
out of which the last one is available in free domain.

A panchromatic image consists of only one band. It is usually displayed as a grey scale image,
i.e. the displayed brightness of a particular pixel is proportional to the pixel digital number which
is related to the intensity of solar radiation reflected by the targets in the pixel and detected by
the detector. Thus, a panchromatic image may be similarly interpreted as a black-and-white
aerial photograph of the area, though at a lower resolution.

45
Multispectral and hyperspectral images consist of several bands of data. For visual display,
each band of the image may be displayed one band at a time as a grey scale image, or in
combination of three bands at a time as a colour composite image. Thus from 6 band images of
Landsat TM, 120 combination of colour images can be obtained. When Landsat TM Bands 3
(red band), 2 (green band) and 1 (blue band) are assigned red, green & blue colour
respectively, then the image resembles a visible colour photograph and is called as Natural
Colour Composite. When Landsat TM Bands 4 (NIR band), 3 (red band) and 2 (green band) are
assigned red, green & blue colour respectively, then the image is called Standard False Colour
Composite. The vegetation looks red in this photograph (thus the name false colour) and is
supply by remote sensing agencies in the form of hardcopy. Interpretation of a multispectral
colour composite image will require the knowledge of the spectral reflectance signature of the
targets in the scene.

IMAGE PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS

Many image processing and analysis techniques have been developed to aid the interpretation
of remote sensing images and to extract as much information as possible from the images. The
first step in processing remotely sensed data is image restoration. Prior to data analysis, initial
processing on the raw data is usually carried out to correct for any distortion due to the
characteristics of the imaging system and imaging conditions. Depending on the user's
requirement, some standard correction procedures may be carried out by the ground station
operators before the data is delivered to the end-user. These procedures include radiometric
correction to correct for uneven sensor response over the whole image and geometric
correction to correct for geometric distortion due to Earth's rotation and other imaging
conditions (such as oblique viewing). The image may also be transformed to conform to a
specific map projection system. Next step involves geo-referencing, in which the accurate
geographical location of an area on the image which is obtained from toposheets or through
GPS, also known as ground control points (GCP's) are used to register the image.

IMAGE ENHANCEMENT

Enhancements are used to make it easier for visual interpretation and understanding of
imagery. The advantage of digital imagery is that it allows us to manipulate the digital pixel
values in an image. Although radiometric corrections for illumination, atmospheric influences,
and sensor characteristics may be done prior to distribution of data to the user, the image may
still not be optimized for visual interpretation. Remote sensing devices, particularly those
operated from satellite platforms, must be designed to cope with levels of target/background
energy which are typical of all conditions likely to be encountered in routine use. With large
variations in spectral response from a diverse range of targets (e.g. forest, deserts, snowfields,
water, etc.) no generic radiometric correction could optimally account for and display the

46
optimum brightness range and contrast for all targets. Thus, for each application and each
image, a custom adjustment of the range and distribution of brightness values is usually
necessary.

Stretching
In raw imagery, the useful data often populates only a small portion of the available range of
digital values (commonly 8 bits or 256 levels). Contrast enhancement involves changing the
original values so that more of the available range is used, thereby increasing the contrast
between targets and their backgrounds. The key to understanding contrast enhancements is to
understand the concept of an image histogram. A histogram is a graphical representation of
the brightness values that comprise an image. The brightness values (i.e. 0-255) are displayed
along the x-axis of the graph. The frequency of occurrence of each of these values in the image
is shown on the y-axis.

Linear Contrast Stretch

By manipulating the range of digital values in an image, graphically represented by its
histogram, we can apply various enhancements to the data. There are many different
techniques and methods of enhancing contrast and detail in an image; we will cover only a few
common ones here. The simplest type of enhancement is a linear contrast stretch. This
involves identifying lower and upper bounds from the histogram (usually the minimum and
maximum brightness values in the image) and applying a transformation to stretch this range to
fill the full range. In our example, the minimum value (occupied by actual data) in the histogram
is 84 and the maximum value is 153. These 70 levels occupy less than one-third of the full 256
levels available. A linear stretch uniformly expands this small range to cover the full range of
values from 0 to 255. This enhances the contrast in the image with light toned areas appearing
lighter and dark areas appearing darker, making visual interpretation much easier. This graphic
illustrates the increase in contrast in an image before (top) and after (bottom) after linear
contrast stretch.

47
Histogram Equalized Stretch
A uniform distribution of the input range of
values across the full range may not always
be an appropriate enhancement, particularly
if the input range is not uniformly distributed.
In this case, a histogram-equalized stretch
may be better. This stretch assigns more
display values (range) to the frequently
occurring portions of the histogram. In this
way, the detail in these areas will be better
enhanced relative to those areas of the
original histogram where values occur less
frequently.

In other cases, it may be desirable to enhance the contrast in only a specific portion of the
histogram. For example, suppose we have an image of the mouth of a river, and the water
portions of the image occupy the digital values from 40 to 76 out of the entire image histogram.
If we wished to enhance the detail in the water, perhaps to see variations in sediment load, we
could stretch only that small portion of the histogram represented by the water (40 to 76) to the
full grey level range (0 to 255). All pixels below or above these values would be assigned to 0
and 255, respectively, and the detail in these areas would be lost. However, the detail in the
water would be greatly enhanced.

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Spatial Filtering (Convolution)

Spatial filtering encompasses another set of digital processing functions which are used to
enhance the appearance of an image. Spatial filters are designed to highlight or suppress
specific features in an image based on their spatial frequency. Spatial frequency is related to
the concept of image texture. It refers to the frequency of the variations in tone that appear in an
image. "Rough" textured areas of an image, where the changes in tone are abrupt over a small
area, have high spatial frequencies, while "smooth" areas with little variation in tone over
several pixels, have low spatial frequencies. A common filtering procedure involves moving a
'window' of a few pixels in dimension (e.g. 3x3, 5x5, etc.) over each pixel in the image, applying
a mathematical calculation using the pixel values under that window, and replacing the central
pixel with the new value. The window is moved along in both the row and column dimensions
one pixel at a time and the calculation is repeated until the entire image has been filtered and a
"new" image has been generated. By varying the calculation performed and the weightings of
the individual pixels in the filter window, filters can be designed to enhance or suppress different
types of features.

A low-pass filter is designed to emphasize larger, homogeneous areas of similar tone and
reduce the smaller detail in an image. Thus, low-pass filters generally serve to smooth the
appearance of an image. Average and median filters, are examples of low-pass filters.

High-pass filters do the opposite and serve

to sharpen the appearance of fine detail in
an image. One implementation of a high-
pass filter first applies a low-pass filter to an
image and then subtracts the result from the
original, leaving behind only the high spatial
frequency information.

Directional, or edge detection filters are designed to highlight linear features, such as roads
or field boundaries. These filters can also be designed to enhance features which are oriented

49
in specific directions. These filters are useful in applications such as geology, for the detection
of linear geologic structures.

Some other Image processing Techniques commonly used are Band Ratio and Principal
Component Analysis.

IMAGE CLASSIFICATION

Different land-cover types in an image can be discriminated using some image classification
algorithms using spectral features, i.e. the brightness and "color" information contained in each
pixel. The classification procedures can be "supervised" or "unsupervised". In supervised
classification, the spectral features of some areas of known land-cover types are extracted from
the image. These areas are known as the "training areas". Every pixel in the whole image is
then classified as belonging to one of the classes depending on how close its spectral features
are to the spectral features of the training areas. In unsupervised classification, the computer
program automatically groups the pixels in the image into separate clusters, depending on their
spectral features. Each cluster will then be assigned a land-cover type by the analyst. Each
class of land-cover is referred to as a "theme" and the product of classification is known as a
"thematic map".

IMAGE INTERPRETATION

Tone refers to the relative brightness or colour of elements on a photograph. It is, perhaps, the
most basic of the interpretive elements because without tonal differences none of the other
elements could be discerned. Boundary of sandstone and shale is easily discernible by tonal
difference.

Texture is the impression of "smoothness" or "roughness" of image features which is caused by

the frequency of change of tone in photographs. It is produced by a set of features too small to
identify individually. Grass, cement, and water generally appear "smooth", while a forest canopy
may appear "rough".

Shape is a qualitative statement referring to the general form, configuration or outline of an

object. Dykes are observed as long linear objects while a volcanic crater is observed as a
circular object in the image. Ox Bow lakes and point bar deposits occur as crescent shape
objects.

Size of an object is a function of photo scale and is estimated by comparing them with objects
whose sizes are known. Sizes of objects must be considered while interpreting features and
some features may be misinterpreted if sizes were not considered (e.g., a small storage tank
might be misinterpreted as a reservoir if size was not considered).

50
Pattern is the spatial arrangement of objects. The repetition of certain general forms or
relationships is characteristic of many objects, drainage pattern being the best example. Dyke
pattern, fracture pattern and structural pattern also gives clue of the geological and the
hydrogeological condition of an area.

Association is a statement of an object’s position in relation to others in its vicinity and usually
aids in its identification. Linear ridges associated with thick vegetation in a mud flat area
indicates long sand dunes and strand lines while such long ridges associated with luxuriant
vegetation in hard terrain indicates dyke system.

Shadows of objects aid in their identification. Cloud and snow are observed as bright irregular
object in satellite imagery. However the former is separated from the later by its characteristics
shadow. Shadow also gives an three dimensional effect to the satellite imagery.

PREPARATION OF HYDROGEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAP

The term hydrogeomorphology can be divided into three terms, hydro – means water including
both surface & ground water; geo – means the earth; and morphology – is the expression of the
features in the form of landforms. This means that hydrogeomorphology is dealing with the
aspects of water, rocks and earth’s morphological features (Babar, 2005). In other words, the
term ‘hydrogeomorphology’ designates the study of landforms caused by the action of water
(Scheidegger, 1973). Remote sensing plays a great role in the preparation of
hydrogeomorphological map of the study area. From the ground water point of view, integration
of geological, structural and hydrogeological data with hydrogeomorphological data proves to
be very useful in finding out ground water potential zones.

Hydrogeomorphic Units and their ground water prospects

Hydrogeomorphic Description Ground water

Units prospect
Flood Plain Very gently sloping plain of alluvial sediments with Excellent
(Young) more than 50 meter of thickness
Flood Plain (Old) Very gently sloping plain of thick alluvial sediments Very Good
with calcrete & kankar
Alluvial Plain Very gently sloping plain of alluvial sediments with Excellent
(Deep) more than 20 meter of thickness
Channel Bar Small alluvial patch forming part of the riverbed Excellent
Point Bar Small crescent shaped alluvial patch formed on the Excellent
concave side of the meandering river
Flood Plain( Deep) Highly dissected flood plain Good
with Ravines

51
Alluvial Plain Highly dissected Shallow Alluvial Plain Moderate
(shallow) Ravines
Valley fill deposits Narrow depressions filled with alluvial and colluvial Good to
matter of 10-15 meter of depth Moderate
Deep Buried Weathered rocky surfaces covered with colluvial and Moderate
Pediments alluvial sediments due to fluvial action
Pediments Gently sloping smooth surface of erosional bedrock Moderate to
with thin veneer of detritus Poor
Inselbergs Massive, barren, rocky, usually smooth and rounded Poor
hills abruptly rising above surrounding plains.
Denudational Hill Remnants of weathering and denudation and Poor
generally occur as isolated hills in the pediment
zone, made up of boulders & sand showing rounded
crests and attaining relief of about 100 to 300m.
Structure Hill Linear or arcuate hills exhibiting definite trend lines. Poor to Nil
structurally controlled with complex folding, faulting,
criss-crossed by numerous joints/fractures which
facilitate some infiltration

PREPARATION OF LINEAMENT MAP

Linear features on surface of the earth have attracted attentions of geologists for many years
with the introduction of aerial photographs and satellite image into geological studies. In the
early and middle of 1900s, several geologists, Hobbs (1904, 1912), O'Leary et al. (1976),
recognized the existence and significance of linear geomorphic features that were the surface
expression of zones of weakness or structural displacement in the crust of the earth.
Lineaments are defined as mappable linear surface features, which differ distinctly from the
patterns of adjacent features and presumably reflect subsurface phenomena (O’Leary et al.,
1976). Since satellite images are obtained from varying wavelength intervals of the
electromagnetic spectrum, they are considered to be a better tool to discriminate the lineaments
and to produce better information than conventional aerial photographs (Casas et. al., 2000).
Lineaments usually appear as straight lines or “edges” on the images contributed by the tonal
differences within the surface material. The knowledge and the experience of the user is the key
point in the identification of the lineaments particularly to connect broken segments into a longer
lineament (Wang et al., 1990). Numerous studies have revealed a close relationship between
lineaments and groundwater flow and yield. Generally lineaments are underlain by zones of
localized weathering and increased permeability and porosity. Most of them are associated with
deep fractures and hence are potential areas for sitting of bore wells. Therefore mapping of

52
lineaments closely related to groundwater occurrence and yield is essential to groundwater
surveys, development, and management.

There are several image enhancement techniques that can contribute to lineament extraction.
These are filtering operations, Principal Component Analysis (PCA), spectral rationing and the
color composites. By using these four different techniques lineaments are extracted from
Multispectral data from Landsat TM, IRS LISS, ASTER, etc.

Lineament Map Lineament Density Map (6Km search radius)

After extracting lineament map, analysis of lineament density is performed by counting number
of lineaments contained in specified unit area. This analysis will produce a map showing
concentrations of the lineaments over the area. To calculate lineament density, several search
radiuses were tested (1, 3, 6 and 8 km). If the purpose is to see the details of certain joint/fault
sets in local scale then smaller search radius should be selected. If the purpose is to have an
idea on the distribution of the joint/fault sets at regional scale, then larger radius should be
selected.

PREPARATION OF SLOPE MAP

Slope is an important factor in hydrological analysis, in the delineation recharge and discharge
areas and advocating artificial recharge structures in water stress areas. The slope map can be
prepared either from DEM available from SRTM or ASTER (GDEM) satellite programmes or
can be created by digitising contours from toposheets. Different slope categories as given in the
table below are depicted in the slope map which can be used for hydrogeological studies.

53
 Slope Category

Slope category Slope (%)

Nearly level 0-1
Very gently sloping 1-3
Gently sloping 3–5
Moderately sloping 5 – 10
Strongly sloping 10 - 15
Moderately steep to steep sloping 15 - 35
Very steep sloping > 35

References
Babar, Md. 2005, Hydrogeomorphology: Fundamentals, Applications and techniques, New India
Publishing, New Delhi, 272pp.
Caponera, F., 1989; Remote Sensing Applications to Water Resources: Remote Sensing Image
Interpretation for Ground Water Surveying. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, Rome, 234pp.
Hardcastle, K.C., 1995, Photo-lineament factor: A new computer-aided method for remotely
sensing the degree to which bedrock is fractured: Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote
Sensing, v. 61, no. 6, p. 739-747.
Hobbs, W.H., 1904. Lineaments of the Atlantic border region, Geological Society of America
Bulletin 15, 483-506.
Hobbs, W.H., 1912. Earth Features and Their Meaning: An Introduction to Geology for the
Student and General Reader. Macmillan Co., New York, 347pp.
O’Leary, D. W. Friedman, J. D., Pohn, H. A., 1976, “Lineament, linear, lineation: Some
proposed new standards for old terms”, Geological Society America Bulletin, Vol.87, 1463-
1469.
Sabins, F. F. Jr. (1987): Remote sensing; principles and interpretation. 2nd ed., 499 pp., San
Francisco (Freeman Press).
Scheidegger, A.E., 1973. Hydrogeomorphology, J. Hydrology.20, 2, 193–215.

54
6. APPLICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL STUDIES IN AQUIFER MAPPING

INTRODUCTION
Geophysical techniques are non-destructive methods that provide subsurface hydrogeological
information beneath the earth surface to delineate the aquifer system. Geophysics is the
science applying principles of physics to investigate physical properties of the earth and explain
it in terms of subsurface lithological layers system. Geophysical anomalies are the response to
the contrast in physical properties of existing materials beneath the earth surface. Geophysical
investigations are conducted on ground, within boreholes and from air to achieve wide range of
hydrogeological objectives. It targets within the earth to discover hidden geological structures
forming aquifer system at deeper depths and also lithological characteristic of near surface
within a few metres. Geophysical methods are an evolving science, adopting different
techniques, newer approaches and interpretational procedures for aquifer mapping.
As variety of geophysical methods are available, before applying geophysical methods it
is the basic need to understand the expected outcomes from the geophysical investigations. For
aquifer mapping the type of hydrogeological problem, objective, the target depths and time for
investigation should be predefined. The initial hydro-geophysical information available for the
area should be studied and the other additional supportive information to be obtained through
geophysics are to be understood. Based on above, assessing the scope of geophysical
coverage is significant. This would lead to the selection of geophysical techniques and/or
combinations of techniques for obtaining optimum results for aquifer mapping. The process of
data acquisition, interpretation and presentation will also be defined.

Since, the basic of any geophysical application is the contrast between physical properties of
the target and the environs, more the contrast or anomaly, better would be the geophysical
response and hence identification. Efficacy of a geophysical technique lies in its ability to sense
and resolve hidden subsurface conditions accurately. There are geophysical techniques which
are more responsive to certain heterogeneities or variations while others are not so or may be
not at all responsive. That is, a judicious application of techniques is most essential to become
successful in aquifer mapping, technologically as well as economically.

It is well known, and to be clearly conceptualized, that subsurface aquifer system cannot be
deciphered independently by any one of the geophysical methods. Therefore, interpretation is
contextual and a broad understanding of subsurface variations and conditions is a prerequisite.
Though the quest of unravelling subsurface, as truly as possible, has brought about a
remarkable advancement in techniques, innovative approaches, data acquisition, processing
and interpretation and in geophysical instrumentation as well, there is much scope to improve
the predictive aspect of aquifer system. Future lies in accuracy, fast and continuous coverage
and deeper investigation with least spread of equipment at the surface.

55
SURFACE GEOPHYSICAL METHOD:

Different surface geophysical techniques are available for aquifer mapping depending on
measuring the earth’s physical properties. Electrical resistivity techniques are most commonly
used method, because of its relatively simple response to the quantity and chemical quality of
groundwater, for aquifer delineation. Besides electrical resistivity, the other electrical techniques
used for aquifer mapping are induced polarization, self-potential and mise-a-la masse. In
addition to these the other methods used for aquifer mapping are magnetic method, gravity
method, electromagnetic method and seismic method. In surface geophysical surveys, the
fundamental approach is of sensing the subsurface remotely or telescopically and thus the
inherent limitation on uniqueness and resolution remain there because the distance (depth),
shape and size altogether determine the response. That is why, it is almost found essential to
combine at least one more geophysical technique with the conventional resistivity and if
possible to integrate information from other disciplines to reach the desired positive commonalty
- the best solution - with least ambiguity.

Electrical Resistivity method:

Electrical resistivity method is used in aquifer mapping for its efficacy in detecting water bearing
zones, mainly on account of electrolytic conduction attributable to the presence of interstitial
water in the pores and its chemical quality. That is, it can differentiate between unsaturated and
saturated aquifer system and between fresh, brackish and saline formation water. It has the
ability to identify lithology, determine depth and thickness of a detectable geoelectrical layer
which may form the aquifer system. Presently the resistivity imaging is getting more popularity
over convention resistivity sounding and resistivity profiling. Hence, it is essential that prior to
the application of any electrical resistivity techniques, the limitations and utility are adequately
known. The main purpose of electrical resistivity method in aquifer mapping is to identify
groundwater-yielding zones (whether granular or fractured), zone geometry, variations in the
chemical quality of groundwater, and the directions of groundwater movement.

Electrical resistivity of any material is defined as numerically equal to the resistance

(unit: Ohm) offered between two opposite faces of a unit cube of the material. The
conventionally used unit of resistivity is ohm-meter. Bulk resistivity of water bearing geologic
formation depends on its ability to conduct electric current through interstitial water present in
the pore spaces and through matrix. That is, the bulk resistivity varies with the amount,
distribution and salinity of interstitial water and lithology. Thus, the variations in resistivity of any
water bearing formation manifest combinedly the variations in lithology and characteristics of
groundwater present. Significant contrast in resistivity occurs between dry and water saturated
formations, and formations with fresh and brackish/saline water. In general, there are defined
ranges of resistivity of different formations, e.g., sands of various grain size, clays, weathered

56
and fractured granites and gneisses, sandstones, cavernous limestones, vesicular basalts etc.
As a result of the combined effect of quality of formation water and the formation matrix, there
are overlaps. Using Ohm’s law electrical resistivity of sub-surface geologic formation is
determined through artificially energizing the subsurface and carrying measurements on the
ground surface. Contrast in resistivity of a layer with the surrounding or effective presence
(dependent of its relative resistivity and thickness) makes it detectable.

In simplest form of resistivity method, a known amount of electrical current is sent into
the ground through a pair of electrodes and potentials developed due to current within the
ground are measured across another pair of electrodes on the ground. Multiplication of ratio of
the developed potential difference to current input with ‘geometric factor’ of electrode
configuration gives ‘apparent’ resistivity of the ‘inhomogeneous’ ground. It is given as ρa =
K∂V/I, where ρa is apparent resistivity in ohm.m, K is the geometric factor in metre, ∂V is the
potential developed in volts and I is the current input in ampere. To study the variation with
depth, i.e. acquiring information deeper and deeper, the separation between the current
electrodes is increased successively. The set of successive measurements made (keeping the
central point of the electrode configuration fixed) with increasing separation between the current
electrodes in steps, is popularly known as Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES). Graphical plot of
apparent resistivity with increasing current electrode separation is apparent resistivity curve or
field curve at the point of observation. Since, depth of penetration of current is increased by
increasing the current electrode separation (specifically the distance between potential
electrode and current electrode ), the curve reveals depth-wise variation in resistivity. Matching
of curve with a theoretical curve for a known vertical distribution of the resistivity and thickness
gives geoelectrical layer sequence at the point of measurement, within the depth investigated.

Measurements of apparent resistivity with a configuration of fixed current and potential

electrode separation, i.e., with almost a fixed depth of investigation, at several points is known
as resistivity profiling, which gives lateral variation in apparent resistivity for a certain depth
zone. In depth-wise resistivity measurements, or conducting of vertical electrical soundings,
there are important assumptions to validate the data interpretation. The subsurface layers,
detectably termed as geoelectrical layer, should be parallel to the surface of measurement and
are laterally extensive. In field it would suffice if the dip is within 15 degrees, and with respect to
the station of measurement the layers are radially extensive at least within a circle of radius not
less than the maximum separation attained between the end electrodes that in turn obviates
lateral inhomogeneities. The geoelectrical layers to be homogeneous and isotropic, i.e., to
elaborate, the electrical resistivity of a layer does not change laterally and vertically, except at
the interface above and below. The last or bottom layer possesses infinite thickness. The layer
should have distinct resistivity. In lateral resistivity measurements or profiling it is assumed that

57
the resistivity contrast is prominent and the zones are wide enough with respect to the electrode
configuration.

A variety of configurations exists to place the current and potential electrodes, viz.,
Schlumberger, Wenner, dipole-dipole, two-electrode, half-Schlumberger, Gradient, Lee-
partitioning etc. They are used for sounding as well as profiling. The commonly used electrode
configurations are ‘Schlumberger’ for sounding and ‘Wenner’ and ‘Gradient’ for profiling.

Now a days, for aquifer delineation in hard rocks, where the deep seated saturated
fracture zones are being identified in addition to delineation of the overlying weathered zone,
the approach to the depth-wise investigation has also got somewhat modified. Earlier, while the
sounding curves were smoothened for interpretations, at present some of the kinks in the
sounding curves from hard rocks are being selectively linked with saturated fractures. It is an
empirical approach and the basis for such linking is that in many of the drilled boreholes
saturated fractures have been encountered at depths inferred from these kinks. For this
purpose, the sounding measurements are made with smaller increments in the successive
outward movement of the current electrodes. Profiling should preferably be conducted among 2
to 3 parallel profiles located 50 to 100 m apart or as per the requirement, to trace the fracture
zone. Resistivity ‘low’ in a single profile may be erroneous and misleading. Also profiling should
be preceded by test soundings to select the electrode spacing for profiling. At least one profiling
should be done with small electrode spacing to assess the near surface resistivity variation and
its impact. In Wenner profiling effect of near surface inhomogeneities can also be reduced by
conducting measurements with off-set arrangement of electrodes and taking average of these
measurements.

Resistivity profiling data are interpreted qualitatively. From gradient profiling data, ratio
of the resistivity ‘low’ ( indicating saturated fracture zone ) to the background ‘high’ is computed
and calibrated with the borehole results, if available . That is, similar ratios in same
hydrogeological environment should indicate similar fracture zones. Besides ratio of the low
(anomaly) to background value, actual values as well as steepness of the anomaly are also
considered. Quantitative interpretation should also include essential aspect of standardization of
parameters through available borehole information. The interpretation is modified with the inflow
of drilling data.

In alluvium area Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) is most frequent used method for
aquifer mapping. Qualitative interpretation of sounding curves includes, visual inspection to
identify the "type" of curve and demarcate areas with similar types of curve, e.g. ascending
(ρ1<ρ2), descending (ρ1>ρ2) type or H (ρ1>ρ2<ρ3), A (ρ1<ρ2<ρ3), K(ρ1<ρ2>ρ3) or
Q(ρ1>ρ2>ρ3) type curves for various combination of 3-layer or multi-layered subsurface
resistivity variations. Occurrence of highly resistive (more than 40 times the resistivity of

58
overlying layer) bed rock (thick, bottom most geoelectrical layer) is reflected as 45° slope of last
segment of the curve. Unlike this, highly conductive bottom most layer shows a very steeply
descending last segment.

There is a limitation in electrical method also. Presence of very high or very low
resistivity surface soil affects the interpretation. While the former increases the contact
resistance, the latter masks the signals coming from deeper layers. Conductive top layer grabs
a big share from input signal going into the subsurface as well as output signal coming from the
deeper zones. Deployment of a sensitive instrument would help to some extent in recording
smaller potential values accurately. In profiling, a resistivity low could be obtained only by the
presence of conductive top soil/overburden and may be mistaken for a suitable target. So, it is
most essential while conducting profiling with larger electrode spacing that a profiling with
smaller electrode spacing is also conducted to identify the effect of top soil conductivity.

Resistivity Imaging:

Electrical resistivity imaging techniques are being used to produce two dimensional subsurface
resistivity images to substantiate the VES results across the geological structures where
conventional approach may not yield fruitful results. Electrical resistivity imaging used for
imaging sub-surfaces structures from electrical measurements made at the surface, or by
electrodes in one or more boreholes. It is closely related to the medical imaging technique
electrical impedance tomography, and mathematically is the same inverse problem. The
purpose of electrical surveys is to determine the subsurface resistivity distribution by making
measurements on the ground surface as these measurements help to estimate the true
resistivity of the subsurface. The true resistivity is related to various geological parameters such
as the mineral and fluid content, porosity and degree of water saturation in the rock. In many
engineering and environmental studies, the subsurface geology is very complex and the
resistivity can change rapidly over short. Resistivity values have a much larger range compared
to other physical quantities mapped by other geophysical methods. 2-D and 3-D electrical
surveys are the practically commercial techniques used with the recent development of multi-
electrode resistivity surveying instruments with aid of computer inversion softwares developed
by Loke, 2004. Applications of imaging include mineral prospecting, monitoring of ground water
flow, and aquifer mapping.

Resistivity imaging surveys measure variations in the electrical resistivity of the ground, by
applying small electric currents across arrays of ground electrodes. The survey data is
processed to produce graphic depth sections of the thickness and resistivity of subsurface
electrical layers. The resistivity sections are correlated with ground interfaces such as soil and
fill layers or saturated and unsaturated layer system or soil-bedrock interfaces, to provide
hydrogeologist with detailed information on aquifer mapping.

59
 New developments in recent years is the use of electrical imaging surveys, where the
resistivity changes in vertical direction, as well as in horizontal direction along the survey line, to
map the aquifer system with complex hydrogeology. These surveys are usually carried out
using 25 or more electrodes connected to a multi-core cable which is attached to an electronic
switching unit, connected to a lap top computer with an electronic switching unit to automatically
select the relevant four electrodes along a straight line. Electrical Imaging will provide
information about distinct aquifer boundaries and conditions, which can indicate lithology
variations. From the measured field data, simulated depth sections are constructed with over
lapping data levels. To plot the data from a 2-D imaging survey, the simulated section
contouring method is normally used due to its ease in pictorial representation with different
arrays for mapping the same region, which gives rise to very different contour shapes in the
simulated section plot.

The concept of imaging consists of using multi core cables, which contain arrangement
of cables and electrodes one takeout every 5m with 64 electrodes. The measuring unit includes
relays, which automatically carries out the sequence of readings introduced in its internal
memory. The system takes readings for many combinations of transmission and reception pairs
so as to achieve a mixed profiling and sounding pairs. The total length of the cable is equal to
the spacing of electrodes which determines the depth of investigations. The final depth of the
investigations of a Lund imagine survey depends on, Geometry of cables (type of array, number
of electrodes, spacing between electrodes and number of segments) and the measurement of
signal by the equipment, namely the amplitudes of the signal, existing noise, power
specifications of the equipment and its ability of filtering the noise through the stacking process.

Electromagnetic Method:

Injection of current in exposed rocks, dry sands, desert sand dune, etc is very difficult which
restrict the use of electrical methods for aquifer mapping. In this situation electromagnetic
methods play very vital role in aquifer mapping. The main purpose of electromagnetic method in
aquifer mapping is to delineate saturated fracture zones in hard rocks and to estimate the
thickness of weathered zones.In conventional electromagnetic (EM) surveys a transmitter
radiates electromagnetic waves (primary field) that penetrate the ground. When the primary
field encounters a conductor, that is, a body of limited extensions with an electrical conductivity
higher than its surroundings, eddy currents are produced in the conductor. A secondary
electromagnetic field (in a direction opposite to the primary field at the conductor) is produced
by the eddy currents and the resultant field is measured by a receiver, placed at a given
distance, in the form of in-phase and quadrature components. The receiver also measures the
primary field. The resultant field is either measured as a percentage of the primary field or its
direction relative to the vertical is recorded. The magnitude, direction and phase angle (which is

60
the time delay of the resultant field in relation to the primary field) of the resultant field can be
used to locate a conductive body and obtain its parameters. There are several ways to conduct
EM surveys by varying the position and orientation of receiver and transmitter loops, viz.,
vertical loop, horizontal loop, Turam, etc. Overall, in EM exploration it is generally assumed that
there exists a conductivity variation in the subsurface and that the conductive target is located
within a non-conducting (resistive) surrounding, or that the conductivity of the target is much
higher than the surrounds.

The EM method has advantages over the resistivity method in that the latter has
difficulties in sending a current through a highly resistive surface layer, such as those often
found in deserts or in hard rock terrains. Also, the change in penetration depth can be obtained
by changing the frequency of the transmitted electromagnetic wave, as well as the transmitter-
receiver coil separation. Because anomalies on groundwater targets in hard rocks are
frequently caused by conductivity contrasts between the saturated zone and the surrounding
dry medium, a higher contrast provides a better response. The electromagnetic method has
been used widely in groundwater exploration, occasionally to compliment the resistivity method
and help resolve ambiguities in interpretation.

Frequency domain electromagnetic (horizontal loop) method:

A commonly used EM technique for aquifer mapping is the Horizontal Loop Electromagnetic
(HLEM) method, also known as the Slingram method. HLEM surveys are controlled-source
surveys in which the transmitter can be operated at a number of frequencies and transmitter-
receiver coil separations. The transmitter and receiver coils are placed in the same horizontal
plane. HLEM profiling with a number of frequencies and transmitter-receiver separations gives a
depth-wise distribution of electrical conductivity. That is, a reduction in the frequency of EM
waves and/or an increase in the transmitter-receiver separation would provide deeper
information. As in resistivity surveys, a conductive overburden of varying thickness can create a
problem in quantitative interpretation and in detecting the target. The primary (incoming) field
suffers attenuation etc. and the depth to the target is sometimes overestimated as in the case of
the electrical resistivity method.

The instrument is comprised of a transmitter, a receiver, and the console. The

transmitter can be operated at a number of frequencies, usually in the range of 100 to 10,000
Hertz. The instrument should have the ability to repeat readings. Insulated cables of 50, 100
and 200 m lengths are often used for connecting the transmitter to the receiver. HLEM surveys
are usually conducted in profiling mode in combination with electrical resistivity surveys.

Interpretation of the target anomaly can be done qualitatively as well as quantitatively.

EM field operations are fast and cost-effective and can produce voluminous data. The

61
instrument can be operated at a number of frequencies and coil separations for depth wise
information. There is no need for ground (galvanic) contact, so no operating problem of current
injection or of contact resistance in areas of highly resistive surface layer and also no noise
introduced in the data because of near surface inhomogeneities. The method requires less coil
separation for deeper information than do resistivity soundings. As a rule of thumb, penetration
depths for HLEM are 1.5 times the transmitter-receiver coil separation distance, compared with
a maximum penetration of about one quarter of the current electrode separation required in the
Schlumberger resistivity sounding. Consequently, given a favourable subsurface conductivity
distribution, deeper information can be obtained in a smaller area. Also, multi-frequency data
give deeper information, i.e. depth of penetration is not constrained by coil/electrode spacing as
in the resistivity method.

Transient (time domain) electromagnetic:

Purpose of TM in aquifer mapping is to delineate aquifer zones in a conductive surrounding and

delineate conductive saline ground water zones. The transient electromagnetic (TEM) method
is related to the frequency domain (continuous wave) electromagnetic methods by the Fourier
transform. Instead of making measurement at different frequencies, in TEM methods the decay
of an induced EM field is measured at a number of sampling times. A constant current is
passed through the transmitter loop which produces a static primary magnetic field. When the
transmitter current is abruptly switched off the static magnetic field decays and, due to the
associated flux changes, currents are induced in conductors in the ground. This current flowing
in a horizontal closed path below the transmitter loop produces a secondary magnetic field. The
change in amplitude of secondary magnetic field with time induces a voltage in the receiver coil.
Response normalized by the primary field is measured at selected time intervals after
switching–off the primary field. Because response depends on resistivity of the ground,
measurements can yield geo-electrical characteristics of the ground. Immediately after
switching off, i.e. at early time stage induced current is concentrated near the surface of the
earth. Since, the maximum amplitude of induced current diffuses downward and outward,
deeper geo-electrical information can be obtained as time increases, i.e. at later stages. The
transient field decays quite fast. The shape of transient curve (voltage decay vs sq. root of time
or apparent resistivity vs sq. root of time) does not represent depth wise resistivity variations as
it could be assessed from conventional dc apparent resistivity curve. Actually, the depth of
exploration is a function of time (and current flowing in the transmitter loop) and does not
depend on transmitter-receiver separation.

Transient Electromagnetic system comprises a receiver and a transmitter loop unit.

Transmitter loops of different sizes are used for exploring different depth ranges. TEM
instrument uses constant current waveform consisting of equal periods of time-on and time-off.

62
A variety of TEM equipments are available with stacking facility. The TEM measurements are
made in a time range of 6 µseconds to 1 second after switching off the primary current. The
method is relatively insensitive to lateral variations in resistivity as the induced current flows in
rings around the receiver and also transmitter loop size is not changed frequently. Resolution is
high in shallow central loop soundings. It has better resolving capability for S (h/ρ) equivalence
and can be used with other techniques that respond better to resistive layers (i.e. direct-current
electrical sounding) to help resolve ambiguity. Compared to electrical resistivity sounding,
smaller area / smaller loop size is required for survey to achieve same order of depth. Thus, it
can be conducted easily in confined areas. To probe deeper, transients at later times are
recorded. It is highly sensitive to conductivity changes, i.e. a highly conductive layer underlying
conductive clay overburden is detected better than a resistive layer.

Very Low Frequency (VLF) Method:

VLF method is commonly used to map shallow aquifer system. There are several stations in the
world, which are emitting continuous electromagnetic waves in frequency range of 15 to 30 KHz
for the navigation purposes through Sea. These waves (primary field) penetrate the earth
surface and create eddy current in the conductors. Sensitive receiver measures the secondary
fields due to these eddy currents. This method is useful in delineation of fractures/joints,
selection of well site, delineation of saline water zone and contaminant monitoring etc.

Ground Penetrating Radar Method:

Ground penetrating radar (commonly called GPR) is a geophysical method that has been
developed over the past thirty years for shallow, high-resolution, subsurface investigations of
the earth. This method is also very useful for mapping shallow aquifer system. GPR uses high
frequency pulsed electromagnetic waves (generally 10 MHz to 1,000 MHz) to acquire
subsurface information. Energy is propagated downward into the ground and is reflected back
to the surface from boundaries at which there are electrical property contrasts (click to see a
schematic diagram of the process). GPR is a method that is commonly used for artificial
recharge to aquifer system, and other shallow Hydrogeological investigations.

Magnetic Method:
The magnetic method enable magnetic field of the earth to be mapped and interpret it in terms
of aquifer geometry. As magnetic contrast is seldom associated with groundwater occurrence,
the method has little relevance. Indirect information pertinent to groundwater studies like
delineation of dykes which form the aquifer boundary, quartz reef, local geological structures
etc. This method is also useful in delineation of basement topography.

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Seismic Method:
Seismic method is comprised of seismic refraction and seismic reflection method. The former is
useful for mapping of shallow aquifer system while former is being used for mapping of deeper
aquifer system. The seismic methods involve the creation of shock/elastic wave at the earth
surface either by the impact of a heavy instrument or by exploding a small dynamite charge.
The wave returns to the surface after refraction/reflection within the formations. The time taken
by these refracted/reflected waves is recorded by detecting instruments laid along the ground.
The time required for travel of refracted/reflected waves gives information on the velocity and
depth of the sub-surface formations. This method is useful in estimation of overburden
thickness, delineation of basement topography, characterization of lithology, delineation of
fractures/joints, etc.

SUBSURFACE GEOPHYSICAL METHOD:

The borehole geophysical logging is used to determine the physical and chemical
characteristics of aquifer system and pore fluid within them. The geophysical logs are very
much useful to correlate and validate the surface and airborne geophysical results. The
geophysical logging includes all the techniques of lowering sensing devices into a borehole and
recording some physical parameters that are interpreted in terms of rock characteristics and
fluid contained in it. It allows rapid characterization of rock types occurring at different depths
based on their physical properties and helps to delineate different units into zones according to
probable occurrence of groundwater and water quality. This method is useful in characterization
of lithology, delineation of fractures/joints, estimation of aquifer's parameters, delineation of
saline water zone and contaminant monitoring etc.

Geophysical logging includes a variety of techniques for depth-wise recording various

physical parameters of formations by lowering a sensor within a borehole. Geophysical logging
is a dependable technique in understanding the subsurface environment. It has led to an
unmistaken identification of aquifers for foolproof construction of water wells. Prior to logging a
borehole it is necessary to know the borehole environment which broadly includes the
hydrogeological and the borehole conditions. Former includes the type of formations
encountered in the borehole, the clay zones, the caving zones, the fractures and the bed
thickness etc., while the latter includes hole diameter vis a vis tool or probe geometry, drilling
fluid or mud, invasion, logging speed and hostile environment.

There are basically two types of logging techniques, first, utilizing the natural source as
in case of self potential, temperature, natural gamma ray logging and second, utilizing a
simulated controlled source as in case of all resistivity techniques-focused and unfocussed,
neutron, gamma-gamma, sonic etc. The former are obviously economical and offer ease of
operation as well as analysis and on the fillip side there is no control on the volume of

64
measurement. The devices in the latter category are costlier, the analysis is complicated but
these offer a good control over the volume of measurement conversely the lateral penetration.

Electrical Logging:

Electrical logging can be classified into two categories, viz., response of natural earth currents -
Self Potential (SP) and response to external current input - Resistance /Resistivity.

Self potential logging:

A borehole containing drilling fluid of quality different from that in the formation pore spaces
gives rise to voltage development at the contacts between shale / clay and granular zones. As a
result flow of natural current takes place through four different media: the borehole, the invaded
zone, the non –invaded part of the permeable formation and the surrounding shale or clays. In
each medium potential drops in proportion to the resistance and the total potential drop along a
line of current flow is named as self or spontaneous potential (SP). The development of SP is
mainly a function of chemical activities between borehole fluid and the formation water.
Besides, the type of clays and the lithology do also have a role in the development of SP. The
electromotive forces driving the natural currents are of two types a) Electrochemical and b)
Electro-kinetic.
In case formation water is more saline as compared to borehole fluid, SP development
is negative and conversely it is positive. More positive potentials are indicated by deflections of
curve towards right while negative deflections are towards left. As such there is no ‘zero’ and it
is conventionally termed as ‘floating zero’. In a clay/sand/clay sequence with formation water
saline as compared to borehole fluid, the potential near upper sand boundary is more positive
opposite clays than opposite sand and therefore the curve swings to left from the clay to sand.
Near the lower boundary, potential is more negative opposite sand than clays and SP swings
back to right reaching from sand to clay. When sand is quite thick there is no change in
potential in the central part of sand layer and SP forms a plateau opposite sand layer and if it is
thin a peak is formed at the centre.
SP curve is obtained by measuring potential difference between the electrode lowered
in the borehole and a stationary (reference or ground) electrode at the surface. Departure of SP
curve is proportional to current density in the drilling fluid/mud. While entering from shale/clays,
current density is maximum at boundaries of permeable formation and slope is maximum.
Current density decreases towards midpoint and the curve flattens with subsequent reversal of
the curve. SP attains maximum value at the mid point. Therefore, lithological contacts are
marked at the points of inflexion.
SP logging is mainly used for

i. Identification of bed boundaries and ascertaining lithology,

ii. Assessment of formation water quality,

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iii. Change in litho-facies,
iv. Definition of the regional settings of aquifers and the spatial variation in formation
water quality and
v. Assessment of the depositional environment

Single Point Resistance Logging:

In single point resistance logging the grounding resistance of a single electrode is measured
which is related to the resistivity of the material surrounding the electrode. A constant low
frequency current is pumped in the sub-surface formations through a pair of electrode (A & B)
and the corresponding potential is measured between other pair of electrodes (M & N).
Electrode B is placed at infinite distance. Theoretically, A, M and N are spherical electrodes
embedded in a homogeneous medium of infinite extent and resistivity R. Depending on the
electrode configuration the measurement is known as ‘single point resistance’ (SPR) or ‘normal’
or ‘lateral’ resistivity
The granular zones are defined by high resistance values, measured from the maximum
departure from the clay base line, characterized by minimum resistance values. The granular
zone boundaries are delineated by the inflexion points of the log curve of higher order of
resistance associated with sufficiently developed self potential curve. It responds to the
resistance of the formations adjacent to the electrode. Effectively SPR investigates 5 to 10
times the electrode diameter i.e. between 0.1 to 0.3 m radius around a borehole (assuming the
usual 8” borehole diameter). Resistance not being an intrinsic character, the SPR log presents
only a qualitative picture of the lithology. The fracture zones are also clearly delineated.
It is mainly used for

i. Precise delineation of bed boundaries

ii. Identification of even thin beds of both low and high resistivities because in the former
the response is amplified, whereas in highly resistive formations the response gets
flattened
iii. Identifying fractures in resistive rocks
It suffers for the limitations like

(a) Increasing the borehole diameter much more (> 12”) in comparison to the electrode
diameter overall damps the values of the resistance recorded.

(b) In case mud fluid is more saline than the formation water, entire current flows within the
borehole column and thin resistive beds are not picked up.

Multi-Electrode Resistivity

In multi-electrode resistivity logging the current pumping and potential measuring electrodes are
pulled apart from each other. The inter-spacing of the two has been critically decided on the

66
basis of exhaustive practical and empirical studies related with recorded resistivity that tends
towards true resistivity of the formation with greater depth of investigation for large spacing
between the current and potential electrodes As the formation resistivity varies widely from
nearly zero to 20,000 ohm-m (in hard rocks), so the probe/scales for logging low resistivity
formations may become extra sensitive for high resistivity formations or vice-versa. The
prevailing electrode arrays are Normal, Lateral and Focused. While the normal resistivity
measurements are synonymous with Wenner, the lateral is with Schlumberger configurations of
surface resistivity surveys.

Normal resistivity logging

In ‘normal’ resistivity measurements current electrode A and potential electrode M are on the
probe and the remaining 2 are grounded at the surface. The distance AM on the probe indicates
the type of ‘normal’ resistivity log i.e., AM =16” or 64” gives the type of ‘normal’ log. In “normal
resistivity” logging principally the potential developed between the in-hole electrode M and the
reference ground electrode N is measured while current is pumped between the in-hole current
electrode A and the surface electrode B. For a commonly adopted 8” borehole diameter it is
found that most suitable potential measurements are made at distances 16” (short normal) and
64” (long normal) away from current pumping electrode A.

The simultaneous recording is done of the two types ( N16” and N64”) of resistivity
measurements. For normal resistivity measurements, 3 openings or electrodes are provided in
the probe. The bottom most electrode is used for 16” potential measurements and is located 16”
below the current pumping electrode. The other electrode is located near the top of the probe
64” above the current pumping electrode. Generally, for resistivity measurements recorder
channels 2 and 3 are used with different colour of pen inks. In the chart paper the resistivity
recording is conventionally done on the right tract. The ‘zero’ for both the channels should be
kept at the same position on the left most vertical line of the right tract of the chart paper and by
the scale selector switch same scale is selected for both the normals so that a comparison of
the resistivity values is possible. Generally the resistivity values recorded by N16” is less than
the N64” and the scales are so selected that the N16” curve is readable and also the N64”
curve remains within the measurement limits of the chart paper. The curve amplitude could be
adjusted either by shifting the ‘zero’ of the scale or by changing the scale altogether while going
down the hole. Based on this a fair decision can be taken on whether the zero is to be shifted or
the scale is to be changed or both to obtain a good interpretable log without any shift while
coming up. Against clay beds the resistivity recorded by both the normals should almost overlap
and the shift is observed if the electrodes are not clean. The speed for resistivity logging should
not be more than 10 m/ minute. Since there is a shift in the mechanical levels of the recording
pens the reference depth for the resistivity curves is done from the SP log and the relevant

67
depth corrections are made. The recording is noisy in case the site is crossed by a high-tension
power line or it is near a transformer. In such cases the logging cable should be kept parallel to
the high tension line and the transformer to be shut down.

The main application of normal resistivity logging is

1. Delineation of sub-surface layers on the basis of their characteristic electrical

resistivity,

2. Clay zones are uniquely identified on the basis of identical low resistivity in both the
normals in combination with minimum SP,

3. Depending upon the inter-separation of both the short and long normal logs, a fair
assessment of effective porosity is done and

4. Regional geometry of the aquifer is demarcated on the basis of sequential

development in both the normal log patterns along with the self potential log from a
number of fairly distributed well logs in an area.

Natural gamma logging

Natural gamma logs are records of the amount of natural gamma radiation that is emitted by
all rocks. The gamma emitting radioisotopes, normally found in the rocks are potassium-40
and daughter products of the uranium and thorium-decay series. The natural gamma log run
by most equipment does not employ energy discrimination to distinguish the various
radioisotopes, and only gross gamma activity above a detection threshold is recorded. In
general, the natural gamma activity of clay bearing sediments is much higher than of quartz
and carbonate. The chief use of natural gamma logs is for the identification of lithology and
stratigraphic correlation in open or cased, liquid or air-filled holes. Clay tends to reduce the
effective porosity and permeability of aquifers, and the gamma log can be used to
empirically determine the shale or clay content in some sediments.

Caliper logging

The caliper log is a record of the average diameter of a drill hole. Continuous logging of the
average diameter of drill holes is one of the most useful and simplest techniques in the
borehole geophysics. Caliper logs are utilized for the identification of lithology and
stratigraphic correlation, for the location of fractures and other openings, as a guide to well
correlation, and to correct the interpretation of other logs for hole-diameter effects.
Lithologic factors which will affect the hole diameter include: Type and degree of
cementation of compaction; porosity and permeability; bed thickness and vertical distance
to the adjacent hard beds; size, spacing and orientation of fractures; and the swelling or
hydration of clay.

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AIRBORNE GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYS

During the past fifty years a very large number of airborne geophysical techniques have been
developed to assist in mineral and hydrocarbon exploration. Airborne methods are usually the
most cost effective tools available for both large regional reconnaissance surveys used as aids
in geological mapping and for locating target areas for more detailed follow-up using helicopter
borne instruments. Ground techniques are usually most effective when used to test targets
discovered by the airborne surveys. For aquifer mapping airborne surveys can be used to map
the groundwater potential zone base on aeromagnetic anomaly. Airborne magnetic and
airborne electromagnetic are the common method presently being used for aquifer mapping.

Airborne Magnetic Survey

Aeromagnetic surveying is probably the most common airborne survey type conducted for both
mineral and hydrocarbon exploration. Now a day this method is also being used for aquifer
mapping. Generally, aeromagnetic surveys can be divided into two classes: regional and
detailed surveys.

Regional surveys usually have a relatively wide traverse line spacing, 500 meters or
more, and cover an area of at least 5,000 square km. This class of survey is usually done for
one of the following purposes:

• Geological Mapping to aid in mapping lithology and structure in both hard rock
environments and for mapping basement lithology and structure in sedimentary basins
or for regional tectonic studies.
• Depth to Basement mapping for applications to petroleum, coal and other non metallic
exploration in sedimentary basins or mineralization associated with the basement
surface like basal pebble conglomerates.
Detailed surveys have a line spacing of less that 500 meters and are done for a variety of
reasons, usually in conjunction with other airborne methods. Reasons for conducting a detailed
survey include:

• Discriminate between metallic and non-metallic conductors.

• Assist in interpreting body geometry and depth including aquifer
• Determine the geologic environment of the source.

Airborne Electromagnetic Survey

The general objective of AEM (Airborne Electro-Magnetic) surveys is to conduct a rapid and
relatively low-cost search for metallic conductors, e.g. massive sulphides, located in bed-rock
and often under a cover of overburden and/or fresh water. Now a day this method is also being
used for aquifer mapping. This method can be applied in most geological environments except

69
where the country rock is highly conductive or where overburden is both thick and conductive. It
is equally well suited and applied to general geologic mapping, as well as to a variety of
engineering problems (e.g., fresh water exploration.) Semi-arid areas, particularly with internal
drainage, are usually poor AEM environments. Tidal coasts and estuaries should be avoided.
Weathered mafic flows can provide strongly conductive backgrounds, particularly flows of
Tertiary or Quaternary age.

Conductivities of geological materials range over seven orders of magnitude, with the
strongest EM responses coming from massive sulphides, followed in decreasing order of
intensity by graphite, unconsolidated sediments (clay, tills, and gravel/sand), and igneous and
metamorphic rocks. Consolidated sedimentary rocks can range in conductivity from the level of
graphite (e.g. shales) down to less than the most resistive igneous materials (e.g. dolomites and
limestones). Fresh water is highly resistive. However, when contaminated by decay material,
such lake bottom sediments, swamps, etc., it may display conductivity roughly equivalent to
clay and salt water to graphite and sulphides. Conductive targets can be concealed by other
geological conductors, "geological noise", such as:

• Lateral variations in conductive overburden.

• Graphitic bands in metamorphosed country rock.
• Altered (to clay facies) mafic-ultramafic rocks.
• Faults and shear-zones carrying appreciable groundwater and/or clay gouge.
• Magnetite bands in serpentinized ultramafics.

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 7. GROUND WATER EXPLORATION AND DETERMINATION OF
PARAMETERS FOR AQUIFER MAPPING

EXPLORATORY DRILLING FOR AQUIFER MAPPING

The objective of exploration program is not only to find water but also to get information
essential for ground water management program. The exploratory drilling is undertaken to
delineate the phreatic and deeper aquifers and to evaluate their aquifer parameters and their
ground water potential either in a single lithostrata (basalts, gneisses) or different litho strata
(Trap-Gondwana, Trap-Gneisses). Keeping in view of the formation (consolidated, semi-
consolidated and unconsolidated), the type of rig is selected. To enable aquifer mapping,
correlation of sub-surface lithology to depict the same aquifer horizons has to be made. To
achieve this exploratory boreholes at various locations on a grid pattern throughout the project
area be taken keeping in view of the exploratory wells already drilled. The scope largely
depends on its objective that is the number of wells required to be drilled, their possible depth,
well diameter etc. In case of assessment of ground water resources of first phreatic aquifers
and for specific yield determination, the depth of exploratory wells may be restricted to top
phreatic layers upto 40 m depth which constitute the zone of fluctuation. For determining the
static resources within the exploitable limit of the deeper phretaic aquifers, the exploratory wells
may be drilled upto 60m which constitute the exploitable depth. For assessing the static
resources of deeper aquifers, wells may be drilled to penetrate the entire thickness of the
aquifer. In general, the wells may be drilled upto 200 m in consolidated formations and upto 300
m in semi-consolidated and unconsolidated formations.

PIEZOMETER NESTS FOR AQUIFER MAPPING

In case of multi-layered formations, for instance, basalts, Gondwana formations and coastal
sedimentary aquifers, instead of construction of test wells, a ‘Piezometer Nest’ with multi-level
piezometers must be constructed so that the head and aquifer characteristics of each aquifer
can be monitored separately. This is very much necessary for deciphering the storage and
yielding capacity of each aquifer (shallow and deeper) so that we can earmark different aquifer
layers for different purposes such as drinking, irrigation and industrial uses for future planning
and development.

SHALLOW AND DEEPER AQUIFERS

Aquifers occurring below the first upper aquifer layer, irrespective of their depth from the surface
may be described as deeper aquifers. The soils, weathered mantle, jointed zones overlying the
first massive horizons may be known as shallow aquifers. The depth of shallow aquifers varies
from 20 to 30 m bgl. For instance, in granitic and gneissic terrain, the weathered portions may

71
constitute the shallow aquifers while the fractured portions may constitute deeper aquifer. In
case of baslats, the top vesicular/weathered basalts constitute shallow aquifers, while the
deeper aquifer conditions exist between the contacts of two flows/in the fractured/jointed basalt
sections/Trap-Gondwana contact/Trap-Archaean contact etc.

AQUIFER CONDITIONS

There are three types of aquifers: Confined, Unconfined and Leaky. The leaky aquifer is also
sometimes called semi-confined aquifer.

Confined Aquifer
A confined aquifer is bounded above and below by an aquiclude, which is impermeable to water
flow. It has an overlying confining layer. Water in the confined aquifer occurs under pressure,
which is usually more than the atmospheric pressure, so that if a well taps the aquifer, the water
level will rise above the top of the aquifer i.e. above the base of the overlying confining bed. It
will rise up to an elevation at which it is in balance with the atmospheric pressure. If this
elevation is greater than that of the land surface at the well, the water will flow from the well and
such wells are termed artesian or flowing wells. The confined aquifers have only an indirect or
distant connection with the atmosphere. The imaginary surface, conforming to the elevations to
which water will rise in wells penetrating confined aquifers is known as the piezometric surface
or potentiometric surface. It coincides with the hydrostatic pressure levels of the water in the
aquifer.

Rises and falls of water in wells penetrating confined aquifers result primarily from changes in
pressure rather than changes in storage volumes. Hence, confined aquifers display only small
changes in storage and primarily serve as conduits for conveying water from recharge to
discharge areas.

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Leaky Aquifer
It is an aquifer whose upper and/or lower boundaries are bounded by aquitards. As the
aquitards are semi- permeable, it may slowly transmit appreciable water to or from adjacent
aquifers. For example, a water bearing formation may be overlain by an aquitard, which
permits water to move slowly upward out of the aquifer or vertically downward into the aquifer
depending upon the hydrostatic head in the aquifer.

Where the aquitard is under the aquifer, water may be lost to or gained from the rocks below.
Confined aquifers that loose or gain waters from the surrounding formations are called leaky
confined aquifers.

Unconfined Aquifer

An unconfined aquifer is not overlain by any confining layer but it has a confining layer at the
bottom. The upper surface is defined by the water table and it is in direct contact with the
atmosphere. Water in a well penetrating an unconfined aquifer is under atmospheric pressure
and therefore does not rise above the water table. The water table in unconfined aquifers is free
to rise and fall. Rises and falls in the unconfined aquifer correspond to changes in the volume
of water in storage within aquifer. It is also referred to as water table or phreatic aquifer. The
water table in unconfined aquifers is often termed as phreatic water level. Movement of the
ground water is in direct response to gravity.

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Based on the permeability of the covering layer Kruseman and De Ridder (1970) have given the
following distinguishing features of the different type of aquifers.

Table: Classification of aquifers based on the Permeability of the Covering Layer

Covering Layer Aquifer type
Impervious Confined
Semi-pervious, so that the horizontal flow can be neglected Semi-confined
Less pervious than the main part of the aquifer, Semi-unconfined
but the horizontal flow is not negligible
Same as the main part of the aquifer Unconfined

The distinction between different types of aquifer is, at times, difficult. The subsurface lithology,
water levels and other hydrological parameters of both the aquifers and confining layers should
be studied carefully in order to ascertain the nature of the aquifers. The distinction between
different types of aquifers is important because their capacity to release water from storage
differs. This is also of relevance from the point of view of ground water balance and
management studies.

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AQUIFER PARAMETERS

Unconfined aquifers:- Hydraulic conductivity, Specific yield, Specific Capacity, Specific

Capacity Index

Confined aquifers:- Transmissivity, Specific Storage, Storage coefficient, Hydraulic

Diffusivity (useful in ground water models as it governs the propagation

of changes in hydraulic head in the aquifer).

Semi-Confined aquifers:- The aquifer parameters of semi-confined aquifers include

Transmissivity, Storage coefficient. The aquifer parameters of semi-
confining layer (aquitard) include Leakage Coefficient or Leakance,
Hydraulic Resistance, Leakage Factor.

Hydraulic Conductivity

The hydraulic conductivity may vary spatially. If the K is essentially same throughout the
geological formation, the aquifer is said to homogeneous. If it is different in different locations,
then it is said to be heterogeneous.

The hydraulic conductivity can also vary with respect to directions. If the value of hydraulic
conductivity is the same in all directions, the aquifer is said to be isotropic. If hydraulic
conductivity is different in different directions, the aquifer is said to be anisotropic.

According to the above criteria, the following classification of aquifers is possible.

1) Isotropic and Homogeneous Aquifers (the hydraulic conductivity is the same in all
directions and the same throughout the geological formation).
2) Isotropic and Heterogeneous Aquifers (the hydraulic conductivity is the same in all
directions and not the same throughout the geological formation).
3) Anisotropic and Homogeneous Aquifers (the hydraulic conductivity is different in
different directions and the same throughout the geological formation).
4) Anisotropic and Heterogeneous Aquifers (the hydraulic conductivity is different in
different directions and not the same throughout the geological formation).

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Hydraulic Resistance (c)

The hydraulic Resistance is the resistance of an aquitard to vertical flow, it has dimension of
time and its unit is generally days:
D'
c=
K'
where K’ is Hydraulic conductivity of aquitard and D’ is its thickness.

Leakage factor (L)

The leakage factor is a measure for the spatial distribution of the leakage through an aquitard in
to leaky aquifer. It is defined as:

L = KDc
Where, c is Hydraulic resistance of confining layer, K is Hydraulic conductivity of Leaky aquifer
and D is its thickness.

Leakage factor has dimension of length and is generally expressed in m.

Diffusivity (KD/S)

The hydraulic diffusivity is the ratio of the transmissivity and the storativity of a saturated
aquifer. It governs the propagation of changes in hydraulic head in the aquifer. It has dimension
of Length2/Time.

FRACTURED MEDIA
Most of the ground water flow equations are basically valid for the uniform isotropic porous
media. This is not always the case. Major parts of the country are underlain by the hard rock
formations (Basalt, granite, gneiss, compact sandstone, etc.).

Ground water flow in such units is controlled by discontinuities in the rock or sediment - cracks,
bedding planes, breccia zones along faults, and conduits formed by dissolution of the bedrock.
The physics of groundwater flow in these discontinuities is different from flow in a porous media
system. Often ground water flow in such formations is controlled by small fractures. The term
fractured-media refers to an aquifer or formation that has fractures that are a significant part of
the flow system.

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 A: Single Porosity B: Micro-fissures C: Double Porosity
Source: Kruseman & de Ridder

Several theories or models have been developed to understand ground water through fractured
media out of them the double porosity model is commonly used to explain ground water flow in
a fractured medium. Though most of the hard rock are devoid of primary porosity, some
formation yield water from the matrix blocks once sufficient hydraulic gradient is created after a
certain period of pumping. Primarily the water flow to the well is from fractures and hence time
versus drawdown curve will resemble the Jacob’s Straight line. However when ground water
started flowing from the matrix blocks, no further additional drawdown will occur and the aquifer
will attain pseudo-steady state condition. However, in most of the cases, for 3 to 6 hours of
pumping flow generally occurs from fractures and thus resembles the alluvial aquifers having
primary porosity.

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 8. PUMPING TEST METHODS AND ANALYSIS
Introduction

A pumping test is performed to find out the behaviour of aquifer as well as the well in
response to the stress applied in the form of pumping. The well is pumped at a known
discharge and the effect of this pumping on the aquifer’s hydraulic head (water level) is
measured in the well itself, and/or in a number of nearby piezometers or observation wells.
The change in water level induced by the pumping is known as the drawdown. In the literature,
aquifer tests based on the analysis of drawdown during pumping, are commonly referred to
as ‘pumping tests’. The aquifer properties can also be found from a recovery test. In such a
test, a well that has been discharging for some time is shut down, and thereafter the recovery
of water level in the form of residual drawdown is measured.

The pumping tests are generally conducted to determine:

a. Yield and sustainability of well (Yield Tests)

b. Performance and efficiency of the well (Well Performance Tests)

c. Hydraulic properties of the aquifer (Aquifer Performance Tests)

The yield tests, also sometimes called Preliminary Yield Tests (PYT) are simple
tests which are performed to determine the yield and sustainability of a well. Often such tests
are performed with compressed air in which case the compressed air from an air compressor
is introduced in the well and amount of water discharged is measured. It is generally difficult to
measure the drawdown in pumping well in such tests, however, the drawdown can be
measured in observation wells and piezometers. Also, in case of single wells, the recovery can
be measured in pumped well. These drawdown/recovery measurements can be used for
computing approximate value of Transmissivity.

The Well Performance Tests are conducted to determine the performance of the well and
its efficiency. These tests comprise of multi step drawdown tests (SDT) where the well is
consecutively pumped at increasing discharge for a constant duration and change in water
level is measured.

In aquifer performance tests (APT), the well is pumped at a constant discharge and
drawdown is measured in pumping well as well as in observation wells/piezometers. These
measurements are then used to compute various aquifer parameters like transmissivity,
storativity, specific yield, leakage coefficient etc.

There are other methods where pumping is not done but a “slug” is introduced in the
well and change in water levels are measured and used for computing hydraulic parameters.
Such test are known as Slug Tests.

In case of a slug test, the recovery of a well to a slug of water either suddenly withdrawn from or
added into the well. In some cases, water is not actually added to the well. Instead, the water
level in the well is made to rise by dropping a solid rod (slug) into the well. The rise or fall of the
water level as the well recovers from the imposed stress is recorded as a function of time.

78
From these measurements, the aquifer's transmissivity or hydraulic conductivity can be
determined.
The aquifer parameters are required for planning ground water development and management.
These are required for planning the type and nature of wells to be constructed for various
purposes. These are also required for developing a mathematical model for any area, which in
turn helps in designing ground water management strategies. The parameters, which are
required, are:
Hydraulic Conductivity or Permeability (K)
Transmissivity (T or KD)
Specific Yield (Sy)
Storativity or Storage Coefficient (S)
Hydraulic Resistance (c)
Leakage factor (L)
Hydraulic Diffusivity (KD/S)
There are several methods for estimation of aquifer parameters by doing field-testing of wells.
In a pumping test the water is pumped from a well at a known discharge and the drawdown in
the pumped well and observation well at known distances from the well is measured. Form
these observations, different aquifer parameters can be estimated by suitably applying the
ground water flow equations.
The method to be applied for estimation of aquifer parameters depends on the type of aquifer,
number of observation wells, duration of pumping, etc. The Transmissivity can be estimated
from testing of single well, however, for more accurate estimation, measurements in several
observation wells is required. For estimation of Leakage Factor, Storativity and Specific yield, at
least one and preferably 3 to 4 observation wells are essential. Further, for estimation of these
parameters, pumping for a long duration is required.

Design of Aquifer Tests

The design of aquifer test involves, selection of site and construction of test well and
observation wells/ piezometers.

Selection of Site

When an existing well is to be used for the test or when the hydraulic
characteristics of a specific location are required, the well site is predetermined. However, when
a well or set of wells (Well Field) is to be constructed specifically for determination of aquifer
parameters, the following points should be kept in mind:

Ø The site selected should be representative of the large area.

Ø The site should be away from Railway lines/highways
Ø The site should not be located in the area with heavy pumping
Ø The pumped water should be discharged through pipes/channels at a distance so
that it does not return to the well/aquifer

79
Construction of well

The construction of wells is a technology in it self and detailed literature in this regard is
available. However, certain main points to be kept in mind are:

Ø The wells for the pumping tests should be as small in diameter as possible so that the
water in storage in the well is negligible. However, such wells should be large enough
to accommodate the pump.
Ø In case of deep wells generally the diameter is telescopically reduced so that the
diameter in upper part where drawdown takes place is large and reduces at bottom
where aquifer is tapped.
Ø Care should be taken to tap the entire thickness of the aquifer in test well as well as

observation wells.
Ø The observation wells/piezometers should be constructed with minimum possible
diameter.
Ø An observation wells generally taps the entire thickness of aquifer (like test well)
whereas a piezometer is either open ended at bottom of taps a small section of
aquifer.
Ø A number of observation wells/ piezometers should be constructed, preferably in
different directions and also tapping the different aquifers.

A typical set-up of test well and observation wells/ piezometers is shown below:

80
Pre-Test Preparations and Observations

After completing the preliminary tests, all the wells should be allowed to recoup
completely. Before attempting an aquifer test, it is essential to understand the natural
conditions of flow system and response to the existing natural conditions. The water level in
the wells should be monitored for 3 to 5 days on hourly basis before the test to establish any
natural trend or fluctuation. These water levels should be plotted on a graph and
extrapolated to the test period. The drawdown observation made during the tests should be
corrected for the trend/natural fluctuations. In confined and semi-confined aquifers, water
levels change in response to the fluctuations is barometric pressure and need to be corrected
accordingly.

Observations during the test

Discharge Measurements

A pumping test requires correct measurement of discharge from the pumped well to
obtain dependable results. Although it is possible to make allowance for variation of discharge
in the analysis, the discharge should as far as possible be kept constant to avoid complicated
calculations.

The devices generally used for measurement of discharge are:

Water meter, Parshal flume, Orifice weir, V-notch weir, and container

The water meter should be of adequate capacity and be preferably fitted at the bottom
of V-bend so that the pipe runs full.

Parshal flume may be used where pumping water is discharged into a channel. The
pumping rate should preferably be measured at hourly intervals.

The orifice weir is commonly used to measure the rate of discharge from a turbine or
centrifugal pump including submersible pumps. It does not work with a piston pump due to
pulsating flow. The orifice is perfectly round hole in the centre of a circular steel plate which is
fastened to the outer end of the discharge pipe. The discharge pipe must be straight and level
for a distance at least 2 m before the orifice plate. A piezometer tube is fitted in the discharge
pipe at a distance of exactly 61 cm from the discharge end to measure the pressure head in
the approach pipe. The orifice meter is used after calibration for different pressure heads.

For using V-notch weir, which is the general practice in India, the water is collected in a
tank fitted with baffles for stilling. The V-notch weir is fitted in the last compartment and is used
after calibration.

A very simple and fairly accurate method is to measure the time it takes to fill a container
of known capacity (e.g. an oil drum). This method can only be used if the discharge rate is low.

Measurement of Water Levels

The most important part of a pumping test is accurate measurement of water levels in
the well and piezometers. Since the water levels drop very fast in beginning of the test, the
readings should be at brief intervals during first one or two hours of the test and the interval
should be gradually increased.

81
 The best device for measuring water levels in piezometers is an automatic recorder
which produces a continuous record of changes in water levels. Automatic recorders are good
for recording slow changes away from the well. Other devices used are air line, floating
steel tape with pointer, electric sounder and wetted steel tape method.

The air-line consists of a small diameter pipe extending from top of the well to a point
several metres below the lowest anticipated water-level to be reached during the test. Six
millimetre copper of brass tubing is often used for the air-line. The upper end of the air-line is
fitted with suitable connections and a valve so that ordinary tyre pump can be used to pump
air into the tube. A tee is provided in the line to which a pressure gauge may be connected to
measure the air pressure in the tube, The air-line with all its connections must be
completely air-tight. The device works on the principle that the air pressure required to push
all the water out of the submerged portion of the tube equals the water pressure of a column of
water of that height. The air pressure thus recorded is a measure of the depth of water in the
well.

Floating steel tape with pointer is a very convenient device for piezometer near the well
where water-level changes are rather fast.

The methods generally used in the country are electrical sounder and wetted steel tape.
Electrical sounder comprises of a graduated electrical wire with electrodes at the bottom and
an indicator at other end. The indicator is in the form of a lamp or a electric meter. The
sounder is lowered in the well till such time that the indicator shows a contact. At that point
the reading on the graduations is noted. In wetted steel tape method, the the tape is coated
with the chalk and lowered in the well. The reading on tape at measuring point is noted at a
known point (hold). At specified time, the tape is taken out and the reading at the water mark is
noted (cut). The difference between the hold and cut is the water level below the measuring
point.

82
 The recommended time interval for water level measurements are given below

Time since pumping started (min) Time interval for water

From To level measurements (m)

0 10 05 to 1
10 20 2
20 60 5
60 100 10
100 300 20
300 1000 50
1000 3000 100
3000 Shut-down 200

All manual measurements of water levels and times should preferably be noted on
standard, pre-printed forms, with space available for all relevant field data. The completed
forms should be kept on file.

After some hours of pumping, sufficient time is available in the field to draw the time-
drawdown curves for the well and for each piezometer. Log-log and semi-log paper should be
used for this purpose, with the time in minutes on a logarithmic scale. These graphs are helpful
in checking whether the test is running well and in deciding on the time to shut down the
pump.

After the pump has been shut down, the water levels in the well and the piezometers
start to rise, rapidly in the first hour, but more slowly afterwards. These rises can be measured
in what is known as a recovery test. If the discharge rate of the well was not constant
throughout the pumping test, recovery-test data are more reliable than the drawdown data
because the water level recovers at a constant rate, which is the average of the pumping rate.
The data from a recovery test can also be used to check the calculations made on the basis
of the drawdown data. The schedule for recovery measurements should be the same as that
adhered to during the pumping test.

Pumping Test Analysis Methods

The method to be applied for analysis of pumping test data depends upon the type and nature
of aquifer. A list of main methods is given below and the methods in detail are discussed in this
chapter.
Confined Aquifer Steady State Thiem Method
Unsteady State Thies Method
Jacob Straight Line Method
Thies Recovery Method
(Can also be used for Leaky &
Unconfined aquifers)
Leaky (Semi-Steady State De Glee Method
Confined) Aquifer Hantush Jacob Method
Unsteady State Hantush - 1955 (Walton) Method
Hantush Inflection Point Method
Hantush - 1960 Method
Unconfined Aquifer Steady State Thiem Dupuit Method
Unsteady State Boultons Method
Neuman Method

83
 Thies Method (For early & late curve
segments)

Confined Aquifer
A confined aquifer is overlain and underlain by a confining layer (aquiclude). The water in a
confined aquifer is generally at a pressure higher than that of atmosphere. Therefore, the water
level or piezometric head in confined aquifer is above the top of aquifer. Sometimes, the water
level may rise above the land surface. In that case the wells tapping such aquifer are free
flowing or artesian.

Confined Aquifer
The assumptions and conditions for pumping test data analysis for confined aquifers are given
below:
• the aquifer is confined
• the well fully penetrates the aquifer,
• there is a radial flow,
• the aquifer is homogeneous and isotropic,
• the system prior to pumping is under steady state,
• the density and viscosity of water is constant,
• the pumping well is of infinitesimal diameter and 100% efficient
• the flow is horizontal and Darcy's law valid,
• the water level or the potentiometric surface is initially horizontal and changes due to
pumping of well,
• the aquifer is horizontal, infinite in horizontal extent.
• In addition there are several more assumptions for different analysis methods

Pumping Test Analysis Methods

The list of methods to be applied for analysis of pumping test data of confined aquifers is given
below:-
Confined Aquifer Steady State Thiem Method
Unsteady State Thies Method
Jacob Straight Line Method

84
 Thies Recovery Method
(Can also be used for Leaky &
Unconfined aquifers)

Steady State Flow

Thiems Method
The transmissivity of the aquifer in case of the steady state flow in a confined aquifer can be
estimated by Thiem’s Method. This method can be applied only after a steady state is achieved,
i.e., there is no more drawdown even if pumping is continued. Though true steady state cannot
be achieved in case of a confined aquifer, therefore, a situation where change in water level
with respect to time is negligible is considered as a steady state. For this method, at least two
and ideally 3 to 4 observation wells are required. The equation given by Thiem (1906) for this

2πKD( sm1 − sm 2 )
Q=
ln( r2 / r1 )
method is:
Where
• Q is well discharge (m3/day)
• KD is transmissivity (m2/day)
• r1 & r2 are distance to observation wells (m)
• sm1 and sm2 are respective steady state drawdowns.
• The above equation can be rewritten as:

Q
KD = ln( r2 / r1 )
2π ( sm1 − sm 2 )
Procedure
a. The steady state drawdown for constant discharge is measured in two or more wells.
b. Transmissivity is computed with above the formula
c. In case the data is available for several observation wells, drawdown (s) is plotted
against distance (r) on semi log paper and sm2 -sm1 is calculated as slope of straight line
fitted

Example
Site : Mathana
Discharge: 2725 m3/day
Well Distance (m) drawdown (m)
at 7000 Min
OW-1 99.9 1.86
OW-2 199.8 1.57
KD = Q/(2π(sm1-sm2) * ln (r2/r1)
or

85
KD = 2725 /(2*3.14*(1.860-1.570)* ln(199.80/99.80)
= 1035 m2/day

Unsteady State Flow

Theis Method
Theis (1935) developed a formula for unsteady-state flow, which takes in to account the time
factor and storativity. He showed that the drawdown in the well during unsteady state pumping
in confined aquifer can be given as:

Q ∞ e− y dy Q
s= ∫ = W (u )
4πKD u y 4πKD
The function W(u) is known as well-function or Wenzel Function and can be mathematically
expressed as:

u2 u3
W (u ) = −0.5772 − ln(u ) + u − + − .....
2 x 2! 3x 3!
where u is defined as

r2S
u=
4 KDt
where
• s is drawdown (m) in a well at a distance r (m)
• S is Storativity (dimensionless)
• t is time since pumping started (days)
From above equations it is seen that, if “s” can be measured for one or more values of “r” and
for several values of “t”, the values of “S” and “KD” can be determined. The presence of the two
unknowns and the nature of the exponential integral make it impossible to effect an explicit
solution.
Theis developed a ‘curve-fitting method’ determine S and KD by rearranging the above
equations as

⎡ Q ⎤
log( s ) = ⎢log + log[W (u )]
⎣ 4πKD ⎥⎦
r 2 ⎡ 4 KD ⎤
log = ⎢log + log(u )
t ⎣ S ⎥⎦
Since Q/4pKD and 4KD/S are constant, the relation between log s and log (r2/t) must be similar
to the relation between log W(u) and log (u).

Procedure
à The unsteady state drawdown for constant discharge is measured in two or more wells.

86
 à On log-log papers
à 1/u vs W(u) plotted (Standard Curves)
à s vs t/r2 plotted on another paper
à Two curves superimposed and adjusted to find “Match Point” for one of the curves.
à Values for s, t, W(u) and 1/u found for the Match Point
à Aquifer parameters estimated with the formulae:
Q 4 KDtu
KD = W (u ) and S=
4πs r2
In this method the parameters are estimated for all the observation wells/piezometers. For
separate estimation of each OW, same method is used by plotting s vs t.
Theis type curve is shown below. The values of W(u) for different values of u and 1/u are given
in Appendix I.

Example

87
Cooper-Jacob Straight Line Method
Cooper and Jacob (1946) developed a simplified straight-line method based on the Theis
Equation.
He showed that for small values or “r” and large values of “t” the value or “u” would be quite
small. For small values of “u” (u<0.01) the Theis equation:

Q
s= W (u )
4πKD
where

u2 u3
W (u ) = −0.5772 − ln(u ) + u − + − .....
2 x 2! 3x 3!
can be modified as

Q r2S
s= ( −0.5772 − ln )
4πKD 4 KDt
Taking the decimal log and rearranging this equation gives:

2.30Q 2.25KDt
s= log
4πKD r2S

88
Since Q, KD, and S are constant, a plot of drawdown “s” versus the logarithm of “t” forms a
straight line for smaller values of “r” and larger values of “t”. If this line is extended until it
intercepts the time-axis where s=0 the interception point has the coordinates s=0 and t=t0.
Substituting these values above equation gives

2.30Q 2.25KDt0
0= log
4πKD r2S
2.30Q 2.25KDt0 2.25 KDt0
since ≠ 0 , log 2
= 0 and =1
4πKD r S r 2S
therefore,

2.25KDt0
S=
r2
The slope of the straight line, i.e., drawdown difference Ds per log cycle of time is 2.30Q/4pKD.
Therefore,

2.30Q
KD = ≠0
4πΔs
Procedure
à The drawdown vs time in observation well is plotted on a semi log paper
à The drawdown is plotted on linear scale and the time on logarithmic scale.
à A straight line is fitted through the data points.
à If the plotted points do not fall on a straight line, it implies that the “u” is not small enough
and this method is not applicable.
à Usually the point fall on a straight line for late “t’ values and straight line can be fitted for
these points for application of this method.
à After fitting a straight line, the slope of drawdown Ds per log cycle is determined.
à Then Transmissivity (KD) is determined using the equation:

2.30Q
KD =
4πΔs

à The straight line fitted is extended till it cuts the graph where drawdown “s” is zero.
à At this point the value of time “t” is “t0”. Using this value the Storativity (S) is determined
using equation.
2.25 KDt0
S=
r2
Cooper-Jacob method can also be used as distance - drawdown method

89
 Example

Recovery Tests

Theis Recovery Method

According to Theis (1935), the residual drawdown after a pumping test with a constant
discharge is

Q
s' = (W (u ) − W (u ' ) )
4πKD
where

r 2S r 2S '
u= and u ' =
4 KDt 4 KDt '
When u and u’ are sufficiently small. (< 0.01), the above equation can be approximated by

Q ⎛ 4 KDt 4 KDt ' ⎞

s' = ⎜ ln 2 − ln 2 ⎟
4πKD ⎝ r S r S' ⎠
where
• s’= residual drawdown in m
• r= distance in m from well to piezometer
• KD = transmissivity of the aquifer in m2/d

90
• S’= storativity during recovery, dimensionless
• S= storativity during pumping, dimensionless
• t= time in days since the start of pumping
• t’= time in days since the cessation of pumping
• Q= rate of recharge = rate of discharge in m3/d
Where S and S’ are constant and equal and KD is constant the above equation can also be
written as

2.30Q t
s' = log
4πKD t'
A plot of s’ versus t/t’ on semi-log paper (t/t’ on logarithmic scale) will yield a straight line. The
slope of the line is

2.30Q 2.30Q
Δs ' = or KD =
4πKD 4πΔs '
where Ds' is the residual drawdown difference per log cycle of t/t’
The Theis recovery method is applicable if the following assumptions and conditions are met:
The assumptions listed above, adjusted for recovery tests.
The additional assumptions are
Ø The flow to the well is in an unsteady state;
Ø u < 0.01, i.e. pumping time t, > (25 r2S)/KD
Ø u’ < 0.01, i.e. t’ > (25 r2S)/KD

Procedure
à For each observed value of s‘, calculate the corresponding value of t/t’;
à For one of the piezometers, plot s‘ versus t/t’ on semi-log paper (t/t’ on the log scale)
à Fit a straight line through the plotted points;
à Determine the slope of the straight line, i.e. the residual drawdown difference Δs’
à Substitute the known values of Q and Ds’ into above equation and calculate KD.
The Theis Recovery method can also be used in case of confined, leaky and unconfined
aquifers. It is also suitable for single (pumping) wells.
Example

Date of Test: 17/12/02

SWL: 13.07 m
Q: 2.00 lps
Pumping Time: 100.00 Min
s 11.77 m
2
T 2.69 m /day

91
 RDD Vs t/t'

0.0

5.0

10.0
RDD (m)

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0
1 10 100

t/t'

92
 9. GROUND WATER REGIME MONITORING AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE
IN AQUIFER INFORMATION SYSTEM.

Ground water meets the rural drinking water needs of 80% of the population of the country and
hence is vital in the day to day life of the population. To have a proper planning and
management of this precious resource, the assessment and quantification is the pre requisite.
This can be achieved by having precise data on the groundwater draft and recharge. Major part
of groundwater draft is affected in private sector without any regulation or control and hence
quantification is a great challenge. On the recharge side the major source is the rain fall, a part
of which infiltrates into the ground to form groundwater. The recharge depends on various
factors viz. the intensity of rainfall and its quantity, the soil and geology of the area, slope, depth
to groundwater etc. which makes it complex. The ground water levels are the cumulative effects
of the draft and recharge and are a ground reality. Thus groundwater measurements are one of
the important activities connected with ground water studies. Generally, water level
measurements are carried-out from dug wells or from purpose-built piezometres (observation
bore wells). Ground-water-level data are used to quantify aquifer recharge, as a calibration tool
for ground-water models, and to support water-quality investigations.

The ground water occurs in pore spaces of granular soil/lithological formation and in fractures;
therefore it is under dynamic condition and fluctuates. The aim of ground water level monitoring
is as below:

a. To understand an overview about the ground water regime like water scarcity
/ water logged area.
b. To understand about the natural recharge/withdrawal and seasonal fluctuation.
c. To demarcate the area under semi-critical, critical and overexploited.
d. Delineation of the ground water recharge area through Artificial methods.
e. Decision of pump and its depth of lowering.

With the above aims and objectives, there is provision to monitor the water level four times in a
year through different ground water abstraction structures as above Monitoring of ground water
regime is an effort to obtain information on ground water levels and chemical quality through
representative sampling, like rainfall, evapo-transpiration etc., whereas anthropogenic
influences include pumpage from the aquifer, recharge due to irrigation systems and other
practices like waste disposal etc.

Ground water levels are being measured four times a year during January, April/May, August
and November. Ground water samples are collected from these observation wells once a year
during the month of April/May to obtain background information of ground water quality changes

93
on regional scale. The database thus generated forms the basis for planning the ground water
development and management programme. The ground water level and quality monitoring is of
particular importance in coastal as well inland saline environment to assess the changes in salt
water/fresh water interface as also the gradual quality changes in the fresh ground water
regime. This data is used for assessment of ground water resources and changes in the regime
consequent to various development and management activities.

METHODOLOGY:

It is essential to know about the type and condition of ground water abstraction structures from
which water level would be recorded. There are some important criteria to fix the well as
observation well or recording station like;

1. The well should be in use and have regular withdrawal.

2. It must be representative for the general geomorphic set up prevailing in the area.

APPLICATION OF GROUND WATER LEVEL MONITORING:

• Determine annual and long-term changes of groundwater in storage.

• Estimation of recharge rates.
• Determine direction and gradient of groundwater flow.
• Understand how aquifer systems work and
• Gain insight for well construction and depth of housing for pumps.

Application of DWLR data in Groundwater Resource Estimation:

An important activity of many of groundwater practitioners in India is to estimate the Ground

water resource (mainly monsoon recharge) by a lumped water balance of the unconfined

94
aquifer, in accordance with GEC-84/97 norms. The high frequency water table data from the
DWLRs can assist a practitioner in conducting such estimations more rationally and credibly.

Frequency of measurement

The frequency of measurement is one of the most important considerations in designing of a

water level and water quality monitoring programme. The development of a plan for monitoring
is dependent on the objectives of the programme and the intended use of the data. The
frequency of measurement should be adequate to detect short term and seasonal groundwater
level fluctuation of interest and to discriminate between the effects of short and long term
hydrologic stresses. The frequency of measurement is also dependent on several factors like
aquifer type and position, groundwater flow and recharge rate, aquifer development and climatic
conditions.

Water levels measurements are carried out for a number of reasons including:

• estimating the average piezometric head,

• understanding the groundwater regime,
• computing groundwater resource availability,
• design of groundwater management structures,
• Identify the short-term changes due to pumping, tidal effects, isostatic changes, tides,
etc.,
• Ground-water investigations.
• To have a background information against which future changes can be assessed.
• To have an early tracing system for both quality and quantity variation.
• To study inter relationship between ground water and climatic parameters such as
rainfall.
• To evaluate the impact of surface water irrigation system on groundwater regime.
• To study the influence of geology, geomorphology and land use on ground water
regime.
• To understand the role of groundwater in hydrological cycle and influence of
recharge/discharge on ground water storage.
• To study the hydrochemical behaviour of groundwater.
• To study the temperature variation of ground water in space and time.

To achieve the above objectives one or more of the following attributes have to be estimated
from the monitored water level data after generating the water level hydrograph.

• peak of the hydrograph,

• trough of the hydrograph,
• time of shallow water level i.e, time during which the water level rises above a stipulated
shallow critical level,

95
 • time of deep water level, i.e, time during which the water levels falls below a stipulated
deep critical level,
• rate of rise or decline and
• response time after an event.
Statistical and visual analyses of water level hydrographs help provide information with regard
to long term change in the ground water level and seasonal fluctuation.

DURATION OF WATER LEVEL DATA COLLECTION

For determining the measuring frequency, the intended use of the data and the length of water
level data collection need to be understood. Water-level data need to be collected over various
lengths of time, dependent on their intended use. Short- term water level data are collected over
periods of days, weeks, or months during many types of groundwater investigations. Water
level measurements needed to map the altitude of the water table or potentiometric surface of
an aquifer, are generally carried out within the shortest possible period of time-in days or
weeks- so that hydraulic heads in the aquifer are measured under the same hydrologic
conditions.

Long-term data are fundamental to the resolution of many of the most complex problems
dealing with ground- water availability and sustainability. Significant periods of time- years to
decades- typically are required to collect water- level data needed to evaluate the affects of
climate variability, to monitor the effects of regional aquifer development, or for analysis of
water-level trends.

Water-level measurements serve as primary data required for calibration and testing of ground-
water models, and it is often not until development of these models that the limitations of
existing water-level data are fully recognized. Furthermore, enhanced understanding of the
ground-water flow system and data limitations identified by calibrating ground-water models
provide insights into the most critical needs for collection of future water-level data.

PERIODICITY: CURRENT TRENDS

In India the water level monitoring frequency has been common for all the different
requirements, and the measurements are limited to few times in a year. These times are
selected coinciding with pre-monsoon, monsoon, post-monsoon and winter seasons. Limited
water level data originating from extensive monitoring networks has been used for getting a
very broad regional picture of the groundwater regime. It is presumed that these water levels
represent the troughs and peaks of the water table hydrograph. However, many a time these
data have been too sparse to yield reliable and credible water table hydrograph.

Today, when groundwater development has increased far too rapidly, there is a need for better
understanding of the localized changes in groundwater behaviour between seasons and

96
between different aquifer systems within an area. The water level measurements need to be
taken as frequently as needed to depict the fluctuations realistically. If the measurements are
not frequent then the rise and fall of water levels are invariably underestimated. Typical
characteristics of the hdyrogeological system will then be totally missed.

Currently, two types of monitoring are being carried out:

• periodic monitoring, and

• continuous monitoring

PERIODIC MONITORING

Periodic ground-water-level measurements are made at scheduled (daily, weekly, fortnight

monthly, or season). Periodic water level measurements are usually carried out through manual
measurement techniques, such as chalked metal tapes or water level indicator. The most
popular periodic monitoring frequency in India by the groundwater agencies is either monthly or
seasonal. In many situations, periodic monitoring tends to miss hydraulic responses of aquifers
to short-term stresses, which may occur between measurements, also extreme water- level
fluctuations cannot be determined with certainty. The trends revealed from these
measurements are likely to be biased by the choice of measurement frequency. The frequency
of seasonal monitoring should be based on the monitoring objective. The limitations of the
seasonal observations should be well understood before they are used for any major
interpretations.

CONTINOUS MONIOTORING

Continuous monitoring is near real time monitoring, that is usually established in a certain
fraction of wells within the monitoring network. The subset of wells so selected should:

• provide unambiguous and quantitative real-time information on unique and potentially

damaging ground- water level events that are occurring and signal these events as early
as possible:
• represent ground-water conditions over a substantial area of the aquifer.
• monitor specific areas where the aquifer may be more susceptible to water- level related
problems, and
• provide information that aids in the assessment of saltwater intrusion in those areas of
the aquifer where such considerations are relevant.

Continuous monitoring or near continuous monitoring is usually carried out using Digital Water
Level Recorders (DWLR), which are programmed to make measurements at a specified
frequency. The selected monitoring interval should be such that the monitored hydrograph
resembles closely with the true hydrograph. This should be the most stringent and all
encompassing anticipation while deciding the monitoring frequency. The monitoring intervals

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would depend upon the degree of the desired resemblance so as to ensure a high enough
correlation between the true and the monitored hydrograph.

These DWLRs have been programmed to record water levels at six hourly frequencies.
Continuous monitoring provides the highest level of resolution of water level fluctuations. True
hydrographs generated from data of DWLRs can help identify the effects of various stresses on
the aquifer system. It will provide most accurate estimate of maximum and minimum water level
fluctuations in aquifers where the hydraulic response of an aquifer to stresses is slow and the
frequency and magnitude of water level changes in an observation well are not great. However,
it is often the best technique to use for monitoring fluctuations in ground water levels during
drought and other critical periods like earthquake when hydraulic stresses may change at
relatively rapid rates.

CURRENT SCENARIO OF PERIODICITY OF GROUND WATER MONITORING

Ground water levels are being measured four times a year during January, April/ May, August
and November by Central Ground Water Board through a network of about 15000 observation
wells located all over the country. These times are selected coinciding with winter seasons,
pre-monsoon, monsoon and post-monsoon for water levels. This data is used for assessment of
ground water resources and changes in the regime consequent to various development and
management activities. These limited water level data originating from extensive monitoring
networks have been used for getting a very broad regional picture of the groundwater regime. It
is presumed that these water levels represent the troughs and peaks of the water table
hydrograph. In recent times, groundwater development has increased far too rapidly and there
is a need for better understanding of the localized changes in groundwater behaviour between
seasons and between different aquifer systems within an area. The water level measurements
need to be taken as frequently as needed to depict the fluctuations realistically. If the
measurements are not frequent then the rise and fall of water levels are invariably
underestimated. Typical characteristics of the hydrogeological system are likely to be totally
missed. For strengthening of ground water monitoring network and measuring capabilities, a
World Bank aided Hydrology Project was sanctioned in 1997 under the Ministry of Water
Resources. The project was implemented by CGWB with the coordination and participation of 9
Peninsular States. Under the project, 2239 purpose built piezometers have been constructed to
strengthen the existing ground water monitoring network.and1200 digital water level recorders
have been installed at select wells to acquire high frequency water level data so as to monitor
short term ground water regime changes. Ground water samples are collected through these
observation wells once a year during the month of April/ May to create background information
of ground water quality changes on regional scale.

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Groundwater monitoring as defined by UNICEF Task Force on Monitoring and Assessment,
(1999)is the collection of data, generally at set locations and depths and a at regular time
intervals in order to provide information which may be used.

• to determine the state of groundwater both in quantitative and qualitative sense.

• to provide the basis for detecting trends in space and time, and
• to enable the establishment of cause-effect relationships.
A groundwater monitoring network is a system of dedicated ground water monitoring wells in a
geohydrologial unit at which ground water levels and water quality are measured at pre-
determined frequency.

MONITORING–CYCLE

A monitoring cycle is a sequence of related activities that starts with the identification of
information needs and ends with the use of information products. A schematic representation of
the monitoring cycle for groundwater is given in fig.1. A detailed description of all steps in a
monitoring cycle is presented in documents of UN/ECE Task Force on Monitoring and
Assessment (UN/ECE TFMA 1999 and 2000) and is beyond the scope of this discussion here.
It would suffice to mention here that each of the steps described above contribute significantly
to plan, formulate and implement a sound groundwater management policy.

NETWORK DESIGN AND OPERATION GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

The design of an optimal network layout reflects the entire hydrogeological system of the area
under consideration. The network provides long term information on the different aquifers being

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developed. Information on shallow aquifers tapped by open wells, deeper multi-layer aquifers
tapped through open dug wells/dug cum borewell/borewell/tube wells and ground water
development issues (declining water levels, rising water levels, coastal salinity, water logging in
irrigated areas, ground water pollution etc) should be considered in the network design.

A minimum network should include a number of ground water monitoring stations in the
recharge area, run off and discharge area, for each of the aquifer system within the considered
drainage/administrative units. Since the ground water monitoring networks are of particular
socio economic importance to the State and country, it is essential that all problems related to
drinking water, irrigation, health and industrial demands of ground water are prioritised during
the network design. It has to be kept in mind that the overall objective of the monitoring network
is for understanding the dynamics of the ground water system, trends in ground water
fluctuation so as to assess the total ground water resource within the reservoir that can be
safely harnessed. Other requirements of the network are for understanding the ground water
dynamics, flow patterns, recharge- discharge relationship etc.

Data requirement and availability of budget should guide the network density and frequency of
monitoring. It has to be always remembered, that the establishment of monitoring stations is
less expensive as compared to the long- term cost of regular data collection and maintenance
and regular upgrading of the monitoring station. Authentic data can emerge only from networks,
which are not starved of funds nor have shortfall of manpower.

THE NETWORK DENSITY AND LOCATION OF MEASURING POINTS

Decisions made about the number and locations of observation wells and piezometers are
crucial to any water-level data collection program. Ideally, the sites chosen for an observation
well network will provide data representative of various topographic, geologic, climatic, and
land-use environments. Decisions about the areal distribution and depth of completion of
piezometers also should consider the physical boundaries and geologic complexity of aquifers
under study. Water level monitoring programs for complex, multilayer aquifer systems may
require measurements in nested piezometers completed at multiple depths in different geologic
units. Large, regional aquifers that extend beyond State/basin boundaries require a network of
observation wells distributed among one or more States. If one of all the purposes of a network
is to monitor ambient ground- water conditions, or the effects of natural, climatic- induced
hydrologic stresses, the observation network will require dedicated piezometers that are
unaffected by pumping, irrigation, and land uses that effect ground-water recharge.

The basic principles for the location of monitoring wells can be summarized as follows:

• The location of the observation monitoring wells in terms of sites, depth, design (single
or nests) should be based on geo-hydrological, social and economical considerations.

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 Optimal design should include assessment of the density of the network through
statistical algorithms which needs to be adjusted based on geo-hydrological conditions
and monitoring objectives.

• The site selection for locating monitoring stations should be largely guided by local area
conditions. The site selection should ensure that data collected should be unbiased and
not subjected to interference from production wells, canals or surface water bodies in
the neighbourhood.

• Round the year accessibility and foolproof protection to the monitoring station and the
monitoring equipment’s should be considered during site selection.

• The Reduced Level of all monitoring stations (piezometers) should be available to find
out the flow direction, flow rate and attenuation of pollutants in ground water.

Construction of Monitoring wells: Keeping it in view of the present context it is desirable

the construction of monitoring wells to be done aquifer wise i.e shallow, intermediate
and deep aquifers to study the behaviour of the aquifers under different stress condition.

Monitoring wells must be located and designed with environmental and contaminant
characteristics, and development activities for different purposes. Construction materials
for the well should be selected based on their ability to withstand the attack by
contaminants that are anticipated at site.

The monitoring well has to accommodate required size of equipment necessary to

obtain the desired measurement or collect the samples for evaluation. Thus an
appropriate well diameter must be selected that accommodate the equipment such as
a) Water level measuring devices.
b) Ground water sampling devices.
c) Aquifer testing procedures.

ANALYSIS OF HYDROGRAPH

The increasing ground water development in the country, from various competing water user
sectors like domestic, agriculture and industrial, demands a careful monitoring of ground water
regime. It has already reached an undesirable stage in some of the provinces like alluvial plains
of Punjab and Haryana States and in local pockets of other States. In the Peninsular region of
the country, the development of ground water resource is not uniform or widespread in space
since the availability of resource itself is not uniform in space. It is intensive in localised pockets.
The ever increasing population and the demand for agricultural products created the necessity
to exploit the easily and locally available ground water resource. The growth of industrialisation
has put further stress on the ground water system. The ground water exploitation has increased

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from a meagre percentage about a few decades ago to alarming proportions at places at
present. A systematic monitoring of the ground water regime in time and space has become
mandatory to manage the resource for its long-term sustainability.

One of the aims of Central Ground Water Board is to monitor the ground water regime in a
systematic manner, create an integrated database, analyse the data and formulate strategies to
develop and manage the resource. The main objective of analysing the ground water regime
data is to estimate ground water balance. In the estimation of ground water balance, the
component of water level and its fluctuation is important. To obtain the information on the depth
and configuration of water table, its behaviour with time and other influencing factors, its
variation in space etc., a network of existing or purpose-built observation wells or piezometers
must be monitored.

GROUND WATER SYSTEM:

Water that exists below the land surface in the saturated zone is referred to as ground water.
Water occurs in the subsurface in two distinct zones, namely zone of aeration and zone of
saturation. The zone of aeration consists of interstices occupied partially by water and partially
by air. In the zone of saturation all interstices are filled with water under hydrostatic pressure.

Rainfall is the major source of recharge to the ground water system. Part of the rainfall flows
overland to streams, part of it evaporates and the remaining infiltrates into the zone of aeration.
The infiltrated water is retained in this zone until the maximum water content (Field capacity) is
attained. Any amount of water in excess of this maximum water content percolates to the zone
of saturation.

The component of concern is the zone of saturation. The ground water system, within this zone
of saturation, is a complex system of static and dynamic variables. The static variables include
aquifer porosity, aquifer geometry and topography while the dynamic variables are rainfall,
seepage from surface water bodies, evapotranspiration etc.

The zone of saturation extends from the upper surface of saturation (bottom surface of zone of
aeration) down to underlying impermeable rock. In the absence of overlying impermeable
strata, the upper surface of the zone of saturation is termed as water table or phreatic surface.

The piezometric surface or potentiometric surface is an imaginary surface coinciding with the
hydrostatic pressure level of the water in the aquifers which are overlain by confining beds of
less permeability. Water level in a well penetrating the confined aquifer defines the hydrostatic
pressure head or elevation of piezometric surface at that point. Ground water level is one of the
important attributes of the ground water regime monitoring. The response of the ground water
regime to the natural and artificial stresses is reflected in the fluctuation of ground water level.

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GROUND WATER FLOW TERMS
In an area of study, the physical framework of the ground water system is constant but the
ground water flux that enters and leaves the system is variable. In response to this variation, the
ground water level in the area increases or decreases depending upon the difference in the
total inflows and outflows. Flow terms which contribute to the ground water resource or storage
in an area of study are
Inflow terms

Ø Ground water inflow into the aquifer

Ø Infiltration due to rainfall
Ø Return flow from irrigation
Ø Augmented recharge
Ø Seepage from canals, rivers, reservoirs, tanks
Outflow terms
Ø Ground water outflow from the aquifer
Ø Evapotranspiration
Ø Flow into rivers (base flow)
The change in the ground water level, factors responsible for the change in water levels, two-
dimensional representation in a graphical form and analysis is discussed below.

CONTROLLING FACTORS

Ground water level is not static. It is dynamic due to a number of time-dependant natural and
man-made influences. The natural influence is through atmospheric pressure, precipitation and
infiltration, seepage from lakes and other surface water bodies, horizontal and vertical drainage
of ground water, evaporation and evapotranspiration. Influence by human activities like ground
water withdrawal and artificial recharge produce considerable negative (declining) and positive
(rising) effects respectively on ground water levels.

The configuration of water table and its fluctuation is also controlled by variables which are
time-independent. These variables include topography, soil, geology, aquifer characteristics and
aquifer disposition. These static and time-independent features also determine the water table
configuration in an area.

RECHARGE AND DISCHARGE AREAS

Areas can be delineated into recharge and discharge areas depending on whether water is
added to or withdrawn from the zone of saturation. In the case of phreatic aquifer, the natural
addition of water to the aquifer may be due to recharge from rainfall, streams, tanks, reservoirs
and other surface water bodies. The natural withdrawal of water from the aquifer may be due to
the vertically downward flow (leakage) to the deeper aquifers or lateral out-flow or vertical

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upward flow to the ground surface as seepage. In the case of confined aquifers, the recharge is
due to the lateral in-flow from the intake area, area where the aquifer is exposed, or due to the
vertical leakage from the upper aquifers through the confining layers. The natural discharge, in
case of confined aquifers, is the vertical flow to the upper aquifers through the confining layers
due to difference in potential head or lateral outflow down the hydraulic gradient.

GROUND WATER HYDROGRAPH

Plotting of water levels, collected from observation wells / piezometers, against time of
observation provide the information on the behaviour of water level with time and is termed as
ground water hydrograph (Fig-6). Similar to the stream hydrograph, a well hydrograph also
shows rising limbs and lowering limbs. The water level rise in an aquifer represents the net
response to a process of simultaneous drainage from and recharge to the aquifer. The water
level rises when the ground water storage increases and declines when there is a decrease in
storage.

Figure-6 – A typical Hydrograph

The smoothness of the hydrograph depends on the frequency of observations. Higher the
frequency more smooth is the hydrograph and lower the frequency less smooth is the
hydrograph (Fig-7) In Central Ground Water Board, the present frequency of measurement, for
the All India Network of Hydrograph Stations, is four times in a year. In the purpose-built
piezometers water level data are recorded through Digital Water Level Recorders (DWLR) at
higher frequency even 4 times in a day.

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Fig-7

The rate of rise and rate of fall of water level are important in the analysis of hydrograph. When
there is no recharge, the natural fall of water table depends on

Ø Transmissivity of the aquifer

Ø Storativity of the aquifer and
Ø Hydraulic gradient
Water level shows a steep rise due to recharge from rainfall or applied water on the ground
surface. After the period of recharge, water level declines rapidly initially, exhibited by a steep
limb. Then the water level declines slowly, indicated by the gentle limb, as time passes because
of decrease in the hydraulic gradient it tends to stabilise. The declining limb of the hydrograph is
also termed as recession curve. Shape of the recession curve of ground water hydrograph
indicates the behaviour of water table with reference to the ground water system as a whole at
the site of observation. Thus, ground water recession curve is an important and useful
component of the hydrograph in the study of change in ground water storage.

Preparation of hydrograph necessitates data pertaining to several measurements spread over

many years. So, when dealing with time-dependent data, utmost care has to be taken regarding
source, method and mechanism of collection of data. The main factors that affect the quality of
hydrograph are:

Ø Location

• Geomorphology
• External influence (seepage from canals, tanks, irrigation fields, draft from
nearby wells, etc.)
• Frequency of monitoring
Ø Data continuity
Ø Integrity of data collection mechanism
(Manual, Mechanical, Electrical, Electronic, Pressure transducer based Data Logger)

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FLUCTUATION OF WATER LEVEL WITH TIME

Ground water level is not static and is always under the influence of time-dependent recharging
and discharging factors. Due to this continuous influence, water level fluctuates and the range
depends on the period of influence.

LONG-TERM VARIATION:

The water levels over a long period, extending to several years, are analysed to study the long-
term behaviour of water table. A series of wet and dry years, in which the rainfall is above or
below the normal value in an area, produces decreasing or increasing trend of water levels.
Though the rainfall is not an accurate indicator for changes in the ground water levels, an
approximate correlation can always be made between the trends of rainfall and water level. In
over-developed basins where ground water draft exceeds recharge, a downward trend of
ground water levels may continue for many years.

In areas where ground water withdrawal exceeds the recharge component, a downward trend
of ground water level will result (Fig.8)

Figure- 8: Hydrograph of an observation well showing long term water table decline.

Variation of water level in a particular month over a long period say 10 years also provides an
insight into the trend of behaviour of ground water regime in an area.

The range of fluctuation of water level recorded during different periods of a year for several
years (Fig-9) also provides an insight into the ground water regime in the area.

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 Figure-9 Range of variation (10 Years) of water level in each month

TREND OF WATER LEVEL:

Linear regression is one of the statistical methods used for estimating the trend of water levels
over a period of time. The regression equation can also be obtained with the help of computer,
using appropriate software. The linear regression can be applied for pre-monsoon readings to
get the trend line of water level in pre-monsoon season .This type of analysis provides an idea
about the behaviour of water table in the pre-monsoon due to ground water development in the
non-monsoon season. Similarly, the trend line can be obtained for post-monsoon
measurements or for any specified period when sufficient data is available for the period.

GROUND WATER LEVELS VS BASE FLOW:

Variations in stream flow are closely related to the ground water levels, in the land adjacent to
the stream. Stream flow originating from ground water discharge is known as ground water run-
off or base flow. During fair weather periods all stream flow may be contributed by base flow. To
estimate the base flow from an area, whose hydrogeological conditions are fairly homogeneous,
the mean ground water levels of the area are plotted against the stream flow (Fig-10) during
periods when all flow originates from ground water. A rating curve of ground water run-off can
be obtained from the above plot for the area of study.

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 Figure-10 Relation between mean water level and ground water run-off

ESTIMATION OF GROUND WATER RECHARGE FROM WELL HYDROGRAPH:

Ground water recharge is estimated through several methods viz. infiltration factors, water level
fluctuation, nuclear tracer techniques, etc. One of the accurate methods which are generally
adopted in estimating the ground water resource is the water level fluctuation method through
the analysis of hydrographs.

Rainfall vs Water level rise: The annual ground water recharge can be estimated,
approximately, taking the amount of rainfall received in an area as base data. This method
requires, however, several years of records on rainfall and water levels. An average relationship
between the two factors can be established by plotting the annual rise in water level against the
annual rainfall (Fig-11). A straight line is fitted through the data points. Once the relationship is
established annual ground water recharge can be estimated from the known annual rainfall
data. Extending the straight line until it intersects the abscissa, gives the amount of rainfall
below which there is no recharge to the ground water system.

Figure-11 Rise of water level in response to rain fall

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Water Level Fluctuation: Analysis of ground water hydrographs provides an important
information on the net rise in the ground water level, at the observation site, due to recharge
from various sources. After attaining a peak position due to recharge, the water level declines
steeply in the beginning but attains a relatively gentle slope which is generally observed to be
the same for a particular site. The gentle slope, if not disturbed by short term or additional
stresses, continues to the lowest level, generally matching with the dry season. From the lowest
level, the steep rising limb of the hydrograph starts due to recharge, generally due to monsoon
rainfall, and attains a peak position .The same cycle repeats again year after year, but due to
variations in the amount of recharge and discharge, the net change in ground water storage will
vary.

The peak position attained by the water level is a temporary phenomenon due to recharge, but
the water level declines and stabilises after lapse of certain interval of time. From this point of
time, the water level follows a definite declining trend depending upon the nature of aquifer and
its flow terms. The value of net increase / fluctuation in the water level is used for estimating the
net increase in the ground water storage.

The point-recharge is calculated by multiplying the value of net increase in the water level at a
particular site and the specific yield / storage coefficient values of the aquifer, obtained on the
basis of hydrogeological conditions or pumping tests. Once the point-recharge values of all the
observation points in a study area are calculated, the total recharge over the basin is obtained
in several ways, depending on the accuracy required and the density and configuration of the
observation well network.

1. By averaging, aquifer wise, the recharge values obtained in respect of each well and
multiplying the average value with the area.

2. By segmenting the area into grids or polygons, multiplying average recharge in each
grid or polygon with its area, and cumulating the values separately in respect of each
aquifer.

3. By drawing contour lines of recharge and estimating recharge by multiplying inter-

contour value and the area between two contours, separately in respect of each aquifer,
and cumulating.

OPTIMISATION OF NETWORK STATION

At a number of locations no stations will be available then the information is to be obtained from
the network by interpolation, if the interpolation in estimation is too large then additional stations
or a re-design should be considered. The statistical techniques are most applicable to already
well established networks, where the data have been rigorously quality controlled and are

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readily available in computer compatible form. However the hydrogeological conditions, nature
of study are the guiding factor to fix up network density.

GROUNDWATER QUALITY MONITORING

Due to growth of population, urbanisation, industrialisation and agricultural activities ground

water resources are under stress. There is growing concern on the deterioration of ground
water quality due to geogenic and anthropogenic activities.

The International Standard Organisation (ISO) has defined monitoring as “the programmed
process of samplings, measurements and subsequent recording or signalling or both, of various
water characteristics, often with the aim of assessing conformity to specified objectives”.

Category of quality monitoring:

1. Offensive detection monitoring: around suspected pollution source, scale of pollution &
determine the occurrence.
2. Defensive detection monitoring: Near major source for advanced warning
3. Evaluation monitoring: To determine the extent, migration rate of the plume.
4. Surveillance monitoring: To confirm suitability of degraded water and required treatment
process.
5. Back ground monitoring: provides baseline information regarding spatial variation in
water quality, a long term effort covering large areas.
6. Specific monitoring: to specific problem, over small area for short period.

In the present system monitoring of water quality is done by analysing water samples collected
from dug wells/ tube wells tapped mostly the pheratic aquifer.

But due to deterioration of water quality and the purpose of present study it is suggested the
water samples are to be collected from different group of aquifers i.e shallow, intermediate and
deeper aquifers, to find out the quality of groundwater when the aquifers are under stress
condition. This process of continuous monitoring of water quality will create a background data
bank of different chemical constituent in ground water and also help to compare with the earlier
data, to set up the frequency of sampling and location of sampling.

The location of monitoring stations and number of monitoring wells and frequency of sampling
are very important aspect. Because of slow rate of ground water movement ground water
quality does not normally change rapidly in space and time. However in case of unconfined
aquifers changes in quality is faster as compared to confined aquifer.

The purposes and objectives of groundwater quality monitoring include:

1. Collection of basic data for general surveillance purposes for establishment of national
groundwater quality databanks, which can be used as planning information for future

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 groundwater abstraction. The Bureau of Indian Standard has identified various standards of
water quality for drinking purposes, e.g Fluoride, Total Dissolved Solids, Iron, Nitrates, and
heavy metals like Arsenic, Nickel, Chromium, Lead, Mercury etc. The samples from different
stations will be drawn frequently.

2. For monitoring the quality of abstracted groundwater and the impact of pollution from both
diffuse, air-borne and point sources.

3. The movement of pollutants in ground water is controlled by the process like advection,
hydraulic dispersion, diffusion, convection and chemical reaction. Movement of pollutants in
different process as stated take place in different flow direction. The vertical control of
sampling location is another important factor in ground water sampling to establish the
plume characteristics in space and time, because changes in pressure gradient and
dissolved gas content with depth.

4. Monitoring wells should be located both in up gradient and down gradient areas from the
source to find out whether pollutants are transported to the area of interest, the basic
relationship is expressed as: Mass flow rate = QC (where, Q = groundwater flow rate in
units of volume per unit time, & C= concentration of pollution in units of mass per unit
volume.

5. To forecast the impact of possible pollution from known sources and the changes of the
quality caused by these sources.

6. Identification of the groundwater quality trends.

7. Pollution impacts and its consequences due to new abstraction projects by, for example,
lowering of the groundwater table.

8. Identification of areas where specific programmes may be necessary to reduce pollution

and the assessment of progress made in their implementation.

9. Data support for groundwater quality and quantity modelling: Modelling of the transport
and decomposition of compounds in solution as a tool for understanding and forecasting of
pollution components in the groundwater and as a tracer of the groundwater flow.

10. Collection of groundwater quality data for mapping and observation of groundwater
resources.

11. Early warning system in recharge areas of the impact of diffuse pollution.

12. Data can also be used in research and scientific work. Observation of the consequences of
groundwater contact with natural minerals and chemical compounds, which can affect the
quality of the groundwater. Mineralisation in crystalline rocks and sediments, special
compositions of the rocks and sediments and their alteration products, composition of water

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 in areas of volcanic activity, contact with sea water and high salinity deposits (salt water
intrusion).

Observation of the effects on groundwater from large-scale processes like global climate
changes or man-induced changes in reaction-rates of natural processes like acidification
caused from acid rain.

WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS

Apart from analysis of water samples from the piezometers, water samples from the nearby
surface water bodies may be collected and analysed to find out the concentration of the
following parameter.

Pathogenic micro-organisms
Pathogenic or disease producing micro-organisms mostly originate from domestic Waste water.
These include micro-organisms, which cause diseases of the intestinal tract. In an aquatic
environment the die-off rate of E. coli parallels that of pathogenic organisms. For these reasons
E. coli has come to be used as an indicator for pathogenic organisms. E. coli is exclusively of
faecal origin. Some coliform bacteria are normal inhabitants of soil and water. Results of
bacteriological analysis therefore may be reported as total coliforms and faecal coliforms. The
presence of coliforms in a water sample is determined by observing their growth in special
culture media and making a statistical deduction regarding their number. The results reported
as most probable number (MPN) /100 ml.

Organic matter
Most waters contain organic matter. In the environmental field organic matter is classified as
that which is biochemically decomposable and that which cannot be decomposed. Common
parameters of characterization are: biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), chemical oxygen
demand (COD) and volatile solids. While the BOD test measures biochemically decomposable
or degradable organic matter, the other two measure total organics. It may be pointed out that
the three parameters reflect the aggregate organic constituents. The BOD test measures
oxygen equivalence of organic matter.

Dissolved oxygen
The DO level in a surface water body is an important indicator of its ‘health’. The presence of
DO in water is necessary for maintaining favourable conditions for growth and reproduction of a
normal population of fish and other aquatic life. The absence of a low level of DO in surface
waters indicates pollution by organic matter. Under such conditions organic matter is
decomposed by anaerobic bacteria resulting in production of obnoxious end-products, such as
hydrogen sulphide, ammonia, etc.

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Nutrients
Nutrients are chemicals containing elements, such as nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), carbon (C),
sulphur (S), calcium (Ca), potassium (K), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), boron (B) and cobalt (Co)
that are essential for the growth of living things. Some of these are required only in very small
quantities and are called micro-nutrients. Plants require relatively large amounts of C, N, and P.
They obtain C from carbon dioxide and N and P from soil or water. N and P may be limiting in
the aquatic or land environment; that is the concentration of one or other of these species may
dictate the biomass of plant species which can survive in a particular water body.

Municipal and some industrial wastewaters contain N and P. Addition of such wastes to water
bodies may result in algal blooms or eutrophication (unnaturally accelerated growth of algae).
With excess growth of algae the available light becomes limiting and the algal cells begin to die.
This increases the decomposable organic matter load on the water body resulting in
consumption of oxygen and deterioration of quality of water.

Total dissolved solids

Water as it travels in the atmosphere, through ground or over the land, dissolves a large variety
of substances or salts. These substances in solution exist in their ionic form. The major cations
(positively charged ions) comprise calcium (Ca++), magnesium (Mg++), sodium (Na+) and
potassium (K+) and the associated anions typically include sulphate SO4-2),bicarbonate (HCO3-1)
and chloride (Cl-). The divalent cations (those having two positive charges) are responsible for
the hardness of water. Other ions which may be present in smaller concentrations but can
nevertheless be of environmental significance are B, fluoride (F-), Fe++, Mn++, and nitrate (NO3-
).The aggregate salts are measured as total dissolved solids (TDS). As a rough approximation
waters having less than 1500 mg/L TDS can be considered fresh waters.

Toxic metals and organic compounds

A number of toxic metals and organic compounds may be added to water through
anthropogenic activity. Some metals which are toxic even in small concentrations are

arsenic (As, not a metal), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), chromium (Cr), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb),
nickel (Ni) and zinc (Zn). Examples of organic compounds which are environmentally significant
and important from a water quality viewpoint are poly-nuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH),
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB), pesticides, etc. Since these substances are toxic, even in very
small concentrations, special care has to be taken in the collection of samples for analysis.
Further, advanced level instruments are needed for their determination.

Collection of Water samples from piezometers: Quality monitoring from shallow piezometers
will lead to study the effect of leaching of nitrogen nutrients from soil to ground water, the effect
of operational landfills like NCT Delhi, for high concentration of heavy metals, pesticide uses on

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agricultural crops, mining activity. Monitoring of second or third group or deeper aquifers may
give an idea to study the geogenic source of pollution or free from pollution.

Sampling in these piezometers will be done by lowering a sampling device (known as bailer or
grab or depth sampler) into the piezometer allowing filling with water at a known depth before
closing and retrieving to the surface for transfer of the water sample to sample bottle.

Based on the existing data base of CGWB and initial field study in the pilot project area the
number of sampling location and sampling frequency may be increased in the hot spot/
vulnerable areas (in the areas where industrial growth and urban growth has taken place
extensively) to find out the anthropogenic and bacteriological contamination in ground water.

DATA UTILITY FOR PARTICIPATORY AWARENESS

Creating awareness on groundwater resource availability is a vital component of any ground
water management plan. Developing appropriate ground water user plans matching with the
utilizable groundwater resources helps to sustain judiciously. Ground water user needed to
develop their knowledge on local hydro-geological conditions before they could make sound
decisions on groundwater management and better awareness of the local conditions would help
in motivating communities to optimally manage the available groundwater. Finally, it enables the
community to emerge as planners and managers of their resources. These approaches can be
aimed by involving systematic date acquisition using real time monitoring devices. As part of the
programme one piezometer may be set up in each village in the study area, and the villagers
are to be involved for monitoring through this approach.

DATA DISSEMINATION
Ground water level monitoring through digital water level recorder (DWLR) with telemetry data
transfer facilitates wireless transmission and reception of data via a variety of standard
telemetric options. Collected information can be used for easy processing and communication
for effective ground-water management decisions/plans. The processed data can be
disseminated to the user agency down to the grass root level for village level planning
budgeting of their groundwater resource. It will empower the village Pradhans for adopting
suitable management strategy/cropping and irrigation pattern based on the groundwater
availability after the monsoon. Further it will also evoke interest in the stake holders in
participatory groundwater monitoring and will help in authentication of the data collection. The
protocol for data dissemination can be programmed based on the need and wisdom by the data
managers.

Keeping in view the above discussion on different aspects of monitoring ground water level and
quality and the study of pilot projects in 5 Regions and 6 hydrogeological zones under National
Aquifer Mapping & Management Programme

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will lead to validate the information on ground water development for different purposes,
because water level reflects the stress on aquifer and its quality as well. Successful completion
of the pilot project and resulting formulation of Aquifer Management System which will be
helpful to bring out more area with more planners in the country to make a effective strategy for
ground water management.

GROUND WATER REGIME MONITORING BY CGWB

The CGWB monitors the ground water level and quality in a network of 15640 domestic
abstraction wells located all over the country. The data of May 2010 indicates that in Sub-
Himalayan area, north of river Ganges and in the eastern part of the country in the Brahmaputra
valley, a general depth to water level range of 2-10 mbgl. In major parts of north-western states
(Indus basin), it varies from 10-20 m bgl with isolated pockets of deeper water level as deep as
more than 20 m bgl. In western Rajasthan and north Gujarat deeper water level in the range of
20-40 mbgl and over the larger area of western Rajasthan and northern Gujarat it is recorded
more than 80 m to the maximum up to 140 m.

In the western coastal region water level is generally less than 10 m and to the minimum of 2
mbgl where as in the east coastal region the water level recorded in the range of 2-5 m bgl and 5-
10m in the South-eastern part of West Bengal. In central India water level generally varies
between 5-10 m bgl .The peninsular part of country the general water level observed in the range
5-10 m bgl and at isolated patches the water level recorded between 20-40 m bgl.

Figure - 3

A perusal of past records reveal that there is a general decline in the water level as observed
mostly in northern, north western and eastern parts of the country covering Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Punjab and Haryana and in parts of Tamil Nadu

115
and Andhra Pradesh. It also observed some rise in water level at isolated areas and is
attributed to local causes or due to higher rainfall experienced in the area during the period of
observation.

GROUND WATER QUALITY (SHALLOW AQUIFERS)

The chemical quality of shallow ground water is being monitored through a network of 15640
observation wells and the samples collected from various studies, the analytical results reveal
that the ground water is mostly of calcium bicarbonate (Ca-HCO3) type when the total salinity of
water is below 500 mg/l (corresponding to electrical conductance of 750 µs/cm at 250C). They
are of mixed cations and mixed anion type when the electrical conductance is between 750 and
3000 µs/cm and waters with electrical conductance above 3000 µs/cm are of sodium
chloride (Na-Cl) type. However, other types of water are also found among these general
classifications, which may be due to the local variations in hydro-chemical environments,
human activities and ill managed drainage system . Nevertheless, the occurrences of high
salinity with concentrations of chloride, fluoride, iron, arsenic and nitrate have been observed in
some pockets in few states of the country.

Ground water quality hot spots

The unconfined aquifers are extensively tapped for water supply across the country. Therefore,
its quality is of paramount importance. As the chemical parameters like EC/TDS, Chloride,
Fluoride, Iron, Arsenic and Nitrate etc are main constituents defining the quality of ground
water and their presence in ground water beyond the permissible limit in the absence of
alternate source has been considered as ground water quality hotspots. The hot spot maps of
the country have been prepared based on their distribution as depicted shown in the maps
fig.4& 5 (Electrical Conductivity, Chloride, Fluoride (>1.5 mg/litre), Iron (>1.0 mg/litre), Arsenic
(>0.05 mg/litre), Nitrate (>45 mg/litre).

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 10. GROUND WATER QUALITY & ITS ROLE IN AQUIFER
INFORMATION SYSTEM
The rain water after infiltration through the soil add water to ground water reservoir (Aquifer)
and hence the ground water quality is dependent on the type of soil, the type of rock
encountered below the soil horizon and the residence time in which the water infiltrates from the
surface to the saturated zone. Thus ground water in a barren & massive granitic formation may
have less total dissolved solids in comparison to that of Hornblende-Biotite Gneiss and
limestone having shallow water level condition. The chemical quality of ground water in the
recharge area i.e. hilly terrain is very good while at the plain, it is moderate due to increment of
different salts during its movement through different formations and increase in residence time.
The shallow ground water table condition favours high evapotranspiration, which leads to the
high salt contents in ground water especially in canal command areas. In Ganga-Yamuna Doab
and parts of Punjab & Haryana this has led to salt incrustation on the soil and made it difficult
for raising crop.

DIFFERENT CHEMICAL PARAMETERS IN GROUND WATER

Common Cations: Na+, K+, Mg+ +, Ca++
Common Anions: Cl -, SO4- -, HCO3-, CO3- - in very little amounts
Some other parameters like Fe2+, B, NO3-, F -, PO4 3-, SiO2 etc also bear special importance in
ground water studies.

Sometimes acidified water samples are collected to find out the presence of natural or artificial
pollutants like Iron, Arsenic, Lead, Zinc, Mercury, and Chromium etc.

Units of Analysis
mg/l = milligrams per liter
ppm = parts per million by weight same as mg/l when the density of water is 1. However
as the salt contents in normal ground water is meager in comparison to saline and
brackish water its density can be taken as one. Hence mg/l & ppm are taken as same
for all practical purposes.

meq/l = milli-equivalents per liter of sample, commonly used in all types of hydrogeological
calculations and diagrams

epm = equivalents per million by weight, same as meq/l when the density of water is 1.
However as the salt contents in ground water is meager in comparison to saline and
brackish water, its density can be taken as one. Hence epm & meq/l are taken as
same for all practical purposes

mmol/l = milli-moles per liter of samples used for ionic activity calculations

EC = Electrical Conductivity, in µmho/cm at 250C or µSiemens/cm at 250C

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 Practically it can be measured at the site by standard EC meter. The electrical
conductivity is related to ions present in the solution and is varies from salt to salt. The
equivalent conductance of sodium & calcium bicarbonate solution is around100
µSiemens/cm per epm while that of KCl solution is around 150.

Thumb Rule: Taking normal ground water composition of calcium bicarbonate type
with some sodium chloride, EC can be obtained by multiplying 100 with the epm
(either anions or cations).

pH = Very important characteristic of groundwater is the hydrogen ion concentration or pH.

Hydrogen ion activities (similar to molality in diluted solution) typically range from
about 10-4 to about 10-10 for natural waters, and we express these in pH units, where
the pH is the negative of the log of the hydrogen ion activity. (In other words, the pH of
natural water generally ranges between 4 and 10.) pH is considered to be neutral
when the activity of H+ ions is equal to that of OH- ions, and that is at pH=7. Waters
with excess of H+ ions are acidic, and have pH of less than 7. Waters with excess of
OH- ions are alkaline, and have pH of greater than 7.

pH = - log [H+]

TDS = the sum of the concentrations of all of the dissolved constituents in a water sample is
known as the total dissolved solids or TDS and is expressed in mg/liter. Generally
calculated from EC by multiplying it with 0.64.

Salinity= is a similar term to TDS, which expresses the concentration of ions in solution. It
can be measured with an electrical conductivity meter, and is commonly used for
strong electrolyte solutions such as seawater and brines. Like TDS, salinity can be
expressed as mg/L, but is often expressed as parts per thousand (ppt).

The following terms are used to qualitatively express salinity:

fresh → 0 to 1000 mg/L (0 to 1 ppt)

brackish → 1000 to 10,000 mg/L (1 to 10 ppt)
saline → 10,000 to 100,000 mg/L (10 to 100 ppt)
seawater → 35,000 mg/L (35 ppt)
brine → greater than 100,000 mg/L (>100 ppt)

Other commonly used units are

Hardness = Sum of the ions which can precipitate as “hard particles” from water. It
is the sum of Ca, Mg and sometimes Fe. Expressed as CaCO3
equivalent / liter. Equivalent weight of CaCO3 is 50. Hence the addition
of Ca and Mg in meq/l multiplied with 50 gives the total hardness in mg
/ liter.

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 Hardness (concentration as CaCO3) Type of water
0 – 60 mg/l Soft water
60 – 120 mg/l Moderately hard water
120 – 180 mg/l Hard water
> 180 mg/l Very hard water

Temporary Hardness = Part of Ca & Mg concentrations which are balanced by HCO3 (all
expressed in milli-equivalents/liter) and thus precipitate as carbonate
by simply heating.

Permanent Hardness = Part of Ca & Mg in excess of HCO3 (all expressed in meq/l)

Alkalinity = Acid neutralizing capacity. Determined by titrating with acid down to a pH

of about 4.5. Equal to the concentrations of HCO3 + 2× CO3 (mmol/l) in
most samples.

Acidity = Base neutralizing capacity. Determined by titrating up to a pH of about

8.3. Equal to the H2CO3 concentrations in most samples.

Some times for sewage & other pollution related studies other parameters are studied, like

BOD = Biological Oxygen Demand

COD = Chemical Oxygen Demand. Measured as chemical reduction of

Permanganate or Dichromate solution, and expressed as oxygen

equivalent.

Accuracy/Reliability of chemical analysis

As the water must be electrically neutral, the concentrations of cations and anions
present in the water sample should balance. The charge balance is expressed as follows:

[∑ cations - ∑ anions]
Electro-Neutrality (E.N. in %) = ------------------------------ × 100
[∑ cations + ∑ anions]
E.N. of 2% is inevitable in almost all laboratories. However analysis showing more than 5% E.N
should not be accepted and be reanalyzed. All concentrations should be in epm.

CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF GROUND WATER

Sodium (Na) is the sixth most abundant element on Earth and is widely distributed in soils,
plants, water and foods. Most of the world has significant deposits of sodium-containing

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minerals, most notably sodium chloride (salt). Sodium is often naturally found in groundwater. In
water, sodium has no smell but it can be tasted by most people at concentrations of 200
milligrams per litre (mg/L) or more. All groundwater contains some sodium because most rocks
and soils contain sodium compounds from which sodium is easily dissolved. The most common
sources of elevated sodium levels in ground water are:

• Erosion of salt deposits and sodium bearing rock minerals

• Naturally occurring brackish water of some aquifers

• Salt water intrusion into wells in coastal areas

• Infiltration of surface water contaminated by road salt

• Irrigation and precipitation leaching through soils high in sodium

• Groundwater pollution by sewage effluent

• Infiltration of leachate from landfills or industrial sites.

Potassium (K) is an element commonly found in soils and rocks. In water, potassium has no
smell or colour, but may give water a salty taste. Sources of potassium include

• weathering and erosion of potassium-bearing minerals, such as feldspar

• leaching of fertilizer &

• sea water, in areas susceptible to saltwater intrusion

As potassium is a positively charged ion, it may be adsorbed by the negatively charged colloidal
components of soil and rock i.e. the silicate clay minerals, iron and aluminium oxides and
organic colloids. The extent to which the potassium will be adsorbed depends on the nature and
amount of colloids present. Thus peat which has a large number of highly charged organic
colloids will adsorb considerably more potassium than sand, which has few colloids.

Calcium (Ca) is the fifth most abundant natural element. It enters the freshwater system
through the weathering of rocks, especially limestone (marble, calcite, dolomite, gypsum,
fluorite and apatite also contribute) and from the soil through seepage, leaching and runoff. The
average concentration of calcium in soil is about 1.37 × 104 mg/kg. The leaching of calcium
from soil has been found to increase significantly with the acidity of rainwater. The
concentration of calcium in water depends on the residence time of the water in calcium-rich
geological formations. Surface water generally contains lower concentrations of calcium than
groundwater. Calcium carbonate has a solubility of 14 mg/L, which is multiplied by a factor five
in presence of carbon dioxide. Calcium phosphate solubility is 20 mg/L, and that of calcium
fluoride is 16 mg/L. Calcium is a determinant of water hardness, because it can be found in
water as Ca2+ ions. Magnesium is the other hardness determinant.

Magnesium (Mg) is the eighth abundant natural element. Magnesium may contribute
undesirable tastes to drinking water. Sensitive people may find the taste unpleasant at 100

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mg/L. The average person finds the taste unpleasant at about 500 mg/L. Magnesium in drinking
water may have a laxative effect, particularly with magnesium sulphate concentrations above
700 mg/L.

Carbonate & Bicarbonate: The primary source of carbonate and bicarbonate ions in ground
water is the dissolved carbon dioxide in rain and snow, which as enters the soil dissolves more
carbon dioxide. An increase in temperature and decrease in pressure causes reduction in the
solubility of carbon dioxide in water. Decay of organic matters also releases carbon dioxide for
dissolution. The ph of water indicate the form in which carbon dioxide is present in water.
Presence of carbonic acid is indicated when pH is less than 4.5, bicarbonate in pH between 4.5
to 8.3 and carbonate in pH over 8.2.Under usual condition bicarbonate may range from 100 to
800 ppm in ground water.

Sulphate: The sulphur content in atmospheric precipitation is only about 2 ppm, but wide
range in sulphate content is made possible in ground water through oxidation, precipitation,
solution and concentration as water traverses through rocks. The primary source of sulphur is
the sulphide minerals present in igneous and metamorphic rocks and gypsum & anhydrides
present in sedimentary rocks. Apart from that application of fertilizer and soil conditioner also
plays great role in its abundance in ground water. Reduction of sulphate by bacteria and
precipitation of gypsum may also cause the removal of sulphate fron ground water.

Chloride: It is n important entity in ground water, though its presence in crustal rocks is
insignificant. However processes like evaporation, repeated evaporation and dissolution of
salts, contact with evaporitic bodies, presence of entrapped water during sedimentation and sea
water intrusion are few processes responsible for the high content of chloride in ground water.
Chloride salts are highly soluble and free from chemical reaction with minerals of the reservoir
rock and remains in sodium chloride form. However chloride concentration may exceed than
that of sodium due to base exchange processes. Calciun and magnesium chloride rich ground
water are quite rare. Abnormal concentration may due to sewage and industrial wastes.

Nitrate: Nitrate is a very minor constituent of rocks, but is a major constituent in the
atmosphere. Electric discharge during lightning is the main process through which nitrate enters
in to the ground water cycle. The average concentration of nitrate in rain water is only 0.2ppm
and hence its average concentration in ground water remains below 5 ppm. So the main
contribution of nitrate comes from decaying of organic matters, sewage wastes and the
application of fertilizers. As such high concentration of nitrate is found in localized areas.

FROM RAIN WATER TO GROUND WATER

Rainwater is very pure and should resemble distilled water theoretically. However it picks some
salts specially NaCl salts from aerosol and thus commonly of NaCl type as other cations and
anions are not found in atmosphere. The EC is commonly low (30 to 100µSiemens/cm at 250C).

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But in highly polluted air due to industrial pollution the rainwater is rich in SO4- - & NO3- with low
pH. Since chloride is the most conservative element present in water, when the composition of
chloride in sea and rain water against TDS is compared, then it is clear that the rain water can
be treated as a dilute solution of sea water.

Sea Water Thumba, India

Cl- 546 Cl- 0.229
+ +
Na 469 Na 0.2
+ +
Mg2 52.8 Mg2 0.019
SO42- 28.2 SO42- 0.007
+ +
K 10.2 K 0.006
Tc 2.06 Tc
Br- 0.85 Br-
Total 1109.11 Total 0.461
Cl/Na 1.165 Cl/Na 1.145
Cl/TDS 0.492287 Cl/TDS 0.496746
Sequeira & Kelkar, 1978

The rainwater continuously undergoes changes as it flows over different formations. Its journey
to the ground water reservoir (aquifer) has led to the addition and subtraction of the chemical
constituents. The various processes responsible for this are enumerated as below:

1. Weathering & dissolution: Chemical weathering of the rocks adds soluble ions to the
ground water. The more is the residence period of water in the weathered zone, the
more is the addition of chemical constituents to the ground water. Thus water present in
a highly weathered Ultrabasic formation is rich in Mg, water of limestone area is rich in
Ca and water from a dolomitic terrain is rich both in Ca & Mg. Granitic formation
contributes Na & K to the ground water while the water of quartzite is as pure as rain
water.
2. Evaporation: This process is responsible for high Chloride content in ground water. The
process is vigorous in shallow water table condition. The ground water comes to the soil
zone by capillary action, which lead to its evaporation. Thus salt got deposited in the soil
profile and rain led to its dissolution and finally its addition to ground water.
3. Selective uptake of ions by vegetation: Elements like N & P are specially selected by
biomass during the uptake of soil moisture. These are being used in the organic
materials. A large amount of K is taken by vegetation from the soil. However it is not
stored in the organic materials but leaves the plant rapidly with transpiration. This is the
reason why there is a little amount of K present in ground water though the most
common rock type, which is granite, contains very high amount of K in the form of
orthoclase.
4. Decay of organic materials: This is an oxidation reaction in which organic materials
decay to give CO2 and water. The infiltrating rain water takes this CO2 in the form of

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 H2CO3 (carbonic acid) to ground water. Presence of any CaCO3 in the soil profile gets
dissolved with the acid and thus the ground water got enriched in Ca (HCO3) 2, which is
soluble in water.
5. Ion exchange: Due to the similar ionic radii between Na+ & Ca++, exchange of these
ions between ground water and clay minerals commonly happens. Best example of this
process is seen in an aquifer which is being freshening up. The presence of saline water
has led to high amount of Na in the clay present in the aquifer matrix. But when the fresh
ground water starts entering and replacing the saline water, Ca that is present in good
amount in ground water replaces Na from the clay lattice and hence the ground water
becomes rich in Na and HCO3. This type of water is known as Na HCO3 type of water,
which indicates the process of freshening of aquifer system. Reverse is the case during
intrusion of saline water into fresh water aquifer system, where CaCl type of water is
found. Cation exchange is most common in ground water as compared to anionic
exchange.
6. Mixing of different water qualities: It often occurs in seepage zones & in springs or in
alluvial areas having both fresh and brackish water existing side by side. Mixing of water
can lead to under saturation with respect to calcite, even if the waters were individually
at saturation before mixing. This can then lead to a renewed dissolution of calcite.
7. Contribution by man: Sewage water adds Chloride and Nitrate to ground water. Heavy
use of fertilizers adds Nitrate and Phosphate to ground water.

When electrical conductivity or TDS is plotted against Na/(Na+Ca) and Cl/(Cl+HCO3) of water
samples as shown in the figure below, three processes related to the ground water quality can
easily be identified. The precipitation water is NaCl type with low EC while the central part of the
plot is rock dominated with Ca(HCO3)2 type of ground water. However evaporation causes
precipitation of carbonates and the ground water continues to be rich in soluble salts and thus
becoming NaCl type with high EC.

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Gibb’s plot

WATER QUALITY STANDARDS

The suitability of ground water for different purposes like drinking, irrigation & industry, depends
on the presence of different chemical constituents in it. Water may be unsuitable for drinking if it
contains iron in a concentration more than 0.3 ppm, but is suitable for irrigation if having low
TDS and low sodium content. Likewise calcium rich water is unsuitable for boilers due to scaling
effect, but is very much suited to irrigation.

Drinking Water Standard

Drinking water is water intended for human consumption for drinking and cooking purposes
from any source. Potable water is clear water, free from offensive smell or taste, free from
chemicals that may have adverse effects on human health, free from elements that may cause
corrosion of water supply system or stain clothes washed in it and free from disease causing
organisms. Water quality standards were developed by health authorities and sanitary
engineers when the relationship between water borne diseases and drinking water was
established. In 1983–1984 and in 1993–1997, the World Health Organization (WHO) published
the first and second editions of the Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality. WHO Guidelines for
Drinking Water Quality-2004 is the most recent one.

Indian standard drinking water specifications were first prepared in 1983 by the Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS) with an objective to assess the quality of drinking water and to check the
effectiveness of water treatment and supply. These standards are reviewed and modified
periodically. In 2009, the BIS proposed the second revision of the drinking water standards (IS

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10500 (2009)). The standard mentions the acceptable limit and indicates its background. It
recommends implementing the ‘acceptable limit’.

Sl Substance or Requirement Undesirable effect outside Permissible limit

No Characteristics (acceptable the acceptable limit in the absence of
Limit) alternative
source

1 Colour, Hazen 5 Consumers acceptance 15

unit, Max decreases

2 Odour Agreeable - Agreeable

3 Taste Agreeable Agreeable

4 Turbidity, NTU, 1 Consumers acceptance 5

Max decreases above 5

5 Dissolved 500 Beyond this palatability 2000

solids, mg/l, decreases and may cause
Max gastro-intestinal irritation

6 pH value 6.5 – 8.5 Beyond this the water will No relaxation

affect the mucous membrane
and/or water supply system

7 Total Hardness 200 Encrustation in water supply 600

(as CaCO3), structure (scaling), excessive
mg/l, Max soap consumption,
calcification of arteries

8 Total Hardness 200 Leads to unpleasant taste 600

(as CaCO3),
mg/l, Max

9 Calcium (Ca), 75 Encrustation in water supply 200

mg/l, Max system and adverse effect on
domestic use

10 Magnesium 30 Encrustation in water supply No relaxation

(Mg), mg/l, Max system and adverse effect on
domestic use

11 Sodium (Na), No guideline Harmful to persons suffering

mg/l, Max from cardiac, renal &
circulatory disease

12 Potassium (K), No guideline An essential nutrient, but in

mg/l, Max excess is laxative

13 Chloride (Cl), 250 Taste, palatability, digestion 1000

are affected. Adverse to

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 mg/l, Max persons having heart & kidney
disorder, cause corrosion

14 Sulphate (SO4), 200 Beyond this causes gastro- 400

mg/l, Max intestinal irritation when Mg or
Na is present

15 Nitrate (NO3), 45 Causes Methaemoglo-binamia No relaxation

mg/l, Max in babies and indicative of
pollution

Fluoride (F), 1.0 High fluoride causes fluorosis 1.5

mg/l, Max

16 Iron (Fe), 0.3 Taste affected, stains clothes, No relaxation

promotes iron bacteria
mg/l, Max

17 Alluminium (Al), 0.03 Cumulative effect causes 0.2

mg/l, Max dementia

18 Copper (Cu), 0.05 Astringent taste, discolouration 1.5

mg/l, Max and corrosion of pipes, fittings
& utensils

19 Manganese 0.1 Taste & appearance affected, 0.3

(Mn), mg/l, Max adverse effect on domestic
uses & water supply system

20 Zinc (Zn), mg/l, 5 Cause astringent taste and 15

Max opalescence in water

21 Barium (Ba) 0.7 May lead to cardiovascular No relaxation

mg/l, Max problem

22 Silver (Ag), mg/l, 0.1 - No relaxation

Max

23 Selenium (Se), 0.01 Beyond this water becomes No relaxation

mg/l, Max toxic

24 Molybdenum 0.07 Cause osteoporosis or bone No relaxation

(Mo), mg/l, Max disorder

25 Boron (B), mg/l, 0.5 - 1.0

Max

26 Residual free 0.2 Excess free chlorine may No relaxation

Chlorine, mg/l, cause asthma, colitis &
Max eczema

27 Chromium 0.05 May be carcinogenic above No relaxation

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 (Cr+6), mg/l, Max this limit

28 Arsenic (As), 0.01 Beyond this water becomes 0.05

mg/l, Max toxic

29 Mercury (Hg), 0.001 Beyond this water becomes No relaxation

mg/l, Max toxic

30 Cadmium (Cd), 0.003 Beyond this water becomes No relaxation

mg/l, Max toxic

31 Lead (Pb), mg/l, 0.01 Beyond this water becomes No relaxation

Max toxic

32 Nickel (Ni), mg/l, 0.02 Beyond this water becomes No relaxation

Max toxic

33 Cyanide (CN), 0.05 Beyond this water becomes No relaxation

mg/l, Max toxic

34 Bromoform, 0.1 May be carcinogenic No relaxation

mg/l, Max

Irrigation Water Quality Standards

The quality criteria for irrigation water are evaluated on the basis of chemical characteristics
indicative of their potential to create soil condition hazardous to crop growth and yields. The
prevailing criteria of quality for irrigation are:-

1. Total concentration of soluble salts (Salinity)

2. Concentration of sodium relative to calcium and magnesium (sodicity)
3. Relative proportion of carbonates + bicarbonate to calcium + magnesium
4. Concentration of boron and other elements that may be toxic to plant growth and yields.

Salinity: The effect of salts on crop growth is largely of osmotic in nature. The osmotic potential
of the soil-water solution at root zone relates directly to the electrical conductivity of irrigation
water. As water is removal from soil by transpiration or by evaporation from soil surface, the salt
concentration of the soil solution at the root zone rises up to 2-5 times that of irrigation water
resulting in fall of osmotic potential, leading to the alteration of hormone balance, damage of
plant tissues and growth of specific ions potentially toxic to plants and yields. These effects are
visible in plants by stunted growth, Low yield, discoloration (bluish green), and even leaf burn at
margin or top.

Sodacity: Excess of sodium in water render it unsuitable for irrigation on soil containing
exchangeable calcium and magnesium ions. Soil containing exchangeable calcium and
magnesium takes up sodium of irrigation water in exchange for calcium and magnesium
causing deflocculation and impairment of the of the tillth and permeability of soils. when the

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concentration of calcium and magnesium in soil solution is below 1 meq/l, some plants may
produce calcium deficiency symptoms. Thus the effects of sodium on plants are generally
indirect as it affects plant’s nutrition balance at soil water zone and brings about adverse
changes in soil characteristics. For quantifying the sodium hazards, the US Salinity Laboratory
has recommended Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR):

Na +
SAR = 1
where all ionic concentrations are in meq/l.
{(Ca ++ ++
}
+ Ca ) / 2 2

Residual Sodium Carbonate: Irrigation water containing high concentration of HCO3 ions has
a tendency for calcium and to a lesser extent, magnesium to precipitate in the form of
carbonate. To quantify the effect an empirical parameter was devised by Eaton ( 1950) on the
assumption that all calcium and magnesium will precipitate. The parameter is termed as
Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC).
RSC = (CO3 -- + HCO3-) – (Ca++ + Mg++ ), where all concentrations are in meq/l

When the excess carbonate (residual) concentration becomes too high, the carbonates
combine with calcium and magnesium to form a solid material (scale) which settles out of the
water. The end result is an increase in SAR. The USDA has established guidelines for
modifying water quality classifications based on residual sodium carbonate (RSC) expressed in
units of equivalents per million (epm). Residual carbonate levels less than 1.25 epm are
considered safe. Waters with RSC of 1.25-2.50 epm are within the marginal range. These
waters should be used with good irrigation management techniques and soil salinity monitored
by laboratory analysis. Risk is lowest with waters for which the RSC is at the low end of the
range and which are being applied to permeable, well-drained, coarse-textured soils in high
rainfall areas. RSC values of 2.50 epm or greater are considered too high making the water
unsuitable for irrigation use. Modification of RSC by soil applied gypsum may permit use of
waters with RSC values above the safe.

Guidelines for evaluation of quality of irrigation water

Water Sodium (Na) Electrical Alkalinity hazards
class % Conductivity : SAR RSC (meq/l)
mhos/cm at 250C
Excellent < 20 < 250 < 10 < 1.25
Good 20 – 40 250 – 750 10 – 18 1.25 – 2.0
Medium 40 – 60 750 – 2250 18 – 26 2.0 – 2.5
Bad 60 – 80 2250 - 4000 > 26 2.5 – 3.0
Very bad > 80 > 4000 > 26 > 3.0

Classification Irrigation Waters

In order to assess the sodic and salinity potential of irrigation waters, the U.S. Salinity
Laboratory (1954) has adopted an irrigation water classification based upon SAR and electrical

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 conductance. The C and S classification adhere to the description of the diagram drawn on
semi log paper with SAR on ordinary scale. This classification is extensively used worldwide
and consists of 16 groups of irrigation waters – C1S1, C2S2, S2C1, S2C2 etc. These groups are
summarized here in 4 groups on each of four original groups for brief discussion.

1. Low sodium water with Low to very high salinity (SAR 10, EC upto 5000 µS):
Suitable for irrigation on almost all types of s soils with little danger of development of
harmful level of exchangeable sodium. However, sodium sensitive crops like stone fruits,
avaeado may accumulate injurious concentration of sodium. There is no likelihood that
salinity will develop with low saline waters. But as salinity potential of irrigation water
increases from low to very high level it requires adequate drainage, permeable soils, and
selection of salt tolerant crops.
2. Medium sodium water with Low to very high salinity (SAR 10-18, EC upto 5000 µS):
These waters are useful only on well drained soils with low cation exchange capacity and
can be used satisfactorily on coarse textured soil with good permeability. These waters will
present appreciable sodium hazard in fine textured soils with high cation exchange
capacity especially under low leaching condition.
3. High sodium water with low to very high salinity (SAR 18-26, EC upto 5000 µS):
Useful only in special cases under good soil-water management like good drainage, high
leaching, addition of organic maters etc. More suited for Gypsiferous soils, otherwise may
develop harmful level of ESP in most soils. Chemical amendments are feasible only at low
saline conditions.

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4. Very high sodium water, with low to very high salinity (SAR. 26, EC upto 5000 µS):
Generally unsuited for irrigation purposes except at low level of Salinity where their use
may be feasible on gypsy-ferrous or calcareous soils.
Boron Hazard: Boron is a constituent practically of all natural water and present in it as boric
acid. Boron is essential plant nutrition at very low level. However, it is extremely toxic at
concentration slightly above than the optimum value. Parts of Boron from irrigation water get
fixed with soil material. Owing to this, water containing marginal level of boron may not be
immediately toxic. But after prolonged irrigation with such type of water new equilibrium will be
established where soluble boron level may exceed than those of irrigation water. Prolonged use
of water containing more than 3.0 ppm boron is not recommended. The quality criteria adopted
for boron are mostly work of Richard (1954) and Wilcox (1960). Plant tolerance limit to Boron is
given as below:
Table-3: Plant tolerance limit to Boron
Sensiive Semi Tolerent Tolerent
Pecan Sunflower Sugar Beat
Black walnut Cotton Garden Beat
Navy Bean Radish Alfafa
Pear Field Pea Onion
Apple Barley Turnip
Peach Wheat Cabbage
Corn Lettuce
Milo Carrot
Oats
Pumpkin
Sweet Potato

Magnesium hazards: It is proposed by Szabolcs and Darab (1964) for irrigation water. It is
defined as:

Mg + +
MH = × 100 , where all concentrations are in epm.
Ca + + + Mg + +
Magnesium Hazards (MH) greater than 50 is considered harmful to plant.

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 11. GROUND WATER RESOURCES ESTIMATION & ITS ROLE IN
AQUIFER INFORMATION SYSTEM

DYNAMIC AND STATIC GROUND WATER RESOURCES

Based on the occurrence, movement, and mechanism of release of ground water, the geologic
material can be classified into various aquifer systems such as unconfined, semi-confined &
confined. The groundwater which is available in the zone of water level fluctuation of the
phreatic aquifers is called dynamic groundwater resources or annual replenishable groundwater
resources. The ground water resource which is available below the active recharge zone or
zone of fluctuation is referred as Static or In–storage ground water reserve. Over-exploitation of
ground water resource refers to the development of ground water resource which is available in
the Static or In–storage ground water reserve.

The water bearing formation below the phreatic zone has been considered as deeper
aquifer in the present context. The deeper aquifer also constitutes the Semi-confined and
confined aquifers depending upon the nature and extent of the confining layers. For computing
dynamic ground water resources and Static ground water resources, detailed methodology has
been outlined in the GEC-1997.

METHODOLOGY FOR ASSESSMENT OF DYNANIC GROUND WATER POTENTIAL OF

UNCONFINED AQUIFERS

There are several methods mentioned in the literature on the assessment of ground water
potential in unconfined aquifers. The most widely used analytical techniques are based on
lumped approach using ‘storage concepts’. The ‘storage concept’ is based on the water
balance approach as recommended in Groundwater Resource Estimation Methodology-1984
(commonly known as GEC-84) which based on the principles of conservation of matter when
applied to ground water unit (basin/watershed/taluka/Block) indicating that all water entering the
area during a given period of time must either go into storage within its boundaries, be
developed (consumed) or flows out during that period. The basic equation adopted is
Input – Output = Change in Storage

The basic steps recommended for groundwater resources assessment as per GEC 97
methodology is as follows –
• Demarcation of assessment units/ sub-units: units - block (predominantly alluvial states),
watershed (pre-dominantly hard rock states)/ sub-units within assessment units –
command, non-command, poor quality area.
• Computations of season-wise (monsoon & non-monsoon) gross ground water draft.

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• Computations of season-wise (monsoon & non-monsoon) recharge from other sources –
recharge from canal seepage, return seepage due to applied surface water and ground
water irrigation, recharge from tanks & ponds, recharge from water conservation
structures. Recharge from other sources is estimated using norms recommended in
GEC 97.
• Computation of season-wise (monsoon & non-monsoon) rainfall recharge -
Ø Monsoon rainfall recharge : using two methods namely Water level fluctuation
method and Rainfall Infiltration Method
Ø Non-monsoon rainfall recharge: using Rainfall Infiltration Method.
• Annual Replenishable Ground Water Resources : sum-total of Monsoon and non-
Monsoon ground water recharge
• Allocation for Natural Ground Water Discharge during Non-Monsoon season : 5% to
10% of Annual Replenishable Ground Water Resources
• Net Annual Ground Water Availability: Annual Replenishable Ground Water Resources
– Allocation for Natural Ground Water Discharge.
• Stage of Ground Water Development =

• Categorization of Assessment units: The assessment units are to be categorized for

ground water development based on two criteria – a) stage of ground water
development, and b) long-term trend of pre and post monsoon water levels. The long
term ground water level trend is to be computed generally for a period of 10 years. The
significant rate of water level decline has been taken between 10 and 20 cm per year
depending upon the local hydrogeological conditions. There are four categories, namely
– ‘Safe’, ‘Semi-critical’, ‘Critical’ and ‘Over-exploited’ areas.
• Future allocation of ground water resources for utilization to be computed as given
below:
Ø Case I, when GWav ≥ Dgi+ Alld
In such cases Allocation for future domestic requirement = Alld

Ø Case II, when GWav < Dgi+ Alld

In such cases Allocation for future domestic requirement = (GWav – Dgi) or Dgd,
whichever is more.

Where,
GWav = Net Annual Ground Water Availability
Dgi = Existing Ground Water draft for Irrigation
Dgd = Existing Ground Water draft for Domestic use
Dg = Existing Ground water draft for all uses
Alld = Computed value of allocation for domestic use

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 (Based on projected population, fractional load and per capita requirement)

Recharge Estimation
For recharge estimation, care should be taken in good design of monitoring networks for
interpreting the water-level changes between the pre- and post-monsoon readings, equal
distribution of observation wells in the recharge, intermediate and discharge areas of the
assessment area. It is also to be ensured that the observation wells should not tap the multiple
aquifers.
The alternative approach called the ‘Dry Season Ground Water Balance Method’ should
be attempted for assigning the specific yield value. The dry season refers to that portion of the
non-monsoon season in which the rainfall is practically nil. Usually only three components in the
ground water balance equation namely, gross ground water draft, return flow from ground water
irrigation and change in ground water storage can be estimated reliably. Hence, the dry season
ground water balance method will give reliable estimates of specific yield only when these three
components are significant and all other components in the water balance equation are
practically nil. Consequently it is recommended that, the dry season ground water balance
method is to be employed only for the sub-units of non-command area characterised
predominantly by hard rock terrain where the above requirement is normally fulfilled. The
specific yield value so obtained will override the specified norms.
The normalization procedure for estimating the rainfall recharge is to be used.

Draft Estimation
The main gray area in the ground water assessment is lack of well inventory data. To improve
the situation, unit draft study in a micro-watershed with 100 % well inventory, to be cross
checked with cropping pattern, average well commands.

METHODOLOGY FOR ASSESSMENT OF STATIC OR IN-STORAGE GROUND WATER

POTENTIAL OF UNCONFINED AQUIFERS

The total ground water resources in unconfined aquifer would include annual replenishable
ground water resources (dynamic sources) and Static Ground Water Resources in Unconfined
aquifer. The quantum of ground water available for development is usually restricted to long
term average recharge or dynamic resources. Presently there is no fine demarcation to
distinguish the dynamic resources from the static resources. While water table hydrograph
could be an indicator to distinguish dynamic resources, at times it is difficult when water tables
are deep. For a sustainable ground water development, it is necessary to restrict it to the
dynamic resources. Static ground water resources could be considered only during the
eventuality of extreme drought conditions, that also for drinking water purposes. It is also
recommended that no irrigation development schemes based on static ground water resources
be taken up at this stage.

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 The computation of static ground water resources may be done after delineating the
aquifer thickness and specific yield of the aquifer material. The computation of static ground
water resources to be done using the following formulae:-

Static ground water Thickness of the aquifer Specific Areal

Resources in below the zone of water Yield of the extent of
Unconfined Aquifer = level fluctuation down to the X aquifer X the aquifer
bottom of unconfined aquifer

It is computed using the following equation.

SGWR = A *(Z2 - Z1) * SY
Where, SGWR = Static Ground Water Resources

A = Area of the Assessment Unit

Z2 = Maximum depth up to which saturated formation extends
Z1 = Maximum extension of Zone of Water Table Fluctuation
SY = Specific Yield in the Zone of Static Water Resources.
It may be remembered that the specific yield of this deeper zone will be less than that of the
zone of dynamic water level fluctuations.

METHODOLOGY FOR ASSESSMENT OF STATIC OR IN-STORAGE GROUND WATER

POTENTIAL OF CONFINED AQUIFERS

For confined aquifers, the ground water assessment should be made on a different approach
based on ‘Rate Concept’ rather than ‘Quantity Concept’. In such cases, the estimate of
ground water has to be made on the basis of transmissibility, hydraulic gradient and area of flow
at the inflow and outflow sections.

There are two types of situations of occurrence of confined aquifers. In hard rock areas,
the upper water table aquifer in the weathered zone is connected to the deeper fracture zone,
which is semi-confined. In such situations, the assessment procedure already given for
unconfined aquifer accounts for the full recharge, and hence no separate assessment is to be
made for the confined aquifer.

In specific alluvial areas, resource from a deep confined aquifer may be important. If the
confined aquifer is hydraulically connected to the overlying shallow water table aquifer, it is a
semi confined aquifer, and not strictly a confined aquifer. If there is no hydraulic connection to
the overlying water table aquifer, the resource may have to be estimated by specific detailed
investigations, taking care to avoid duplication of resource assessment from the upper
unconfined aquifers.

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 There are several methods mentioned in the literature on the assessment of ground
water potential in confined aquifers. The most widely used analytical techniques are based on
lumped approach using ‘flow-rate’ and ‘storage concepts’. Numerical modeling techniques
are commonly used at local to sub-regional scale using ground water flow equations.
a) Ground water Storage concept
The co-efficient of storage or storativity of an aquifer is defined as the volume of water it
releases or takes into storage per unit surface area of the aquifer per unit change in head.
Hence the quantity of water added to or released from the aquifer (∆V) can be calculated as
follows
∆V = S ∆h

If the areal extent of the confined aquifer is (A), then the total quantity of water

added to or released from the entire aquifer is

Q = A ∆V = SA ∆h
Where
Q = Quantity of water confined aquifer can release (m3)
S = Storativity
A = Areal extent of the confined aquifer (m2)
∆h= Change in Piezometric head (m)
Most of the storage in confined aquifer is associated with compressibility of the aquifer matrix
rather than compressibility of water. Once the peizometric head reaches below confining bed, it
behaves like an un-confined aquifer and directly dewaters the aquifer. The quantity of water
released in confined aquifer due to change in pressure can be computed between piezometric
head (ht) at any given time 't' and the bottom of the confining layer (ho) by using the following
equation.

Qp = SA∆h = SA (h0 – ht)

Where
Qp = Quanity of water under pressure (m3)
S = Storativity
A = Areal extent of the confined aquifer (m2)
∆h = Change in Piezometric head (m)
Ht = Piezometric head at time t
h0 = Bottom of the Confining Layer
The storativity can be computed either by long duration pumping tests or by using the Jacob
equation. In addition to the in-storage resources due to compressibility of confined aquifers,
there exists a ground water reserve in the saturated portions of the confined aquifers, which

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need to be computed separately to work out the total ground water resources of confined
aquifers.

b) Ground water flow rate concept

The rate of ground water flow in a confined aquifer in the area can be estimated by Darcy’s law
as follows:
Q = TIL
Where,

Q = Rate of flow through a cross section of aquifers in m3/day

T = Transmissivity in m2/day
I = Hydraulic gradient in m/km
L = Average width of cross section in km.

It is worthwhile to mention here that rate of flow arrived using the above equation is the ground
water potential available in the specified space and time domain. While assessing the rate of
flow in a defined boundary of confined aquifer, leakage from overlying and underlying aquifers
need to be accounted for in the computations.

While assessing the ground water potential by flow rate and storage concept, the study
area needs to be distributed into smaller units (zones) for accommodating the anisotropy in
aquifer parameters (T & S) as well as spatial variations in piezometric heads. In case of
piezometric heads, it is desirable to prepare the contours for pre and post monsoon periods
separately so as to calculate the flow direction, length of flow as well as the hydraulic gradient.
The hydraulic gradients should be preferably computed at optimal number of discrete points to
arrive at average gradient for the entire area. As far as possible the lowering of piezometric
head below the upper confining layer to avoid any environmental degradation such as land
subsidence and irreversible aquifer damage etc.

References:
1. Report of the Working Group on Methodology for Assessment of Development Potential
of Deeper Aquifers, CGWB, MoWR, November 2009.
2. Status Report on Review of Ground Water Resources Estimation Methodology (R&D
Advisory Committee on Ground Water Estimation) CGWB, MoWR (November, 2009).
3. Dynamic Ground Water Resources of India (As On March 2009), CGWB, MoWR,
November 2011.

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 12. GROUND WATER MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED
INTRODUCTION
Groundwater is becoming an increasingly popular resource because of the relative ease and
flexibility with which it can be tapped. While developing groundwater resource a promise to help
alleviate poverty in many areas, the most formidable challenge is its sustainable use and
management in regions where it is under threat. Ground water has made significant
contributions in maintaining India’s economy and has been an important catalyst for its social
upgradation. More than 80 % of India’s rural domestic water requirements, about 50% of its
urban and industrial water requirements and more than 50% of its irrigation water requirements
are being met from ground water sources (World Bank, 1998). Though in 1960, only 1% of the
net irrigated land received tube well irrigation, by 1988 about 27% of the net irrigated area got
the benefit of tube well irrigation. There is growing concern all over the world about the
increasing water demands for various uses and decreasing availability of fresh water resources
to meet these demands.
Intensive application of surface water in command areas of irrigation projects has
created problems of water logging, while haphazard and indiscriminate development of ground
water resources in many places has led to the depletion or salinisation of aquifers. With growing
need to allow aquifers to continue to yield water at economical cost, in adequate quantity and of
suitable quality, the concept of ground water management has evolved. Ground water
management consists of ‘technical ground water management’ and ‘overall integrated ground
water management’ (Burdon, 1972). The former deals essentially with technical considerations
and methods while the latter treats the wider aspects of ground water and its integration with
other sources of water, such as precipitation, surface run off, desalinated water, and extend to
policy, legal, socio-economic as well as financing and economic aspects of management.

GROUND WATER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

Management of ground water resources is a challenging task in the Indian context due mainly
to the diversity of geomorphological, climatic, hydrological and socio-economic settings and the
muitiplicity of the factors involved in any management option. Management of ground water
resources necessitates development of practical responses to extremely complex challenges
(World Bank, 1998). The variations in the distribution, availability and stage of development in
different parts of the country demands area-specific and problem- specific solutions for optimal
utilization of available ground water resources. These solutions, to be successful, should take
into account factors such as the geomorphic set up, climatic, hydrologic and hydrogeologic
settings, ground water availability, ground water quality, water utilization pattern for various
sectors and the socio-economic set up of the region. Any strategy for scientific management of
ground water resources should, therefore, involve a combination of supply side measures

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aimed at increasing extraction of ground water depending on its availability and demand side
measures aimed at controlling, protecting and conserving available resources.

GROUND WATER MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS

Hard rock terrain of India

More than two third part of India is underlain by hard rock. The states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Maharashtra and parts of Gujarat are underlain predominantly by
hard-rocks with very limited ground water potential. In spite of their limited potential, these
aquifers play an important role in meeting the drinking, agricultural and industrial needs in the
peninsular shield areas of the country. In a hard rock terrain ground water resources is limited,
unevenly distributed and varies within a short distance. Ground water occurs in secondary
fractures developed due to folding, faulting, jointing etc. and the surface signatures of such
features are manifested as lineaments representing mainly subsurface tectonic features. At
some places the hard rocks are devoid of any secondary porosity. In these areas due to erratic
monsoon and deficient rainfall there is depletion of water table and severe scarcity of drinking
water in summer season. In summer season there is acute shortage of water in these areas.
Ground water management is a major challenge in these areas.

Analysis of yield data of 1167 borewells in hard-rock terrains of Orissa drilled by Central Ground
Water Board reveals that 54% of the borewells are of low discharge (<3 lps) and 46% are of
high discharge (>3 lps) in nature. Out of 54% of the low-discharge borewells, 29% have
discharge between 1 to 3 lps and the rest <1 lps. Generally, wells having yield of 1–2.5 lps are
not properly utilized. In these wells, piped water supply schemes are not economically feasible.
But in water-scarce areas and particularly during summer season, pumps can be lowered in
these wells and in situ overhead tanks can be made, which rural people can utilize. These wells
have to be utilized only after proper pumping test to know the sustainability of the aquifer. Insitu
pumped water drinking water supply from medium discharge wells is given in figure-1.

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 Figure-1: In-situ pumped water drinking water supply from medium discharge wells.

Ground water problem in hilly areas

In hilly areas though there is plenty of rainfall but there is constraints in availability of ground
water because they lies in recharge areas and water flows as run off. In these areas springs,
streams, bore well, large diameter dug well in valley fills are the best ground water structures.
Rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge are the best viable alternative to solve the drinking
water crisis. Traditional water harvesting structures likes renovation of ponds and tanks are also
necessary.

Semi-arid tracts of India

In the semi-arid tracts of Rajasthan and Gujarat, lack of recharge into the aquifers due to the
low rainfall is the major constraint in development of ground water resources for boosting food
production. Prospects of development of ground water available in the deeper aquifers are also
limited in these areas due to lack of recharge and also due to mineralization of available ground
water. Augmentation of available resources through rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge,
water saving measures, regulation of ground water development through incentives/penalties
and import of water as virtual water are among the options available for management of ground
water resources.

Coastal Areas

Coastal sedimentary aquifers are among the most productive aquifers in the country. Large
scale development of ground water from these aquifers for various uses has resulted in
considerable stress on these resources. Presently there is a major challenge in management of
coastal aquifer. Salinity hazard is a very common problem in coastal aquifer. Seawater intrusion
is the major challenge in dealing with exploitation, restoration and management of fresh
groundwater in coastal aquifers. Intrusion of seawater into fresh water aquifer systems happen
when the hydrodynamic balance between fresh and saline waters in the coastal zone is
disturbed by ground water extraction and other activities and the consequent lowering of ground
water levels and reduction in the flow of fresh ground water into coastal aquifer systems.
Ground water overexploitation is the major cause of saltwater intrusion along the coast.

There is salinity hazard in both east and west coast of India. Along Saurashtra and Kutch
coasts sea water has already intruded at several parts and the coasts are in general highly
vulnerable to sea water intrusion.

Salinity hazard in Tamil Nadu coast is due to inherent salinity caused by depositional
environment. Salinity problem due to sea water ingress has been reported in Minjur area of
Tiruvalur district located north of Chennai city, Puducherry, Kuttam area of Tuticorin district. The
large scale exploitation of ground water to augment the needs of Chennai city and the

139
industries, has led to the decline in water levels and also landward movement of sea water. The
shallow alluvial aquifers in Minjur area north of Chennai are severely affected by salinity due to
excessive ground water extraction to meet the increasing demands of fresh ground water in
Chennai city.

In coastal Orissa around some parts of Chilika lake and Mahakalpara area of Kendrapara
district both shallow and deeper aquifers are saline. People face acute shortage of fresh potable
water in these areas.

Management of coastal aquifer systems in India demands consideration of various issues

related to their disposition, recharge/discharge conditions, quality aspects and socio-economic
issues. A judicious combination of ground water development, monitoring and augmentation of
resources is warranted to ensure the long term sustainability of this precious and invaluable
resource.

GROUND WATER QUALITY PROBLEM

Out of 17 lakhs habitation in the country about 10% are affected with quality problem. Most of
them are naturally contaminated by fluoride, arsenic, iron, nitrate etc. which are geogenic in
origin. In India high fluoride is reported from both hard rock and alluvial terrain from all
geological formations starting from Archaean to Precambrian. 20 out of 28 states of India are
affected with high fluoride which varies from 1 to 48 mg/l. About 62 million people including 6
million children are affected with dental, skeletal and non-skeletal fluorosis (Vaish A.K, 2003).
High arsenic in ground water is found in the states of West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Padesh, Assam
and Chhatisgarh. Intake of high arsenic water is toxic and causes health hazards. Occurrence
of high Fe in hard rock terrain is more widespread.It is very challenging in management of
ground water in these areas and solve the drinking water problem in these areas.

Problems due to decline in water table

Assured irrigation is important for food production. Poor farmers are forced to abandon irrigation
as falling water tables limit access to those who cannot afford to deepen wells. Deep wells need
more electricity and thus lead to increase in energy related economic cost also. Moreover
depletion of water tables will pose a threat to food security. As water tables decline, poor
farmers find it difficult to meet the huge energy requirement for deepening wells which ultimately
lead to decline in food production. Therefore it is needless to point out there is an urgent need
for conservation of this vital resource for the preservation of environmental security and
sustainable agricultural development.

Increasing Water Use Efficiency

Water use efficiency programs, which include both water conservation and water recycling,
reduce demands on existing water supplies and delay or eliminate the need for new water

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supplies for an expanding population. These effects are cumulative and increasing. Increasing
water use efficiency in various sectors can aid the management of water resources in different
aquifers significantly.

CONCLUSION

Due to the diversity of geomorphological, climatic, hydrological and socio-economic settings

and the multiplicity of the factors involved management of ground water resources is a
challenging task in India. Management of different aquifer systems in India needs consideration
of various issues related to their disposition, recharge/discharge conditions, quality aspects and
socio-economic issues. In the hard rock terrain the occurrence of ground water is very erratic
and the yield of borewells varies within short distance. In these areas such as Bundelkhand etc.
there is acute shortage of drinking water particularly in summer season. Salinity hazard is very
common in coastal areas. Along Saurashtra and Kutch coasts of Gujarat there is widespread
salinity problem and availability of fresh potable water is very limited. Alternative water supply
has to be done in the 10% habitation affected with quality problem. Ground water management
can be done by rainwater harvesting and artificial recharge of ground water and conjuctive use
of surface and ground water etc. There is also need for creation of an information base,
dissemination of information to stakeholders, and stakeholder participation in all such
management initiatives.

REFERENCES

1. Burdon,D.J., 1972, “ Challenge of Ground Water Development for Agriculture”, Proc.

International Symposium on Development of Ground Water Resources, Madras,
India,3,p.VI.109-127.

2. Jha B. M., 2010, Role of Ground Water Resource Management in Ensuring National
Food Security. 2nd National Ground Water Congress, New Delhi,2010.p.171-179.

3. Vaish A. K., Vaish P.(2003), A case study of fluorosis Mitigation in Dungarpur District,
Rajasthan, India, 3rd International Workshop on fluorosis Prevention and Defluoridation of
Water, 97-104.

4. World Bank (1998), India Water Resources Sector Review- Ground Water Regulation
and Management Report.

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 13. GROUND WATER CONSERVATION AND ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE
OF GROUND WATER
INTRODUCTION
Groundwater use in India has highly increased over the last couple of decades and is the
backbone of India’s agriculture and drinking water security. It is used by millions of farmers
across the country and over the last four decades, around 84 per cent of the total addition to the
net irrigated areas has come from groundwater. Further, it remains the only drinking water
source for most of India’s rural households and forms an important supplement to municipal
water supply in most of India’s towns and cities.
With an estimated 30-million groundwater extraction structures, India is fast hurtling towards a
serious crisis of groundwater overuse and groundwater contamination and a remarkable
numbers assessment blocks were showing alarmingly high levels of groundwater use. In
addition to quantitative depletion, many parts of India report severe water quality problems,
causing drinking water vulnerability. This is a serious situation warranting immediate attention,
particularly with regard to drinking water security, given the fact that more than 80 percent of
India’s drinking water needs are serviced by groundwater resources. At the same time, some
areas reel under the impacts of rising water tables and waterlogging. The challenges of excess
groundwater are also a source of significant concerns in many areas that must be addressed on
a priority basis. Groundwater is a common pool resource, which follows complex dynamics
influenced by its hydrogeological characteristics.
The increasing use of groundwater has significant social consequences. In a context where the
poor rely on less powerful extraction mechanisms, small farmers suffer from lowering water
tables much before other users of groundwater having the financial means to deepen wells or
acquire alternative water sources for irrigation.

Conservation of Water
Water users can be divided into two basic groups: system users (such as residential users,
industries, and farmers) and system operators (such as municipalities, state and local
governments, and privately owned suppliers). These users can choose from among many
different water uses efficiency practices, which fall into two categories:

1. Engineering practices: practices based on modifications in plumbing, fixtures, or water

supply operating procedures
2. Behavioural practices: practices based on changing water use habits

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Engineering Practices
Plumbing
An engineering practice for individual residential water users is the installation of indoor
plumbing fixtures that save water or the replacement of existing plumbing equipment with
equipment that uses less water. Low-flow plumbing fixtures and retrofit programs are
permanent, one-time conservation measures that can be implemented automatically with little
or no additional cost over their lifetimes.

Gray Water Use

Domestic wastewater composed of wash water from kitchen sinks and tubs, clothes washers,
and laundry tubs is called gray water (USEPA, 1989). Gray water can be used by homeowners
for home gardening, lawn maintenance, landscaping, and other innovative uses.

Landscaping
Lawn and landscape maintenance often requires large amounts of water, particularly in areas
with low rainfall. Outdoor residential water use varies greatly depending on geographic location
and season including washing automobiles, maintaining swimming pools, and cleaning
sidewalks and driveways. Lawn care in a country would accounts for remarkable percent of the
total residential outdoor use.
One method of water conservation in landscaping uses plants that need little water, thereby
saving not only water but labor and fertilizer as well and Scheduling lawn irrigation for specific
early morning or evening hours can reduce water wasted due to evaporation during daylight
hours. Another water use efficiency practice that can be applied to residential landscape
irrigation is the use of cycle irrigation methods to improve penetration and reduce runoff.

Behavioral practices
Behavioral practices involve changing water use habits so that water is used more efficiently,
thus reducing the overall water consumption in a home. These practices require a change in
behavior, not modifications in the existing plumbing or fixtures in a home. Behavioral practices
for residential water users can be applied both indoors in the kitchen, bathroom, and laundry
room and outdoors. In the kitchen, for example, 10 to 20 gallons of water a day can be saved by
running the dishwasher only when it is full. If dishes are washed by hand, water can be saved
by filling the sink or a dishpan with water rather than running the water continuously.
Water can be saved in the bathroom by turning off the faucet while brushing teeth or shaving.
Water can be saved by taking short showers rather than long showers or baths and turning the
water off while soaping. This water savings can be increased even further by installing low-flow
showerheads.

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Practices for Industrial/Commercial Users
Industrial/commercial users can apply a number of conservation and water use efficiency
practices. Some of these practices can also be applied by users in the other water use
categories.

Water Reuse and Recycling

Water reuse is the use of wastewater or reclaimed water from one application such as
municipal wastewater treatment for another application such as landscape watering. The
reused water must be used for a beneficial purpose and in accordance with applicable rules.
Some potential applications for the reuse of wastewater or reclaimed water include other
industrial uses, landscape irrigation, agricultural irrigation, aesthetic uses such as fountains, and
fire protection (USEPA, 1992). Factors that should be considered in an industrial water reuse
program include (Brown and Caldwell, 1990):

• Identification of water reuse opportunities.

• Determination of the minimum water quality needed for the given use.
• Identification of wastewater sources that satisfy the water quality requirements.
• Determination of how the water can be transported to the new use.
Rinsing
Another common use of water by industry is the application of deionized water for removing
contaminants from products and equipment. Deionized water contains no ions (such as salts),
which tend to corrode or deposit onto metals. Historically, industries have used deionized water
excessively to provide maximum assurance against contaminated products. The use of
deionized water can be reduced without affecting production quality by eliminating some
plenum flushes (a rinsing procedure that discharges deionized water from the rim of a flowing
bath to remove contaminants from the sides and bottom of the bath), converting from a
continuous-flow to an intermittent-flow system, and improving control of the use of deionized
water (Brown and Caldwell, 1990).

Practices for Agricultural Users

Irrigation
Water-saving irrigation practices fall into three categories: field practices, management
strategies, and system modifications.
Field practices are techniques that keep water in the field, distribute water more efficiently
across the field, or encourage the retention of soil moisture. Examples of these practices
include the chiseling of extremely compacted soils, furrow diking to prevent runoff, and leveling
of the land to distribute water more evenly. Typically, field practices are not very costly.

Management strategies involve monitoring soil and water conditions and collecting information
on water use and efficiency. The information helps in making decisions about scheduling

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applications or improving the efficiency of the irrigation system. The methods include measuring
rainfall, determining soil moisture, checking pumping plant efficiency, and scheduling irrigation.

System modifications require making changes to an existing irrigation system or replacing an

existing system with a new one. Because system modifications require the purchase of
equipment, they are usually more expensive than field practices and management strategies.
Typical system modifications include adding drop tubes to a center pivot system, retrofitting a
well with a smaller pump, installing surge irrigation, or constructing a tailwater recovery system
(Kromm and White, 1990).

Metering
The measurement of water use with a meter provides essential data for charging fees based on
actual customer use. Billing customers based on their actual water use has been found to
contribute directly to water conservation. Meters also aid in detecting leaks throughout a water
system. Submetering of water use in apartment or business complexes makes it possible to bill
tenants for the water that they actually use rather than for a percentage of the total water use
for the complex. Submetering makes water users more aware of how much water they use and
its cost, and tenants who conserve water can benefit from lower water use costs. Sub-metering
is reported to reduce water usage by 20 to 40 percent.

Leak Detection
One way to detect leaks is to use listening equipment to survey the distribution system, identify
leak sounds, and pinpoint the exact locations of hidden underground leaks. As mentioned in the
previous section, metering can also be used to help detect leaks in a system.
An effective way to conserve water is to detect and repair leaks in municipal water
systems. Repairing leaks controls the loss of water that water agencies have paid to obtain,
treat, and pressurize.

Water Main Rehabilitation

A water utility can improve the management and rehabilitation of a water distribution network by
using a distribution system database. Using the database can help to lower maintenance costs
and can result in more efficient use of the water resource. The database can help the utility
manager to set priorities and efficiently allocate rehabilitation funds (Habibian, 1992). A
comprehensive database should include information on the following:

• The characteristics of the system's components, such as size, age, and material
• The condition of mains, such as corrosion
• Soil conditions or type
• Failure and leak records
• Water quality
• High/low pressure problems

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 • Operating records, such as pump and valve operations
• Customer complaints
• Meter data
• Operating and rehabilitation costs

Well Capping
Well capping is the capping of abandoned artesian wells whose rusted casings spill water in a
constant flow into drainage ditches.

Planning and Management Practices

In addition to the above said practices, system operators can use several other practices to
conserve water or improve water use efficiency such as Pricing for a quantum water supplied to
individual home and Public Education etc.

ARTIFICIAL RECHARGE TECHNIQUES AND DESIGNS

The selection of a suitable technique for artificial recharge of ground water depends on
various factors. They include:
a) Quantum of non-committed surface run-off available. b)
Rainfall pattern
c) Land use and vegetation
c) Topography and terrain profile
d) Soil type and soil depth
e) Thickness of weathered / granular zones
f) Hydrological and hydrogeological characteristics
g) Socio-economic conditions and infrastructural facilities available
h) Environmental and ecological impacts of artificial recharge scheme proposed.

ARTIFICIALRECHARGE TECHNIQUES
Techniques used for artificial recharge to ground water broadly fall under the following
categories

I) Direct Methods
A) Surface Spreading Techniques
a) Flooding
b) Ditch and Furrows
c) Recharge Basins
d) Runoff Conservation Structures
i) Bench Terracing
ii) Contour Bunds and Contour Trenches
iii) Gully Plugs, Nalah Bunds, Check Dams

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 iv) Percolation Ponds
e) Stream Modification / Augmentation
B) Sub-surface Techniques
a) Injection Wells (Recharge Wells)
b) Gravity Head Recharge Wells
c) Recharge Pits and Shafts
II) Indirect Methods
A) Induced Recharge from Surface Water Sources;
B) Aquifer Modification
i) Bore Blasting.
ii) Hydro-fracturing.
III) Combination Methods
In addition to the above, ground water conservation structures like subsurface dykes
(Bandharas) and Fracture Sealing Cementation techniques are also used to arrest subsurface
flows. Aquifer disposition plays a decisive role in choosing the appropriate technique of
artificial recharge of ground water.

Figure-1 Recharge Systems for Increasingly Deep permeable materials: Surface Basin
(a), Excavated Basin (b), Trench (c), Shaft or Vadose Zone Well (d) and Aquifer Well (e)

DIRECT METHODS

Surface Spreading Techniques

These are aimed at increasing the contact area and residence time of surface water over
the soil to enhance the infiltration and to augment the ground water storage in phreatic
aquifers. The downward movement of water is governed by a host of factors including vertical
permeability of the soil, presence of grass or entrapped air in the soil zone and the
presence or absence of limiting layers of low vertical permeability at depth.
i) The area should have gently sloping land without gullies or ridges.
ii) The aquifer being recharged should be unconfined, permeable and sufficiently thick to
provide storage space.

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iii) The surface soil should be permeable and have high infiltration rate.
iv) Vadose zone should be permeable and free from clay lenses.
v) Ground water levels in the phreatic zone should be deep enough to accommodate the
recharged water so that there is no water logging.
vi)The aquifer material should have moderate hydraulic conductivity so that the recharged
water is retained for sufficiently long periods in the aquifer and can be used when needed.
The most common surface spreading techniques used for artificial recharge to ground water
are flooding, ditch and furrows and recharge basins.

Flooding
This technique is ideal for lands adjoining rivers or irrigation canals in which water levels
remain deep even after monsoons and where sufficient non-committed surface water supplies
are available. The schematics of a typical flooding system are shown in figure-2. To ensure
proper contact time and water spread, embankments are provided on two sides to guide the
unutilized surface water to a return canal to carry the excess water to the stream or canal.
Flooding method helps reduce the evaporation losses from the surface water system, is the
least expensive of all artificial recharge methods available and has very low maintenance
costs.

Ditch and Furrows method

This method involves construction of shallow, flat-bottomed and closely spaced ditches or
furrows to provide maximum water contact area for recharge from source stream or canal. The
ditches should have adequate slope to maintain flow velocity and minimum deposition of
sediments. The widths of the ditches are typically in the range of 0.30 to 1.80 m. A collecting
channel to convey the excess water back to the source stream or canal should also be
provided. A typical system is shown in figure-3. and three common patterns viz. lateral ditch
pattern, dendritic pattern and contour pattern are shown in figure-4. Though this technique
involves less soil preparation when compared to recharge basins and is less sensitive to
silting, the water contact area seldom exceeds 10 percent of the total recharge area.

Fig-2 Schematics of a Typical Flood Recharge System

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 Fig-3 Schematics of a Typical Ditch and Furrows Recharge System

Fig-4 Common Patterns of Ditch and Furrow Recharge Systems

Recharge Basins
Artificial recharge basins are commonly constructed parallel to ephemeral or intermittent
stream channels and are either excavated or are enclosed by dykes and levees. They can
also be constructed parallel to canals or surface water sources. In alluvial areas, multiple
recharge basins can be constructed parallel to the streams, with a view to a) increase the
water contact time, b) reduce suspended material as water flows from one basin to another
and c) to facilitate periodic maintenance such as scraping of silt etc. to restore the infiltration
rates by bypassing the basin under restoration. Typical recharge basin is shown in figure-5.

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 Fig-5 Schematics of a Typical Recharge Basin
In addition to the general design guidelines mentioned, other factors to be considered while
constructing recharge basins include
a) area selected for recharge should have gentle ground slope.
b) the entry and exit points for water should be diagonally opposite to
facilitate adequate water circulation in individual basins.
c) water released into the basins should be sediment free as far as possible
d) rate of inflow into the basin should be slightly more than the infiltration
capacity of all the basins.

Runoff Conservation Structures

These are normally multi-purpose measures, mutually complementary and conducive to soil
and water conservation, afforestation and increased agricultural productivity. They are suitable
in areas receiving low to moderate rainfall mostly during a single monsoon season and having
little or no scope for transfer of water from other areas. Different measures applicable to runoff
zone, recharge zone and discharge zone are available. The structures commonly used are
bench terracing, contour bunds, gully plugs, nalah bunds, check dams and percolation ponds.

Bench Terracing
Bench terracing involves levelling of sloping lands with surface gradients up to 8 percent and
having adequate soil cover for bringing them under irrigation. It helps in soil conservation and
holding runoff water on the terraced area for longer durations, leading to increased infiltration
and ground water recharge.
For implementing terracing, a map of the watershed should be prepared by level surveying and
suitable benchmarks fixed. A contour map of 0.3 m contour interval is then prepared.
Depending on the land slope, the width of individual terrace should be determined, which, in no
case, should be less than 12 m. The upland slope between two terraces should not be more
than 1:10 and the terraces should be leveled.
Contour Bunds
Contour bunding, which is a watershed management practice aimed at building up soil
moisture storage involve construction of small embankments or bunds across the slope of the
land. They derive their names from the construction of bunds along contours of equal land

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elevation. This technique is generally adopted in low rainfall areas (normally less than 800 mm)
where gently sloping agricultural lands with very long slope lengths are available and the soils
are permeable. They are not recommended for soils with poor internal drainage e.g. clayey
soils. Schematic of a typical system of contour bunds is shown below in figure-6.

Fig-6 Schematics of a Typical Contour Bund

Contour bunding involves construction of narrow-based trapezoidal embankments (bunds)
along contours to impound water behind them, which infiltrates into the soil and ultimately
augment ground water recharge.
Field activities required prior to contour bunding include levelling of land by removing
local ridges and depressions, preparation of map of the area through level surveying and fixing
of bench marks. Elevation contours, preferably of 0.3 m interval are then drawn, leaving out
areas not requiring bunding such as habitations, drainage etc. The alignment of bunds should
then be marked on the map.
The important design aspects of contour bunds are i) spacing, ii) cross section and iii) deviation
freedom to go higher or lower than the contour bund elevation for better alignment on
undulating land.
Contour Trenches
Contour trenches are rainwater harvesting structures, which can be constructed on hill slopes
as well as on degraded and barren waste lands in both high- and low- rainfall areas. Cross
section of a typical contour trench is shown in figure-7.

Fig-7 Schematics of a Contour Trench

The trenches break the slope at intervals and reduce the velocity of surface runoff. The water
retained in the trench will help in conserving the soil moisture and ground water recharge.
The size of the contour trench depends on the soil depth and normally 1000 to 2500 sq. cm

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cross sections are adopted. The size and number of trenches are worked out on the basis of
the rainfall proposed to be retained in the trenches. The trenches may be continuous or
interrupted and should be constructed along the contours. Continuous trenches are used for
moisture conservation in low rainfall area whereas intermittent trenches are preferred in high
rainfall area. The horizontal and vertical intervals between the trenches depend on rainfall,
slope and soil depth. In steeply sloping areas, the horizontal distance between the two
trenches will be less compared to gently sloping areas. In areas where soil cover is thin, depth
of trenching is restricted and more trenches at closer intervals need to be constructed. In
general, the horizontal interval may vary from 10 m in steep slopes to about 25 m in gentle
slopes.

Gully Plugs, Nalah Bunds and Check Dams

These structures are constructed across gullies, nalahs or streams to check the flow of surface
water in the stream channel and to retain water for longer durations in the pervious soil or rock
surface. As compared to gully plugs, which are normally constructed across first order
streams, nalah bunds and check dams are constructed across bigger streams and in areas
having gentler slopes. These may be temporary structures such as brush wood dams, loose /
dry stone masonry check dams, Gabion check dams and woven wire dams constructed
with locally available material or permanent structures constructed using stones, brick and
cement. Competent civil and agro-engineering techniques are to be used in the design, layout
and construction of permanent check dams to ensure proper storage and adequate outflow of
surplus water to avoid scours on the downstream side for long-term stability of the dam.

The site selected for check dam should have sufficient thickness of permeable soils or
weathered material to facilitate recharge of stored water within a short span of time. The water
stored in these structures is mostly confined to the stream course and the height is normally less
than 2 m. These are designed based on stream width and excess water is allowed to flow over
the wall. In order to avoid scouring from excess runoff, water cushions are provided on the
downstream side. To harness maximum runoff in the stream, a series of such check dams can
be constructed to have recharge on a regional scale.

The following parameters should be kept in mind while selecting sites for check dams/ nalah
bunds:
i) The total catchment area of the stream should normally be between40 and 100 ha.
Local situations can, however, be a guiding factor in this regard.
ii) The rainfall in the catchment should be preferably less than 1000mm / annum.
ii) The stream bed should be 5 to 15 m wide and at least 1m deep
iv) The soil downstream of the bund should not be prone to water logging and should have
a pH value between 6.5 and 8.

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v) The area downstream of the Check Dam / bund should have irrigable land under well
irrigation.
vi) The Check dams / Nalah bunds should preferably be located in areas where contour or
graded bunding of lands have been carried out.
vii) The rock strata exposed in the ponded area should be adequately permeable to cause
ground water recharge.

Check dams / Nalah bunds are normally 10 to 15 m long, 1 to 3 m wide and 2 to 3 m high,
generally constructed in a trapezoidal form. Detailed studies are to be made in the watershed
prior to construction of the check dam to assess the current erosion condition, land use and
water balance. The community in the watershed should also be involved in the planning and
selection of the type and location of the structure.

For construction of the check dam, a trench, about 0.6 m wide in hard rock and l.2 m wide in
soft impervious rock is dug for the foundation of core wall. A core brick cement wall, 0.6 m
wide and raised at least 2.5m above the nalah bed is erected and the remaining portion of
trench back filled on upstream side by impervious clay. The core wall is buttressed on both
sides by a bund made up of local clays and stone pitching is done on the upstream face. If the
bedrock is highly fractured, cement grouting is done to make the foundation leakage free.

Percolation Tanks
Percolation tanks, which are based on principles similar to those of nalah bunds, are among
the most common runoff harvesting structures in India. A percolation tank can be defined as
an artificially created surface water body submerging a highly permeable land area so
that the surface runoff is made to percolate and recharge the ground water storage. They differ
from nalah bunds in having larger reservoir areas. They are not provided with sluices or
outlets for discharging water from the tank for irrigation or other purposes. They may,
however, be provided with arrangements for spilling away the surplus water that may enter the
tank so as to avoid over-topping of the tank bund. It is possible to have more than one
percolation tank in a catchment if sufficient surplus runoff is available and the site
characteristics favour artificial recharge through such structures.
REFERENCES
Brown and Caldwell, 1990. Folsom Corporation Yard Landfill Solid Waste Water Quality
Assessment Test (SWAT) Report, City of Folsom. June 29.
Kromm E., White S., 1990, Adoption of Water- Saving Practices by irrigators in the high plains,
JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, Volume 26, Issue 6, pages
999–1012, December 1990.
U.S. EPA. 1989, Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS). Online. Office of Health and
Enviornmental Assessment, Enviornmental Criteria and Assessment Office, Cincinnati, OH.

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 14. CAPACITY BUILDING AND AWARENESS IN RELATION TO
AQUIFER MAPPING
CAPACITY BUILDING
Capacity may be defined as an organization’s ability to achieve its mission and to sustain itself
in the long term. From individual perspective capacity refers to the skills and capabilities of the
individual. However from a national perspective capacity refers to the structures, systems,
policies and organizations which are helping it to achieve its defined vision. Capacity building is
defined as the creation of an enabling environment with appropriate policy and legal
frameworks, institutional development, including community participation (of women in
particular), human resources development and strengthening of management systems.
Capacity Building is a long-term, continuing process, in which all stakeholders participate
From a nation’s perspective, capacity building is much more than training and includes the
following:
• Human resource development
• Organizational development
• Institutional and legal framework development

Demand Assessment for capacity Building

Demand assessment for requirement of personnel for implementation of aquifer information and
management plan has to be made so that the desired objectives of the project can be achieved
smoothly and timely. Capacity building usually begins with a demand assessment mission. This
mission reviews existing monitoring and analysis efforts, establishing a work programme, a
budget and the necessary institutional & legal structure to manage the project.

Capacity Building Areas

For an overall capacity building in the field of aquifer information and management system it is
very necessary that capacities of all stakeholders are enhanced. This capacity building will be
required in multiple areas which may include improved governance, citizen participation,
leadership, mission , strategy, human resource development, administration, financial
management, program development, program implementation, fund raising, income
generation, diversity, partnerships, collaboration, evaluation, advocacy, policy change,
planning, etc. The following are the areas of capacity building:

1. Government Capacity Building:

In aquifer mapping Government is the central to all functions and therefore the internal
capacity building of departments (all CGWB and SGWD Officers) where aquifer information
and management plan is getting implemented is very important.
a. National Level: A Project Director with required administrative and financial power to
take timely decisions for execution of the project who will be stationed at New Delhi for

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 proper co-ordination with agencies involved and states and MOWR. A dedicated
Project Secretariat under the Project Director comprising a team of officers from
CGWB/other identified institutions
b. State level: A special cell with Nodal officer in Water resources/ PHED department, and
state level steering committees may be constituted for coordination.
c. Research and support Staff could be hired as per rules.

2. Project Management Capacity Building:

CGWB has started aquifer mapping with 6 pilot projects in various states. Therefore it is
very important that these projects are managed with the professional competence. Teams
involved with aquifer mapping under these projects are to be brought under capacity building
programme.

3. Academic Capacity Building:

With the growing need for professionals in the field of ground water management it is very
important that academic institutions must focus on this crucial subject. Most of the
management professionals have to interact with CGWB and therefore it is very crucial that
the subject of Government is taught in academic institutions.

4. Research Capacity Building:

Research is another field where the capacity building is required in the field of aquifer
mapping. To take up the R&D programmes infrastructure and laboratory facilities are to be
created and research and support staff can be appointed or hired as per rules.

5. Legal Capacity Building:

Legal capacity building is another requirement for aquifer mapping & management Capacity
Building in India. Though CGWA is looking after the regulation and control on ground water
development and management in the country by enacting under the provisions made in
various sections of Environmental protection Act 1986 even then strengthening the legal
aspects and its efficient application is very important. State Governments are also
regulating and controlling the excessive exploitation by enacting and enforcing the model
bills on ground water abstraction.

6. System Integration (SI) Capacity Building:

Another important need is to build the requirement of Systems Integration (SI) organizations
like TCS, Wipro Infotech, HCL Infosystems,

7. Media Capacity Building:

Media Hype is leading to failure of lot of projects. A single biased article in a magazine/news
paper can lead to lot of problems for the project plan. Therefore the media is educated on
the management plan in the right spirit. Government must look into strengthening Medias.

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 8. NGO Capacity Building:
The Government also ensure that the l o c a l NGOs which have demonstrated delivery at
the village level are further strengthened . NGOs are the key link between Government and
the stakeholders to propagate the govt. policies to grass root level hence strengthening of
NGOs through proper training is very important.

9 Citizen Capacity Building:

Citizen awareness is the key to success of any programme. The citizens who are directly
interacting with Government have to be made aware on the changes that may be required
after the changed environment.

CAPACITY BUILDING STRATEGY

The key steps for a capacity building strategy for implementation of aquifer information and
management plan in India is as under:

1. Structure and Institutional Framework:

The first step in Capacity Building for aquifer management is creation of structures. Further
there is a requirement of multiple institutions involved for implementation of the plan in the
country and the role of each institutions should be defined clearly and an overlap or / and
clash of egos must be avoided.

2. Human Resource(HR) Policies:

The second step towards capacity building for aquifer management plan should be to evolve
HR policies that retain the talent in an organization. A few pitfalls in the current HR policies
must be discussed. However it is important that the role clarity of a job profile must be made
available before hiring of a talent, regular feedback for improvement, Employee Development
initiatives, and biannual salary hikes, are few steps that are required to retain the talent.
Despite various initiatives the institutions are unable to retain talent. The global best
practices in HR must be adopted to retain talent.

3. Central Database of Experts:

The third step towards strategy for capacity building will be creating of a database which
will list out national and international resources on aquifer mapping and management.
Such a data- base will help to identify skills as may be required for a particular project. The
database must cover professionals from all stakeholders, i.e., Government, NGO, Private
Sector, Consultants and academics.

4. Formation of Teams:
The next crucial step in the capacity building exercise is to ensure formation of teams. It
must be ensured that one individual is included in one team only at State or Central level.

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5. Strengthening of Existing Organizations:
The next step towards Aquifer mapping & management Capacity Building Strategy is to
strengthen the existing organizations.

6. Training Need Assessment:

Training Need Assessment is important part of Aquifer mapping Capacity Building Strategy.
It must be ensured that the training needs of all stakeholders as discussed above must be
ensured. Further the training requirements for each group have to be identified and it must
be ensured that the Department Staff is imparted the required training well in advance.
Training Need Assessment will require National, State and local level consultations with
various stakeholders.

7. Funds for Capacity Building:

In many projects sufficient funds for training and capacity building are not allocated. The
maximum amount of money is spent in System Integration, Software Development and
hardware procurement. It must be realised that the success of any project depends not on
Machine but the Man behind the Machine. It must be therefore ensured that minimum of 20-
30% of budget is allocated to Capacity Building and project planning.

8. Training Strategy:
Training Calendar and Program, Training Faculty, Training Content, Training Outcomes are
few such areas that need to be covered under the Training Strategy. Training timings and
participants also need to be identified in the course of implementation of any Management
Plan initiative.

9. Forging Partnerships for Capacity Building - Resource Exchange Programs:

Another important part for Capacity Building is forging partnerships for resources.
Resource Exchange Program between Government, Private Sector, and Academia may be
encouraged to ensure that individuals have a diverse experience for the complete range of
services offered. Individuals may also try to opt in organizations which offer complete range
of services. A true management expert will need to have a diverse experience of
Government, Consultancy Organization, multilateral agency, academia, Software
development agency, System Integrator and technology prospective.
10. Sustainability Strategy:
Any initiative is successful if it is accompanied by a sustainability strategy. It should not be
that the initiative towards capacity building is a one time affair but they must be looked into a
long term pros
This activity under capacity building is proposed to be taken up by Rajiv Gandhi Ground
Water Training and Research Institute in association with local and State institution by
outsourcing. Under the capacity building programme for aquifer mapping three tier training

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 programme has been proposed under RGI. Apart from this the overseas capacity building
schedule is proposed for RGI faculty & CGWB experts. State agencies, Institutions, NGO’s,
civil society and stakeholders will be brought under capacity building programme through
training. To support the capacity building programme, R&D activity is also included in the
programme:-
• At national level trainings are to be conducted for central and State Agencies in RGI
Raipur. The number of courses will be increased to suitably in the 12th five year plan to
accommodate professionals engaged in aquifer mapping program (Trainers of trainees).
• At the level of State courses of one week duration are proposed to be organised by
outsourcing during XIIth Plan under tier two to train groundwater professionals / NGOs /
VOs.
• At the level of Aquifer management unit (District / Block ) one to two days training are
proposed to train stakeholders, para-hydrogeologists, individuals and local organisations
having knowledge of local area, who will be engaged in implementing the Aquifer
management plan at grass- root level.
CGWB will provide training of trainers and keep check of quality of aquifer mapping. A project of
this scale will require significant investments in capacity building.

Level – 1: Training to technical officers from Central and State organisations

Since the personnel from Hydrogeology and other disciplines will form the backbone for
preparation of Aquifer Management Plans, the degree of capacity building of these personnel
shall fructify into the degree of accuracy of preparation of AMPs. This training will be
specialized and encompass the latest techniques for aquifer mapping, including the lessons
learnt from the Pilot Project, APFGMS etc. These trainings will have various components
namely –
- RGI and other central organizations (in house)
- Research Institutions and Universities
- International experts imparting training in India (MoUs)
- International trainings
Level – 2: Training to NGOs
The NGOs can be identified using the vast data-base available with CGWB and the State
GWDs. The past performance of the NGOs shall also be an important criterion for their
selection. Preference shall be given to the local NGOs. As many of these NGOs already have
personnel having some experience in the field of ground water, RGI shall be made responsible
at Central level for conducting a two (2) or three (3) weeks training to two persons from each of
the identified NGOs. The training would include a brief on hydrological cycle with emphasis on
aquifer mapping and participatory ground water management.

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 Proposed Training & capacity Building
(Three Tier System)
Level – 3: Training to Para-hydrogeologists
National
The PHGsLevel Officers at
shall be imparted training of CGWB,
State / other Central
Commissionaire level. The training shall be
RGNGWTRI Govt., State Govt.
conducted by Institutions identified by CGWB
Institutes and SGWDs. The faculty will be drawn from
& Organisations
CGWB (including RGI), Academic institutions and NGOs. The training will be for a period of 2
State Level State, District officers, GO, VO &
to 3Support
State weeksCenters
and shall be on basic hydrogeology, field data collection, management of ground
Post Graduate, Science
water, importance of communityGraduates&
participationrelated
etc Engineering
stream Students
The PHGs shall be the field arms for the NAQUIM.
District Panchayat Raj Institutions. NGO,
Support VO, Students, Self Working
Centers Groups & Stakeholders

MASS AWARENESS PROGRAMMES

Mass Awareness programmes are required to be organized or out sourced at village /block
levels to aware the people at grass root level about the aquifer system and about the co-
operative management of the aquifer in an equitable manner by community efforts. Awareness
programmes are also to be organized separately for the women, as they are considered to be
the better manager of resources at house and village levels. Awareness among the school
children of rural and urban area can also be created through organising painting and essay
writing competitions in a sporting way at school levels. Children are the best medium to
propagate the messages even to their elders and others also. For awareness, material like
maps, brochures, pamphlets can be distributed among the students and exhibitions of working
models & pictures cam be organised .Awareness through Documentary films on ‘community
based cooperative management of ground water’ themes can be created among the school
children and villages.

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