Representation of Power System Components 2 and Faults

REPRESENTATION
of
POWER SYSTEM
COMPONENTS
POWER SYSTEM II
1. Power System Engineering by Kothari &
Nagrath
2. Electrical Power System by Subir Roy
3. Power System by J. B. Gupta
4. Power System Analysis by T. K. Nagsakar
& M.S. Sukhija
2/5/2015 Power System II Dr. Ambarnath Banerji 2

Representation of Power System Components
• A balanced three phase network is generally solved
as a single phase or per phase equivalent circuit.
• A power system is represented by one of three
phases and the neutral.
• The components such as generators, transformers
and loads are indicated by standard symbols.
• The diagram is further simplified by omitting the
neutral wire.
• Such a simplified diagram of an electrical system is
called single-line or one-line diagram.
• Detailed Significant information about the system
parameters is also included in the single line diagram.
• Synchronous Generator (a)Rating (b) Generation
Voltage (c) m/c reactance.
• Transformer (a) Type of connection Primary &
Secondary sides (b) Rating (c) voltage ratio (d)
Reactance.
• Circuit Breaker (a) Details (b) Types
• Transmission Lines (a) reactance (b) size of conductor
(c) configuration of three phases above ground (d) length.
• Load Bus Active and Reactive power demand.
• Information to be provided on single-line diagram
depends on type of analysis to be undertaken.
• Load Flow Analysis power generation, load
demand, line and transformer data.
• Transient stability studies additional details about
m/c parameters, location of CBs and relays, speed of
relay and CBs are also required.
• For above computation single line diagram is first
drawn.
• Per Phase equivalent ckt. for various electrical
components are used to form impedance diagram of
the system.
• A typical single line diagram

Per Unit Representation of Power System
Components
• Per Unit (pu) value of any quantity =
Actual value of the quantity
base or Reference value in the same unit
• In power system the quantities involved are like kVA,
kA, ohm. Their operation leads to very large figures,
difficult to handle.
• In equivalent ckt different sections are at different
voltages interconnected by transformers.
• So in power system analysis voltages, currents, kVA and
impedances/ reactances are expressed in per unit (pu) of
the base value.
Components
• Advantages
1. Calculations Simplified.
2. Parameters tends to fall in relatively narrow range,
making the error conspicuous.
3. By Choosing the suitable base kVs for primary and
secondary ckt of transformer the pu reactance
remain the same for both sides.
• Drawbacks
1. Some equations that were true earlier get modified
in pu scheme. Factor √3 and 3 are added / removed.
2. Equivalent ckt becomes some what abstract.
Components
• Base values of variable are chosen so as to satisfy the
same kind of relation ship as the actual variables.
• Relation between the complex voltage V, complex
current I and complex impedance Z is V = IZ (1)
• Equation for base quantities is Vbase = Ibase Zbase (2)
• Dividing (1) by (2) V = Z I Vpu = Z pu I pu
• Base Value Selection V base Z base I base
1. One common base volt-ampere is chosen for all part of the

system.
2. One base voltage is arbitrarily selected as base voltage.
Components
• Base values of the system are so chosen that pu volt
and current of system are approximately unity.
• Base value of kVA is selected as the rating of the
largest unit.
• For Transformer the base voltage is changed in
proportion to its transformation ratio.

Components
• Base current ( kVA ) b
Ib = amps
kVb
( Vb ) ph ( kVb ) 2
• Base Impedance Zb = = ohm
( I b ) ph MVA b
• Base active power = MVAb MW

• Base reactive power =MVAb MVAR
• 3 Phase Systems instead of phase values line –line
voltage & total kVA output of three phases are used.
• Base current I b = kVA b amps
3kVb
Components
• pu Impedance Z pu = Z ohm Zohm( kVA b )
=
Zb ( kVb ) 2 (1000)
• Change of base
( kVbN ) 2 (1000) ( kVbO ) 2 (1000)
Z puN = Z puO
kVA bN kVA bO
kVA bN ( kVbO ) 2
Z puN = Z puO
kVA bO ( kVbN ) 2

FAULTS in an ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
• Fault is a defect in electric circuit due to which current
is diverted from the intended path.
• Short circuit currents are harmful because
Even a short time flow overheat the equipment.
The current flow produces forces of electro-dynamic
interaction which may damage the equipment.
• Relative Probability of occurrence of faults
Single line to ground fault 70%
Phase to phase fault 15%
Two phase to ground fault 10%
Phase to phase & third phase to ground 2/3%
All three phase shorted 2/3%
All three phase shorted to ground 2/3%
FAULTS in an ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
Analysis of Faults are Required for
Voltage at any point in P.S. under fault condition.
Current in any branch.
Value of reactance necessary to limit fault current.
Design/ Selection of Circuit Breakers.
ASSUMPTIONS for Symmetrical Faults:
Load current considered negligible.
Shunt elements in transformer neglected.
Shunt capacitance of transmission line neglected.
System resistance neglected.
SYMMETRICAL FAULTS in POWER SYSTEM
Effected of dc component is accounted for by using
correction factor.
Balanced Fault any condition which apply to one
phase apply equally to remaining phases.
Thus the prob. Reduces to single phase prob. acting
through equivalent network.
Equivalent network impedance up to the fault point
can be obtained by network reduction .

STEPS INVOLVED
1. Single line diagram.
2. Choose a common base.
3. Single line reactance diagram showing one phase to
neutral.
4. Reduce reactance diagram by network reduction
techniques. Find reactance up to the fault point.
5. Determine the fault current and fault MVA in pu.
Convert pu to actual value.
6. Retrace the steps of the calculations to work out
current and voltage distribution through out the
network.
• NUMERICAL
• Two generators A and B are identical and are rated
at 11kV and 10MVA and have a transient reactance
of 20% at their own MVA base. Two transformers
T1 and T2 are also identical and are rated 5MVA,
11/66 kV and have a reactance of 5% at their own
MVA base. The tie line is 100km long and has a
reactance of 0.1Ω /km. A 3 phase fault occurs at a
distance of 25km from one end of the line when the
system is on no load but at rated voltage. Determine
fault MVA and Fault current.
CURRENT LIMITING REACTORS
• Reactors used for limiting S/C current during fault
condition especially when system extended by
connection to grid.
• The reactors allow free interchange of power during
normal conditions but under short ckt.
disturbance limited to the faulty section.
• As resistance of the reactor is small, efficiency of
system is not affected.
• Connected at strategic locations so that fault current
is limited to less than breaking capacity of the circuit
breaker.
• They are used to reduce the magnitude of the
voltage disturbances caused by short circuit.
• Localize the fault by limiting the current that flows
into the fault from other healthy feeders. Thus
avoids spreading of the fault.
• Cost off set by saving in CB cost.
DRAWBACKS
1. Total percentage reactance increased.
2. More reactive volt drop and decrease in pf.
3. Poor Regulation.
GENERATOR REACTOR
• Reactors inserted between the generator and
generator bus.
• Modern m/c have more transient reactance to protect
against 3- ph short ckt. at its terminal.
FEEDER REACTOR
• Reactor in series with feeder.
BUS BAR REACTOR

SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT
• PHASE OPERATOR ‘a’
i 2π 3
• Defined as a = − 0.5 + j 0 .866 = e
• It means the phasor ‘a’ has unit length and is
oriented 120° ( 2π 3 radians) in the positive (counter
clockwise) direction from reference axis.
• Thus a phasor operated upon by ‘a’ is not changed in
magnitude but is simply rotated in position by 120°
in the forward direction.
a 2 = (e j2π 3 ) 2 = e j4π 3 = e − j2π 3 = −0.5 − j0.866
2
a
• Thus is another unit phasor oriented 240° in the
positive (counter clockwise) direction or 120° in
negative (Clockwise ) direction.
i 2π 3
a = −0.5 + j0.866 = e
j2 π 3 2 j4π 3 − j2π 3
a = (e
2
) =e =e = −0.5 − j0.866
j 2π
a =e
3
= 1 + j0 = 1
a 4 = e 4 ( j2 π 3 ) = e j2 π 3 = a
5 ( j2π 3) j2 π 3
a =e 5
=e =a 2
• Since a = 1 ; a is numericaly equal to cube root

3
unity.
• Also a + a + a = 0
2 3

UNSYMMETRICAL FAULTS in POWER SYSTEM
• Simple single phase representation is not valid and
analysis is to be carried out on a 3 phase basis which
is difficult.
• C.L. Fortesque in 1918 proposed the method of
Symmetrical Components.
• An unbalanced 3 phase system of impedances may
be resolved into three equivalent single phase
systems having independent impedance parameters.
• The three independent impedance systems may be
connected and constrained to represent all types of
fault conditions.
TRANSFORMATION
• POSITIVE SEQUENCE COMPONENTS
• The set have a phase sequence ‘abc’ Vb lags Va by
120° and Vc lags Vb by 120°.
• The three phasors can be represented in terms of

reference phasor Va1.
Va1 = Va1 Vb1 = α 2 Va1 Vc1 = αVa1
0
• where α = e j120

TRANSFORMATION
• NEGATIVE SEQUENCE COMPONENT
• The phase sequence is ‘acb’ i.e. Vc lags Va by 120°
and Vb lags Vc by 120°.
• The three pasors can be represented in terms of the

reference phasor as
Va 2 = Va 2 Vb 2 = αVa 2 Vc 2 = α 2 Va 2

• ZERO SEQUENCE COMPONENTS
• A set of three phasors equal in magnitude and having
same phase.
• Va0 ; Vbo=Va0 ; Vc0= Va0.
• According to Fortesque’s theorem the three unbalanced
phasors can be expressed as sum of the Positive,
Negative and zero sequence phasors.
• Va = Va1 + Va2 + Va0
• Vb = Vb1 + Vb2 + Vb0
• Vc = Vc1 + Vc2 + Vc0
• Three phasor sequence (positive, Negative & zero) are
called SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS of the
original unbalanced phasor Va, Vb , Vc.
Va = Va1 + Va 2 + Va 0
Vb = α Va1 + αVa 2 + Va 0
2
Vc = αVa1 + α Va 2 + Va 0
2
 Va   1 1 1  Va1 
• In matrix form V  = α 2 α 1 V 
 b   a2 
 Vc   α α 2 1 Va 0 
r rr r −1
r
• VP = AVS ; VS = A VP ; 1 α α 2 
1 
• Computing A −1 we get −1
A = 1 α 2 α 
3
• Thus we have 1 1 1 
r 
V
r a1 = 1 3( Va + α V b + α 2
Vc )
Va 2 = 1 3( Va + α 2 Vb + αVc )
r
Va 0 = 1 3( Va + Vb + Vc )
• Sum of the three line voltages will always be zero.
Therefore zero sequence component of line voltage
1
is always zero. Vab 0 = ( Vab + Vbc + Vca ) = 0
3
• Sum of the phase voltages may not be zero. So their
zero sequence component may exist. Va 0 ≠ 0
• Sum of three line currents equals the current in the
1 1
neutral wire I a 0 = ( I a + I b + I c ) = I n
3 3
• So current in the neutral wire is three times the zero
sequence line current.
• In the absence of the neutral connection the zero
sequence line current is always zero I a 0 = 1 I n = 0
3
COUPLING BETWEEN SEQUENCE CURRENTS
• The analysis of balance system on per phase basis
was possible because of zero coupling between the
phases.
• Advantages of introducing symmetrical components
introducing nine variables, would be lost if
coupling exist. Complex Power
T *
 Va  Ia   I*a 
r T *    I  = [V  *
S = ( Vp ) I P =  Vb   b a Vb Vc ] I b 
 Vc   I c   I*c 
 
= Va I*a + Vb I*b + Vc I*c
S = V I = [AVS ] [AIS ] = A T VST A* I*S = VST A T A* I*S

T * T *
P P
T
1 1 1  1 1 1 1 α 2 α  1 1 1
 2 
A T A * = α 2 α 1  α 
α 1 = 1 α
2
α  α α 2 1
 α α 2 1 α 2 α 1 1 1 1  α 2 α 1
1 0 0
= 30 1 0 = 3U
0 0 1
S = 3VST UI*S = 3VST I*S = 3( Va1I*a1 + Va 2 I*a 2 + Va 0 I*a 0 )

• = Sum of the Symmetrical components of power
• There is no cross products of sequence components
of voltage and currents. Zero coupling.
• The symmetrical component transformation is
power invariant . The sum of the powers of the three
symmetrical components equals the sum of the three
phase power.

Ia Zs
I
Va b Zs
V b Ic
Vc Zn
Zs
Va = Z s I a + Z m I b + Z m I c + Z n I n I n = I a + Ib + Ic
Vb = Z m I a + Z s I b + Z m I c + Z n I n
Vc = Z m I a + Z m I b + Z s I c + Z n I n
Va = ( Z s + Z n ) I a + ( Z m + Z n ) I b + ( Z m + Z n ) I c
Vb = ( Z m + Z n ) I a + ( Z s + Z n ) I b + ( Z m + Z n ) I c
Vc = ( Z m + Z n ) I a + ( Z m + Z n ) I b + ( Z s + Z n ) I c

SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE of TRANSMISSION LINE
• Thus we can conclude
1. Equal positive and negative sequence impedance.
2. Impedance matrix has non zero elements appearing only
on the principle diagonal. Thus the three sequence
impedances are independent of each other.
3. The current of each phase sequence will produce voltage
drop of the same phase sequence only i.e. elements
posses only self impedance to sequence current.
4. For finding a particular sequence impedance the element
in question is subjected to currents and voltages of that
sequence only.
SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE of TRANSMISSION LINE
• Zero sequence impedance is much larger than the
positive ( or Negative ) sequence impedance.

SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE & NETWORKS of
SYNCHRONOUS M/C
• Unloaded synchronous m/c( generators and motors)
grounded through a reactor (impedance Zn). Ea, Eb,
and Ec are induced emfs of the three phases.

SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE of TRANSFORMER
• Positive sequence series impedance equals its
Leakage Impedance.
• Since the transformer is a static device, the leakage
impedance does not change with the alteration of the
phase sequence.
• Thus Z1 = Z2 = Zleakage
• Depending on type of transformer the zero sequence
impedance may vary slightly from +ve and –ve
sequence impedances.
• However the normal practice is to assume that the
series impedances of all sequences are equal.
• Z1 = Z2 = Z0
• POINTS to NOTE
1. Magnetizing current neglected. Transformer primary
carry current only if current flows in the secondary.
2. Zero sequence currents can flow in the legs of a star
connection only if the star point is grounded and provide
necessary return path for zero sequence current.
3. No zero sequence current can flow in the lines connected
to a delta connection as no return path is available for
these currents. Zero sequence current can, however, flow
in the legs of delta(phases) such currents are caused
by presence of zero sequence voltage in the delta
connection.
• CASE1: Y Y Transformer one neutral grounded.
• If any one of the two neutrals of a Y Y

transformer is ungrounded, zero sequence current
cannot flow in the ungrounded star and
consequently, these cannot flow in the grounded star.
Hence, an open circuit exist in the zero sequence
network between H & L.
• CASE 2: Y Y transformer both neutral grounded.
• A path through the transformer exist for zero
sequence current in both winding via two grounded
neutral.

• CASE 3 : Y ∆ Transformer with grounded Y
• Zero sequence current can flow in the star because a

path is available to ground and balancing zero
sequence current can flow in delta, but no zero
sequence current can flow in the line on delta side.
• Thus the zero sequence network must have a path
from the line ‘H’ on the star side through the zero
sequence impedance to the reference bus, while an
open circuit must exist on the ‘L’ side of Delta.
• CASE 4 : Y ∆ Transformer with ungrounded Y
• It can be assumed as neutral connected to ground (or

reference bus) through Zn = infinity. So no zero
sequence current can flow in Y side.

• CASE 5 : ∆ ∆ Transformer
• Since a delta circuit provides no return path, the zero

sequence current can not flow in – out of the ∆ ∆
Transformer. However it can circulate in the delta
winding.
• Therefore there is an open circuit between ‘H’ and
‘L’ and Z0 is connected to the reference bus on both
ends to account for the circulating zero sequence
current.
FORMATION OF SEQUENCE NETWORK for POWER SYSTEM
• Sequence networks are useful for computing

unsymmetrical faults at different points of power
system.
• Positive sequence network can be drawn from one
line diagram of power system. Single line reactance
diagram, as employed for symmetrical fault current,
is the positive sequence diagram of the power
system.
• Negative sequence network is similar to positive
sequence network. Rotating m/c have different
negative sequence impedances. No voltage source.
FORMATION OF SEQUENCE NETWORK for POWER SYSTEM
• The reference bus for the positive and negative

sequence networks is the system neutral.
• Any impedance connected between neutral and ground
is not included in the positive and negative sequence
networks as neither of these sequences currents can
flow through such an impedance.
• Zero sequence sub-networks of different components of
the power system are combined to form the zero
sequence network of the system. Any impedance
included in generator or transformer neutral becomes
three times its value in a zero sequence network.
PROCEDURE FOR FAULT CALCULATION
Draw sequence impedance diagrams by inspection
of the single line diagram of the power system.
Zero sequence impedance diagram is required to be
drawn only if there is an earth fault.
Set the values of the sequence impedances in each
network.
The point where a fault is assumed to occur is
marked ‘F’ on the single line diagram.
Each of the networks can be replaced by its
thevenin equivalent between the two terminals
composed of its reference bus and the point of
occurrence of fault.
PROCEDURE FOR FAULT CALCULATION
The Thevenin equivalent circuit is prepared.
Reduce the networks into their equivalent
impedances Z1, Z2 and Z0.
Depending on the type of the fault connect the
equivalent network.
Obtain the sequence components of the current and
voltages.
Obtain the currents in different phases from
sequence components of currents.
Phase voltages can be obtained from knowledge of
impedances and sequence currents.
SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT
• Let a fault occur on phase ‘a’ of an unloaded
generator through a fault impedance Zf.
• Ib = 0 ; Ic = 0; Va = Ia Zf
• Symmetrical components of fault current
 I a1  1 α α  Ia 
2
 I  = 1 1 α 2  
α  0  Ib = Ic = 0
3
•  a2 
 I a 0  1 1 1   0 

SINGLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT
1
• Hence I a1 = I a 2 = I a 0 = I a
3
• Further Va = Va1 + Va 2 + Va 0 = I a Zf = (3I a1 )Zf
• Thus we can say all sequence currents are equal and
sum of the sequence voltages is (3 Ia1Zf ).
• This suggests a series connection of
sequence network through an
impedance 3Zf .

DOUBLE LINE FAULT
• Fig shows a line to line fault of an unloaded
generator involving phases ‘b’ and ‘c’ through a
fault impedance Zf.
• Currents and voltages of the
fault are given by Ia = 0;
Ic = -Ib ; Vb – Vc = Ib Zf ;
• Symmetrical components of fault currents are
 I a1  1 α α  0 
2
 I  = 1 1 α 2 
α   I b 
 a2  3 
 I a 0  1 1 1   − I b 

DOUBLE LINE FAULT
1 1 1
I a1 = ( α − α )I b I a 2 = ( α − α )I b I a 0 = ( I b − I b ) = 0 ;
; ;
• 2 2
3 3 3
• Thus Ia1 = - Ia2 and Ia0 = 0 ; (1)

• The symmetrical components of voltages at Fault
point are
 Va1  1 α α   Va 
2 1 α α 2   Va 
 V  = 1 1 α 2   1  
α   Vb  = 1 α 2 α   Vb 
 a2  3  3
 Va 0  1 1 1   Vc  1 1 1   Vb − I b Zf 
 
• Thus 3Va1 = Va + αVb + α 2 ( Vb − I b Zf )
• 3Va1 = Va + (α + α 2 )Vb − α 2 I b Zf (2)
DOUBLE LINE FAULT
3Va 2 = Va + α 2 Vb + α( Vb − I b Zf )
• 3Va 2 = Va + (α 2 + α )Vb − αI b Z f (3)
• From (2) & (3)
• 3( Va1 − V a2 ) = ( α − α 2
)Zf I b = j 3I b Zf (4)
• Now b I = α 2
I a1 + αI a 2 + I a 0 Substituting from (1)
• I b = α 2 I a1 − αI a1 + 0 Thus I b = (α 2 − α )I a1 = − j 3I a1
• From (4) 3( Va1 − Va 2 ) = j 3I b Z f

• ( Va1 − Va 2 ) = j I Z =−
jj 3I a1
Z f = I a1 Z f
(5)
b f
3 3
DOUBLE LINE FAULT
• (1) Ia1 = - Ia2 and Ia0 = 0 ;
& (5) ( Va1 − Va 2 ) = I a1Z f
suggest parallel connection of positive and negative
sequence network through a series impedance Zf. As
Ia0 = 0 there is no connection to the zero sequence
network.
•

DOUBLE LINE TO GROUND FAULT
• Fig. shows a double line to ground fault at ‘F’ of an
unloaded alternator. The fault impedance is Zf.
• Under fault condition
Ia = 0 (1)
• Vb = Vc = (Ib + Ic)Zf (2)
 I a1  1 α α2  0 
 I  = 1 1 α 2  
α  I b 
 a2  3 
 I a 0  1 1 1   I c 

• Ia0 =⅓ [0 + Ib + Ic] (Ib + Ic) = 3 Ia0 (4)
• From (2) Vb = Vc = 3 Ia0 Zf (5)
 Va1  1 α α   Va 
2
 V  = 1 1 α 2 α   V 
 a2  3   b 
 Va 0  1 1 1   Vc 
 
1 1
Va1 = [Va + αVb + α Vc ]
2
V a2 = [ Va + α 2
Vb + αVc ]
3 3
• Since L- L - G Fault Vb = Vc
1
• Thus Va1 = Va 2 = [Va + (α + α )Vb ]
2
(6)
1 3
• Va 0 = [Va + 2Vb ] (7)
3 1
• Va 0 − Va1 = [2 − α − α 2 ]Vb = Vb = 3Ia0 Zf
3
• Va0 = Va1 + 3Ia0 Zf (8)
• By observing eq. nos. (1), (6), (7) & (8) the
sequence network is drawn.
• Here with respect to F net circuit impedance is (Z1

+Z2) parallel (Z0 + 3Zf).

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REPRESENTATION

2/5/2015 Power System II Dr. Ambarnath Banerji 2

2/5/2015 Power System II Dr. Ambarnath Banerji 6

1. One common base volt-ampere is chosen for all part of the

2/5/2015 Power System II Dr. Ambarnath Banerji 10

• Base active power = MVAb MW

2/5/2015 Power System II Dr. Ambarnath Banerji 12

2/5/2015 Power System II Dr. Ambarnath Banerji 15

2/5/2015 Power System II Dr. Ambarnath Banerji 20

• Since a = 1 ; a is numericaly equal to cube root

2/5/2015 Power System II Dr. Ambarnath Banerji 22

• The three phasors can be represented in terms of

2/5/2015 Power System II Dr. Ambarnath Banerji 24

• The three pasors can be represented in terms of the

2/5/2015 Power System II Dr. Ambarnath Banerji 25

S = V I = [AVS ] [AIS ] = A T VST A* I*S = VST A T A* I*S

S = 3VST UI*S = 3VST I*S = 3( Va1I*a1 + Va 2 I*a 2 + Va 0 I*a 0 )

2/5/2015 Power System II Dr. Ambarnath Banerji 31

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• If any one of the two neutrals of a Y Y

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• Zero sequence current can flow in the star because a

• It can be assumed as neutral connected to ground (or

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• Since a delta circuit provides no return path, the zero

• Sequence networks are useful for computing

• The reference bus for the positive and negative

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• Thus Ia1 = - Ia2 and Ia0 = 0 ; (1)

• From (4) 3( Va1 − Va 2 ) = j 3I b Z f

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• Here with respect to F net circuit impedance is (Z1

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S = V I = [AVS ] [AIS ] = A T VST A* IS = VST A T A I*S

S = 3VST UIS = 3VST IS = 3( Va1Ia1 + Va 2 Ia 2 + Va 0 I*a 0 )