Marriage Family and Kinship

Marriage
It has been generally assumed that the institution of marriage is a universal feature in human
societies. Although many sociologists and anthropologists have attempted to provide definitions
of marriage, none of them has been satisfactorily and sufficiently general enough to encompass all
its various manifestations. This is because marriage is a unique institution of human society that
has different implications in different cultures. It is a biological fact that marriage is intimately
linked to parenthood. This has led to many anthropologists like Malinowski and Radcliffe-Brown
to propose definitions of marriage centering on the Principle of Legitimacy.
According to Malinowski, a legal marriage is one which gives a woman a socially recognized
husband and her children a socially recognized father.
Radcliffe-Brown states that Marriage is a social arrangement by which a child is given a legitimate
position in the society determined by parenthood in the social sense.
According to Westermarck it is a relation of one or more men to one or more women which is
recognized by custom or law and involves certain rights and duties both in the case of parties
entering the union and in the case of children born out of this union.
According to Lundberg, marriage consists of rules and regulations that define the rights, duties
and privileges of husband and wife with respect to each other.
According to Horton and Hunt marriage is the approved social pattern whereby two or more
persons establish a family.
According to John Levy and Ruth Monroe people get married because of the feeling that being in
a family is the only proper indeed the only possible way to live. People do not marry because it is
their social duty to perpetuate the institution of family or because the scriptures recommend
matrimony but because they lived in a family as children and cannot get over the feeling that being
in a family is the only proper way to live in society.
Edmund Leach argued that the institutions commonly classed as marriage are concerned with the
allocation of a number of distinguishable classes of rights and hence may serve to do any or some
or all of the following.

• To establish the legal father of a woman's children.

• To establish the legal mother of a man's children.
• To give a husband a monopoly of the wife's sexuality.
• To give the wife a monopoly of the husband's sexuality.
• To give the husband partial or monopolistic rights to the wife's domestic and other labor
services.
• To give the wife partial or monopolistic rights to the husband's domestic and other labor
services.
• To give the husband partial or total rights over property belonging or potentially accruing
to the wife.
• To give the wife partial or total rights over property belonging or potentially accruing to
the husband.
 • To establish a joint fund of property – partnership for the benefit of the children of the
marriage.
• To establish a socially significant relationship of affinity between the husband and his
wife's brothers.

It is clear from different definitions that it is only through the establishment of culturally controlled
and sanctioned marital relations that a family comes into being. The institutionalized form of these
relations is called marriage. Marriage and family are two aspects of the same social reality that is
recognized by the world. Anderson and Parker say that wedding is the recognition of the
significance of marriage to society and to individuals through the public ceremony usually
accompanying it. Such a ceremony indicates the society's control.
Anthropological studies of marriage have brought out complex marriage systems .In the Nuer
ghost marriage a woman marries a woman. In another form of marriage a widow either remarries
or takes lovers. The children born to her are considered as a legitimate offspring of her dead
husband. In yet another form of marriage among the Nuer a woman marries another senior woman.
Children born to the junior woman because of the links with a lover are considered to be the
members of the husband’s patrilineage. In the matrilineal Nair society in Kerala, young girls were
married ceremoniously but did not reside with their husbands. The girls were permitted to take
lovers with whom they bore children. Neither the husbands nor the lovers had right over the
children who became the members of their mother’s lineage.

Functions of Marriage

1. Marriage regulates sexual behavior.

Marriage helps cultural groups to have a measure of control over population growth by providing
proscribed rules about when it is appropriate to have children. Regulating sexual behavior helps to
reduce sexual competition and negative effects associate with sexual competition. This does not
mean that there are no socially approved sexual unions that take place outside of marriage. Early
anthropological studies documented that the Toda living in the Nilgiri Mountains of Southern India
allowed married women to have intercourse with male priests with the husband’s approval. In the
Philippines, the Kalinda institutionalized mistresses. If a man’s wife was unable to have children,
he could take a mistress in order to have children. Usually his wife would help him choose a
mistress.

2. Marriage fulfills the economic needs of marriage partners.

Marriage provides the framework within which people’s needs are met: shelter, food, clothing,
safety, etc. Through the institution of marriage, people know for whom they are economically and
socially responsible.

3. Marriage perpetuates kinship groups.

This is related to the previous function, but instead of simply knowing who is with whom
economically and socially, marriage in a legitimate sense lets people know about inheritance.
4. Marriage provides institution for the care and enculturation of children.

Within the umbrella of the marriage, children begin to learn their gender roles and other cultural
norms. Marriage lets everyone know who is responsible for children. It legitimizes children by
socially establishing their birthrights.

Types of Marriages
Marriage is one of the universal social institutions established and nourished by human society. It
is closely connected to the institution of family. According to Gillin and Gillin, "Marriage is a
socially approved way of establishing a family of procreation." Westermarck says that marriage is
rooted in the family rather than the family in the marriage. Marriage is an institution of society
with different purpose, functions and forms in different societies but is present everywhere as an
institution. According to Malinowski, “marriage is a contract for the production and maintenance
of children." According to Robert H Lowie," Marriage is a relatively permanent bond between
permissible mates."
The main types of marriages are:

Polygyny
Polygyny is a form of marriage in which one man married more than one woman at a given time.
Polygyny is more popular than polyandry but not as universal as monogamy. It was a common
practice in ancient civilizations. At present it may be present in primitive tribes like Crow Indians,
Baigas and Gonds of India. Polygyny is of two types:
Sororal polygyny
It is a type of marriage in which the wives are invariably the sisters. It is often called sororate. The
Latin word Soror stands for sister. When several sisters are simultaneously or potentially the
spouses of the same man the practice is called sororate. It is usually observed in those tribes that
pay a high bride price.
Non-sororal polygyny
It is a type of marriage in which the wives are not related as the sisters.
Polyandry
Polyandry is the marriage of one woman with several men. It is practiced among the Marquesan
Islanders of Polynesia, The Bahama of Africa and tribes of Samoa. In India among tribes of Tiyan,
Toda, Kota, Khasa and Ladakhi Bota it is still prevalent. Polyandry is of two.

Fraternal polyandry
When several brothers share the same wife, the practice can be called fraternal polyandry. This
practice of being mate, actual or potential to one's husband's brothers is called levirate. It is
prevalent among the Todas in India.
Non - fraternal polyandry
In this type the husbands need not have any close relationship prior to the marriage. The wife goes
to spend some time with each husband. So long as a woman lives with one of her husbands, the
others have no claim over her. Polyandry has its own implications. It gives rise to the problem of
determining biological paternity of the child. Among the Todas one of the husbands goes through
what is called a bow and arrow ceremony with the woman and thereby becomes the legal father of
her child. Among the Samoans, the children after the first few years are given the liberty to choose
their parents for their permanent stay. The selected parent becomes the actual father of the
children.
Monogamy
Monogamy is a form of marriage in which one man marries the woman. It is most common form
of the marriage found among in the societies around the world. According to Westermarck
monogamy is as old as humanity. Monogamy is universally practiced providing marital
opportunity and satisfaction to all the individuals. It promotes love and affection between husband
and wife. It contributes to family peace, solidarity and happiness. Monogamous marriage is stable
and long lasting. It is free from conflicts that are commonly found in polyandrous and polygamous
families. Monogamous marriage gives greater attention to the socialization of their children.
Women are given very low position in polygyny where their rights are never recognized. In
monogamy women enjoy better social status. There are two types of monogamy.

Serial monogamy
In many societies individuals are permitted to marry again often on the death of the first spouse or
after divorce but they cannot have more than one spouse at one and the same time.
Straight monogamy:
In straight monogamy the remarriage of the individuals is not allowed.
Group Marriage:
Group marriage means the marriage of two or more women with two or more men. Here the
husbands are common husbands and wives are common wives. Children are regarded as the
children of the entire group as a whole.

Hindu Marriage

There are eight types of Hindu matrimonies, these are; Brahma, Daiva, Arsha, Prajapatya,
Gandharva, Asura, Rakshasa and Paishaca.

A Brahma marriage is where a boy is able to get married once he has completed his student hood,or
Brahmacharya. Brahma marriage has the most supreme position of the eight types of Hindu
matrimony. When the parents of the boy seek for a female, they would consider her family
background, but the girl’s father would make sure that the boy that wishes to wed his daughter had
the knowledge of Vedas. It is these things that make the basis for Brahma marriage, not a system
of dowry.

The type of marriage that is considered inferior because it is degrading to womanhood is Daiva
marriage. This is where the woman’s family will wait for a specific time to get her wed. If she
doesn’t get a suitable groom, then she would be married off to places where sacrifices are
conducted.
An Arsha marriage is where the girl is married to the sages. The bride will be given in exchange
for two cows. Because it is cows that are given in exchange of the bride, it shows that the groom
does not have any special qualities. A noble marriage has no business transactions, or monetary,
so therefore an Arsha marriage is not considered as a noble matrimony.

Unlike in Brahma marriage, Prajapatya matrimony is where the bride’s father goes in search of a
groom, although this isn’t considered as good as the grooms parents searching for the perfect bride.
Also, unlike Arsha marriage, monetary transactions are not a part of the Prajapatya marriage.

When it comes to ‘love’ marriage, it is Gandharva marriage that is the most similar. This is where
a groom and his bride will wed without their parent’s knowledge. However, it is not correctly
considered as a type of marriage because it does not have the consent of the parents.

It is Asura marriage that sets itself apart from the other types of marriage. This is a matrimony
where the groom is not in the slightest bit compatible with the bride, what is compatible is that the
bride’s father likes money and the groom is happy to surrender his own wealth. In modern times
this type of marriage isn’t entirely acceptable because it is much like buying a product off the shelf.

A Rakshasa marriage is much like a fairytale. The groom will forge battles with the bride’s family,
overcome them and carry the bride away to convince her to marry him. Because of the forcible
methods used in this marriage type, it is not considered right. A girl should not be wooed this way
to tie the wedding knot with a groom.

Paishaca marriages are the last type of Hindu matrimonies. In this marriage type the bride’s wish
is not even considered, and it is because of this that is considered the most inferior marriage type.
The female will be forced to marry when she is not willing to marry the groom chosen for her. Not
to mention, the bride’s family is not even given anything in trade, or any cash for their daughter.
Against her wish, she is seized and the man would marry her, a woman whom he had seduced
while intoxicated, asleep or insane. It is understandable why this type of marriage has been
prohibited.

It is apparent that a lot of these types of marriage are still seen in Hinduism communities today.
However, there are some that have been prohibited or are heavily frowned upon. This article has
taken a look into the eight different types of Hindu matrimony, but, the most acceptable for Hindu
culture would be Brahma. What type of marriage are you looking for?

Muslim Marriage
In the Muslim community marriage is universal for it discourages celibacy. Muslims call their
marriage Nikah .Marriage is regarded not as a religious sacrament but as a secular bond. The
bridegroom makes a proposal to the bride just before the wedding ceremony in the presence of two
witnesses and a maulavi or kazi.The proposal is called ijab and its acceptance is called qubul.It is
necessary that both the proposal and its acceptance must take place at the same meeting to make
it a sahi Nikah.It is a matter of tradition among the Muslims to have marriage among equals.
Though there is no legal prohibition to contract marriage with a person of low status, such
marriages are looked down upon. The run-away marriages called kifa when the girls run away
with boys and marry them on their own choice are not recognized.
Marrying idolaters and slaves is also not approved. There is also provision of preferential system
in mate selection. The parallel cousins and cross cousins are allowed to get married. Marriage that
is held contrary to the Islamic rules is called batil or invalid marriage.Meher or dower is a practice
associated with Muslim marriage. It is a sum of money or other property which a wife is entitled
to get from her husband in consideration of the marriage.Muta is a special type of marriage for
pleasure which is for a specified period only.Iddat is the period of seclusion for three menstrual
periods for a woman after the death /divorce by her husband to ascertain whether she is pregnant
or not. Only after this period she can remarry. Muslim marriage can be dissolved in the following
ways: Divorce as per the Muslim law but without the intervention of the court: They are of two
types-Kula where divorce is initiated at the instance of the wife and Mubarat where initiative may
come either from the wife or from the husband.Talaq represents one of the ways according to
which a Muslim husband can give divorce to his wife as per the Muslim law by repeating the
dismissal formula thrice. The talaq may be affected either orally by making some pronouncements
or in writing by presenting talaqnama.Divorce as recognized by Shariah Act 1937 provides for
three forms of divorce:Illa,Zihar and Lian.There is also provision of divorce as per the Dissolution
of Muslim Marriage Act 1939.
Tribal Marriages

The tribal marriages are, however, mere civil contracts and not religious sacraments as found
amongst the advanced societies. Religious rites and rituals are not absolute things in their
marriages.

The acculturated tribal are found to approximate the ritualistic performances of the sophisticated
societies in the neighborhood. The ways in which mates can be acquired are indeed varied. The
following types of acquiring mates may be listed on the basis of the data collected from tribal
India:

Negotiation marriage

When the parents of both the boy and the girl come forward to negotiate their children’s marriage,
it is known as negotiation marriage. It is the regular form of marriage in the Hindu, the Muslim
and tribal societies of India. In this form of acquiring mates, the bride and the bridegroom have no
positive role and even more is that, they may not have personal acquaintance with each other before
marriage.

Probationary marriage

In this type of marriage, a young man is allowed to live with his sweetheart in the latter’s house
and if their temperament suits each other, then alone marriage will be held. Otherwise,
instantaneous dissolution of such relationship will be effective and the man has to pay cash
compensation to the girl’s parents.
Marriage by trial

Some tribes including the Bhil of Rajasthan require a young man to prove his power and courage
before he can claim the hands of any girl at marriage. In ancient literatures, such marriage was
held as most honorable one. In Ramayana, Ramchandra got the hands of Sita through such
marriage by showing his physical strength in breaking the sacred bow of the great god, Haradeva.
In Mahabharata, Arjuna claimed Draupadi in a similar way.

Marriage by purchase

Marriage by purchase is a prevalent form of acquiring wife in the tribal societies of India. In this
form of marriage, the payment which is to be made to the family of the bride is known as bride-
price.

Marriage by service

“Gaining a wife by service” is a widespread custom among the modern primitives. It may be taken
as an alternative measure of marriage by bride price. The period of service of the suitor-servant
varies from 3 to 5 years.

Marriage by capture

This type of marriage is found among the various tribal groups of India. This type of marriage is,
however, becoming less popular with the social advancement and wide application of India Penal
Code.

Marriage by mutual consent

Such type of marriage takes place when the boy and the girl fly off from their parental houses with
their mutual consent and get married outside it. In modern societies, inter-caste marriages are
sometimes held in this way. In the primitive society’s high bride-price and in the advanced
societies soaring dowry may lead to such type of marriage.

Marriage by exchange

Another means of avoiding the progeny price is the device of exchanging brides in between two
households.

Marriage by intrusion

If a girl desires to marry an unwilling boy, she applies force to secure him. On getting a suitable
opportunity, she enters the house of the boy without the permission of the inmates of that house
and starts household works there, such as sweeping the floor, washing the utensils. If she can
withstand the abusing and the maltreatment’s of the mother and the sister of the boy for a specific
period of time, then she will be taken as a wife of that particular boy and usual marriage function
will be held later on.

Divorce and remarriage

In tribal societies, both the groom and the bride have their equal rights to dissolute marriage.
Barrenness, disloyalty, laziness, quarrelsome nature on the part of both sexes lead to divorce. After
divorce, remarriage can be held again without the payment of bride price. The children of the
previous marriage generally stay with their mother.

Marriage by inheritance

Inheritance of widow is one of the important ways of acquiring mates as found among some of the
primitives.

Family
The family forms the basic unit of social organization and it is difficult to imagine how human
society could function without it. The family has been seen as a universal social institution an
inevitable part of human society. According to Burgess and Lock the family is a group of persons
united by ties of marriage, blood or adoption constituting a single household interacting with each
other in their respective social role of husband and wife, mother and father, brother and sister
creating a common culture. G.P Murdock defines the family as a social group characterized by
common residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes at
least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or more children own
or adopted of the sexually co-habiting adults.
Nimkoff says that family is a more or less durable association of husband and wife with or without
child or of a man or woman alone with children. According to Maclver family is a group defined
by sex relationships sufficiently precise and enduring to provide for the procreation and upbringing
of children. Kingsley Davis describes family as a group of persons whose relations to one another
are based upon consanguinity and who are therefore kin to one another. Malinowski opined that
the family is the institution within which the cultural traditions of a society is handed over to a
newer generation. This indispensable function could not be filled unless the relations to parents
and children were relations reciprocally of authority and respect. According to Talcott Parsons
families are factories which produce human personalities.

Types of the Family

The family is the most important primary group in a society. It is the simplest and the most
elementary form of society. The family as an institution is universal. It is the most permanent and
the most pervasive of all social institutions. In case of the west family is defined as an economic
and social unit. In case of India, China and Japan family is a cultural religious unit. Sociologists
have spoken of different forms or types of family.
On the basis of marriage family has been classified into three major types:

On the basis of nature of the residence family can be classified into three main types:

On the basis of ancestry or descent family can be classified into two main types:

On the basis of the nature of authority family can be classified into two main types:
On the basis of size or structure and generations of family can be classified into two main types:

On the basis of nature of relations among the family members, the family can be classified into
two main types:

Matriarchal Family
The matriarchal family known as mother centered or mother dominated family. The mother or the
woman is the head of the family. She exercises authority and manages the property. The descent
is traced through the mother hence it is matrilineal in descent. Daughters inherit the property of
the mother. The status of the children is decided by the status of the mother. Matriarchal family is
matrilocal in residence. After the marriage the wife stays back in her mother's home. The husband
pays occasional visits to the wife's home. In theory mother exercises authority and power in the
matriarchal family. She is the head of the family and her decisions are final. But in practice some
relatives of the family, her brother exercises authority in the family. The maternal family brings
together the kinsmen and welds them in a powerful group.
Patriarchal Family
The patriarchal family is also known as father centered or father dominated family. The father is
the head of the family and exercises authority. He is the administrator of the family property. The
descent, inheritance and succession are recognized through the male line. Patriarchal families are
patrilineal in character because the descent is traced through the male line. Only the male children
inherit the property. Patriarchal family is patrilocal in residence. Sons continue to live with the
father in his own house even after their marriages. Only the wives come and join them. Women
have secondary position in these families. Children are brought up in their father's family.
Nuclear Family
The individual nuclear family is a universal social phenomenon. It can be defined as a small group
composed of husband and wife and children that constitute a unit apart from the rest of the
community. The nuclear family is a characteristic of all the modern industrial societies in which a
high degree of structural and functional specialization exists.The nuclear family comprises a
cohabiting man and woman who maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and have at least
one child. The traditional nuclear family is a nuclear family in which the wife works in the home
without pay while the husband works outside the home for money. This makes him the primary
provider and ultimate authority according to Popenoe.
According to Lowie it does not matter whether marital relations are permanent or temporary;
whether there is polygyny or polyandry the one fact stands out beyond all others that everywhere
the husband, wife and immature children constitute a unit apart from the remainder of the
community. T.B.Bottomore states that the universality of the nuclear family can be accounted for
by the important functions that it has been performing. The nuclear family has been performing
the sexual, the economic, the reproductive and the educational functions. The indispensability of
these and few other functions has contributed to its universality. A major factor in maintaining the
nuclear family is economic cooperation based upon the division of labor between the sexes. The
structure of the nuclear family is not same everywhere. Bottomore makes a distinction between
two kinds of family system.
Vogel and Bell have presented a functional explanation based on the intensive study of American
families with emotionally disturbed children. Often the tension and hostility of unresolved
conflicts between parents are projected onto the child. The child is thus used an emotional
scapegoat by the parents to release their tension. It serves as a personality stabilizing process for
the parents and keeps the family united but the child pays the cost of such unity.
The Joint Family
The joint family is also known as undivided family or extended family. It normally consists of
members belong to two-three generations: husband and wife, their married and unmarried children
and their married or unmarried grandchildren. The joint family system constituted the basic social
institution in many traditional societies particularly Asian societies like Indian. The joint family is
considered as bedrock on which Hindu values and attitudes are built. The joint family is a mode
of combining smaller families into larger family units through the extension of three or more
generations. In joint family the members are related through blood and spread over several
generations living together under a common space and work under common head. According to
Iravati Karve, the joint family may be defined as a group of people who generally live under one
roof, who eat food cooked at one hearth, who hold property in common and who participate in
common family worship and are related to each other as some particular type of kindred. There
are two forms of joint family:
The Patriarchal joint family is father centered and the matriarchal joint family is mother dominated.
The patriarchal joint families are found among the Nambudaris of Malabar, the Mundus of
Chotanagpur and the Angami Nagas of Assam. The Nambudaris joint family is generally described
as illom. The matriarchal joint families are found among the Nairs of Malabar, the Khasis and
Garos living in the Garo hills of Assam. The Nair joint family is known as Tarawad.

Kinship
Kinship is the relation by the bond of blood, marriage and includes kindered ones. It represents
one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and in most societies plays a significant
role in the socialization of individuals and the maintenance of group solidarity.
It is very important in primitive societies and extends its influence on almost all their activities.
A.R Radcliffe Brown defines kinship as a system of dynamic relations between person and person
in a community, the behavior of any two persons in any of these relations being regulated in some
way and to a greater or less extent by social usage.
Affinal and Consanguineous kinship
Relation by the bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship such as parents and their children
and between children of same parents. Thus son, daughter, brother, sister, paternal uncle etc are
consanguineous kin. Each of these is related through blood.
Kinship due to marriage is Affinal kinship. New relations are created when marriage takes place.
Not only man establishes relationship with the girl and the members of her but also family
members of both the man and the woman get bound among themselves.

Type of Kinships
Primary kins:
Every individual who belong to a nuclear family finds his primary kins within the family. There
are 8 primary kins- husband-wife, father-son, mother-son, father-daughter, mother-daughter,
younger brother-elder brother, younger sister-elder sister and brother-sister.
Secondary kins:
Outside the nuclear family the individual can have 33 types of secondary relatives. For example
mother's brother, brother's wife, sister's husband, father's brother.
Tertiary kins:
Tertiary kins refer to the secondary kins of our primary kins. For example wife's brother's son,
sister's husband's brother and so on. There are 151 types of tertiary kins.