Chapter 4 Electric Fields in Matter

4.1 Polarization: 4.1.1 Dielectrics Dielectrics

Most everyday objects belong to one of two large classes: Dielectrics : Microscopic displacements are not as
conductors and insulators (or dielectrics) dramatics as the wholesale rearrangement of charge in
conductor, but their cumulative effects account for the
characteristic behavior of dielectric materials.
Conductors : Substances contains an “unlimited” supply
of charges that are free to move about through the
material.
There are actually two principal mechanisms by which
electric fields can distort the charge distribution of a
Dielectrics : all charges are attached to specific atoms or dielectric atom or molecule: stretching and rotating.
molecules. All they can do is move a bit within the atom or
molecule.

1 2

4.1.2 Induced Dipoles 4.1.2 Induced Dipoles

What happens to a neutral atom when it is placed in an
electric field E ? The atom or molecule now has a tiny dipole moment p,
which points in the same direction as E and is proportional
Although the atom as a while is electrically neutral, there is to the field.
a positively charged core (the nucleus) and a negatively p = αE, α= atomic polarizability
charged electron cloud surrounding it.
Thus, the nucleus is pushed in the direction of the field, and
the electron the opposite way.
The electric fields pull the electron cloud and the nuclear
apart, their mutual attraction drawing them together - reach
balance, leaving the atom polarized.

3 4
 Sol.
Example 4.1 A primitive model for an atom consists of a point
nuclear (+q) surrounded by a uniformly charged spherical The electric field inside a uniform charged sphere of radius a
cloud (-q) of radius a. Calculate the atomic polarizability of 1 43 πρ r 3 1
Ee (r ) = rˆ = ρ rrˆ
such an atom. 4π r 2
ε0 3ε 0
Sol. The actual displacements involved are extremely small. 1 q
∴ Ee (a ) = rrˆ , where q = 43 πρ a 3
It is reason to assume that the electron cloud retains 4πε 0 a 3

its spherical shape. The electric field produces by two uniform charged spheres
The equilibrium occurs when the nucleus is displaced a separated by d
distance d from the center of the sphere.
1 q
The external field pushing the nucleus to the right exactly E(r )=Eq + (r+ ) + Eq − (r− ) = (r+ − r− )
4πε 0 a 3
balances the internal field pulling it to the left. How?
1 q 1 1 1 qd
1 qd = ((r − d) − (r + d))= −
Ee = p = qd = (4πε 0 a 3 ) E = α E 4πε 0 a 3
2 2 4πε 0 a 3
4πε 0 a 3
1
α = 4πε 0 a 3 = 3ε 0 v the atomic polarizability5 =− p ∴ α = 4πε 0 a 3
4πε 0 a 3 6
See Problem 2.18

Polarizability of Molecules Polarizability Tensor

CO2 is relatively simple, as molecules go, since the atoms
For molecules the situation is not quite so simple, because at least arrange themselves in a straight line.
frequently they polarize more readily in some directions
For a complete asymmetrical molecule, a more general
than others.
linear relation between E and p.
For instance, carbon dioxide CO2

When the field is at some angle to the axis, you must resolve
it into parallel and perpendicular components, and multiply
each by the pertinent polarizability:
The set of nine constants αij constitute the polarizability
tensor for the molecular.
p = α⊥E ⊥ + α∥E∥
It is always possible to choose “principal” axies such that
In this case the induced dipple moment may not even be in the off-diagonal terms vanish, learning just three nonzero
the same direction as E. polarizabilities.
7 8
 4.1.3. Alignment of Polar Molecules Torque for a Permanent Dipole in Uniform Field
The neutral atom has no dipole moment to start with--- In a uniform field, the force on the positive end, F =qE,
p was induced by the applied field E. However, some exactly cancels the force on the negative end. However,
molecules have built-in, permanent dipole moment. there will be a torque:
N = (r+ x F+) + (r- x F-)
= [(d/2) x (qE) + (-d/2) x (-qE)]
= qd x E

This dipole p = qd in a uniform field experiences a torque

N=pxE
The dipole moment of water is usually large : 6.1*10-30 N is in such a direction as to line p up parallel to E, a polar
C*m, which accounts for its effectiveness as solvent. molecule that is free to rotate will swing around until it
What happens when polar molecules are placed in an points in the direction of the applied field.
electric field ? Rotating 9 10

Net Force due to Field Nonuniformity 4.1.4. Polarization

What happens to a piece of dielectric material when it is
If the field is nonuniform, so that F+ does not exactly
placed in an electric field?
balance F-; There will be a net force on the dipole.
•Neutral atoms : Inducing tiny dipole moment, pointing in
Of course, E must change rather abruptly for there to be the same direction as the field (stretching)
significant in the space of one molecule, so this is not
ordinarily a major consideration in discussing the behavior •Polar molecules : experiencing a torque, tending to line it
of dielectrics. up along the field direction (rotating).
The formula for the force on a dipole in a uniform field is of Results : A lot of little dipoles points along the direction of
some interest the field---the material becomes polarized.
@ different position
A convenient measure of this of this effect is
F = F+ + F- = q(E+ -E-) = q(∆E) = q((d．∇)E)
P ≡ dipole moment per unit volume, which is called the
F = (p．∇)E polarization.
11 12
Prob.4.2 According to quantum mechanics, the electron 4.2 The Field of a Polarized Object
cloud for a hydrogen atom in ground state has a charge 4.2.1 Bound Charges
density
q −2r / a Suppose we have a piece of polarized material with
ρ (r ) = e
πa 3 polarization P. What is the field produced by this object?
(It is easier to work with potential)
Where q is the charge of the electron and a is the Bohr 1 rˆ ⋅ p
radius. Find the atomic polarizability of such an atom. [Hint: For a single dipole p, the potential is V (r ) = 4πε r 2
0
First calculate the electric field of the electron cloud, Ee(r); where r is the vector form the dipole to the point at which
then expand the exponential, assume r<<a.
we are evaluating the potential.
Sol. For a more sophisticated approach, see W. A. Bowers,
Am. J. Phys. 54, 347 (1986).

13 14

Example 3.10 A electric dipole consists of

two equal and opposite charges separated 4.2.1 Bound Charges
by a distance d. Find the approximate
potential at points far from the dipole. For an infinitesimal dipole moment dp = Pdτ, the total
potential is
Sol:
q 1 1 q 1 rˆ ⋅ dp 1 rˆ ⋅ P(r′)
4πε 0 υ∫ r 2 4πε 0 υ∫ r 2
V (r ) = ( − )= ((1 − ε ) −1/ 2 − (1 + ε ) −1/ 2 ) V (r ) = = dτ ′
4πε 0 r − 2 z r + 2 z
d ˆ d ˆ
4πε 0 r
r′ r′ d r′
where ε = ( − 2 cos θ ′) ≅ cos θ (if << 1, so θ ′ ≅ θ )
1 rˆ with respect to
q
r r r
q
r
d 1 qd cos θ
Note that ∇′( ) = 2 the source coordinate.
V (r ) = ((1 − ε ) −1/ 2 − (1 + ε ) −1/ 2 ) = ( cos θ ) = r r
4πε 0 r 4πε 0 r r 4πε 0 r2
1 1
4πε 0 ∫v
V = P ⋅∇ ′( ) dτ ′
1 qd cos θ 1 rˆ ⋅ p p cos θ r
V (r ) = = =
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2
4πε 0 r 2
where P = qd ↑ pointing form negative charge to the positive charge. commutative
15 16
 Bound Charges Bound Surface and Volume Charges
Integrating by parts, using product rule, gives
σ b = P ⋅ n̂
{ρ
1 σb 1 ρb
A
∇⋅( ) =
g (∇ ⋅ A) − A ⋅ ∇g
= - ∇′ ⋅ P
V =
4πε 0 v∫ r
da′ +
4πε 0 ∫
v r
dτ ′
g g2 b S

This means that the potential of a polarized object is the

1 P 1 same as that produced by a surface charge plus a volume
V = [ ∫ ∇′ ⋅ (
) dτ ′ - ∫ (∇′ ⋅ P ) dτ ′ ] charge density.
4πε 0 v r vr

1 P 1 1
= ∫
v
4πε 0 S r
⋅ da′ +
4πε 0 r∫v
(-∇′ ⋅ P ) dτ ′
Ex. 4.2 Find the electric field produced
by a uniformly polarized sphere of
σ b = P ⋅ n̂ ρ b = - ∇′ ⋅ P radius R.

surface charge volume charge

17 18

σ b = P ⋅ nˆ = Pcosθ ′ da′ = (Rdθ ′)( Rsinθ ′dφ ′) 1 π 1 ∞ R n

 ρ = -∇′ ⋅ P = 0
V (r , 0, 0) =
4πε 0 ∫0 r n =0 r
∑ ( ) Pn ( cos θ ′)Pcosθ ′2π R 2sinθ ′dθ ′ r ≥ R
 b = R 2sinθ ′dθ ′dφ ′
1 11 ∞ R
V (r ) =
1
∫
π Pcosθ ′
2π R 2sinθ ′ ⋅ dθ ′
=
4πε 0 ∫ -1
∑ ( ) n Pn ( cos θ ′)Pcosθ ′2π R 2 d cos θ ′
r n =0 r
4πε 0 0 r
1 1 PR 3 1 PR 3  orthogonality 
= ∫ θ ′ θ ′ =
2
1 1 ∞ R n cos d cos  only n =1 survive 
= ∑ ( ) Pn ( cos ϑ ) 2ε 0 3ε 0 r
2 2
r≥R -1 r  
r r n =0 r ϑ : angle between
1 π 1 ∞ r n
1 ∞ r
= ∑ ( ) n Pn (cos ϑ ) r≤R
r and r′ ⇒ cos ϑ = rˆ ⋅ rˆ ′ V (r , 0, 0) =
4πε 0 ∫0
∑ ( ) Pn (cos θ ′)Pcosθ ′2π R 2sinθ ′dθ ′
R n =0 R
r≤R
R n =0 R 1 1 1 r

4πε 0 ∫-1 R R
= ( ) P1 (cos θ ′) Pcosθ ′2π R 2 d cos θ ′
It will be easier if we let r lie on the z axis, so that the angle
between them changes from ϑ to θ ′ P  orthogonality 
= r  only n =1 survive 
1 1 ∞ R n 3ε 0  
= ∑ ( ) Pn ( cos θ ′) r≥R  1 PR 3
r r n =0 r  cosθ (r > R )
 3ε 0 r 2
1 ∞ r Allow r a θ-dependence. V (r , 0, 0) = 
= ∑ ( ) n Pn (cos θ ′) r≤R  P rcosθ (r < R)
R n =0 R 19
 3ε 0
20
 Electric field of a Uniformly Polarized Sphere 4.2.2 Physical Interpretation of Bound Charges
3
P R What is the physical meaning of the bound charge?
V(r) = cos θ (outside)
3ε0 r 2 Consider a long string of dipoles.
4
( πP ⋅ R 3 )
1 3
V (r ) = cosθ
4πε0 r2
The net charge at the ends is called the bound charge. The
1 p ⋅ rˆ 4
= 2
where p = πR 3 P bound charge is no different from any other kind.
4πε0 r 3
Consider a “tube” of dielectric with a given polarization P.
q q
p p σb = =P σb = = P cos θ = P ⋅ nˆ
V(r) = r cos θ = z (inside) Why are the field A Aend
3ε0 3ε0
lines not continuous?
P
E = -∇V = - zˆ uniformly
3ε0
21 22

Nonuniform Polarization Another Way of Analyzing

Æ The Bound Volume Charge the Uniformly Polarized Sphere
If the polarization is nonuniform, we get accumulations of Example 4.3 Two spheres of charge: a positive
bound charge within the material as well as on the surface. sphere and a negative sphere. Without
polarization the two are superimposed and
The net bound charge in a given volume is equal and
cancel completely.
opposite to the amount that has been pushed out through
the surface. But when the material is uniformly polarized, all the plus
charges move slightly upward and all the minus charges
∫ ρ dτ = - ∫ P ⋅ da = ∫ (-∇ ⋅ P) dτ
v
b
S v
move slightly downward.
gauss’s laws The two spheres no longer overlap perfectly: at the top
there’s a “cap” of leftover positive charge and at the
This is true for any volume bottom a cap of negative charge.
bound charge.
This “leftover” charge is precisely the bound surface charge
ρb = −∇ ⋅ P σb.
23 24
 4.2.3 The Field Inside a Dielectric 4.2.3 The Field Inside a dielectric
What kind of dipole are we actually dealing with, “pure” The electric field inside matter must be very complicated,
dipole or “physical” dipole? on the microscopic level, which would be utterly
impossible to calculate, nor would it be of much interest.
Outside the dielectric there is no real problem, since we
are far away from the molecules.
Inside the dielectric, however, we can hardly pretend to be The macroscopic field is defined as the average field over
far from all the dipoles. regions large enough to contain many thousand of atoms.

The macroscopic field smoothes over the uninteresting

microscopic fluctuation and is what people mean when
they speak of “the” field inside matter.

25 26

The Macroscopic Field

The macroscopic field at r, consists the average field over Homework #7
the sphere due to all charge outside, plus the average due
to all charge inside.
E = E out + Ein Problems: 2, 9, 10, 16, 31
1 rˆ ⋅ P(r′)
Vout =
4πε0 ∫
outside r2
dτ ′

1 p 1 43 πR 3 P 1
Ein = − = − =− P
4πε0 R 3 4πε0 R 3 3ε0

1 rˆ ⋅ P(r′)
V (r ) =
4πε0 ∫
R →0 r2
dτ ′

where the integral runs over the entire volume of the

dielectric. 27 28
 4.3 The Electric Displacement Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectric
4.3.1 Gauss’s Law in the Presence of Dielectric
∇ ⋅ D = ρ f ⇒ ∫ D ⋅ da = Q f enc
The total free charge
The effect of polarization is to produce accumulation of bound enclosed in the volume
charge, ρb = −∇ ⋅ P within the dielectric and σ b = P ⋅ n̂ on the
surface.
In a typical problem , we know ρf , but not ρb. So this
Now we are going to treat the field caused by both bound equation allows us to deal with the information at hand.
charge and free charge. ρ = ρ + ρ
f b

= ρ f − ∇ ⋅ P = ε 0∇ ⋅ E
What is the contribution of the bound surface charge?
where E is now the total field, not just that portion generated
by polarization . ε 0∇ ⋅ E + ∇ ⋅ P = ρ f The bound surface charge σb can be considered as ρb
varies rapidly but smoothly within the “skin”.
∇ ⋅ (ε 0 E + P) = ρ f
Let D = ε 0 E + P the electric displacement So Gauss’s law can be applied elsewhere .
Gauss’s law reads ∇⋅D = ρ f
29 30

Example 4.4 A long straight wire, carrying 4.3.2 A Deceptive Parallel

uniform line charge λ, is surrounded by “To solve problems involving dielectrics, you just forget
rubber insulation out to a radius a. Find all about the bound charge ─ calculate the field as you
the electric displacement . ordinarily would, only call the answer D instead of E”
⇑ This conclusion is false.
Sol : Drawing a cylindrical Gaussian surface, of radius s and
length L, and applying the new Gauss’s law , we find For the divergence along is insufficient to determine a
vector field; you need to know the curl as well.
λ λ ∇×D=ε0(∇×E) +∇×P = ∇×P ←not always zero
Inside D ( 2π sL ) = λ L ⇒ D= sˆ ∴ E = sˆ
2π s 2π sε r ε 0 Since the curl of D is not always zero, D cannot be
expressed as the gradient of a scalar.
λ λ
Outside D(2πsL ) = λL ⇒ D = sˆ ∴ E = sˆ Advice : If the problem exhibits spherical, cylindrical, or
2πs 2πsε 0 plane symmetry, then you can get D directly from the
generalized Gauss’s law.
31 32
 4.4 Linear Dielectric
4.3.3 Boundary Conditions
4.4.1 Susceptibility and Permittivity
The electrostatic boundary condition in terms of E
⊥ ⊥ σ ρ For many substances, the polarization is proportional to
E above − E below = ∇⋅E = the field, provided E is not too strong.
ε0 ε0
//
Eabove − Ebelow
//
=0 ∇×E = 0
P = ε0χeE χe :the electric susceptibility of the medium
The electrostatic boundary condition in terms of D
∇⋅D = ρf dimensionless
⊥
Dabovt ⊥
− Dbelow =σ f
materials that obey above equation is called linear dielectrics .
D //
above −D
//
below =P //
above −P//
below
∇×D = ∇×P
The total field E may be due in part to free charges and in
part to the polarization itself .
33 34

Permittivity and Dielectric Constant Linear Media & Dielectric Constant

In linear media ,
D = ε 0 E + P = ε 0 E + ε 0 χ e E = ε 0 (1 + χ e )E = εE
We cannot compute P directly from this equation:

the external field ε

will polarize the where, ε = ε 0 (1 + χ ) εr = = 1 + χe
material this polarization will ↑ ε0
produce its own field and Permittivity of the material Relative permittivity
contributes to the total field. or dielectric constant
E 0 → P0
The new total
P0 → E 0 + ∆ E ′P field will polarize
the material.

E 0 + ∆ E ′P → P0 + ∆ P0′

Will this series converge? Depends.

35 36
Example 4.5 A metal shpere of radius a carries a charge Q. Cont’: Bound Charges in the Dielectric
It is surrounded, out to radius b , by linear dielectric material
of permittivity ε. Find the potential at the center (relative to
volume bound charge ρ b = −∇ ⋅ P = 0
infinity). surface bound charge  ε 0 χ eQ
Sol: Use the generalized Gauss’s law  at the outer surface
σ b = P ⋅ nˆ =  4πεb
2
Q
D= rˆ for all points r > a −ε χ Q
4πr 2  0 e2 at the inner surface
 Q ˆ  4πεa
 4πε r 2 r for a < r < b
E= Note that n̂ always points outward with respect to the dielectric ,
 Q 2 rˆ for r > b which is + r̂ at b but − r̂ at a .
 4πε 0 r
The surface bound charge at inner surface is negative. It is
The metal sphere is equalpotential this layer of negative charge that reduces the field, within
Q 1 1 1 
the dielectric by a factor of ε r .
a b Q a Q
V = − ∫ E ⋅ dl = − ∫ dr − ∫ dr =  + − 
∞ ∞ 4πε 0 r 2 b 4πε 0ε r r 2
4πε 0  b ε r a ε r b 
ε 0 χ eQ Q  χe  In this respect a dielectric is rather like an imperfect conductor.
P = ε 0 χ eE = rˆ =  rˆ
4πεr 2
4πr 2  1 + χ e  37 38

Stokes’ Theorem for the Polarization Shielding Effect & Susceptibility Tensor
In general, linear dielectrics
cannot escape the defect that
∇×P ≠ 0 The polarization of the medium partially
“shields” the charge, by surrounding it
with bound charge of the opposite sign.
However, if the space is entirely filled with a homogenous
linear dielectric, then this objection is void. For some material, it is generally easier to polarize in some
∇⋅D = ρf 1 1
directions than in others .
E= D= E vac
∇×D = 0 ε εr P = ε 0 χ eE linear dielectric

Remark : When all the space is filled with a homogenous

linear dielectric, the field everywhere is simply reduced by general case
a factor of one over the dielectric constant . the susceptibility tensor

39 40
Prob. 4.18 The space between the planes of a parallel-plate
capacitor is filled with two slabs of linear dielectric material. Each 4.4.2 Boundary Value Problems with Linear Dielectrics
slab has thickness a, so the total distance between the plates is 2a.
Slab 1 has a dielectric constant of 2, and slab 2 has a dielectric Relation between bound charge and free charge
constant of 1.5 the free charge density on the top plate is σ and on  D χ
ρb = −∇ ⋅ P = −∇ ⋅  ε 0 χ e  = − e ρ f ← in a homogenous
the bottom plate -σ.
 ε 1+ χe
(a) Find the electric displacement D in each slab. linear dielectric
(b) Find the electric field E in each slab. shielding effect
(c) Find the polarization P in each slab.
(d) Find the potential difference between the plates. The boundary conditions that makes reference only to the
(e) Find the location and amount of all bound charge. free charge .
(f) Now that you know all the charge (free and bound), recalculate
the field in each slab, and confirm your answer to (d).
⊥
Dabovt ⊥
− Dbelow = σ f ⇒ ε above Eabove
⊥
− ε below Ebelow
⊥
=σ f

(ε above∇Vabove − ε below ∇Vbelow ) = −σ f nˆ

∂Vabove ∂V ∂Vabove
or (ε above − ε below below ) = −σ f where = ∇V ⋅ nˆ .
∂n ∂n ∂n
41 42

∞
Homogeneous Linear Dielectric Sphere V (r , θ ) = ∑ ( AA r A + BA r −( A +1) ) PA (cosθ )
A =0
Example 4.7 A sphere of homogeneous linear dielectric
 ∞
material is placed in a uniform electric field E. Find the
resulant electric field.
 Vin ( r , θ ) = ∑
A =0
AA r A PA (cosθ ) r≤R
 ∞
Sol: Look at Ex. 3.8 an uncharged conducting sphere. In Vout (r ,θ ) = − E0 r cos θ + ∑ BA r −( A +1) PA (cosθ ) r ≥ R
 A =0
that case the field of the induced charge completely
canceled E within the sphere; However, in a dielectric the B.C. (iii)
cancellation is only partial.
B.C. (i) : AA R A PA = − E0 R cos θ + BA R − ( A +1) PA
The boundary conditions  A R = − E0 R + B1 R − 2 A = 1
⇒ 1
 AA R = BA R
A − ( A +1)
A ≠1
no free charge B.C. (ii) : ε r AAA R PA = − E0 cos θ − (A + 1) BA R −( A + 2) PA
A −1

at the surface
 ε r A1 = − E0 − 2 B1 R −3 A =1
⇒
ε r AAA R = −(A + 1) BA R A ≠1
A −1 −( A + 2)
43 44
 Partial Image Charge
 A1 R = − E0 R + B1 R −2 A = 1  ε r A1 = − E0 − 2 B1 R −3 A =1
Example 4.8 Suppose the entire region below the plane z=0 is
 
A ≠1 ε r AAA R = −(A + 1) BA R A ≠1
− ( A +1) A −1 −( A + 2 )
 AA R = BA R
A
filled with uniform linear dielectric material of susceptibility χ e .
Calculate the force on a point charge q situated at distant d
ε −1 3 above the origin.
 3E0
 A1 = − ; B1 = r R A =1 Sol: The surface bound charge on the xy plane is of opposite
⇒ εr + 2 εr + 2
 AA = BA = 0 sign to q , so the force will be attractive. 
A ≠1 1  q qb
z>0 V= + 
4πε 0  x2 + y2 + ( z − d ) 2 2 2 2 
x + y +(z +d) 

 3E0 1  ( q + qb ) 
 Vin (r , θ ) = − r cos θ z<o V=  2  ← why ?
4πε 0  x + y 2 + ( z − d ) 
2
εr + 2
 ε − 1 3 −2  ∂V ∂V  1  χe  qd
Vout (r , θ ) = − E0 r cos θ + ( r ) R E0 r cos θ B.C. −ε0  −  =−   = σb
 εr + 2  ∂z z=0+ ∂z z=0−  2π  χe + 2  ( x2 + y2 + d2 ) 2
3

3E0 ∞ 1  χe  qd 1 ∞ χe qd  χ 
Ein = −∇Vin = − zˆ ← uniform qb = 2π ∫ −   rdr = − ∫ dr2 = − e  q
εr + 2 r =0 2π  χe + 2  r2 + d 2 2
( )
3
2 χe + 2 r2 + d 2 2
0
( )
3
 χe + 246
45

4.4.3 Energy in Dielectric systems Which Formula is Correct?

1
2∫
How to express the energy for a dielectric filled capacitor? W= (ε 0 E ⋅ E)dτ derived in Chap. 2
Suppose we bring in the free charge, a bit at a time. As ρ f is speak to somewhat
increased by an amount ∆ρ f , the polarization will charge and 1 different question
W = ∫ (E ⋅ D)dτ derived in Chap. 4
with it the bound charge distribution. 2
The work done on the incremental free charge is :
What do we mean by “the energy of a system“?
∆W = ∫ (∆ρ f )Vdτ
It is the work required to assemble the system.
∇ ⋅ D = ρ f ⇒ ∆ρ f = ∇ ⋅ (∆D) the resulting change in D
0 (1) Bring in all the charges (free and bound ), one by one,
∆W = ∫ (∇ ⋅ ∆D)Vdτ = ∫ (∇ ⋅ ∆DV − ∇V ⋅ ∆D)dτ with tweezers, and glue each one down in its proper final
surface integral vanish if we position (Chap. 2).
integral will over all of pace. (2) Bring in the free charges, with the unpolarized dielectric in
1 1 place, one by one, allowing the dielectric to respond as it see
∆W = ∫ E ⋅ ∆Ddτ = ∫ 2∫
∆(εE 2 )dτ ∴W = (E ⋅ D)dτ fit (Chap. 4).
2 47 48
 4.4.4 Forces on Dielectric The Fringing Field Effect
In reality a fringing field around the edges
The dielectric is attracted into an electric field, just like is responsible for the whole effect.
conductor: the bound charge tends to accumulate near the It is this nonuniform fringing field that pulls
free charge of the opposite sign. the dielectric into the capacitor.
How to calculate the forces on dielectrics? Fringing field are difficult to calculate, so we
Consider the case of a slab of linear adapt the following ingenious method.
1 Q2
The energy stored in the capacitor is: W = CV =
2
dielectric material, partially inserted
between the plates of a parallel-plate 2 2C
dW
capacitor. The electric force on the slab is: F = −
dx
ε 0ω x ε 0ε r ω (A − x ) ε 0ω
If the field is perpendicular to the C = C1 + C 2 = + = (ε r A − χ e x )
d d d
plates, no force would exert on the Fixed charge
dielectric. Is that true? dW 1 Q 2 dC 1 dC ε χ ω
F =− = = V 2
=− 0 e V 2

49
dx 2 C 2 dx 2 dx 2d 50

ε 0 χ eω
F =− V 2 < 0 indicates that the force is in the negative
2d Homework #8
x direction; the dielectric is pulled into the capacitor.

1 dC
Fixed voltage F = + V 2 pushed out. why? Problems: 21, 27, 28, 33, 36.
2 dx

To maintain a constant voltage, the battery must do work.

why? work done by the battery
dW = Fme dx + VdQ
Fme : the force I must exert. (Fme = − F )

dW dQ 1 dC dC 1 2 dC
F =− +V =− V2 +V 2 = V
dx dx 2 dx dx 2 dx
51 52