Control and Optimization of Unit Operations: 8.1 Aeration and Do Controls 1484

Control and Optimization
of Unit Operations
8
8.1 Operating Mode Selection 1509

AERATION AND DO CONTROLS 1484 Fan Controls 1510
Introduction 1484 Temperature Controls 1512
Mechanical Aeration 1484 Humidity Controls 1516
Process Configurations 1484 Outdoor Air Controls 1517
Aerator Control Strategies 1485 Optimizing Strategies 1519
Aeration Diffusers 1488 Temperature Optimization in the Winter 1519
Aeration Blowers 1489 Temperature Optimization in the Summer 1520
Air Distribution Control Valves 1493 AutoBalancing of Buildings 1521
Measurement of Do Concentration 1495 Start-Up Algorithm 1522
Galvanic Cell 1495 Normal Algorithm for VAV Throttling 1522
Polarographic Cell 1496 Optimization of Air Supply Pressure and
Galvanic and Polarographic Cell Temperature 1523
Limitations 1496 Elimination of Chimney Effects 1524
Luminescent DO Sensors 1496 Conclusions 1525
Miscellaneous Field Instruments 1497 References 1526
Control of Diffused Aeration 1497 Bibliography 1527
Parallel and Cascade Control of Blowers 1497
Aeration System Control 1498
Nitrogen Profile Analyzers for Wastewater 1503 8.3
Nitrogen Profile Analyzers 1503 BATCH CONTROL DESCRIPTION, TERMINOLOGY,
Mechanical Aerator Control Application 1503 AND STANDARD S88 1528
Diffused Aeration Control Application 1503
Acknowledgments 1505 Feature Summary 1528
References 1506 Batch Process Classification 1528
Recipe Point of View 1528
Equipment Point of View 1529
8.2 Product Point of View 1529
AIRHANDLER AND BUILDING CONDITIONING Batch Automation 1530
CONTROLS 1507 Process/Product Management 1530
Introduction 1507 Production Management 1530
The Airhandler 1507 Batch Management 1534
Airhandler Components 1508 Unit Supervision 1535
1473
© 2006 by Béla Lipták

1474 Control and Optimization of Unit Operations
Process Control 1536 Scaling a Multiplier 1566

Safety Interlocking 1537 Scaling a Heat-Transfer Calculation 1567
Engineering 1537 Ratio Controller Tuning 1568
Conclusions 1541 Digital Blending System 1568
References 1541 Trends in Blending Systems 1570
Bibliography 1541 Application Examples 1570
Conclusions 1571
References 1571
8.4 Bibliography 1571
BATCH PROCESSES AND THEIR AUTOMATION 1544
Introduction 1544
Batch Control Standards 1544 8.6
Part 1: Models and Terminology 1544 BOILER CONTROL AND OPTIMIZATION 1572
Part 2: Data Structures and Language Introduction 1572
Guidelines 1545 The Boiler 1573
Part 3: General and Site Recipes 1545 Efficiency 1573
Part 4: Production Records 1546 Equipment 1574
The Benefits of Standards 1546 The Role of Sensors 1574
Definition of Batch Terms 1547 Safety Interlocks 1577
Models 1547 Soot Blowers 1580
Physical Model 1547 Boiler Dynamics 1581
Control Activity Model 1548 Air/Fuel Ratio Controls 1581
Procedure Model 1548 Basic Boiler Controls 1583
Batch Process Cell 1548 Boiler-Pressure and Firing Rate Controls 1583
Physical Structure of a Plant 1548 Fuel Controls 1589
Equipment for Batch Automation 1549 Air flow Measurement and Control 1594
Batch Control Functions 1549 Furnace Draft Control 1595
Interlock Functions 1549 Air/Fuel Ratio 1596
Regulatory Control 1550 Feedwater and Drum-Level Control 1599
Discrete Control 1550 Steam Temperature Control 1604
Sequential Control 1551 Flue-Gas Temperature 1606
Unit, Batch, and Recipe Management 1551 Integration of Loops 1606
From Analysis to Implementation 1552 Pollution Control 1606
Methods of Analysis 1553 NOx Control 1607
Project Application Specification 1553 SO2 Control 1608
Reliability and Availability 1554 Optimization of Boilers 1610
Control System Selection 1556 Excess Air Optimization 1610
Acronyms 1557 Flue-Gas Temperature 1618
References 1557 Fuel Savings through Optimization 1619
Bibliography 1557 Steam Pressure Optimization 1621
Steam Temperature Optimization 1622
Water Side Optimization 1623
8.5 Load Allocation-Based Optimization 1623
BLENDING AND RATIO CONTROLS 1558 Soot Blowing Optimization 1625
Introduction 1559 Model-Based Boiler Optimization 1627
Blending Methods 1559 Conclusions 1629
Rate Blending 1561 Acknowledgments 1629
Totalizing Blending 1561 References 1629
Optimizing Blending 1561 bibliography 1630
Analog Blending 1562
Mechanical Ratio Control 1563
Pneumatic Ratio Control 1564 8.7
Electronic Ratio Control 1564 CENTRIFUGE CONTROLS 1632
Ratio Dial Setting 1566 Centrifuge Types 1632
Scaling Procedures 1566 Laboratory Centrifuges 1633
Multiplying and Dividing 1566 Industrial Centrifuges 1633

Contents of Chapter 8 1475
Sedimentation Centrifuges 1633 Dual-Mode Controller 1677

Filtration Centrifuges 1637 Rate of Temperature Rise Constraint 1678
Conclusions 1639 Model-Based Heat-Up Control 1679
Bibliography 1639 Special and Optimizing Strategies 1680
Maximized Production by Constraint
Optimization 1680
8.8 Heat Release Control 1677
CHEMICAL REACTORS: BATCH SEQUENCING 1640 Stripping and Refluxing Controls 1682
Introduction 1640 Constant Reaction Rate 1682
Batch Control Characteristics 1640 Endpoint Detection 1683
Batch Control Standards 1641 Residence Time Control 1686
Standard Terminology 1641 Analyzers for Endpoint Detection 1686
Batch Reactor Control 1642 Product Quality Control 1687
Control Concepts 1642 Pressure Control 1688
Recipe Types 1643 Vacuum Control 1689
Programming Concepts 1644 Vacuum Stripping 1689
Sequencing Logic Controls 1645 Reactor Safety 1689
Recipe Procedures 1646 Runaway Reactions 1691
Procedure Function Chart Execution 1647 Glass Lining Protection 1691
Equipment Control Sequence Logic 1647 Multiple Sensors 1692
Time-Sequence Diagrams 1647 Instrument Reliability 1693
Engineering a Batch Control Strategy 1649 Conclusions 1694
Preparatory Steps 1649 References 1694
Equipment-Related Requirements 1649 Bibliography 1695
Process Sequencing and Supervision 1651
Exception Handling and Reporting 1651
Implementation 1651
8.10
Batch Charging 1652
CHEMICAL REACTORS: CONTROL
Unit Operations Controllers 1652
AND OPTIMIZATION 1697
Reactor Unit Controller 1653
Jacket Equipment Module 1653 Introduction 1697
Recipe Charging Module 1656 Objectives 1697
Stripping or Distillation Module 1656 Safety 1697
Cleaning and Interting Modules 1657 Maximizing Yield 1697
Recipe Controls 1657 The Catalyst 1697
Equipment Phases 1658 Chemical Reaction Kinetics 1698
Component or Device Control 1659 Batch Reactions 1698
Conclusions 1662 Continuous Plug-Flow Reactors 1698
References 1662 Continuous Back-Mixed Reactors 1699
Bibliography 1662 Effect of Temperature 1699
Exothermic Reactor Stability 1700
Steady-State Stability 1700
8.9 Unstable but Controllable 1701
CHEMICAL REACTORS: BASIC CONTROL Uncontrollable Reactors 1701
STRATEGIES 1664 Temperature Control 1701
Introduction 1664 Measuring Temperature 1701
Reactor Designs and Characteristics 1664 Manipulating Coolant Flow 1702
Reaction Rates and Kinetics 1665 Tempering Loops 1702
Reactor Time Constants 1666 Valve Selection 1703
Temperature Control 1667 Cascade Control 1703
Cascade Control 1668 Batch Reactor Start-Up 1704
Pressure-Compensated Temperature Control Material Balance Control 1706
1673 Stoichiometry 1706
Model-Based Temperature Control 1675 Controlling Inventory 1706
Initial Heat-Up 1676 Reactor Dynamics 1707
The Batch Unit 1677 Batch End-Point Control 1707

Reactor Optimization 1708 Chilled Water Return Temperature

Maximizing Production 1708 Optimization 1733
Supplemental Cooling 1709 Cooling Tower Supply Temperature
References 1710 Optimization 1735
Bibliography 1710 Cooling Tower Return Temperature
Optimization 1735
Heat Recovery Optimization 1736
8.11 Optimization by Operating Mode Selection 1737
CHEMICAL REACTORS: SIMULATION AND Artificial Heat Sources 1737
MODELING 1711 Optimization by System Reconfiguration 1738
Indirect Free Cooling by Thermosiphon 1739
Introduction 1711 Indirect Free Cooling by Heat Exchanger 1740
Model Building 1711 Direct Free Cooling 1741
Simulation 1711 Operating Mode Reconfiguration 1742
Control System Simulation 1712 Responsiveness and Prioritizing 1742
Digital Control Simulation 1712 More Responsive Control 1742
Control Valve Simulation 1713 Water Distribution Optimization 1743
Reactor Models 1713 Optimizing Storage and Load Allocation 1744
Reaction Kinetics 1713 Optimized Storage 1744
Perfectly Mixed Flow Reactor 1714 Optimized Load Allocation 1745
Plug Flow Reactor 1716 Optimization of Special Chillers 1745
Nonideal Flow 1717 Optimized Commercial Chillers 1745
Heterogeneous Reactors 1718 Multistage Chillers 1748
Catalytic Reactors 1718 Optimized Control of Multiple Users 1749
Conclusions 1718 Retrofit Optimization 1750
Bibliography 1719 Surge Protection 1750
Low Evaporator Temperature 1750
Economizer and Steam Governor 1750
8.12 Conclusions 1751
CHILLER CONTROL 1720 References 1752
Introduction 1720 Bibliography 1752
The Heat Pump 1720
Nomenclature 1720 8.14
The Cooling Process 1721 CLEAN-ROOM CONTROLS AND
Coefficient of Performance 1721 OPTIMIZATION 1753
Refrigerants and Heat Transfer Fluids 1722
Refrigerator and Chiller Designs 1723 Introduction 1753
Small Industrial Refrigerators 1723 Semiconductor Manufacturing 1753
Industrial Chillers 1725 Subzone Optimization 1753
Chilled Water Piping Configurations 1726 Optimization of the Zones 1756
Adding Storage 1727 Plantwide Optimization 1757
Conclusions 1728 Conclusions 1761
References 1728 Bibliography 1761
Bibliography 1728
8.15
COMPRESSOR CONTROL AND OPTIMIZATION 1763
8.13 Introduction 1763
CHILLER OPTIMIZATION 1729 Centrifugal Compressors 1764
Introduction 1729 The Compression Process 1764
The Total Cooling System 1729 Characteristic Curves 1764
Optimizing Mechanical Refrigeration Compressor Throttling 1765
Systems 1730 Surge Control 1768
Minimizing the Operating Cost 1731 Override Controls 1776
Chilled Water Supply Temperature Optimized Load-Following 1777
Optimization 1732 Interaction and Decoupling 1778

Multiple Compressor Systems 1780 Evaporative Crystallizers 1813

Multi-Inlet Compressor Control 1782 Indirectly Heated Crystallizers 1813
Installation 1782 Advanced Controls 1814
Rotary Compressors, Blowers 1784 Draft-Tube Baffle Crystallizer 1814
Reciprocating Compressors 1784 Multiple-Effect Operation 1814
On/Off Control 1785 Submerged-Combustion Crystallizers 1815
Constant-Speed Unloading 1785 Cooling Crystallizers 1816
The Stand-Alone Air Compressor 1786 Controlled-Growth Magma Crystallizers 1816
Conclusions 1792 Classifying Crystallizers 1816
References 1792 Direct-Contact Crystallizers 1817
Bibliography 1792 Vacuum Crystallizers 1817
Reaction Crystallizers 1818
Auxiliary Equipment 1819
8.16
Conclusions 1819
COOLING TOWER CONTROL 1794
Bibliography 1819
Introduction 1794
Definitions 1794
The Cooling Process 1797
8.19
Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers 1798
DISTILLATION: BASIC CONTROLS 1820
Characteristic Curves 1798
Controls 1799 Introduction 1820
Load Controls 1799 General Considerations 1820
Operating Interlocks 1799 Distillation Equipment 1821
Safety Interlocks 1800 The Column 1821
Evaporative Condensers 1801 Condensers 1823
Secondary Controls 1801 Reboilers 1823
Winter Operation 1801 Interheaters/Intercoolers 1824
Blowdown Controls 1802 Column Variables 1824
Miscellaneous Controls 1802 Modeling and Control Equations 1825
Conclusions 1803 Steady-State Model 1825
References 1803 Dynamic Model 1827
Bibliography 1803 Separation Equations 1828
Scaling 1828
Multiple Component Distillation 1830
8.17 Columns with Sidedraw 1831
COOLING TOWER OPTIMIZATION 1805 Multiproduct Fractionators 1831
Introduction 1805 Superfractionators 1832
Minimizing Operating Cost 1806 Batch Distillation 1832
The Optimum Approach 1806 Control Objectives and Strategies 1833
Cost Curves 1806 Alternative Control Strategies 1834
Supply Temperature Optimization 1807 Control Loop Interaction 1834
Return Temperature Optimization 1807 Product Quality Control 1836
Benefits of Optimization 1808 Inferring Composition from Temperature 1836
Starting Additional Pumps 1808 Control by Analyzers 1837
Return Water Distribution and Balancing 1808 Pressure Control 1842
Conclusions 1809 Liquid Distillate and Inerts 1842
References 1809 Vapor Distillate and Inerts 1843
Bibliography 1810 Liquid Distillate with Negligible Inerts 1843
Vacuum Systems 1845
Vapor Recompression 1846
8.18 Feed Controls 1847
CRYSTALLIZER CONTROLS 1811 Feed Flow Control 1847
Introduction 1811 Variable Column Feed 1847
The Crystallization Process 1811 Feed Temperature Control 1848
Crystal Size Distribution 1812 Feedforward Controls 1848
Degrees of Freedom 1812 Conclusions 1849

References 1849 Composition Control of Two Products 1879

Bibliography 1850 Two Products with Interaction 1880
Feed Composition Compensation 1881
Supervisory Control 1882
8.20 The Total Model 1883
DISTILLATION: CALCULATIONS Suboptimization 1883
OF RELATIVE GAINS 1855 Local Optimum Variables 1886
Optimization 1890
Introduction 1855 If Product Prices are Unknown 1890
Rga for Distillation 1855 If Products Prices are Known 1891
Two-by-Two Subsets 1855 Optimizing Policies 1891
Choice of Manipulated Variables 1856 Operating Constraints 1891
Column Model 1857 Limited Market and Feedstock 1892
Material Balance 1857 Control Equations 1893
Separation 1857 Top Product Having Higher Value 1893
Operating Curves 1857 Bottom Product More Valuable 1894
Relative Gain Calculations 1858 Unlimited Market and Feedstock 1896
Slope Calculations 1858 Conclusions 1899
Table of Relative Gains 1859 References 1900
Interpreting the Results 1859 Bibliography 1901
Sidestream Columns 1860 For Pre-1990 Literature,
Pasteurization Columns 1860 Refer to Section 8.19 1901
Heavy-Ends Columns 1860
Small Sidestreams 1860
Open-Loop Gains in Terms of Relative Gains 1861 8.22
Reducing Matrix Models to 2 × 2 Subsets 1861 DRYER CONTROLS 1904
Simplified Model for Separation 1862
Introduction 1904
Formulas for Relative Gain 1863
Adiabatic Drying 1904
Example 1 1863
The Psychrometric Chart 1904
Open-Loop Gains 1864
Batch Drying 1905
Example 2 1864
Dryer Model 1907
Conclusions 1864
Moisture Control 1907
Nomenclature 1864
Moisture Analyzers 1907
Greek Letters 1865
Controlling Batch Dryers 1908
References 1865
Lumber Kilns 1908
Bibliography 1865
Continuous Fluid-Bed Dryers 1909
Direct-Fired Dryers 1910
Countercurrent Dryers 1911
8.21 Nonadiabatic Dryers 1911
DISTILLATION: OPTIMIZATION References 1912
AND ADVANCED CONTROLS 1866 Bibliography 1912
Introduction 1866
Definitions 1866
Advanced Process Control 1867 8.23
Model-Based Control 1868 EVAPORATOR CONTROLS 1914
Multivariable Control 1869 Introduction 1914
Dynamic Matrix Control 1870 Evaporator Terminology 1914
Artificial Neural Networks 1870 Evaporator Modeling 1915
Siso Control Advances 1872 The Steady-State Model 1915
Process Model 1873 Scaling and Normalizing 1917
Feedforward Systems 1875 Evaporator Designs 1918
Flow Control of Distillate 1876 Evaporator Controls 1919
Flow Control of Bottoms 1877 Feedback Control 1919
Constant Separation 1877 Feedforward Control 1921
Maximum Recovery 1878 Other Load Variables 1924

Auto-Select Controls 1926 Optimizing the Discharge Pressure 1949

Trimming Controls 1927 Conclusions 1950
Product Density Measurement 1928 References 1950
Boiling-Point Rise 1929 Bibliography 1950
Conductivity 1929
Differential Pressure 1929
Gamma Gauge 1930 8.26
U-Tube Densitometer 1930 FUEL CELL CONTROLS 1952
Buoyancy Float 1930
Oscillating Coriolis 1930 Introduction 1953
Conclusions 1930 Efficiency and Pollution 1953
References 1930 Historical Perspective 1954
Bibliography 1930 High-Temperature Designs 1954
Polymer Technology 1954
Performance and Designs 1955
Electrical Performance 1955
8.24
Functional Requirements 1955
EXTRUDER CONTROLS 1932
Fuel Cell Types and Features 1956
Introduction 1932 Fuel Cells Reactions 1956
Extruder Production Rate 1932 Fuel Cell Design Features 1958
Polymer Types and Characteristics 1932 Fuel Cell Controls 1958
Components of the Extruder System 1932 Oxidant and Fuel Flow Metering 1959
Blenders 1933 Thermal Control 1961
Cooling System 1933 Control of the Auxiliary Systems 1961
Cutters 1934 Fuel Treatment Control 1961
Auxiliary Equipment 1935 Exhaust Systems Controls 1963
Extruder Types and Subsystems 1935 Inverter Controls 1964
Single-Screw Extruders 1935 Shutdown Control Requirements 1965
Twin-Screw Extruders 1935 Conclusions 1965
Extruder Dies and Barrels 1935 Bibliography 1965
Cooling Systems 1936
Sensors, Variables, and Their Control 1937
Temperature Measurement 1937
Temperature Control 1937 8.27
Pressure Measurement 1938 FURNACE AND REFORMER CONTROLS 1966
Pressure Control 1938 Introduction 1966
Film Thickness Control 1939 General Considerations 1967
Extruder Control Systems 1940 Standards Applicable to Furnace Controls 1967
Basic Control 1940 The Combustion Process 1967
Advanced Control 1940 Safety Considerations 1968
Integrated Control 1944 Pollution Abatement 1971
Conclusions 1945 Analyzers for Furnace Control 1975
References 1945 Furnace Instrumentation 1977
Bibliography 1945 Furnace Types 1979
Start-Up Heaters 1979
Fired Reboilers 1979
8.25 Process and Crude Oil Heaters, Vaporizers 1980
FAN CONTROLS 1946 Firing Controls 1982
Introduction 1946 Reformer Furnaces 1983
Fan Types 1946 Cracking (Pyrolysis) Furnaces 1985
Fan Controls 1946 Advanced Controls 1987
Fan Throttling 1946 Feedforward Control 1987
Safety Interlocks 1947 Coil Balancing Control 1988
Fan Controls in HVAC Applications 1948 Cross-Limiting Firing 1989
Parallel Fan Balancing 1949 Severity Control 1990
Optimizing Multiple Fans 1949 Model-Based Control 1990

Conclusions 1991 Inerting 2026

Standards and Guidelines 1991 Alternatives to Inerting 2026
Bibliography 1992 The Combustion Triangle 2026
Inerting Control Systems 2027
8.28 Flow-Controlled Inerting 2027
HEADER-SUPPLIED DISTRIBUTION CONTROL 1993 Pressure-Controlled Inerting 2028
Oxygen-Controlled Inerting 2028
Introduction 1993
Component Design Considerations 2030
Terminology and Coverage 1993
Do Not Use “Fail-Safe” Solenoids 2030
Valve Position Control 1993
Purge Flow Rate Variation 2030
The Most-Open Valve 1994
Conclusions 2031
Energy Savings 1995
References 2031
Valve and Damper Gain 1996
Bibliography 2031
Supply-Demand Matching VPC (MOV1) 1998
MOV1 Controller Algorithm 1998
Distribution Controlling VPC (MOV2) 1999 8.31
Example 2001 ORP CONTROLS 2032
Failure Modes and Applications 2002 Introduction 2032
Design, Start-Up, and Maintenance 2002 ORP as a Process Variable 2032
Actuators and Valves 2002 The Nernst Equation 2032
Control 2002 Measurement 2033
Blowers 2002 Instrumentation 2033
Fault Detection and Response 2003 Calibration 2034
Start-Up 2003 ORP Control 2034
Conclusions 2003 Chrome Waste Treatment 2035
Bibliography 2003 Cyanide Waste Treatment 2036
Sodium Hypochlorite Production 2038
8.29 Paper Pulp Bleaching 2040
HEAT EXCHANGER CONTROL Other ORP Control Systems 2041
AND OPTIMIZATION 2004 Conclusions 2042
Introduction 2004 References 2042
General Considerations 2004 Bibliography 2043
Temperature Detection and Transmission 2004
Process Characteristics 2005 8.32
Safety 2006 pH CONTROL 2044
Basic Controls 2007
Introduction 2045
Liquid-Liquid Heat Exchanger Controls 2007
Titration Curves 2045
Steam Heater Controls 2011
Strong Agents 2045
Condenser Controls 2015
Buffering 2046
Reboilers and Vaporizers 2017
The Process 2047
Advanced Controls 2019
Vessel Design 2047
Override Controls 2019
Mixing 2048
Cascade Control 2020
Reagent Demand 2049
Feedforward Control 2021
Reagent Rangeability 2049
Model-Based Controls 2022
Reagent Piping 2051
Multipurpose Systems 2022
Multiple Stages 2052
Conclusions 2023
The Control System 2052
References 2024
Measuring pH 2052
Bibliography 2024
The pH Characterizer 2053
PID Tuning 2054
8.30 Self-Tuning Control 2055
INERT GAS BLANKETING CONTROLS 2025 Batch pH Control 2055
Introduction 2025 Feedforward Control 2055
Pollution and Personnel Safety 2025 References 2056
The Combustion Process 2026 Bibliography 2056

8.33 Water Hammer 2095

POWER PLANT CONTROLS: COGENERATION Pump Stations 2096
AND COMBINED CYCLE 2057 Positive Displacement Pumps 2098
Introduction 2057 Reciprocating Pumps 2098
Cogeneration 2057 Control of Pumps 2101
Cogeneration with Combined Cycles 2057 On/Off Control 2101
Cogeneration with Internal Combustion Modulating Control 2104
Engines 2058 Multiple-Pump Controls 2106
Combined Cycles 2058 Conclusions 2109
Single-Shaft Arrangements 2058 References 2109
Main Equipment Blocks 2061 Bibliography 2109
Auxiliary Systems 2066
Auxiliary Equipment 2067
Demineralization Plant 2067 8.35
Fuel Gas System 2068 PUMP OPTIMIZATION 2110
Liquid Fuel System 2068
Closed Circuit Cooling Water 2068 Introduction 2110
Control Equipment 2069 Nomenclature 2110
Central Control Room 2069 Pump Equations 2110
Monitoring and Control Loops 2070 Model-Free Optimization 2111
Steam Drum Level Control 2071 Valve Position-Based Optimization 2112
Steam Temperature Control 2072 Optimization Alternatives 2113
Pegging Steam Control 2073 Calculating the Savings 2114
Condensate Preheater (Economizer) Temperature Model-Based Optimization 2114
Control 2073 Optimization of Pump Selection 2114
Supplementary Firing Control 2074 Starting or Stopping Pumps 2115
Steam Turbine Bypass Control 2075 Conclusions 2115
Load/Frequency Control 2075 References 2115
Running Permissives 2076
Safety Functions and Integrity Levels 2076
Start-Ups and Shutdowns 2077 8.36
Start-Up Procedures 2077 Rolling Mill Controls 2116
Short-Term Planned Stop 2079
Long-Term Planned Stop 2080 Introduction 2116
Emergency Shutdown 2080 Multiple Drives in Strip Manufacturing 2117
Performance Tests 2081 Electrical Drive Systems 2118
Conclusions 2081 Eddy-Current Drive 2118
Abbreviations 2082 DC Static Drives 2118
References 2082 AC Variable-Frequency Drives 2118
Bibliography 2082 Analog Multiple-Drive Systems 2118
Digital Control Techniques 2119
Bibliography 2122
8.34
PUMP CONTROLS 2084
8.37
Introduction 2084
SEPARATION CONTROLS, AIR 2123
The Process 2084
System Curves 2084 Introduction 2123
Pump Types 2087 Adsorption Technology 2123
Displacement and Centrifugal Designs 2087 The Process 2123
Pump Design Variations 2087 Control of the Adsorption Process 2124
Centrifugal Pumps 2087 Vacuum Swing Adsorption 2124
Pump Curves 2088 Pressure Swing Adsorption 2124
Adjusting the Pump Speed 2089 Membrane Air Separation 2126
Cavitation 2092 Process Description 2126
Net Positive Suction Head 2093 Flux and Selectivity 2126

Membrane System Sizing 2127 Safety Controls 2149

Cryogenic Air Separation 2127 Sequential Controls 2150
Front-End Air Purification 2127 Conclusions 2150
Cryogenic Distillation (Cold Box) Bibliography 2150
Process 2130
Cryogenic Instrumentation 2130
Severe-Service Control Valves 2130 8.39
WASTEWATER TREATMENT CONTROLS 2152
Impulse and Sample Lines 2130
Flow Elements 2131 Introduction 2152
Temperature Measurement 2131 General Considerations 2152
Process Analysis in ASU 2131 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 2152
Process Control Analyzers 2132 Chemical Oxidation 2153
Regulatory and Feedforward Controls 2132 Cyanide Destruction Process 2153
Main Air Compressor Flow 2132 Chemical Reduction 2156
Stabilization of Pressure Surge 2132 Reduction of Hexavalent Chromium 2156
Sidearm Nitrogen Control 2133 Other Reduction Processes 2157
Product Purity Control 2133 Neutralization Controls 2157
Oxygen Recovery Controller 2133 Equalization Tanks 2157
Front-End Purity and Hydrocarbon Single Reagent Control 2159
Accumulation 2134 Two Reagent Control Systems 2160
Hydrocarbon Concentration Factor 2134 Ratio Control 2160
Refrigeration Controls 2134 Cascade Control 2161
Expander Configuration 2134 Feedforward Control 2161
Refrigeration Balance Controller 2134 Precipitation and Filtering 2163
Main Heat Exchanger Control 2134 Lime Softening 2163
Advanced Control 2135 Hydroxyde Precipitation 2163
Characterizers to Compensate Process Filtering 2164
Nonlinearity 2135 Chlorination 2165
Operating Close to Constraints 2135 Municipal Wastewater Treatment 2166
Conclusions 2136 Tertiary Wastewater Treatment 2168
Abbreviations 2136 Safety 2169
References 2136 Cooling Water Treatment 2169
Bibliography 2136 Conclusions 2170
References 2171
Bibliography 2171
8.38
STEAM TURBINE CONTROLS 2137 8.40
Introduction 2137 WATER SUPPLY PLANT CONTROLS 2172
Characteristics 2137 Introduction 2172
Operating Principles 2138 Conventional Water Treatment Plants 2172
Steam Turbine Efficiency 2139 Filtration Hardware and Controls 2172
Advantages and Limitations 2139 PLC Configuration 2172
Turbine Design Configurations 2140 Transfer Pumping and Ground Storage 2175
Application Configurations 2140 High-Service Pumping 2176
Internal Design Configurations 2141 Ozonated Water Treatment 2176
Steam Turbine Governors 2141 Ozone Generator Controls 2177
The Governor Valve 2141 Ozone Flow Distribution Control 2179
The Early Speed Governors 2142 Control of Ozone Destruction 2179
Hydraulic Droop Governors 2142 Ozone Generator Start-Up Sequencing 2179
Electronic Governors 2143 PLC Hardware 2182
Advanced Governors 2143 Reverse Osmosis-Based Water Treatment 2182
Controls and Optimization 2144 Raw Water and Pretreatment 2182
The Basic Turbine Controller 2144 R.O. Membrane Train Controls 2184
Pressure Let-Down Control 2144 Pumping and Post-Treatment Controls 2187
Extraction Turbine Control 2146 Sequence of Operation Controls 2188

Ultrafiltration-Based Water Treatment 2189 Control Valve Selection 2197

Transmembrane Pressure 2189 Controller Algorithms 2197
Control Loops 2189 Pressure Correction 2198
PLC Implementation of PID Loops 2191 Controlling the Injection Cycle 2199
In-Line Mixer Controls 2191 Prestart-Up Settings 2199
Override and Selective Control 2192 Start-Up Mode 2199
Conclusions 2193 Operator Actions in the Start-Up Mode 2200
References 2193 Normal Operating Mode 2202
Bibliography 2193 Manual, Automatic, and Cascade Control
Modes 2203
Controlling Valve Pressure Drops 2203
8.41 Protecting the Compressors 2203
WELL-SUPPLIED UNDERGROUND GAS Controlling Production Cycle 2203
STORAGE CONTROLS 2194 Start-Up 2204
Introduction 2194 Continuous Operation 2205
The Process 2195 Control Modes and Loops 2205
The Operating Modes 2195 Controlling the Wells 2205
Injection Cycle 2195 The Total Control System 2207
Production Cycle 2196 Existing DCS Hardware 2207
Modeling and Simulation 2196 Conclusions and Comments 2207
General Control Considerations 2197 References 2208
Sensor Selection 2197 Bibliography 2208

8.1 Aeration and DO Controls
P. KESKAR (2005)
INTRODUCTION MECHANICAL AERATION
Aeration is mostly used in wastewater treatment facilities to Mechanical aeration is accomplished by transferring atmo-
introduce oxygen into the wastewater. Oxygen is necessary spheric oxygen to the liquid by surface agitation. Mechanical
for biological treatment of carbonaceous matter (secondary aerators are classified as plate, updraft, downdraft, and brush
treatment) and for oxidation of ammonia into nitrite and types.
nitrate (nitrification). The transfer of oxygen is accomplished The plate-type aerator employs a circular plate equipped
using two basic aeration methods. One method is the use of with radial blades and creates a large amount of turbulence
mechanical aerators (mechanical mixing), and the other by causing a peripheral hydraulic jump.
method is the delivery of air through a network of pipes and The updraft-type aerator employs a surface impeller,
diffusers located at the bottom of treatment basins (diffused which draws liquid upward and violently outward at the
aeration). surface. The surface turbulence causes oxygen transfer. The
Aeration control is a very important part of any wastewa- updraft-type aerators are popular because of their low cost,
ter plant control system design. The volume of air required high oxygen transfer efficiency, and good mixing. The dis-
depends upon the biomass oxygen demand of the wastewater, advantages include high maintenance and operational costs
which is continuously changing. An inadequate supply of air due to large number of units, frequent icing in cold weather,
(oxygen) can inhibit secondary treatment and nitrification pro- uneven DO distribution, and not enough oxygenation for
cesses, causing major process problems. Excessive air supply nitrification. The updraft-type aerators are particularly suit-
wastes energy and can dramatically increase plant-operating able for smaller plants in warmer climates that do not require
costs. It is estimated that aeration energy consumption can be nitrification.
50–90% of the total energy demand of an activated sludge The downdraft-type aerator employs an impeller in a
process. vertical tube to force liquid from the surface, down through
A well-thought-out aeration control scheme could opti- the tube to the bottom of the tank. Air is entrained in the
mize the overall process and significantly reduce energy cost. liquid as it is forced down into the tube.
Aeration control schemes include two basic building blocks, The brush-type aerator rotates around a horizontal shaft
namely the measurement of the process variable, which in equipped with a series of projections. Oxygen transfer is
this case is dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration in the accomplished by surface turbulence. The brush-type aerator
wastewater, and implementation of control adjustments using is used extensively in oxidation ditch application. Typical
control algorithms and final control elements, like control advantages are high oxygen transfer efficiency, low capital
valves on air lines or surface aerator speeds via variable- cost, and low operational cost. However, this type of aerator
frequency drives (VFDs). The control strategies can be as is not suitable for cold climates (due to icing problems),
simple as manual control of final control elements based on requires critical level controls, and does not provide enough
DO concentrations or advanced control algorithms utilizing oxygenation capacity for nitrification.
feedback/feedforward and cascade control.
Process Configurations
Success of any control strategy depends upon careful
evaluation of all elements of the control loop, including the Two basic types of process configurations are used for
field instrument measuring the process variable (DO), the mechanical aeration systems.
algorithm, the final control element, and other related
mechanical process equipment utilized in the process (e.g., Plug Flow Configuration Figure 8.1a shows the plug flow
blowers, diffusers, and surface aerators). configuration. Rectangular tanks with large length-to-width
The following paragraphs in this section will discuss the ratios and containing several aerators approach plug flow
process equipment, field instrumentation, control strategies, conditions. In this configuration the tank essentially operates
and current trends in implementation of aeration and DO like several smaller tanks connected in series, and the result
control. is more like plug flow rather than complete mixing.
1484

8.1 Aeration and DO Controls 1485
Effluent
Influent Effluent
Aerator
(typ.)
Aeration basin
Aerator
FIG. 8.1a (typ.)
Plug flow configuration of a mechanical aeration system.
In this configuration control of aeration capacity is

accomplished in two ways:
Influent
Speed Control of Aerators Simultaneous speed control of all Aeration basin
aerators based on DO concentration may not be the best way
FIG. 8.1b
to control oxygen transfer. Aerators can be classified in several Completely mixed configuration of a mechanical aeration system.
groups, e.g., those near the influent end, those in the middle,
and those at the effluent end. Speed of each group of aerators
is controlled using a dedicated DO probe to maintain the DO the four aerators near the influent end can be grouped in one
concentration within an acceptable band. group for simultaneous speed control, and the four aerators near
the effluent end can be gathered in another group for collective
Level-Based Control Adjustment of oxygen transfer capac- speed control. Other groupings may be considered for achieving
ity can be applied to the entire tank by raising or lowering better control; i.e., the four aerators at each end can be divided
of the effluent weir to change submergence of the aerators. into two groups, making a total of four groups for collective
The weir position is changed to keep the DO levels within speed control. Dedicated DO probe can be provided for each
acceptable band. The location of the DO probe for weir group for speed control.
control is best left up to the operator. DO probe receptacles
should be provided at several locations to allow placement Aerator Control Strategies
of DO probe at the most optimum location following a period
of trial and error. On/Off Control Figure 8.1c shows a typical on/off aerator
control strategy. In this control scheme, multiple single-speed
Completely Mixed Configuration Figure 8.1b shows a com- aerators in a zone are controlled based on DO measurement
pletely mixed configuration of aerators. For control purposes, in that zone. The sequence in which the aerators are to be
PLC logic
Start
next
Compare
Stop Hi-limit
Seq. < >
next Low-limit
Motor starter
(typ.) I I I I Sequencer
A A
DO
M M M M AIT
Single-speed
DO
aerator (typ.)
AE
FIG. 8.1c
On/Off aerator control system.

PLC logic
DT
KC
Time interval
Switch next to Sequencer Compare

high speed Hi-limit
Seq. < >
Low-limit
Switch next to Start
low speed stop
A
Two-speed HS
motor starter I I I I
A
(typ.)
A
Manual DO
M M M M start/stop AIT
high or low
Single-speed
DO
aerator (typ.)
AE
Oxidation tank
FIG. 8.1d
Dual-speed aerator control system.
started or stopped based on DO level is loaded in a sequence DO signal against the preset high and low DO limits. If at
table part of the PLC logic. The operator can change the the end of each time interval the measured DO level is less
sequence via operator interface. than preset, start the next aerator at low speed in accordance
A DO sensor/analyzer sends a 4–20 mA signal to the PLC. with the sequence loaded in the sequencer.
The DO signal is linearized and is compared against the high When all aerators in the zone are running at low speed
and low DO set points. If the DO is below the low limit set and the DO level is still below preset, switch the first aerator
point for an adjustable time period, the sequence logic sends to high speed.
a start command to the “next” aerator to start. As long as the On subsequent time intervals, if the DO level remains
DO level is below the set point, the sequencer will start the next below the low limit, continue switching the next aerator to
aerator until either all aerators have been started or the DO high speed as determined by the sequencer. If the DO level
level is within the high and low DO set points. continues to be below the low limit, eventually all aerators
If the DO signal is above the high set point for an adjust- will be running at high speed and the DO level will be at the
able time period, the sequencer issues a stop command to the maximum achievable limit. On the other hand, during any
next aerator. No aerator is stopped or started by the sequencer time interval, if the DO level is above the preset high limits
as long as the DO level is within the band set by the high during subsequent time intervals, the sequencer will switch
and low DO set points. Excessive cycling of the aerators can the next aerator to low speed one at a time. The aerators can
be avoided by increasing the DO control band or by adjusting be manually started at high or low speeds or stopped via
the time delay before a start or stop command is issued to commands from the operator interface.
the aerators. Figure 8.1e shows a hypothetical graph of typical aeration
capacity variation vs. time that can be expected using dual-
Dual-Speed Control Dual-speed aerators are used to achieve speed control. The aeration capacity is at minimum when all
a better control on aeration and save energy. Figure 8.1d shows aerators are running at low speed. The aeration capacity is
a typical dual-speed aerator control system. Dual-speed motor increased by a step of DA during a time interval DT when an
starters are used to run the motors at two different speeds. As aerator is switched from low to high speed. Maximum aeration
discussed before, a DO sensor/analyzer is used to measure DO capacity is reached when all aerators are running at high
in the wastewater and transmit a 4–20 mA signal to PLC. speed.
PLC logic performs the following functions:
At the end of each adjustable preset time interval of DT, Variable-Speed Control Variable-speed drives can be used
as determined by an interval timer logic, check the measured to continuously vary the speed of the aerator based on DO

All four aerators

Maximum running at high speed
Aeration capacity
capacity
DA
All four aerators

Minimum running at low speed
capacity
DT
Time
FIG. 8.1e
The above relationship can be expected between aeration capacity and time, when using dual-speed aeration controls.
measurement. The speed can be either manually adjusted from Variable-Impeller Depth Control Aeration transfer capacity
the operator interface based on the DO readings or controlled of a turbine-type aerator can be controlled by varying the
automatically using a PID algorithm part of the PLC logic. submergence depth of the impeller. Figure 8.1g shows a
The DO measured variable is compared against the desired typical variable-impeller depth control system. Two cascaded
set point to generate an error signal, and the controller output control loops are used for this control system. A faster inter-
and speed of the aerator is modulated to minimize the error. nal control loop is used to adjust the vertical position of the
Manual speed control is accomplished by putting the con- impeller to maintain the position set point.
troller in manual and adjusting controller output to desired Position transmitter ZT provides the measured variable
value. and PID controller ZIC compares the actual position with the
Figure 8.1f shows a typical variable-speed aerator control position set point and adjusts the vertical position to minimize
loop. It should be noted that the aerators are constant torque the error. The position set point is modulated proportional to
machines, and the kW power requirement varies linearly with the output of PID controller AIC (external slower control
the speed; therefore, energy savings at reduced speeds are not loop), whose output is based on error between the measured
as dramatic as in case of centrifugal blowers. DO and the desired DO set point.
PLC logic
Fail On Start/stop Speed

QA QL HS SI
PID
DO
A A A A A AIC set point
A
VFD A
A
AIT
M
AE
FIG. 8.1f
Variable-speed aerator control system.

PLC logic
Start/stop
HS Position DO
Position set point
controller
set point
A ZIC AIC A
A
A
A
I
M
A
A
Starter
Depth AIT
ZT M
adjustment
AE
FIG. 8.1g
Variable-impeller depth control system.
Variable-Level Control Another method to control the oxy- diffusers. Three factors are important in selection and appli-
gen transfer rate of a turbine-type aerator is by controlling cation of diffusers, namely the head loss through the diffusers,
the level of wastewater in the oxidation tank, thereby con- the oxygen transfer efficiency, and the layout and arrangement
trolling the submergence of the turbine impeller. The liquid of diffusers. Excellent discussion of diffusers and their appli-
level is controlled by raising or lowering a weir. The cascaded cation is available in the literature referenced at the end of
control loops, similar to the variable impeller depth control this section. A brief discussion is provided here as an
loop described above, are used. overview.
The faster inner loop (ZIC) controls the position of the weir,
and the position set point is modulated by the external slow DO Coarse Bubble Diffusers These diffusers release large air bub-
control loop (AIC). Adjusting the weir position adjusts the bles into the wastewater. These diffusers are further divided
liquid level, thus adjusting the submerged impeller depth. into four general categories: orifice, valve, shear, and shallow
submergence diffusers. The selection of the type of diffuser
Diffused Aeration Diffused aeration is accomplished by depends upon application, head loss characteristics, and oxy-
injecting air from an external source into the aeration basin gen transfer efficiency of the diffuser. The main advantage
through a diffuser. A diffuser can be as simple as a perforated of the valve-type orifice diffuser is that it prevents backflow
pipe or a complex device. Air is pushed through the diffuser of liquid in the air header on loss of air pressure.
using air blowers. Shear-type diffusers are difficult to attach to removable
Several types of configurations and aeration control strat- pipe headers, and therefore these types of diffusers are used
egies are used for diffused aeration of wastewater. Proper only in applications where they can be attached to the bottom
application of blowers, blower capacity control, and control of the tank. The shallow submergence diffusers are installed
valve selection can lead to an energy-efficient aeration sys- at shallow depths of about 3 ft below the liquid surface. The
tem. This subsection provides general background on types main advantage of shallow submergence-type diffusers is the
of diffusers and blowers used, methods of blower capacity low air pressure required, which allows the use of low-pressure
control, blower surge control, and the types of control valves blowers, reducing blower capital cost. In general, the coarse
used for air distribution. Measurement of DO and typical bubble diffusers are less efficient compared to fine bubble
control strategies are discussed in later subsections of this diffusers.
section.
Fine Bubble Diffusers The fine bubble diffusers produce
Aeration Diffusers fine air bubbles, which produce less turbulence in the waste-
water, as compared to the coarse bubble diffusers. Diffuser
There are two basic types of diffusers used in diffused aera- devices are generally made from porous ceramic materials or
tion, namely the coarse bubble diffusers and the fine bubble elastometric membranes. Fine bubble diffusers are available in

flat tubes, hollow plates, or dome-type construction. The head drive. The first method of blowing off the excess air during
loss characteristics for different types of fine bubble diffusers low air demand period wastes energy and is not recommended.
are not much different but their oxygen transfer efficiencies Reducing air flow by reducing the blower speed is a better
may differ significantly. way of controlling air flow of a PD blower, because it con-
The fine bubbles created by porous ceramic and elasto- serves energy by reducing blower horsepower requirement.
metric membrane-type diffusers mounted on a piping grid at However, it should be noted that the blower efficiency drops
the bottom of the aeration basin provide the best oxygen trans- significantly at lower speed and the energy savings are not
fer efficiency. as dramatic, as in the case of the centrifugal blower, because
the horsepower vs. speed relationship is linear. A turndown
Aeration Blowers of 100–50% capacity is possible by using variable-frequency
drives to vary the speed of a PD blower.
There are two types of blowers commonly used in aeration The PD blower is used typically in small aeration systems
applications, namely the positive displacement (PD) blowers requiring aeration flows of 1000 SCFM or less. PD blowers
and the centrifugal blowers. There is plenty of literature were used extensively before 1960; however, the develop-
available on the subjects of blowers and their applications in ment of high-efficiency centrifugal machines with single- and
the references listed at the end of this section. Only a brief dual-vane capacity control has limited the use of PD blowers
overview is included in this paragraph. Selection of an appro- to smaller systems with variable head requirements.
priate blower type should be based on capital cost, operating
cost, efficiency, and the flow/capacity turndown capability. Centrifugal Blowers Figure 8.1i shows a typical operating
Complete life-cycle costs should be analyzed for various characteristic of a centrifugal blower. The curve B1-B2 is the
blower types/configuration before a final selection is made. blower-operating curve. Curve S1-S2 represents the system
curve that includes the static head and the frictional resis-
Positive Displacement Blower The rotary, two-impeller, PD tance. The intersection of the two curves (point “O”) is
blower is a constant volume, variable-pressure machine. At the operating point of the blower. At the operating point, the
the rated speed, this type of blower provides constant flow blower is running at rated speed to deliver the flow at the
at widely varying discharge pressures. Figure 8.1h shows the pressure dictated by the system curve, without any speed
typical operating characteristics of a PD blower. Low capital control or valve throttling.
costs and its ability to operate at widely varying pressures It should be noted that the blower curve is almost hori-
are the advantages of a PD blower. The disadvantages include zontal at point B1 and shown as a dotted line to the left of
the difficulty of throttling the air flow rates to meet the vary- point B1. “B1” is the “surge condition” point of the blower,
ing demands, high maintenance cost, and noisy operation. which indicates unstable blower operating point; the blower
The capacity control of a PD blower can be achieved either should not be operated at or to the left of the point B1. In all
by blowing off excess air through a blow-off valve or by practical applications, blower capacity control is required to
varying the speed of the blower using a variable-frequency meet the varying demands of the aeration process. The blower
discharge flow can be controlled by using one of the three
methods: (1) discharge throttling by using a control valve in
the discharge line, (2) changing the speed of the blower, and
60% 80% 100%
speed speed speed
B1 S2
Discharge pressure
O Operating
Discharge pressure
point
B2
S1
Static
head
Air flow rate
Air flow rate
FIG. 8.1h
Characteristic curves of a typical rotary positive displacement FIG. 8.1i
blower. Characteristic curves of a typical centrifugal blower.

S 2′′ B1 S2
B1 S 2′ B1′
Discharge pressure
O′′ S2 O
B1′′
P1 O′ O′ System
Discharge pressure
P2 O′′ curve
O System
P3 curve (typ.)
B2
100%
B2' speed
B2 S1 B2''
S1 90%
Static 80% speed
Static
head speed
head
F1 F2 F3 Air flow
Air flow
FIG. 8.1k
FIG. 8.1j The effect of suction valve throttling on the outlet pressure and flow
The effect of discharge valve throttling on the outlet pressure and of a centrifugal blower.
flow of a centrifugal blower.
blower speeds, respectively. It should be noted that lower

(3) throttling the inlet using a throttling valve or inlet guide speeds will cause lower system pressure, and any fluctuation
vanes. in speed will cause fluctuation of flow and pressure conditions.
There is potential for significant energy savings due to
Discharge Throttling The effect of discharge throttling on the cubic relationship between speed and horsepower require-
the blower-operating characteristic is shown in Figure 8.1j. ments for a centrifugal blower. Variable-speed control of
Curve B1-B2 is the blower-operating curve. S1-S2 is the blowers is most commonly used with the multistage centrif-
system curve representing system static head and resistance ugal blower applications. Multistage blowers tend to lose
without any throttling. Point “O” is the operating point with- efficiency at lower speeds.
out any throttling. System curves S1-S2′ and S1-S2′′ represent
increased resistance for two separate throttled positions of Blower Inlet Throttling Blower inlet throttling can be accom-
the discharge valve. Note that as the valve is throttled to plished by using either a throttling control valve or inlet guide
reduce flow, the operating point “O” moves to the left on the vanes (IGVs) at the inlet of the centrifugal blower. The inlet-
operating curve to point O′ and O′′, respectively, increasing throttling valve to modulate the blower capacity is used with
the header pressure. the multistage centrifugal blowers. However, in this method
As the valve is throttled and the operating point starts of capacity control, the blowers tend to lose efficiency at
moving toward the surge point B1, care must be taken so that lower capacities due to the pressure drop generated by the
the operating point never reaches the surge point B1. Several inlet-throttling valve.
methods of surge control are discussed later in this section. The IGV are used for capacity control of single-stage
Although discharge valve throttling is an effective method of centrifugal blowers. The design of the single-stage blowers
blower capacity control over a limited range, it suffers from incorporates IGVs used for controlling the flow and head
two problems. conditions without a need for speed adjustment of the impel-
First, the throttling of valve adds artificial resistance in ler. In the past, single-stage blowers were controlled utilizing
the system, wasting valuable pressure and energy across the a single set of vanes positioned in the front of the impeller
discharge valve, and second, the method is susceptible to (IGV). Most of today’s single-stage blowers utilize a dual
reach surge conditions if the pressure and flow are not care- vane control system. The two types of controls are briefly
fully controlled. To avoid surge conditions, blower output described below.
should be kept above 60% of rated output. Because throttling Single vane control utilizes a series of guide vanes posi-
of discharge valve wastes energy, other methods of control- tioned in front of the impeller for air flow control. These
ling blower output are more attractive. vanes are utilized to throttle the amount of air allowed into
the blower’s impeller. By throttling (restricting) the incoming
Blower Speed Control Blower output can also be regulated inlet air, an increased pressure differential is built across the
by changing the blower speed. Figure 8.1k shows the effect blower, resulting in a decrease of discharge air volume. This,
of blower speed control on the blower operating curves. The in turn, reduces the amount of work required by the mechan-
operating points O, O′, and O′′ are for 100, 90, and 80% ical process and reduces the loading on the electric motor.

This dual vane control technology dramatically increases

the efficiency of the mechanical blower process. Because of
the dual vane control system, the single-stage unit can mod-
Surge Surge ulate capacity from 100% to approximately 40%, maintaining
points line the high efficiency practically constant throughout the entire
Operating turndown. Today, single-stage blowers with dual vane control
point systems are the most efficient units on the market. For instal-
Surge limit
lation greater than 100–150 hp and higher, with cost of power
Discharge pressure
points Constant
pressure of $0.035 per kWh and higher, single-stage dual vane blowers
P1 F1 F2 F3 F5 F 6 line have the lowest life cycle cost. The surge points and related
F4 control strategies are discussed in the following paragraphs
of this section.
Comparison of Blowers Over the last 75 years, blower

+90° +15° design has shown a continuous improvement in optimizing
+0°
+70° +45° +25° efficiency and operating costs. This improvement in effi-
ciency and lower operation and maintenance cost translates
Air flow into higher capital cost. Table 8.1m shows an approximate
FIG. 8.1l comparison of relative cost and efficiency for various types
The characteristic operating lines and surge points when a constant of blowers used in the aeration process.
discharge pressure is maintained by setting the inlet guide vane of Before 1960, positive displacement blowers were widely
a centrifugal blower at various angles. used in aeration applications. Between 1960 and 1980, mul-
tistage blowers became popular due to their higher efficien-
This load reduction translates into a reduction in amp draw, cies. During the 1980s and 1990s, the single-stage blower
which is directly related to operational expense through the with a single inlet vane (IGV) was used extensively because
consumption of electric power. of its higher efficiency, better turndown capability, and the
Although less than in the throttling valve of a multistage, fact that these blowers did not require variable-speed drives.
the single vane control causes the single-stage blowers to lose The present state of the art is the use of single-stage
efficiency at partial capacity due to the pressure drop generated dual vane blowers. Although higher in capital cost, it has
by the inlet vanes. Figure 8.1l shows how blower capacity the advantage of maintaining high efficiency throughout the
control is accomplished by modulating inlet guide vane angles. entire turndown range of 100–45% of capacity. Figure 8.1n
Again, the surge points are noted for each vane angle position. shows isentropic efficiency curves for different types of
Care must be taken to avoid flows and pressure conditions blowers. It can be seen why single-stage single vane and
corresponding to the surge points. Surge control methods are dual vane blowers are preferred for high-volume aeration
discussed later in this section. applications. The multistage blowers are not only less effi-
Dual vane control utilizes two sets of control vanes, one cient at 100% capacity but rapidly lose efficiency as the
fore and one aft of the blower’s impeller. In this control design, inlet butterfly valve is closed to reduce capacity. Turndown
the aft or discharge guide vanes are used to control the aero- is often limited to 70–80% of capacity. Although low in
capital cost, their lower efficiency and high operational cost
dynamic shape or flow pattern of the air, as it is released from
limit their use in high-volume applications. The positive
the tip of the impeller blade. By increasing or restricting this
airflow path, the amount of flow coming off the impeller wheel
is controlled. In concert with this series of flow control vanes,
the blower also utilizes onboard instrumentation (differential TABLE 8.1m
pressure transmitter and inlet air temperature transmitter), a Comparison of Relative Cost and Efficiency for Various Types
PLC processor, and an additional set of inlet efficiency opti- of Blowers
mizing control vanes to achieve optimal airflow efficiency
Isentropic
through the blower.
Relative Efficiency
The three variables of machine flow (position of dis- Type of Blower Cost (%)
charge guide vanes), inlet air temperature (this is related to
1. Positive displacement blower 1.0 50–60
air density of mass), and the differential pressure measured
across the machine are utilized to compute the optimal posi- 2. Multistage centrifugal blower with inlet 1.5 65–75
throttling or variable-speed drive
tion of the inlet guide vanes in relationship to these three
input variables. This process thereby keeps a balanced impel- 3. Single-stage single inlet vane (IGV) 2.0 72–80
centrifugal blower
ler condition by putting no more air into the impeller than is
required by the discharge flow demand. 4. Single-stage dual vane centrifugal blower 2.5 80–85

Dual vane single stage

80
IGV only
single stage
Surge points (typ.) Operating point
limit set by surge
Multi-stage control algorithm
Discharge pressure
Isentropic efficency-percent
70
Surge line
Note 1 Blower
operating
60
curves (typ.)
Positive
displacement Air flow
FIG. 8.1o
The characteristic curves and surge points of a variable-speed
50 blower at various speed settings.
40 50 60 70 80 90 100
surge line represents a parabolic pressure flow relationship.
Capacity-percent
The purpose of a surge control algorithm is to keep the blower
Note: operating to the right of the surge line at all times. The dotted
1. Dashed multistage curve indicates limited turndown line in Figure 8.1o shows the minimum flow blower operating
FIG. 8.1n points maintained by the surge control algorithm. Figure 8.1.l
The isentropic efficiencies of four blower designs. also shows the surge points and the operating point limit set
by the surge control algorithm for a single-stage blower using
inlet guide vanes. Blower manufacturers generally provide
displacement blowers are used in smaller applications of up the data for the surge line as part of their package to ensure
to 3000 SCFM (100 hp). As seen in Figure 8.1n, PD blowers that the blower will never be allowed to go into surge.
have very poor efficiency at 100% capacity, and the efficiency Several different control strategies are used to prevent
drops rapidly as speed control is used to reduce capacity. surge. Figure 8.1p shows a typical surge control strategy for
Although lowest in efficiency, PD blowers remain popular in a variable-speed centrifugal blower. Blower discharge pres-
small applications due to their low cost. sure, flow, and aeration cell valve positions are measured and
It is important to note that both capital cost and opera- transmitted to the PLC as analog inputs. Based on aeration
tional cost must be considered during the blower selection valve position signals, the most-open valve (MOV) algorithm
process. A present-worth analysis based on life-cycle costs computes the header pressure set point.
should be performed to select the best type of blower for a The header pressure algorithm maintains the pressure
given application. set point by controlling the blower speeds. Both the MOV
and header pressure algorithms will be discussed in the
Surge Control of Blowers Centrifugal blowers have a mini- Aeration System Control subsection. The “PY” block in
mum flow point below which the blower performance becomes Figure 8.1p receives the pressure value from the header pres-
unstable. This unstable operating point is called surge condition, sure algorithm and computes the minimum permissible flow
and when this condition is reached, wide oscillations in pressure set point using either a look-up table or an equation (dotted
and flow conditions can occur, causing damage to the blower. line in Figure 8.1o). The flow set point computed by the
The surge condition is prevented by always maintaining flow “PY” block is used by the surge controller (FIC) to control
greater than the safe minimum required. This is accomplished the blow-off valve to maintain the flow set point that avoids
by providing a blow-off valve on the discharge line and blowing surge conditions.
off excess flow through this valve during low-flow conditions. Figure 8.1q shows another control strategy that can be
Figure 8.1o shows typical characteristic curves for a variable- used for surge control of the centrifugal blower that uses
speed centrifugal blower and the function of a surge control inlet guide vane throttling for control of blower capacity. In
algorithm. this example, the blower motor current and the inlet vane
The graph of minimum flow surge points for various position are continuously measured and transmitted to the
pressure and speed conditions is called the surge line. The PLC.

PLC logic
Aeration
Header press S.P. A valve
MOV
A position
algorithm
A signals
Note 2
Header pressure (note 2)
control algorithm Pressure
value
Flow S.P. Surge Blow-off
(note 1) controller valve
A
A
A
Speed
Speed
ind.
Run
Fail
PY FIC A E
On
Note 1
A
VFD FCV
A
P
PT FIT
M
To process
Centrifugal
FE
blower
Notes:
1. Minimum permissible flow S.P. corresponding to a pressure
value to prevent surge is computed using either a look-up
table or an equation, part of “PY” block.
2. Detailed strategies for most-open valve (MOV) algorithm
and header pressure control are described in
Figure 8.1w and the subsection Aeration System Control.
FIG. 8.1p
Surge protection control strategy for a variable-speed centrifugal blower, which prevents the blower flow from dropping below an allowable
limit.
When inlet vanes are modulated by the header pressure are very important for a properly operating aeration control
algorithm, to reduce blower output, the motor current draw system. An oversized control valve can reduce the effective
corresponding to surge point also reduces. The relationship air flow turndown capability, create flow oscillations and
between the inlet vane position and the surge point current difficulty in maintaining flow or pressure set points. However,
draw is nonlinear. This nonlinear relationship can be pro- an undersized control valve can cause excessive pressure
grammed in the PLC either as a look-up table or an equation. drops, energy losses, and increased noise levels. The subject
For a measured inlet vane position, the desirable minimum of control valves, their selection, and sizing is discussed in
motor current draw is computed (“ZY” block) and used as a detail in Chapter 6 of this handbook; however, a brief dis-
set point for the current control algorithm, part of the surge cussion is included here for the sake of continuity.
controller (IIC). Typical valve-sizing calculations should include check-
The error between the set point and the actual motor ing for choked flow, determination of the expansion and
current measurement is used by the PID algorithm (IIC) to compressibility factors, and the calculation of valve capacity
open the air blow-off valve to increase the motor ampere draw coefficient Cv. The valve-size selection should also include
to avoid the surge point. As was noted earlier, the header air velocity and noise considerations.
pressure and MOV control algorithms will be described in the Selection of valve flow characteristics is an important con-
Aeration System Control subsection. In both Figures 8.1p and sideration in designing a stable control system. The most com-
8.1q, the blow-off valve is a modulating-type control valve. mon flow characteristics are linear, equal percentage, and quick
opening. For aeration flow application, the equal-percentage
Air Distribution Control Valves characteristics are the most suitable. As the name suggests, the
equal-percentage characteristic increases the valve flow capac-
Air distribution control valves are important building blocks ity by the same percentage for each equal increment of travel.
of any aeration control system. Selection, sizing, and appli- Equal-percentage butterfly valves are commonly used in the
cation of the correct type of control valves for air distribution aeration flow and pressure control applications.

PLC logic
Surge Blow-off
controller valve
Amp S.P.
ZY IIC A A A E
Note 1
Note 2 Note 2
FCV
A
A
Header pressure MOV
control algorithm algorithm
Press
S.P.
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
A
Run
Fail
On
Vane
A
A
A
A
A
position
A
control Motor
Guide vane
position
A
starter
A
I
A
A
IT A Aeration valve
ZT E position signals
Vane AMP
PT
position P TRA To process
Inlet
guide Centrifugal
vanes blower
Notes:
1. Minimum permissible blower amp set point corresponding
to a guide vane position to prevent surge is computed
either using a look-up table or an equation, part of ZY block.
2. Detailed strategies for most-open valve (MOV) algorithm
and header pressure control are described in Figure 8.1w and
the subsection Aeration System Control.
FIG. 8.1q
Surge protection control strategy for an inlet vane controlled centrifugal blower, using the inlet guide vane position and the motor current
drawn to detect the approach of a surge condition.
Automatic valve actuators serve to position the valve in Electric Actuators The electric motor-driven actuators can
accordance with the control signal received. The commonly be on/off or modulating. The actuator consists of an electric
used actuators in aeration applications include the pneumatic motor and a reversing starter/contactor that allows the motor
spring and diaphragm and the electric motor-driven designs. to run in forward or reverse direction, thus opening or closing
the valve. Modulating valves can be throttled by a 4–20 mA
Pneumatic Actuators A pneumatic actuator in conjunction electronic signal.
with a three-way solenoid valve is used in an on/off applica- The actuators for smaller valves operate on 120 V, single-
tion, whereas an actuator with a positioner allows modulation phase AC power, utilizing single-phase “capacitor start” motors,
of the valve in response to a control signal. The electronic and for the larger valves, the actuators operate on 480 V, three-
4–20 mA control signal is converted to 3–15 psi pneumatic phase, AC power supply using three-phase motors. The valve
signal applied as input to the positioner. operational torque requirements determine the type of motor
Figure 8.1r shows typical control and instrumentation and power supply.
devices associated with pneumatic diaphragm-type valve, actu- Typically a modulating valve with electric actuator con-
ator, and positioner. For applications where fail open- or fail sists of the following devices:
close-type operation is desired, the pneumatic spring-and- A local-off-remote switch. When this switch is in local posi-
diaphragm-type actuator has a distinct advantage because the tion, the valve can be manually controlled using either actuator-
failure modes are easily implemented. mounted open–close pushbuttons or a local potentiometer to

PLC control PLC control
Position
modulation
control
A
A
Close status
Open status
A
Switch in
Position
remote
Valve
Position
I/P
20 PSI feed back
F/R FY
A
LOR
A
3−15 PSI
HS
AS Z ZSO ZT E
ZT OC
80 PSI HS
80 PSI P ZSC
From To aeration
blowers basin
From To aeration
blowers basin LOR: Local-off-remote FCV
HS: Hand switch
OC: Open-close
FCV ZT: Position transmitter
AS: Air supply
F/R: Air filter/pressure regulator ZSO: Limit switch-valve open
FY: Current to pressure converter ZSC: Limit switch-valve closed
ZT: Position transmitter E: Electric actuator
Z: Pneumatic positioner FCV: Flow control valve
P: Pneumatic actuator
FIG. 8.1s
FCV: Flow control valve
The components of a control loop consisting of a PLC that is
FIG. 8.1r controlling an electrically actuated control valve, which is provided
The components of a control loop consisting of a PLC that is with stem position feedback.
controlling a pneumatic control valve with positioner and stem
position feedback.
Typically, a DO sensor generates an electronic low-level sig-

nal proportional to the DO level in the process fluid, which
adjust the valve position. When the switch is in remote position,
is converted to a 4–20 mA analog signal by the transmitter/
the valve is controlled by a remote 4–20 mA signal generated
analyzer for connection to the control system.
from the PLC-based control system.
Limit switches indicate fully open or closed position of
Galvanic Cell
the valve; they are often wired to the PLC for status indication.
A position transducer transmits an analog 4–20 mA sig- In a galvanic-type DO sensor, the reduction of oxygen at the
nal proportional to the valve position to be wired to the PLC- cathode and production of electrons at the anode generates
based control system. a current. The magnitude of the current flowing between the
Figure 8.1s shows the components of a loop consisting cathode and anode is proportional to the amount of DO
of an electrically operated throttling valve, which is con- present in the process fluid. The electrodes are either made
trolled by a PLC. of silver alloy and zinc or platinum and lead. There are two
Materials of construction for the valve body, trim, and types of designs available in the galvanic-type sensors.
liner must be specified to suit the application. The best way In the first type of design, the electrodes are enclosed in
to specify a control valve is to use a standard ISA data sheet a thin membrane to isolate and protect them from the process
with all the blanks filled appropriately. fluid. The membrane-type sensors have to be periodically
cleaned to keep them operational, and they require electrolyte
solution. Some manufacturers supply integral automatic
MEASUREMENT OF DO CONCENTRATION cleaning systems with the electrodes for ease in maintenance.
The periodic automatic cleaning is accomplished using a
Section 8.43 in the first volume of this handbook provides high-pressure air jet to scour the membrane of the accumu-
an in-depth discussion of the features and capabilities of all lated deposits. The sensor is electrically connected to the
the oxygen detector designs that can be used with liquid analyzer/transmitter for generating 4–20 mA analog output
samples. Accurate measurement of DO concentration is very proportional to DO. The high-pressure air supply and asso-
important to the success of any aeration control strategy. ciated control is incorporated in the analyzer/transmitter

enclosure. The control logic, part of the analyzer, holds the turers provide mechanisms like air-blast cleaning for
analog output during the cleaning cycle to avoid interruption periodic automatic cleaning, these mechanisms also
of the signal to the control system. need additional maintenance.
In the second type of design, the galvanic electrodes are 6. The sensors are subject to interference from anything
directly immersed in the process fluid without any membrane. that produces small voltages.
The cleaning of electrodes is accomplished by a motor-driven
diamond grindstone to provide a continuous cleaning action Luminescent DO Sensors
on the metal electrodes. This self-cleaning action on the
electrodes addresses the maintenance problem. The elec- Luminescent DO sensors are relatively new in the DO sensor
trodes are protected from large suspended solids using a technology. These types of sensors have been developed to
sample chamber. The sample chamber continuously oscillates minimize the maintenance problems associated with the gal-
to pump fresh sample to the measuring electrodes. vanic- or polarographic-type sensors. Figure 8.1t shows the
basic operating principle of a luminescent-type DO sensor.
Polarographic Cell The luminescent sensor is coated with a luminescent
material. Blue light from a light-emitting diode (LED) is
These types of sensors use oxygen current measurement tech- transmitted to the sensor surface. The blue light excites the
nique, wherein a “polarizing voltage” is applied across a luminescent material. As the material relaxes, it emits red
selected electrode, where the oxygen reduction occurs via an light. The time from when the blue light was sent and the red
electrical reaction called polarographic. The polarographic cur- light is emitted is measured by the photo diode. The more
rent is proportional to the oxygen concentration in the process oxygen that is present, the shorter the time it takes for the
fluid. red light to be emitted. This time is measured and correlated
The sensor is a three-electrode polarographic sensor con- to the oxygen concentration. Between the flashes of blue
sisting of a silver reference, silver anode, and a gold cathode. light, a red LED is flashed on the sensor and used as a
The electrodes are covered by a 50µ hydrophobic membrane, reference.
which is preinstalled in a membrane head assembly. The Although not enough actual operational data is available
membrane and membrane head assembly are constructed of at the time of this writing, the limited experience indicates
fluorinated ethylene propylene and polyoxymethylene, that this type of sensor has a good potential for success. The
respectively. The sensor body is constructed of stainless steel luminescent-type DO sensor has the following advantages
and polyoxymethylene. The sensor includes automatic tem- over the traditional sensors:
perature compensation to compensate for changes in process
temperature. 1. Membrane cleaning and replacement is eliminated
Again, the presence of membrane requires extra care in because the technique does not use membranes.
maintenance and the need for electrolyte solutions. Because membranes are not used, there is no need for
electrolytes.
Galvanic and Polarographic Cell Limitations 2. There are no anodes or cathodes, and this eliminates
the need for their replacement.
The galvanic and polarographic DO sensing techniques have
been used for the last 50 years. As discussed before, the key
components used in these types of sensors are anodes, cath-
odes, membranes, membrane cleaning devices, and electro-
lyte solutions. Although these types of sensors have a long
Probe
track record of successful applications, they pose the follow-
ing challenges related to operation and maintenance.
Some of the limitations and concerns include:
Blue Photo Red Sensor

1. Anodes are eventually consumed and require periodic LED diode LED
replacement and calibration.
2. Calibration kits consisting of disposable calibration
bags are required to perform “saturation method” air
calibrations.
3. Electrolyte solutions require periodic replacement and
are subject to contamination.
Liminescent
4. Gases like hydrogen sulfide can contaminate elec- material
trodes and electrolytes, requiring replacement.
5. Sensor membranes become coated with grease and dirt FIG. 8.1t
and require regular cleaning. Although some manufac- The main components of a luminescent dissolved oxygen sensor.

3. Sensing technique is less susceptible to interference Design Surge

from spurious signals. pressure point 1
14
4. The sensor can be mounted at any desired submersion
Differential pressure-PSIG
depth. 13
Surge line
12 of IGV unit
MISCELLANEOUS FIELD INSTRUMENTS 11
10
Other important measurements required in any aeration control
system are air flow, header pressure, and air temperature mea- 9
surements. Air flow to each aeration cell, part of the aeration
basin, is measured to be used as a process variable in the air 8
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
flow control algorithm discussed later in this section. The X1000 SCFM air flow
newer thermal dispersion-type flow meter is successfully used
FIG. 8.1u
in air flow measurement applications.
The surge and operating lines of blowers whose capacity is con-
A pitot tube or a venturi tube can also be used for air flow
trolled by inlet guide vanes.
measurements, but the pitot tube is less accurate than the
thermal dispersion-type flow meter. The venturi tube gives
satisfactory results, but is expensive and requires long straight Single-Stage IGV Blowers in Parallel Capacity control of
pipe runs upstream and downstream of the meter. Orifice single IGV blowers is accomplished by modulating the inlet
plates are not suitable for flow measurement on low-pressure guide vanes to throttle the inlet airflow. Closing the IGVs to
systems. Pressure transmitters are required for measurement reduce the capacity increases pressure drop across the IGVs
of header air pressure to be used for control of blower capacity. and thus reduces both the discharge pressure and the surge
Both air temperature measurement and differential pres- pressure point of the unit.
sure measurement across the blower are used by blower man- Figure 8.1u shows the air flow vs. differential pressure
ufacturers to develop algorithms for precise control of dual curves for the IGV blower with the characteristic curves
vane single-stage centrifugal blowers. corresponding to the various positions of the inlet guide
vanes. As shown in the figure, as the capacity is reduced by
the closure of the vanes, the surge pressure is also reduced.
CONTROL OF DIFFUSED AERATION This results in a drooping surge line, which is the reason why
these blowers must operate in parallel.
Parallel and Cascade Control of Blowers To explain the limitations of parallel operation, assume
as shown in Figure 8.1u that the design pressure is 13.7 PSIG,
All major aeration applications require multiple blower units and the maximum flow is 8700 SCFM. Let us further assume
connected to a common header. Blowers are turned ON or the unit is designed to turndown to a minimum of 45%
OFF and the capacities controlled to suit the aeration cells. capacity or 3400 SCFM, which is below the surge limit.
Today, many of the high-volume aeration processes use single- Hence, at high ambient temperature conditions (100°F), the
stage blowers because of their efficiency and ease of control unit may go into surge before maximum turndown is reached.
by modulating inlet guide vanes. Two types of single-stage This is illustrated in Figure 8.1u, where the surge point
blowers are generally used, namely single stage with IGV 1 is at 4400 SCFM or at 51% of maximum capacity. Thus,
only and single stage with dual vanes (IGVs and variable in case of an operation where a single blower was meeting
diffuser vanes). Depending on the type of blower used, two the process load until its full capacity (100%) is reached and
types of capacity control strategies are used: at that point a parallel blower is started, the resulting total
In Parallel capacity control, multiple blower capacities loading would be 50%, while the surge limit is 51%, hence
are simultaneously modulated to suit the air demand. As the system would go into surge. On the other hand, if the on-
explained in the next paragraphs, due to the drooping “surge line unit(s) were reduced in capacity and the off-line unit
line,” the single IGV blowers are restricted to use only par- brought on-line at this same reduced capacity, all units would
allel capacity control, which allows capacity control without thereby have equal surge pressures, and one unit would not
the possibility of approaching surge conditions. go into surge before the others.
Cascade capacity control is defined as varying the capac- The parallel capacity control has the following limitations:
ity of one on-line blower while capacities of other blowers
are held at either maximum or minimum. Because of the flat All on-line units vary capacity at the same time, which
“surge line” of the dual vane blowers, the cascade control means small changes in vane setting creates large
can be used for these blowers without the possibility of flow changes and finer airflow variation cannot be
reaching surge conditions. accomplished.

Second unit comes on-line at 45% capacity, resulting

Surge line of Design in a total capacity of 90%.
14 dual vane unit point
Hold second unit at 45%, increase first unit up to 100%
Differential pressure-PSIG
13 as required to maintain header pressure S.P. When

first unit reaches 100%, this results in a total of
12 145% capacity.
11 If, in order to maintain the header pressure set point,
more air is required:
10 Hold first unit at 100% capacity, increase second unit
to 100% as required to maintain header pressure S.P.
9
When second unit reaches 100%, this results in a
8 total of 200% capacity.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 If, in order to maintain the header pressure set point,
X1000 SCFM air flow
FIG. 8.1v
The surge and operating lines of blowers whose capacity is con-
trolled by dual vanes. Start Third Blower
During 2-min prelube cycle, the first unit remains at

Parallel control requires more elaborate instrumenta- 100%, the second unit reduces to 45% capacity, and
tion to keep all units at the same vane position over the third unit comes on-line at 45% capacity, result-
long operating periods. Vane position feedback sig- ing in a total capacity of 190%.
nals or motor current draw are used for keeping the If, in order to maintain the header pressure set point,
units from “floating” away from each other over
long periods of continuous operation.
Hold first unit at 100% capacity, hold third unit at 45%,
increase second unit to 100% as required to maintain
Single-Stage Dual Vane Blowers in Cascade Single-stage
header pressure S.P. When second unit reaches
dual vane blowers were developed in the mid 1980s. These
100%, this results in 100% + 100% + 45% = 245%.
designs utilize inlet guide vanes with variable-diffuser vanes.
If, in order to maintain the header pressure set point,
These types of blowers not only have the highest efficiency,
but also change the surge curves of single-stage blowers.
Hold first and second units at 100%, increase third unit
As shown in Figure 8.1v, the surge curve is flat (as
opposed to drooping in the case of IGV blowers) over the to 100% as required to maintain header pressure S.P.
entire turndown range. The surge pressure is the same, regard- On decreasing air demand or increasing header pres-
less of the vane position. This flat surge curve allows cascade sure, a sequence similar to above but in reverse order
control where only one blower capacity is modulated, while can be followed to reduce speed to 45% and shut
others are held constant at maximum or minimum capacity. down blowers one at a time.
A typical example of cascade control sequence to maintain
discharge header pressure (to meet flow demand) for a three- In this example, cascade control allows precise control
blower system is described below. In this description, 100% of air flow from 45% of the single unit’s capacity to the
capacity refers to full capacity of single unit. maximum of 300% of the single unit capacity. The control
is simplified because exact vane position of the modulating
First Blower The following is the sequence of system unit is not as important as in parallel control. Because of their
response as the process load (demand for air) rises: higher efficiency and more precise capacity control, the dual
vane single-stage blowers are becoming popular.
On-line at 45% capacity
If, in order to maintain the header pressure set point
(S.P.), more air is required: Aeration System Control
Increase first compressor to 100% as required to main-
tain header pressure S.P. Figure 8.1w shows major control loops for a typical aeration
If, in order to maintain the header pressure set point, process. This example shows three single-stage blowers (B-1,
more air is required: B-2, and B-3) that are discharging into a common air header.
Three separate air lines branch off from the common header
Start Second Blower and connect to the diffusers in three separate aeration cells.
Each aeration cell includes DO sensors and transmitters
During 2-min prelube cycle, first unit reduces to 45% (AE/AT-1, -2, -3) for the measurement and transmission of
capacity. DO concentration data. Each of the air lines includes a flow

Open/close
status (typ.)
A A MCP DO S.P.
LCP-1/PLC-1 DO DO
FV FIC AIC AT
A A A A
1 Flow S.P. 1 1
A
A E FCV 1-2
E
A
A
A a 1-1
A
A IGV FT
A
TT
1 Run 1
1 Cell #1 AE DO
A
A
ZT FCV
On A A A 1
ZT 1-3 1-3
A
I IT E
1 M
∗ 1
B-1
FE
A
A A 1
LCP-2/PLC-2 MCP DO S.P.
FV DO DO
FIC AIC AT
A
A A A A
A
A E FCV 2-2 2
E 2 Flow S.P. 2
A
b 2-1
A
A
TT A IGV
FT
A
2 Run
2
A
A
A
b 2 Cell #2 AE DO
On ZT FCV
ZT I IT A A A 2
M 2-3 2-3
A
2 2 E
B-2 ∗
PT
4
A
FE
A A MCP
LCP-3/PLC-3 A 2 DO S.P.
A
DO
FV FIC AIC AT
A A A A
A
A
A E FCV 3-2 3 Flow S.P. 3 3

E
A
A
3-1
A
TT A IGV FT
A
3 Run
8.1 Aeration and DO Controls

3 3 AE DO
A
Cell #3
A
c
A
ZT FCV
On A A A 3
ZT I IT 3-3 3-3
A
A
3 M E
A
3
A
B-3 ∗
A
A
Guide vane
position Press FE
PIC B.P. 3
MOV Aeration cells
Data link (typ.) 4 C
Blower
start/stop Sequencer ∗ Motor starter
Blowers LCP - Local control panel
MCP (PLC-Main) MCP - Main control panel
MOVC - Most-open valve control algorithm
FIG. 8.1w
1499
The overall control system of an aeration process.

meter (FE/FT-1, -2, -3) and a control valve (FCV-1-3, -2-3, 10

-3-3) for measurement and control of air flow into each cell.
The common air header includes a pressure transmitter
Pressure drop/head (PSI)

(PT-4). The discharge air header pressure controller (PIC-4)
controls the blower capacities. Each blower discharge line
includes a blow-off valve (FCV-1-1, -2-1, -3-1) and a dis-
1
charge valve (FV-1-2, -2-2, -3-2). The blower can be multi-
stage with inlet throttling valve or single stage with single
IGV type or dual vane, but an IGV type is shown.
The position of IGV is transmitted to the local control
panel using position transducers (ZT-1, -2, -3). Blower motor
current for each blower is also transmitted to the local control 0.1
0 2 4 6 8 10
panel using current transducers (IT-1, -2, -3). Each blower is Flow (SCFM)
equipped with a local PLC-based control panel for control
and monitoring of the blower (LCP-1, -2, -3). FIG. 8.1x
The relationship between flow and pressure drop in a fine bubble
A PLC-based main control panel (MCP) is provided for
diffuser.
overall control of the aeration process, including DO control,
air flow control, air header pressure control, and blower con-
trol. A data link allows communication between the main PLC Minimum and maximum flow limits are usually set to
and the local PLC panels. maintain minimum mixing requirements and to maintain air
flow within efficient operating ranges of the aeration cell
Major Control Loops Referring to Figure 8.1w, the overall aer- diffusers and piping. In general, the speed of the aeration
ation control system can be divided into three basic subsystems: flow control loops should be approximately one tenth of the
speed of the blower control loops in order to maintain system
stability.
• Aeration cell control loops
All flow and DO controllers are PID algorithms pro-
• Header pressure and “most-open valve” control
grammed in the PLC, part of the main control panel.
• Control of blowers to maintain header pressure
Header Pressure and Most-Open Valve Control Air header
Aeration Cell Control Loops (Loops 1, 2, 3) Control of air pressure is used as the process variable to control blower
flow to each aeration cell is accomplished using a dedicated capacity. The air header pressure set point must be defined
cascade flow/DO control loop as shown in Figure 8.1w. For to provide enough pressure at maximum flow to overcome
cell #1, the inner loop or faster loop is a flow control loop, all frictional losses through piping and head loss through the
which modulates the flow control valve (FCV-1-3) to main- diffusers. Figure 8.1x shows the head loss characteristics of
tain the flow set point. Flow transmitter FT-1 provides the a typical fine bubble diffuser.
measured variable signal to PID flow controller FIC-1, which Doubling the air flow through the diffuser can more than
generates an output to modulate FCV-1-3 to maintain the air double the head loss, depending upon where the air flow is
flow set point. However, the flow set point must be continu- located on the pressure drop curve. Thus, for controlling an
ously adjusted to suit the oxygen demand of the aeration cell. aeration system, it is very important to vary the air header
This continuous flow set point adjustment is provided by pressure as a function of flow. Using Bernoulli’s equation,
the slower outer DO control loop. DO transmitter AT-1 pro- the following relationship can be used to define the header
vides the DO signal proportional to DO concentration in the pressure set point as a function of aeration flow.
aeration cell #1. The DO controller AIC-1 compares the DO
SP = K1 + K2 (QT /K3)
2
signal with the desired DO set point and generates an output 8.1(1)
that is linearized to provide a flow set point to the inner flow
control loop, which maintains the desired air flow to the where
aeration cell. Thus, the aeration cell control loop consists of SP = header pressure set point
two subcontrol loops; the outer DO loop is cascaded with the QT = total flow set point (sum of flow set
inner flow control loop for air flow control. points of all cells)
The DO loop is a much slower loop and the response of K1, K2, K3 = constants
the DO probe must be averaged over relatively long periods
of time. A dead band can be provided on the flow set point The problem in using this equation is that it does not
such that the set point is not changed unless the change is account for the actual system pressure losses. Equation 8.1(1)
greater than the preset dead band. This will minimize exces- is generally characterized and constants are evaluated during
sive change in the flow set point. Control loops for other cells start-up by conducting tests. No correction is applied for grad-
(#2 and #3) are similar. ual increase in differential pressure across the diffusers as the

system gets dirty, diffusers clog, or an abnormal obstruction natural equilibrium. Generally slight changes in the most-
occurs in the piping to one of the cells. open valve position will cause all other valves to slightly open
Another method to relate the header pressure set point or close as a result of the algorithm using Equation 8.1(2).
to the aeration flow is to define a relationship between the Referring to Figure 8.1w, the most-open valve algorithm
header pressure set point and the most-open air flow control (MOV-C) is resident in the main PLC. It receives the valve
valve position for the aeration cells. Equation 8.1(2) shows position signals from all the valves, determines the most-open
a typical relationship: valve position, and generates a header pressure set point value
using Equation 8.1(2). A dead band can be provided on the
SP = K1 + K2 (VP) 8.1(2)
pressure set point that will not allow change in pressure set
where point unless the required change exceeds the dead band.
SP = header pressure set point The header pressure PID control algorithm is also resi-
VP = most-open valve position dent in the main PLC and generates output to control the
K1, K2 = constants blower capacities to maintain the pressure set point. The
blower control is described in the next paragraph.
Equation 8.1(2) is a linear equation that is a reasonable
approximation to the actual relationship, which should follow Control of Blowers to Maintain the Header Pressure Figure 8.1w
Bernoulli’s equation. shows three blowers (B-1, B-2, and B-3) connected to the com-
The constants K1 and K2 can be determined theoretically mon header part of the aeration system. The blowers shown in
during aeration system design and further refined during this example are single-stage centrifugal blowers. These blow-
start-up by conducting tests. During the design phase, the ers can be either multistage with inlet throttling valve or
pressure drop to each aeration cell is characterized for min- single-stage single vane (IGV) or dual vane blowers. Each
imum and maximum design flows. The flow control valve to blower has a PLC-based local control panel (LCP-1, -2, or -
each aeration cell (FCV-1-3, -2-3, and -3-3) should be chosen 3) that controls the blower operation.
to provide pressure control between 30 and 80% open. The local control panel receives air temperature and
During process start-up, a test is conducted to determine inlet vane position analog signals and generates analog out-
header pressure at minimum and maximum flows. The values puts for controlling the inlet guide vanes and the blow-off
of header pressure and most-open valve position (VP) for valve. The local panel also generates digital outputs (dry
minimum and maximum flow are substituted in Equation contacts) to start/stop the blower, interfaced with motor
8.1(2), resulting in two equations (one corresponding to min- starter and open/close outputs for control of blower dis-
imum flow and the other corresponding to maximum flow) charge valve (FV-1-2, -2-2, -3-2). Each panel receives digital
and two unknowns (constants K1 and K2). These equations inputs (contact closure) from the motor starter for ON status
are solved to determine the values of the two constants K1 and the open/close status from discharge valve. All safety
and K2. control logic including surge control is part of the local
During operation, when the position of the most-open panel controls.
valve is changed either to adjust the air flow to maintain the As discussed in the previous paragraph the algorithm for
DO set point or to maintain the flow under increased frictional header pressure control using the most-open valve algorithm
or diffuser head loss, the header pressure set point is adjusted is programmed in the main control panel PLC. The blower
using Equation 8.1(2). In other words, the header pressure sequencer is also programmed in the main PLC. The local
set point is continuously adjusted based on the position of panel PLCs (PLC-1, PLC-2, or PLC-3) receive blower start/
the most-open valve. stop commands, IGV position commands, and header pres-
For a review of the operation of the most-open valve sure values from the main PLC via data link.
algorithm refer to Figure 8.1w. Let us assume that cell #1 The sequencer logic decides when to start or stop the
diffuser is clogged, restricting flow. Controller FIC-1 next blower, and the start/stop commands are relayed to the
will cause the valve FCV-1-3 to fully open, trying to maintain local panels via the data link. As described in the earlier
the required flow set point. Equation 8.1(2) will increase the section Parallel and Cascade Control of Blowers, either par-
header pressure set point due to increased most-open valve allel or cascade control strategy is programmed in the main
(FCV-1-3) position VP. The increased header pressure will PLC, depending on whether the blowers are multistage or
clear out the obstruction in the cell #1 diffuser and as soon single or dual vane single-stage blowers.
as the diffuser is unclogged, FIC-1 will bring FCV-1-3 to its Using the parallel or cascade control strategy, the
normal position, bringing the header pressure set point back sequencer issues commands for starting or stopping the next
to normal value. blower, and the header pressure control algorithm either mod-
The most-open valve algorithm is allowed to quickly and ulates multiple blower IGVs (parallel control) simultaneously
automatically fix the clogged diffuser situation, which other- or single blower IGV one at a time (cascade control), depend-
wise would have remained unnoticed for a long period leading ing upon the type of blower system selected. Both parallel
to process upset. A properly designed and tuned most-open and cascade control strategies have been described in the
valve algorithm allows all air flow control valves to find a earlier section Parallel and Cascade Control of Blowers.

To blower
nos. 1 & 2
To other
local
panels
To aeration
Blow basin #1
Local panel off
Amp LCP-3/PLC-3 Motor
S.P. AMPS
IC A A
2
Blower
start/stop
A
To aeration
PT basin #2
A
A
A E
A
FCV
A
3-1 A A Valve
A
FV
A
C position
3-2
A
A
TT E signals
A
from
A
3 A A
A
IGV
aeration
A
3 Run
A
valves
A
A
C A A (Fig. 8.1w)
A
On
A
A
A
ZT I IT
A
M To aeration
3 ∗ 3
basin #3
A
B-3
AMP Press
S.P. S.P.
IY PIC MOV
Data link 4 4 C
(typ.)
Blower Sequencer
start/stop
MCP (PLC-main)
IC Amp control algorithm
IY Computation of Amp setpoint
FIG. 8.1y
Controlling the header pressure by throttling the current to the blower motor.
The surge control strategy for each blower is programmed Throttling Motor Current to Maintain Header Pressure In some
in the local PLC, part of the dedicated local control panel for applications, the inlet guide vanes for the single-stage blowers,
each blower. The control strategies for surge control for dif- or the inlet valve in the case of multistage blowers, is modulated
ferent types of blowers were discussed in the earlier subsection to maintain a blower motor current set point. Referring to
Surge Control of Blowers. The local PLC logic includes a Figure 8.1y, the output of the pressure controller PIC-4 is con-
look-up table that provides the desired blower ampere draw verted into a blower current (amperes) set point using a linear
set point that is required to avoid surge conditions for a given equation, using the computation block IY-4. The computed
inlet guide vane position. The ampere controller algorithm ampere set point is transmitted to the local PLC panel (LCP-3),
looks at the measured blower current and compares this value via the data link. The amp controller (IC-3) is programmed in
with the desirable set point. the local individual blower panel PLC.
If the measured current is less than the desired set point, The current (amp) controller receives the measured value of
the algorithm generates an output to open the blow-off valve motor current, compares it to the desired amp set point, and
to bring the motor current draw to the desired value that is generates an output to modulate the inlet guide vane or valve to
within the safe operating region. Thus, in this example, bring the motor current to the set point. The other control loops
blower ampere draw is controlled to prevent the blower from for aeration basin flow control, DO control, and most-open valve
going into surge condition. control strategies remain the same as shown in Figure 8.1w.

NITROGEN PROFILE ANALYZERS FOR WASTEWATER controls the sample collection and analysis of each sample.
Either analog 4–20 mA signals or digital data via Modbus
The classical method of aeration control has been to maintain communication link are available, corresponding to each
a desired DO concentration set point using DO measurement parameter. Figure 8.1z shows a simplified block diagram of a
and control algorithms discussed before in this section. One typical nitrogen profile analyzer.
problem with this approach is that the DO set point is usually
set very conservatively to ensure excess of DO in the waste- Mechanical Aerator Control Application
water. Maintaining surplus DO in the aeration basin effluent
to an arbitrary high set point is a convenient way to ensure Figure 8.1aa shows a typical installation of mechanical aer-
that all ammonia has been converted to oxidized nitrogen, ators in the aeration basin. The influent flow is split into the
i.e., the wastewater has been fully “nitrified.” East and West basins. Each basin is divided into four cells.
The difference between the oxygen required to achieve Cell #1, #3, #5, and #7 include dual-speed 125/81 hp aerators.
process objectives (full nitrification) and the actual oxygen Cell #2 and #6 include 200 hp adjustable-speed aerators, and
delivered to meet a DO set point represents the potential cell #4 and #8 have 75 hp adjustable-speed aerators.
energy savings that can be realized by measuring ammonia, A single nitrogen profile analyzer is used for on-line
nitrate, and nitrite concentrations on-line and using these measurement/display of ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate concen-
values to control the aeration process. The nitrification pro- trations at two locations in each basin (East and West). The
cess is a two-step process involving two types of microor- nitrogen profile data is transmitted to the plant SCADA sys-
ganisms. The first type converts ammonia into nitrite (NO2), tem and displayed on the graphic screens. Plant operators
and the second type converts the nitrites into nitrates (NO3). look at the nitrogen profiles to make adjustments to the aer-
Complete nitrification is achieved when all ammonia is con- ator operation. For example, at minimum ammonia and max-
verted into nitrates. imum nitrate levels, all aerators are running at low speeds.
If the objective of the aeration process is full nitrification, As the ammonia levels rise and nitrate levels fall, the two
the aeration energy costs can be optimized by direct mea- dual-speed aerators #1 and #5 are switched to 100% speed.
surement of ammonia and nitrates at several points and using If the ammonia levels still keep rising, the speeds of 200 hp
this data to control the aeration process. Higher ammonia and aerators #2 and #6 are gradually increased to meet the oxygen
lower nitrate concentrations indicate greater oxygen demand, demand. The last two aerators #4 and #8 are ramped up if, in
and lower ammonia and higher nitrate concentrations indicate a highly unlikely event, the South sampling point (located
lower aeration demand. close to aerators #4 and #8) shows higher ammonia concen-
The aeration process can be either manually or automat- trations. Most of the time the North sampling point is used to
ically controlled using on-line ammonia/nitrate concentration validate the results of the control actions. The aerators are
monitoring to achieve complete nitrification. This approach, ramped down in reverse sequence on falling ammonia levels.
in some cases, can lead to optimum aeration and reduced As an additional check, DO levels are measured in aera-
energy costs as compared to classical strategies based on DO tion cells #4 and #8 to ensure adequate DO level. The plant
measurement and control. DO measurement can still be used operators indicate that before installation of the nitrogen pro-
as a check on the overall success of the aeration process. The file analyzer, their target DO levels in the basin effluent were
technique of measurement of ammonia, nitrite, and nitrate 1.0 mg/l. However, following the installation of nitrogen pro-
concentrations at various sample points is called “nitrogen file analyzer and using the nitrogen profile for aeration control,
profiling.” the DO levels dropped to 0.3 mg/l, translating in energy sav-
ings while ensuring complete nitrification.
Nitrogen Profile Analyzers
Diffused Aeration Control Application
The nitrogen profile analyzers receive filtered wastewater sam-
ples from multiple sampling points in a sequential manner and A nitrogen profile analyzer can also be used for diffused
perform UV spectrum analysis to determine ammonia, nitrite, aeration control. Referring to Figure 8.1w, the DO control
and nitrate concentrations in each sample. Typically, a single loop can be replaced with an ammonia or nitrate control loop.
high-capacity pump is used to draw samples from multiple Operator could select either ammonia or nitrate control mode.
sampling points. Each sample point is controlled by a motor- The DO controllers (AIC-1, -2, -3) are replaced with ammo-
operated ball valve on the suction side of the pump, controlled nia or nitrate controllers. The output of ammonia/nitrate con-
via signals from the sequencer, part of the analyzer. Sample troller is used to adjust the set point of the flow control loop
obtained from each sampling point is filtered and placed in an that modulates the air control valve to each aeration cell. A
accumulator. single analyzer can be used to analyze samples from different
Sample from the accumulator is transferred to a flow cell aeration cells.
using a small pump part of the analyzer. The analyzer uses When ammonia concentration is chosen for control,
reagents and UV spectrum analysis to determine the ammonia, the controller compares ammonia concentration in the sam-
nitrite, and nitrate concentrations. The sequencer automatically ple with the set point and increases the air flow controller

Aeration basin #1
E E
Aeration basin #2
E E
Valve
control
signals (4)
Return flow
to process Filter Sampling pump
(3) Analog signals

Sample Sample sequence
accumulator controller and A A Ammonia, Nitrate,
communication Nitrite
Mod bus data link
Network communications
To drain E Ammonia, Nitrite,
Nitrate
Nitrogen profile
Zeroing
process analyzer
solution
(Di water)
Cleaning
solution
Analyzer Flow cell
Calibration pump
“C” “B” “A”

Ammonia Manifold
reagent “A”
Ammonia
reagent “B”
Ammonia To drain
reagent “C”
FIG. 8.1z
A simplified block diagram of a nitrogen profile analyzer.
(FIC-1, -2,- 3) set point as the ammonia concentration nitrate concentration is below the desired set point. It is
increases above set point, and reduces the air flow set point as possible that ammonia control mode may work better in
the ammonia concentration starts dropping below the set point. one cell while nitrate control mode may work better in
If nitrate concentration is chosen for control then the another cell (Figure 8.1aa).
action of the nitrogen controller is opposite to that of ammo- The most-open valve control strategy for header pressure
nia control, i.e., the set point of air flow controller is reduced control and the individual blower control is similar to that
when the nitrogen concentration is above the set point and described in the earlier subsection Aeration System Control
the set point of the air flow controller is increased when the and shown in Figures 8.1w and 8.1y. Although nitrogen profile

Influent
N
West basin East basin
Anoxic basin Anoxic basin
Mixer Mixer
Aerator
DS DS
(typ.)
AS - Adjustable speed
#5 #1 To plant computer
DS - Dual speed
system
Plant PLC
AS AS
A
A
A
#6 #2 Ammonia
nitrite
nitrate
North sample SA SA
A
A
A
point
DS DS
Nitrogen
profile
analyzer
#7 #3
South sample SA
point SA
AS Drain to
AS
process
DO DO
AE AE
1 #8 #4 2
Aerator # H.P. Remarks

DO DO
AIT AIT 1,5 125/81 Dual speed
A
To plant 1 2 2,6 200 Adj. speed
PLC 3,7 125/81 Dual speed
A A A A
4,8 75 Adj. speed
Effluent
FIG. 8.1aa
Aeration basin with mechanical aerators, provided with a nitrogen profile analyzer.
technology is gaining support among plant operators, its cost ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

and additional maintenance should be analyzed before mak-
ing a final decision. The help and support of the following colleagues are grate-
Ultimately, the decision of using nitrogen profiling or DO fully acknowledged:
control will largely depend upon the size of the plant, cost
analysis, process objectives, and the comfort level of the Tim Ptak, Senior Technologist, CH2M HILL
operators. Steven Byce, Chief Operator, Gainesville Regional Utilities

Allesandro Lequio, Turblex Inc. 5. “Advantages of Cascade vs. Parallel Control,” Turblex Publication
Bernie Beemster, President, Applied Spectrometry Associates No. 44.
6. Mace, G. R., “High Efficiency Single-Stage Air Compressors and
Systems Instrumentation Reduce Power in the Biological Wastewater
Aeration Process,” Energy Efficiency Forum, Denver, CO,
References
August–September 1998.
7. Pelletier, R. A. and Sloan, D. S., “Orlando’s Nitrogen Profile Program:
1. Flanagan, M. J., and Bracken, B. D., EPA –600/2-77-032, “Design A New Approach to Activated Sludge Process Control,” 72nd Annual
Procedures for Dissolved Oxygen Control of Activated Sludge Pro- Water Environment Federation Conference and Exposition, New
cesses,” Cincinnati, OH: U.S. EPA, 1977. Orleans, LA, October 1999.
2. Hill, R., et al., Automated Process Control Strategies, Alexandria, 8. “Project Report and Data Summary, Evaluation of On-Line
VA: Water Environment Federation, 1997. Ammonia, Nitrite, and Nitrate Analysis for Process Control and
3. Mace, G. R., and Mathews, S., “Upgrade of Aeration Diffusers, Blow- Energy Management,” Applied Spectrometry Associates, April
ers, and Instrumentation Saves upwards of 50% Power: Case Study 1998.
of two wastewater Treatment Plants,” South Carolina Environmental 9. Application Summary No. 96, Nitrification Process Control, Applied
Conference, 1999. Spectrometry Associates, Inc.
4. Vinton, R. H., and Mace, G. R., “Most-Open Valve Control and Cascade 10. Application Summary No. 114, Aeration Control, Applied Spectrom-
Control of Multiple Compressors Improve Aeration Efficiently and Cut etry Associates, Inc.
Costs,” Water Environment Federation, National Meeting, October 1997.

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Control and Optimization

8.1 Operating Mode Selection 1509

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Process Control 1536 Scaling a Multiplier 1566

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Sedimentation Centrifuges 1633 Dual-Mode Controller 1677

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Reactor Optimization 1708 Chilled Water Return Temperature

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Multiple Compressor Systems 1780 Evaporative Crystallizers 1813

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

References 1849 Composition Control of Two Products 1879

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Auto-Select Controls 1926 Optimizing the Discharge Pressure 1949

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Conclusions 1991 Inerting 2026

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

8.33 Water Hammer 2095

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Membrane System Sizing 2127 Safety Controls 2149

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Ultrafiltration-Based Water Treatment 2189 Control Valve Selection 2197

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

INTRODUCTION MECHANICAL AERATION

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

In this configuration control of aeration capacity is

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Switch next to Sequencer Compare

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

All four aerators

All four aerators

Fail On Start/stop Speed

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

blower speeds, respectively. It should be noted that lower

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

This dual vane control technology dramatically increases

Comparison of Blowers Over the last 75 years, blower

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Dual vane single stage

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

PLC control PLC control

Typically, a DO sensor generates an electronic low-level sig-

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Blue Photo Red Sensor

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

3. Sensing technique is less susceptible to interference Design Surge

MISCELLANEOUS FIELD INSTRUMENTS 11

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

Second unit comes on-line at 45% capacity, resulting

13 as required to maintain header pressure S.P. When

During 2-min prelube cycle, the first unit remains at

© 2006 by Béla Lipták

A E FCV 3-2 3 Flow S.P. 3 3

8.1 Aeration and DO Controls

© 2006 by Béla Lipták