Journal ofthe HEIA

Research in home economics: liIl. 3 No. 11996

The need for interdisciplinary

research in an interdisciplinary
subject

Donna Pendergast
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Introduction against the overall culture of the discipline of

Home economics has been on the timetable of which they firm part, and may thus seem to
Australian students, particularly female students, threaten its unity.
for well over a century. It has been a component in The purpose of this paper then, is to:
the education of many generations of students in
many countries of the world (Logan, 1981). 1. outline the concept of inrerdisciplinarity,
During this time there have been major changes to relating it to home economics; Donna Pendergast is
the content, processes, skills, outcomes and value 2. compare quantitative and qualitative research lecturer in Schoolof
of the subject, but there is little research which goes methodologies which characterise disciplines; Public Health,
beyond merely presenting chronological histories and Queensland
of the field during these massive changes. Indeed University of
3. draw conclusions and make recommendations
research in and about home economics theory is Technology.
regarding research in home economics.
virtually non-existent ~ what little that can be TeL: (07) 3864 3523.
located has typically focused on the question of Fax:(07) 3864 3369
1. Outline the concept of inrerdisciplinariry,
definition, and has generally been carried out by EMaif
relating it to home economics
those within the field; researchers outside of home D.Pendergast@QLT
The question of whether home economics is a
economics largely ignore its existence. The EDU.AU
discipline or a field of study which IS
implications of this have been profound, as
interdisciplinary in nature has long been argued
Thornpson (1995:53) has pointed Out, "home
within the profession. There is no doubt that home
economists worldwide have worked under incredible
economics draws upon a range of individually
pressure to maintain their discipline. This is not a
recognised disciplines, including pure sciences such
Local but an international phenomenon': At least a
as biology, chemistry and physics; and social
parr of this scenario can be attributed to the real
sciences, including sociology, psychology and
void in research which potentially examines and
human development and relationships. It is the
theorises the field of study, particularly in the
collaboration of these disciplines which result in
Australian setting (Pendergast, 1991; 1992; 1995).
home economics - so is home economics a unique
This paper argues that more emphasis should be discipline or an interdisciplinary field of study? It is
placed on initiating interdisciplinary research, my view that home economics is composed of
given that home economics is an interdisciplinary multiple disciplines, each with their own
field of study and research focused upon characteristics, and that home economists bring
disciplines and subdisciplines fails to reflect the about a unique position through an interdisciplinary
interdisciplinary benefits of the field. Indeed, linkage, a position supported by fellow home
such insular research, while contributing to the economists (Bobbin, 1993).
disciplinary knowledge base, has the potential to
Newell & Green (1982) explain that disciplines
destroy home economics. As Becher
are variously characterised by their subject matter,
(l990:333)warns:
their method, their perspective, and/Of the
...what are variously described as segments, sub- questions they ask. They go on to define
disciplines, specialisms, schools, sects and the Like, interdisciplinary studies as "inquiries which
firm their own counter-cultures which maypress critically draw upon two or more disciplines and
31
m
Donna Pendergast

whichleadto an integration ofdisciplinary insightJ' generalisations. However, despite there being little
(Newell & Green, 1982:24). This is supported by research in home economics which is
Vaideanu (1987:494) who explains the meaning interdisciplinary in nature, there are three factors
of interdisciplinarity as: which have facilitated the move towards
interdisciplinariry in the field of education:
...the encounter and cooperation oftwo or more
progress made in scientific research; the potential
disciplines, each of which brings with it, at the
for new ways of looking at the teaching-learning
level of theory or ofempirical research, its own
process; and the evolution of world problems
conceptual approaches, ways of defining
which are typically complex, global and
problems, and research methods.
interdependent (Vaideanu, 1987). These three
An assumption underlying this paper then is that factors also are reflected in home economics -
home economics is interdisciplinary in nature, particularly the third point, which emphasises the
and so brings with it the characteristics of overlapping problems typitying home economics.
individual disciplines, including forms of research
Given that home economics is interdisciplinary in
and theory; In particular, the aspect around which
nature, and that the disciplines upon which it is
this paper is focused is the question of research in
constructed favour certain research paradigms, it
the field of home economics. The emphasis on
is important to understand the differing
research in recent years has been towards
characteristics and features of the research
specialisation by disciplinary base or subject
methodologies. In this way the potential
matter area in order to focus on problems of
contribution of both qualitative and quantitative
manageable size and these are typically
research can be appreciated, and the benefits of
characterised by a dominant research paradigm.
interdisciplinary research using both paradigms
For example, the sciences of nutrition, textiles and
will become apparent. It is important that home
food have a research base which historically
economists, located in an interdisciplinary field,
reflects the positivist paradigm, quantitative
recognise the benefits of interdisciplinary
methodologies, and the empirical sciences. On
research. Indeed, as Vaideanu (1987:489) has
the other hand, the disciplines that deal with
suggested "... interdisciptinarity hasbeen regarded as
inter/intra-personal and family relationships,
an idea with a great jitture, a refUge flr superficial
sociocultural and aesthetic environments, and
researchers... ':
psychosocial development historically have a
research base that characterises phenomenologies
2. Compare quantitative and qualitative
associated with interpretive sciences (Bobbin,
research methodologies which characterise
1993). This is problematic for home economics in
disciplines.
that ideally "interdisciplinary" research should be
Research relies on two contrasting paradigms -
undertaken in interdisciplinary fields ofstudy and
experimental (normative) and phenomenological
therefore a variety of research methodologies
(interpretive). The normative approach is
should be utilised collaboratively. Most of the
"concerned with discovering natural and universal
research called interdisciplinary by home
laws regulating and determining individual and
economists is a cooperative effort with one or
social behaviour" (Cohen & Manion, 1985:6).
more scientists in the core disciplines (Horn,
The positivism paradigm is the basis for the
1993), with a neglect of the connections and
quantitative methodologies and the empirical
overlaps that ought to be, and could be, made
science mode of research. The strength of the
among the various specialisarions of the field.
quantitative approach depends on how effectively
This is shortsighred in a field that typically deals
the research questions reflect the reality of the
with issues that, as Horn (1993) explains, do not
human systems and environments being studied
fit conveniently into narrow categories or
(Bobbin, 1993). The phenomenological
disciplines.
paradigm "emphasises how people diffir from
Vincenti (1990) suggests that the major reason inanimate, naturalphenomenon, and indeed, from
why interdisciplinary approaches to learning, and each other" (Cohen & Manion, 1985:6). The
interdisciplinary research have not gained more mode assumes phenomena can be understood
attention in home economics is the increased from people's perceptions of the situation. Its
emphasis on scientific research, with its prescribed purpose is to understand the perceptions and
methodology that atomises knowledge into perspectives of people involved in situations with
components in order to control variables, isolate emphasis on the micro/macro contexts of
phenomena from their context, and develop relationships. Qualitative approaches to study of
32
 Research in home economics

humans and their environments permits variables and specificiry, thus determining the
expanded perceptions which contributes to "reality".
greater breadth and depth of study. Research from
In contrast, the phenomenological tradition is the
a qualitative perspective is based upon an subjective approach to ontology of nominalism,
organismic view; the sum is greater than the parrs that is, that reality is internal to the individual, it
(Bobbitt, 1993). is '~he product ofindividual consciousness" (Cohen
It is the purpose of this section of the paper to & Manion, 1985:6), therefore, everything is
compare and contrast the opposing paradigms of unique and responses are unique. Nominalists
qualitative and quantitative research, by contend that "objects of thought are merely words
considering six distinguishing features of the and there is no independently accessible thing
research paradigms. In this way, a greater constituting the meaning of a word" (Cohen &
understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of Manion, 1985:7). The phenomenological
the methodologies can be appreciated and the approach is a study of what is the perceived reality
potential for interdisciplinary with possibly multi- of a particular phenomena.
methodological research is highlighted. The issues Epistemology
to be addressed are:
Epistemology, according to the Oxford Dictionary
(a) definitions/orientarions to 'reality' and is <~he theory ofthe method, orgrounds ofknowledge'~
'knowledge; Thus, what constitutes knowledge is an issue of
(b) the kinds of research questions generated; debate between the opposing functions of research.

(c) the conduct of scientific inquiry, in particular The view that knowledge is "hard, objective and
the role of the researcher and the issue of tangible" is subscribed to by the normative
"control"over the study context; paradigm ~ and is known as positivism. In contrast,
the anti-positivism approach of the
(d) the issue of" cause"and "effect'; phenomenological tradition sees knowledge as
(e) whar counts as "data" and what are "personal, subjective and unique" (Cohen &
appropriate methods of data collection; and Manion, 1985:7). The positivist approach believes
knowledge is tangible and quantifiable, while the
(f) the issues of "reliability" and "validity" in anti-positivist regards knowledge as qualitative.
research.
The normative tradition is that of the realist and
(a) Definitionslorientations of reality and positivist. Research is "directed at analysing the
knowledge relationships and regularities between selected
Phenomenological and normative approaches to factions ... this perspective expresses itself most
research contrast on the basis of ontology and forcefUlly in a search for universal laws which
epistemology. According to the Oxford explain and govern the reality which is being
Dictionary, ontology is rhe "branch ofmetaphysics observed" (Cohen and Manion, 1985:8). Thus
dealing with the nature of being'; that is, the researchers are observers. They do not become
'conception of reality. parr of the reality quantified, and they aim to
apply their discoveries as generalisations. This is
Ontology the concept of nornorherics - the staring of laws.
The normative tradition is based on the objective The ideographic approach - understanding
approach of realism reality being external to the individual behaviour - is the phenomenological
individual and actually taking effect on the form of research. The tradition is concerned
individual, resulting in certain outcomes. Cohen with ...
& Manion (1985:7) explain that "the realist
an understanding of the way in which the
position contends that objectives have an
individual creates, modifies and interprets the
independent existence and are not dependent on it
world in which he or shefinds himselfor herself
for the knoioer". Thus, it would be acceptable to
The approachnow takes on a qualitative as well
assume that extraneous factors will have similar or
as quantitative aspect. (Cohen and Manion,
predictable effects on different people. The
1985:9)
normative paradigm develops the reality which is
most likely to lead to experimental success. The approach therefore requires an involvement
Normative research establishes predefined with the subjects, so the researcher is able to
relevant parameters, determining controls, identify and interpret the 'reality' and 'knowledge'
33
b
Donna Pendergast

expenences of the individual. The The polarity of the phenornenological approach,

phenomenological approach can therefore be when considering the kinds of research questions
described as nominalist anti-positivist and generated IS enormous to that of the
ideographic, experimenralist. The anti-positivist, ideographic
approach does not begin with a hypothesis.
(b) The kinds ofresearch questions generated
Instead, an inductive method is considered
The contrasts in ontology and epistemology appropriate where interpretive researchers begin
between phenomenological and normative with a vague idea or interest, or velY general
research provides a basis for determining the kinds questions in mind. This leads to collection of
of research questions generated, in conjunction data, and the results are driven by the data
with the linking of methodology with the concept collected. Findings are subjective, and techniques
of human nature. of collection may include accounts, participant
observation and personal constructs. The
Human beings and their relationships with their
implications of the rwo approaches to research are
environment are different depending upon the
enormous, as it gives such scope for the kind of
paradigms. Determinism, employed by the
research questions asked - it is the issue to be
normative approach, is the human "responding
researched which will dictate the appropriate
mechanically to his [sic} environment'; they are
method.
regarded as "products of the
environment... conditioned by external (c) The conduct ofscientific inquiry, in particular,
circumstances" (Cohen & Manion, 1985:8). This the role of the researcher and the issue of control
contrasts with the phenomenological tradition of over the study context
voluntarisrn, where people are seen as the initiator The scientific method has historically been
of their own actions, rather than the product of employed in the fields of pure science, its aim to
their environment. People have a 'creative identify cause and effect situations. Research and
role... creator ofhis [sic} environment, the controller science are concerned with the discovery of facts,
as opposed to the controlled, the master rather than but in science, the facts are collected to test a
the marionette"(Cohen & Manion, 1985:8). The theory, This is the case in normative - but not in
emphasis on the particular and the individual, is interpretive research (Borg & Gall, 1983). The
the ideographic approach. normative stance can be paralleled to the scientific
Philosophical contrasts between experimental and method, viz.:
interpretive research will clearly have implications 1. selection and identification ofa problem;
on the kind of research undertaken. In the
normative tradition, the approach is that of the 2. execution ofresearch procedure;
positivist: 3. analysis ofdata; and
(i) the methodological procedures of natural 4. drawing and stating conclusions. (Gay, 1976:6)
science are applied to social science;
Techniques employed are associated with the
(ii) the researcher is an observer of social reality: positivist model - eliciting responses to'
predetermined questions or hypothesis; recording
(ill) the endpoint of analysis must be expressed as
measurements, describing phenomena and
laws or law-like generalisations; and
performing experiments. As Cohen & Manion
(iv) the researcher is an analyst or interpreter of his clearly state: "It is the scientific method that has
subject matter (Cohen & Manion, 1985:12). become the basis of the normative approaches to the
Research questions generated are typically in the study of man [sic} which seek to explain his [sic}
form of hypotheses..The normarive researcher behaviour in society. "
begins with a theoretical framework from which a The philosophical perspective of the normative
hypothesis is developed. They then employ researcher mirrors that of the scientist - an
empirical measures, e.g. surveys, experiments, ambition to determine global laws by establishing
which lead to quantification of predetermined causal links. Each of the elements of traditional
constructs. Deductive reasoning is applied so that scientific inquiry are evident and are employed in
through a sequence of formal steps of logic, from the experimental approach - explanation,
general to the particular, a valid conclusion may prediction and control. This approach to research
be deducted for a valid premise. The findings can is often criticised, accused of attempting to
then be generalised to the relevant population. explain human behaviour in mechanistic terms of
34
 Research in home economics

operating in the way we do as a result of internal - the realism approach while the interpretive or
and/or external causes. Critics highlight the lack nominal viewconsiders each situation to be unique,
of acceptance the normative researchers have of situation specific and therefore inappropriate to
the ability for people to interpret their experiences employ scientific inquiry.
and consequently, the findings are said to be so Within this framework, what of the role of the
restricted, simplified and controlled as to end up researcher? Depending on the particular
with data which is so Out of touch with reality it paradigm, whether normative or interpretive, the
is irrelevant. Typical procedure for experimental researcher will identify certain issues of interest
research is to consider the theory, hypothesise and ignore others; they will ask certain questions
about relationships perhaps suggesting cause-and- and not others; they will adopt certain research
effect or causal links, and find data which either methods rather than others; and they will show a
supports or disproves the hypotheses. This preference for certain kinds of analysis,
method of scientific inquiry leads to questions explanation and theory.
about the closed nature of the researcher:
The role of the normative researcher is to collect
In normative studies, data are always data flr data with attitudes, values, skills and objectives
some hypothesis or other, if theyarewhat isgiven derived from the positivistic model. They do not
then the researcher must have hypotheses to be become involved in the situation, are detached,
eligible to receive them. Data in interpretive objective, neutral and conceptual. Their goal is to
studies, on the other hand, are the source of consider theory, determine hypotheses and slot
hypotheses, of interpretation; they precede any issues into 'straight-jacket social reality" (Cohen &
theorising or explanation which takes place. Manion, 1985:27). The researcher is at no time
(Cohen & Manion, 1985:27) "involved" in the issues being studied, the activity
Thus, the interpretive philosophical approach is is retrospective and requires the establishment of
where data generates relationships and causal links. The role of the interpretive researcher
contrasts sharply with that of the normative
interpretation. Phenomenological research is
researcher. They favour "an inner view of social
inductive, in stark contrast to the deductive
approach of the experimentalist. Hence, the
reality and are therefore much more involved,' an
involvement which frequently demands
scientific method is not applied in its traditional
participation as an ongoing member of the group
form to interpretive research methods.
theyarestudying"(Cohen & Manion, 1985:28).
The interpretive approach tackles research by
Phenornenolcgisrs look for explanations and
studying people in their natural environment, in
patterns in collected data. Observation is typically
contrast to experimental research which operates
employed as a tool for the interpretive researcher,
under the strict confines of the controlled
of which there are two principal types: participant
scientific method. The basic premise underlying
observation, and non-participant observation.
the interpretive model is:
Phenomenologists use their experiences in the
1. The naturalistic-ecological hypothesis: i.e. study as data. They become a part of the research.
research must occur.in the natural setting or According to Wilson, who summarises the
similar if generalisations are to occur. process as a series of issues: entry and
establishment of researcher role; data collection
2. The qualitative - phenomenological hypothesis,
procedures; objectivity and analysis of data; the
i.c. the researcher cannot understand the
role of the researcher determines the success of
framework within which the subjects
each of these facets, uiz.:
(participants) interpret their thoughts, actions
and fielings unless they useinterpretive methods. ...the participants must come to trust and value
(Wilson, 1977:47) the observer enough to be willing to share
intimate thoughts with him (sic) and answerhis
The interpretive and normative pos1tlons to the
(sic) endless questions. (Wilson, 1977:87)
conduct of scientific inquiry are at opposing
stances. The experimental method adopts scientific An example of the role of researcher in
inquiry as its base, while phenomenologists phenomenalogical research is reponed by
consider the scientific approach to be directing, Sullivan, Queen & Patrick, who carried out a
objectiveand setting a priorilimitations to the point participant-observation study to gain an insight
of being unable to reflect true events. The aim of into the motivations and attitudes of training
the normative approach is to determine global laws personnel in a Military Training Program. The
35
Donna Pendergast

researchers role was covert. He enlisted as a basic Accommodating the structures of experimental
trainee - his identity, mission and role as a control requires manipulation of phenomena
researcher unknown to everyone except the which distorts the naturaloccurrence,
investigator. The extent of the role involved
Another secondary aspect of control contrast
minor surgery; loss of 35 pounds, training on
between normative and interpretive methods is
reporting techniques and a long-term
the degree of control the researcher has over their
commitment to the study (Sullivan et al, 1970).
study. The normative approach sets out with
Such extremes in interpretive research are rare,
definite aims, is tightly structured, rigid. All
but illustrates the degree phenomenologists will
aspects are controlled, to the point where the
extend themselves to attain subjectivity, as
researcher has control, and is set in a rigid,
opposed to the objectivist normative approach.
inflexible framework. In comparison, the
Problems associated with the researchers role in interpretive researcher allows the situation to
interpretive research may include: bias, loss of direct them, directional control is enormous.
identity, the need to constantly review and Phenomenologisrs have the ability to adjust and
monitor reactions, remaining distant enough to adapt because of this flexible approach.
test emerging hypotheses - none of which are
(d) The issue ofcause and 4ftct
encountered in the role of the experimenralisr.
However, perhaps the greatest benefit is the The concept of cause and effect is defined by
possibility of eliciting information not accessible Cohen & Manion as "determinism". It is the
to researchers using experimental methods. belief that events have causes, and these causal
links can be determined and isolated and be
The issue of 'control' illustrates how polar
shown to have definite implications, or effects on
normative and interpretive research is. Control is
other factors. The issue of establishing cause and
one of the critical aspects of scientific inquiry - by
effect is not as straight forward as one may
controlling, the scientist is able to determine
anticipate:
association and ultimately gain control (Borg &
Gall, 1983:21). The normative researcher .:« phenomenon invariably occurs as a result of
particularly aims to control the situation and the multiple causation and the problem of
procedure. Phenomenologists reject the concept establishing the actual cause of a particular
of controlling a situation, and few employ phenomenon, especially in the behavioural
procedural control. Experimental researchers sciences, is virtually insoluble. Even in rigorous
deliberately control events and conditions so as experimental situations where variables can be
not to cloud variablesbeing researched. Control is manipulated it is impossible to control all the
used as a factor for establishing validity - high [actors in such a way as to be able to identifY
control links with high validity, and converse. conclusively the causal[actor orftctors. (Cohen
One method of control is the addition of the & Manion, 1985:19)
control group - a reference group which assists in To overcome this difficulty, the concept of
validating results. In this way, the control group probability to causation and correlation is
becomes the basis for comparison, unaffected by recognised and takes into consideration human
variables. The degree of control in experimentalist limitations and practical difficulties in carrying
approaches is on a continuum-dependent upon out research. Mouly clearlystates: "science canonly
the variables, methodology, etc. be approximate and continue to function on a
The phenomenological stance on control contrasts probahilistic basis" (Cohen & Manion, 1982:19).
with this normative approach. Interpretive Thus, in my discussion of cause-and-effect, the
researchers oppose siruarional control, suggesting lesser causal links like correlation are cause-and-
this nullifies their study. In some cases, they permit effect situations, bur of lesser intensity, i.e. cause-
procedural control, e.g. structured/unstructured and-effect from a continuum point of view.
questions; natural/artificial settings. Because of the Normative researchers have as their underlying
nature of most interpretive research, control may
philosopby the idea of cause-and-effect. It is the
actually become a constraint on reliability. As Le
basis of scientific inquiry. The experimental
Compte & Goetz (1982:32) explain:
approach is to identify the extent to which a
The type ofdata and the research process itself' specific cause(s) leads to specific effecrfs). This is
maypreclude the use ofstandardised controls so measured by varying means, and there is a
essential in experimental research. continuum of acceptable causal links. After such
36
d
 Research in home economics

links are found, to confirm cause and effect, Both paradigms of research play a vital role in
experimental research should be applied. Within research, based on their differences in cause-and-
the normative paradigm - the cause-and-effect effect, depending upon the particular aspect being
philosophy is dominant, and the methodology researched,
employed establishes the degree of linkage, on the
(e) What counts as 'data' and what are
cause-and-effect continuum.
appropriate methodsof 'data collection'?
In distinct contrast, the phenomenological
The aim of all research is to gain data which will
researcher avoids the manipulation of variables to
be of value to the researcher, Normative and
establish causal significance. They reject the
phenomenological paradigms differ with regard to
notion of cause-and-effect, which has global
data and methodology in data collection, What
applications to specified populations. Their aim is
countS as data in interpretive research is described
to observe, probe deeply and analyse from an
by Wilson (1977) as being "multi-modal" and he
ideo graphic, not nomothetic stance. This
suggests each of the following arc relevant kinds of
subjective approach negates the assumption that
data: form and content of verbal interactions
people behave in a certain manner as a
between participants; form and content of verbal
consequence of preceding or future events, thus a
interactions with the researcher; non-verbal
cause-and-effect linkage is invalid.
behaviour; patterns of action and non-action;
The phenomenological paradigm make links traces, archival records, artefacts, documents.
during and after the collection of data, in contrast
This is not to suggest that all methods of data
to the experimenralisrs, who begin with dearly
collection in interpretive research will utilise each
defined hypotheses, which aim to nullify or
of these forms of data, but they are all acceptable
support cause-and-effect relationships. The
forms of data.
interpretive paradigm argues on the grounds of
being nominalist or idealist - that is, that people In direct contrast to this, is the concept of data
interpret the world in which they are in - and and appropriate methods of data collection used
there is no universal law of human society or for normative research. Since it is the aim of
conduct within it. For example, Davies experimental research to collect data which
(1980:258), in her study of school children's establishes relationships between factors by
social interactions, began with no preconceived considering predetermined hypotheses, the
expectations as to outcomes. Her aim was to: normative researcher is not concerned with any
data except that which is specific to the
...get inside the children's world and to hypotheses, Data is therefore limited to that
understand it from their point of view. J have required to establish causal relationships. All other
drawn together some insights into the nature of
data is considered to be superfluous and irrelevant
adult-childinteractions which developed during
to the study. AJ; Cohen & Manion (1985:27)
the course ofmy study.
explain:
Such is typical of research undertaken in the
In normative studies, data are always data fOr
phenomenological view there are no cause-and-
some hypothesis or other; if they are what is
e-

effect hypotheses or deductions. In contrast, the

given, then the researcher must havehypothesis to
experimental approach by Welch, Anderson
be eligible to receive them, Data in interpretive
&Harris (1982:145) begins with the premise:
studies, on the other hand, are the source of
This study aims to examine the proportion of hypotheses of interpretation, they precede any
variance in mathematics achievement theorising or explanation that takes place,
attributable to diffirences in numberofsemesters
Phenomenologists consider that qualitative data -
ofmathematics studied. which considers all factors, including
The methodology incorporated a statistical interpretations of the researcher - is far more
procedure for relating variations in a set of representative than quantitative data, which links
predictor variables to variation in a criterion only defined variables, to the exclusionofall others.
variable. Thus.vrhis typical normative example The normative paradigm castsdoubt on the validity
began with a need to either support or nullify the and applicability of qualitative research data,
cause-and-effect relationship that was already suggesting it is "synonymous with journalistic

l
assumed to exist, that is, based upon external reporting and anecdotal or impressionistic storytelling"
reality. (Gay, 1976).
37
 Donna Pendergast

Specific methods of dam collection appropriate to A common crittcssm directed to so-called

the normative researcher include qualitative investigation is that it fails to adhere
experiment/quasi-experiment; survey; interview; to canons of reliability and validity... The results
observation; document analysis. These can be of ethnographic research often are regarded as
undertaken in the varying normative approaches unreliable and lacking validity and
including experimentation, quasi- generalisability.
experimentation, longitudinal studies, cross-
Wilson (1977) suggests that some researchers
sectional studies, expose-facto studies. Data can be
consider interpretive research to be nothing more
recorded by questionnaire, video or audio tape,
than "data polluted with the observers subjective
field notes, coding sheets, drawings, test scores, etc.
bias': and therefore to lack internal reliability. Le
Specific methods of data collection preferred by Compte and Goetz (1982) go on to explain that
phenornenologists include interviews, it is difficult to replicate precise situations, and
observation, document analysis and accounts. receive identical results because of the uniqueness
Data is recorded on questionnaires, video/audio of each study. This of course, poses a serious
tapes, field notes, coding sheets, drawings, etc. threat to external reliability.
Clearly, the actual "tools" of research overlap the
Validity
normative and phenomenological paradigms.
Validity - the degree of accuracy of scientific
(fJ The issues ofreliability and validity
findings - is the final comparison between the
These are key issues of research - is it reliable, and research traditions. Establishing validity requires
is it valid? Reliability is split into two more determining the extent to which conclusions
defined areas - internal reliability and external effectively tepresent empirical reality and assessing
reiiabiliry, whether constructs devised by researchers represent
or measure the categories of human experience that
ReLiabiLity
occur.
External reliability addresses the issue of whether
Cook & Campbell (1975:223) identify four
independent researchers would discover the same
kinds of validity relevant to normative traditions:
phenomena or generate the same constructs in the
same or similar settings. Internal reliability refers to 1. Statistical conclusion vaLidity: the validity of
the degree to which other researchers, given a set of conclusions drawn on the basis of statistical
previously generated constructs, would match them evidence about a presumed cause-and-ejfict.
with the date in the same way as did the original
2. Internal validity: the validity of conclusions
researcher. (Le Compte and Goerz, 1982:32)
drawn about whether a demonstrated statistical
In a nutshell, reliabiLity refers to the extent to relationship implies cause, i.e. do the
which studies can be replicated. experimental treatments in fact make a
difference.
When considering the experimental paradigm of
research, reliability is seen as a quantifiable 3. Construct validity: the vaLidity with which
measure. Reliability can be determined by cause-and-e./fect operations are labelled in
calculating reliability coefficients which reflect theory-relevantorgeneralisable terms.
the extent to which research is free of "error
4. External validity: the validity with which a
variance",
causal relationship can be generalised across
Reliability coefficients vary between values of persons, settingsand times.
0.00 and 1.00, with 1.00 indicating high
External and internal validity are considered to be
reliability and 0.00 indicating low reliability.
the more important forms, so our attention will
Because of the quantitative nature of
be focussed there. As stated, internal validity
experimental research, it is possible to apply
refers to the extent to which scientific
reliability tests with ease. This reflects the internal
observations and measurements are authentic
reliability of predetermined variables, external
representations ofsome reality. Estimating threats
reliability will be high because the same variables
to internal validity is a deductive process. It is
can be used to replicate the study.
only when each of the threats to internal validity
Reliability in phenornenological research IS, by are ruled out, that confident conclusions about
contrast, an imprecise measure. In fact, as Le whether a relationship is causal, can be made.
Compte & Goetz (1982:87) explain: Threats to external validity - the degree to which
38

d
 Research in home economics

representations may be compared legitimately The research traditions of phenomenological and

across groups - are likely to limit the degree to experimental study provide differing perspectives
which generalisations can be made from and opportunities for research. As Burgess
particular experimental conditions to other (1985:3) explains "it is not a question of the
populations or settings. To be externally valid superiority of one method over another, but the
then, experimental research must have results appropriateness of a method of investigation fOr a
which are generalisable beyond the confines of the particular research problem". This can be
particular experiment, demonstrated in research undertaken in the field
of home economics - some related to specific
The relationship between internal and external
disciplines, others interdisciplinary in nature, The
validity within the normative framework is
following several paragraphs outline some home
"lopsided":
economics research with direct relevance to
Without internal validity an experiment cannot Queensland.
possibly be externallyvalid. But the converse does
Eiby (1989) undertook research to determine the
not necessarily follow: an internally valid
differences between students who had studied
experiment mayor may not have external
home economics and those who had not in terms
validity. ..It ftllows then that the way to good
of students' perceptions of their competencies in
experimentation ...lies in maximising both
life skills. Through the use of statistical
internal and external validity, (Co hen &
(quantitative) methodology, Eiby found thar
Manion, 1985:167)
home economics students have enhanced
The phenomenological paradigm also considers perceptions of their abilities related to life skills
the issues of internal and external validity. Some compared with students with no home economics
researchers suggest that validity may be the major education.
strength of the phenornenological approaches,
Henry (1989; 1991; 1995) investigated the many
They explain that through methods of data
interpretations of home economics by applying
collection and analysis, internal validity are
the conceptual foundation of Habermas's Theory
authentic representations of reality. In contrast,
of Cognitive Interests utilising qualitative
normative traditions may actually be jeopardising
methodology, The framework was utilised in
internal validity by controlling and limiting the
order to determine how home economics could
experimentation to the extent common in such
be interpreted from a technical, practical and an
approaches. Like the normative approach,
emancipatory orientation; and how particular
interpretive researchers must estimate threats to
approaches to the field could transfer it to the
internal validity in a deductive manner; in
more desirable emancipatory approach. Henry
addition to an inductive manner) for sources of
has recently completed a doctoral thesis which
bias and contamination (Le Compte & Coerz,
proposes a possible definition of wellbeing - a
1982).
descripror commonly used in relation to home
External validity - the generalisation of findings economics. Two theoretical positions have been
across populations - is not the aim of most considered - how critical theorists (and
phenomenological research. For those researchers particularly jurgen Habertnas) define wellbeing
hoping to establish external validity) the process is and how feminists view the concept. The twO
difficult, but not impossible. As Le Compte & theoretical positions have been juxtaposed in an
Goetz (1982) explain, external validity depends artempt to "establish a definition jor well-beingthat
on the identification and description of those might provide a way ftrward for the latter part of
characteristics of phenomena salient for the twentieth century" (Henry, 1995:2).
comparison with other, similar types. This
Another item of research informing home
statement in itself) illustrates the lack of credibility
economics education in Queensland was
of external validity In many forms of
commissioned and undertaken by the Board of
phenomenological studies. Thus, it is relatively Senior Secondary School Studies in readiness for a
difficult and generally undesirable to revision of the Senior Syllabus in Home Economics
establishment external validity in (BSSSS, 1989). This research collected data from
phenomenological research. many of the stakehclders of home economics
3. Draw conclusions and make education including students, teachers, principals
recommendations regarding research in and guidance officers and provided a
home economics comprehensive and often contradictory version of
39
b
Donna Pendergast

the vocational and other benefits of the subject - direction of home economics related to relevance
reasons for choosing; how the subject has and application, diversity, and the need for greater
measured up to expectations; strengths and professionalism.
weaknesses, and so on. The methodology used
There is, of course broad research in specific
was a quantitative approach.
educational and cultural disciplines which have
A Project of National Significance In the informed the field of home economics, though
Education of Girls, funded by the Department of not with research specific to the field. Some of the
Employment, Education and Training was more notable among the theorists include
undertaken in Western Australia. Smir has Bernstein (1987); Bigum & Green (1993); Davies
examined the potential of the home economics (1989, 1992); Fraser (1989); Habermas (1974);
curriculum for broadening girls' post-school Limerick (1991); Reiger (1987, 1990, 1991);
options (1991 :5). This research utilised a Waring (1989); Watrs (1992); Wearing (1989);
combination of quantitative and qualitative Weedon (1987). The areas of expertise include
methodologies. Home economics was selected for technology education, feminism, critical theory,
investigation because of the existence of gender social and political theory, gender and social
issues associated with the curriculum area which justice, and each typically utilise research
had not previously been the focus of gender work. paradigms which reflect the values of the
The most significant finding of the project was discipline.
that home economics can improve girls' poSt- It is important to recognise that both approaches
school options. Emerging from this, Kenway to research are legitimate mechanisms in theory
(1993) has explored the notion of home development, application and testing and for
economics as an inclusive curriculum, focusing on contributing to a more holistic, detailed
the possible contribution of home economics to framework for understanding humans and their
the education of males and females, in addition to environmental interactions; particularly when the
its role in enhancing girls' futures. Kenway character of home economics as interdisciplinary
emphasises the need for demythologising is acknowledged. Qualitative methods can benefit
partriarchally approved structures of society, and from quantitative approaches, and together they
suggests there is a need to undertake this can provide a depth of perception or a binocular
challenge through the development of strategies view that neither can provide alone. By
to revalue traditionally undervalued outcomes acknowledging the value of qualitative and
(Kenway, 1993:9). quantitative research, home economists can make
In my own previous work (Pendergast, 1991; contributions toward meaningful data
1992; 1995) I applied feminist posrstructural interpretation by "demythologising" the
theory to a discourse analysis of transcriptions of quantitative-qualitative dichotomy - as Bobbitt
audio tapes of deliberations from a state (1993) suggests, a holistic profession requires
holistic approaches, including research. There is
conference of home economists. This utilised a
no doubt that research will be considerably
combination of qualitative and quantitative
enriched as qualitative and quantitative
methodologies. The conference was held to
researchers learn to integrate their approaches.
discuss the future development of the senior
syllabus of home economics which was (and still
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