BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

COOKBOOK — PART 7
One of the most popular applications of transistors is in audio power amplifiers.
This month we describe the operating principles of various circuits of this type and
present a selection of practical audio power amplifier circuit designs. The
installment concludes by presenting a practical 'scratch and rumble' filter circuit,
which can be used to eliminate these unwanted sounds when playing old-
fashioned records/discs through any type of audio power amplifier system.

POWER AMPLIFIER BASICS

A transistor power amplifier's job is that of converting a medium-level medium-
impedance AC input signal into a high-level low-impedance state suitable for
driving a low-impedance external load. This action can be achieved by operating
the transistor(s) in either of two basic modes, known as 'class-A' or 'class-B.'

Figure 1(a) shows a basic class-A audio amplifier circuit; Q1 is a common-emitter

amplifier with a loudspeaker collector load, and is so biased that its collector
current has a quiescent value halfway between the desired maximum and
minimum swings of output current, as shown in Figure 1(b), so that maximal low-
distortion output signal swings can be obtained. The circuit consumes a high
quiescent current, and is relatively inefficient; 'efficiency' is the ratio of AC power
feeding into the load, compared with the DC power consumed by the circuit, and at
maximum output power is typically about 40%, falling to 4% at one tenth of
maximum output, etc.
 FIGURE 1. Basic circuit (a) and transfer characteristics (b) of a class-A amplifier.

Figure 2 shows an example of a low-power (up to a few dozen milliwatts) high-gain

general-purpose class-A amplifier that draws a quiescent current of about 20 mA
and is suitable for driving a medium impedance (greater than 65Ω) loudspeaker or
headset. Q1 and Q2 are wired as direct-coupled common-emitter amplifiers, and
give an overall voltage gain of about 80 dB. Q1's base bias is derived (via R2)
from Q2's emitter, which is decoupled via C3 and thus 'follows' the mean collector
voltage of Q1. The bias is thus stabilized by DC negative feedback. Input pot RV1
acts as the circuit's volume control.
 FIGURE 2. General-purpose high-gain low-power audio amplifier.

A basic class-B amplifier consists of a pair of transistors, driven in anti-phase but

driving a common output load, as shown in Figure 3(a). In this particular design,
Q1 and Q2 are wired in the common-emitter mode and drive the loudspeaker via
push-pull transformer T2, and the anti-phase input drive is obtained via phase-
splitting transformer T1. The essential features of this type of amplifier are that both
transistors are cut off under quiescent conditions, that neither transistor conducts
until its input drive signal exceeds its base-emitter 'knee' voltage, and that one
transistor is driven on when the other is driven off, and vice versa. The circuit
consumes near-zero quiescent current, and has high efficiency (up to 78.5%)
under all operating conditions, but it generates severe cross-over distortion in the
amplifier's output signal, as shown in Figure 3(b). The basic class-B circuit must
thus be modified if it is to be used as a practical audio power amplifier; the modified
circuit is known as a 'class-AB' amplifier.
 FIGURE 3. Basic circuit (a) and transfer characteristics (b) of a class-B amplifier.

CLASS-AB BASICS
The cross-over distortion of the class-B amplifier can be eliminated by applying
slight forward bias to the base of each transistor, as shown in Figure 4, so that
each transistor passes a modest quiescent current. Such a circuit is known as a
class-AB amplifier. Circuits of this type were widely used in early transistor power
amplifier systems but are now virtually obsolete, since they require the use of
transformers for input phase-splitting and output loudspeaker driving, and must
have closely matched transistor characteristics if a good low-distortion
performance is to be obtained.

FIGURE 4. Basic circuit of a class-AB amplifier.

Figure 5 shows the basic circuit of a class-AB amplifier that suffers from none of
the snags mentioned above. It is a complementary emitter follower, and is shown
using a split (dual) power supply. Q1 and Q2 are biased (via R1-RV1-R2) so that
their outputs are at zero volts and zero current flows in the loudspeaker load under
quiescent conditions, but have slight forward bias applied (via RV1), so that they
pass modest quiescent currents and thus do not suffer from cross-over distortion
problems. Identical input signals are applied (via C1 and C2) to the bases of both
emitter followers. This circuit's operation was described in Part 2 of this 'Cookbook'
series.

FIGURE 5. Basic class-AB amplifier with complementary emitter follower output

and dual power supply.

The basic Figure 5 circuit does not require the use of transistors with closely
matched electrical characteristics, and gives direct drive to the speaker. It can be
modified for use with a single-ended power supply by simply connecting one end of
the speaker to either the zero or the positive supply rail, and connecting the other
end to the amplifier output via a high-value blocking capacitor, as shown in Figure
6.
 FIGURE 6. Alternative versions of the class-AB amplifier with a single-ended
power supply.

The basic Figure 5 and 6 circuits form the basis of virtually all modern audio power
amplifier designs, including those in IC form. Many modifications and variations
can be made to the basic circuit.

CIRCUIT VARIATIONS
The Figure 5 circuit gives unity overall voltage gain, so an obvious circuit
modification is to provide it with a voltage-amplifying driver stage, as in Figure 7.
Here, common emitter amplifier Q1 drives the Q2-Q3 complementary emitter
followers via collector load resistor R1 and auto-biasing silicon diodes D1 and D2
(the function of these diodes was explained in Part 2 of this series). Q1's base bias
is derived from the circuit's output via R2-R3, thus providing DC feedback to
stabilize the circuit's operating points, and AC feedback to minimize signal
distortion. In practice, a pre-set pot is usually wired in series with D1-D2, to enable
the Q2-Q3 bias to be trimmed; low-value resistors R4 and R5 are wired in series
with Q2 and Q3 emitters to prevent thermal runaway, etc.
 FIGURE 7. Complementary amplifier with driver and auto-bias.

The input impedance of the basic Figure 5 circuit equals the product of the
loudspeaker load impedance and the hfe of Q1 or Q2. An obvious circuit
improvement is to replace the individual Q1 and Q2 transistors with high-gain pairs
of transistors, to increase the circuit's input impedance, and enable it to be used
with a driver with a high-value collector load. Figures 8 to 10 show three
alternative ways of modifying the Figure 7 circuit in this way.
In Figure 8, Q2-Q3 are wired as a Darlington NPN pair, and Q3-Q4 as a Darlington
PNP pair; note that four base-emitter junctions exist between Q2 base and Q4
base, so this output circuit must be biased via a chain of four silicon diodes.

FIGURE 8. Amplifier with Darlington output stages.

In Figure 9, Q2-Q3 are wired as a Darlington NPN pair, but Q3-Q4 are wired as a
complementary pair of common-emitter amplifiers that operate with 100% negative
feedback and provide unity voltage gain and a very high input impedance. This
design is known as a 'quasi-complementary' output stage, and is probably the most
popular of all class-AB amplifier configurations; it calls for the use of three biasing
diodes.
 FIGURE 9. Amplifier with quasi-complementary output stages.

In Figure 10, both Q2-Q3 and Q4-Q5 are wired as complementary pairs of unity-
gain common-emitter amplifiers with 100% negative feedback; they are mirror
images of each other, and form a complementary output stage that needs only two
biasing diodes.
 FIGURE 10. Amplifier with complementary output stages.

The circuits of Figures 7 to 10 all call for the use of a chain of silicon biasing
diodes. If desired, each of these chains can be replaced by a single transistor and
two resistors, wired in the 'amplified diode' configuration described in Part 2 of this
series and repeated here, in very basic form, in Figure 11.
 FIGURE 11. Fixed-gain amplified diode circuit.

Thus, if R1 is shorted out, the circuit acts like a single base-emitter junction diode,
and if R1 is not shorted out, it acts like (R1+R2)/R2 series-wired diodes. Figure
12 shows the circuit modified so that it acts as a fully adjustable amplified silicon
diode, with an output variable from 1 to 5.7 base-emitter junction voltages.
 FIGURE 12. Adjustable amplified diode circuit.

In Figure 13, the Q1 collector load comprises R1 and R2 in series, and the circuit's
output signal (which also appears across SPKR), is fed back to the R1-R2 junction
via C2, thus bootstrapping R2's value so that its AC impedance is boosted by
(typically) a factor of about 20, and the circuit's voltage gain is boosted by a similar
amount.
 FIGURE 13. Amplifier with bootstrapped driver stage.

Another useful modification that can be made to the basic Figure 7 circuit is to add
bootstrapping to its R1 collector load, to boost its effective impedance and thus
raise the circuit's overall voltage gain (the 'bootstrapping' technique was also
described in Part 2 of this series). Figures 13 and 14 show examples of
bootstrapped class-AB power amplifier circuits.

Figure 14 shows a version of the circuit that saves two components; in this case,
the SPKR forms part of Q1's collector load, and directly bootstraps R1.
 FIGURE 14. Alternative amplifier with bootstrapped driver stage.

PRACTICAL CLASS AB AMPLIFIERS

The easiest way to build a class-AB audio amplifier is to do so using one of the
many readily-available audio ICs of this type. In some cases, however, particularly
when making 'one off' projects, it may be cheaper or more convenient to use a
discrete transistor design, such as one of those shown in Figures 15 or 16.

Figure 15 shows a simple class-AB amplifier that can typically drive 1W into a 3Ω
speaker. Here, common-emitter amplifier Q1 uses collector load LS1-R1-D1-RV2,
and drives the Q2-Q3 complementary emitter follower stage. The amplifier's output
is fed (via C2) to the LS1-R1 junction, thus providing a low impedance drive to the
loudspeaker and simultaneously bootstrapping the R1 value so that the circuit
gives high voltage gain. The output is also fed back to Q1 base via R4, thus
providing base bias via a negative feedback loop. In use, RV1 should be trimmed
to give minimal audible cross-over distortion consistent with low quiescent current
consumption (typically in the range 10 mA to 15 mA).

FIGURE 15. Simple 1 watt amplifier.

Figure 16 shows a rather more complex audio power amplifier that can deliver
about 10W into an 8Ω load when powered from a 30 V supply.
 FIGURE 16. 10 watt audio amplifier.

This circuit uses high-gain quasi-complementary output stages (Q3 to Q6) and
uses an adjustable amplifier diode (Q1) as an output biasing device. The Q2
common emitter amplifier stage has its main load resistor (R2) bootstrapped via
C2, and is DC biased via R3, which should set the quiescent output voltage at
about half-supply value (if not, alter the R3 value). The upper frequency response
of the amplifier is restricted via C3, to enhance circuit stability, and C5-R8 are
wired as a Zobel network across the output of the amplifier to further enhance the
stability. In use, the amplifier should be initially set up in the way already described
for the Figure 15 circuit.

ALTERNATIVE DRIVERS
In the basic Figure 7 circuit, the Q1 driver stage uses parallel DC and AC voltage
feedback via potential divider network R2-R3. This circuit is simple and stable, but
suffers from fairly low gain and very low input resistance, and can be used over
only a very limited range of power supply voltages. A simple variation of this circuit
is shown in Figure 17. It uses current feedback via R1-R2, thus enabling the circuit
to be used over a wide range of supply voltages.

FIGURE 17. Driver stage with decoupled parallel DC feedback.

The feedback resistors can be AC-decoupled (as shown) via C2 to give increased
gain and input impedance, at the expense of increased distortion. Q1 can be a
Darlington type, if a very high input impedance is required.

Figure 18 shows an alternative configuration of driver stage. This design uses

series DC and AC feedback, and gives greater gain and input impedance than the
basic Figure 7 circuit, but uses two transistors of opposite polarities.
 FIGURE 18. Driver stage with series DC feedback.

Finally, to complete this look at audio power amplifiers, Figure 19 shows a circuit
that has direct-coupled ground-referenced inputs and outputs, and uses split power
supplies. It has a long-tailed pair input stage, and the input and output both center
on zero volts if R1 and R4 have equal values. The circuit can be used with a single
ended power supply by grounding one supply line and using AC coupling of the
input and output signals. This basic circuit forms the basis of many IC power
amplifier designs.
 FIGURE 19. Driver stage with long-tailed pair input.

SCRATCH/RUMBLE FILTERS
A common annoyance when playing old records (discs) through audio power
amplifiers is that of scratch and/or rumble sounds. The scratch noises are mainly
high-frequency (greater than 10 kHz) sounds picked up from the disc surface, and
the rumbles are low-frequency (less than 50 Hz) sounds that are mostly caused by
slow variations in motor-drive speed.

Each of these noises can be greatly reduced or eliminated by coupling the player's
audio signals into the audio power amplifier input via a filter that rejects the
troublesome parts of the audio spectrum. Figures 20 and 21 show suitable circuits.

The high-pass rumble filter of Figure 20 gives unity voltage gain to signals above
50 Hz, but gives 12dB per octave rejection to those below this value, i.e., it gives
40dB of attenuation at 5 Hz, etc. Emitter-follower Q1 is biased at half-supply volts
from the R1-R2-C3 low-impedance point, but has negative feedback applied via
the R3-C2-C1-R4 filter network. The circuit's frequency turn-over point can be
altered by changing the C1-C2 values (which must be equal); thus, if the C1-C2
values are halved (to 110nF), the turn-over frequency doubles (to 100 Hz), etc.
 FIGURE 20. 50 Hz rumble or high-pass filter.

The low-pass scratch filter of Figure 21 gives unity voltage gain to signals below
10 kHz, but gives 12dB per octave rejection to those above this value.
 FIGURE 21. 10 kHz scratch or low-pass filter.

This circuit is similar to that of Figure 20, except that the positions of the resistors
and capacitors are transposed in the C2-R4-C4-R5 filter network. The circuit's turn-
over frequency can be altered by changing the C2-C4 values, e.g., values of 3.3nF
give a frequency of 7.5 kHz.

The Figure 20 and 21 circuits can be combined to make a composite scratch and
rumble filter, by connecting the output of the high-pass filter to the input of the low-
pass filter; if desired, the filters can be provided with bypass switches, enabling
them to be easily switched in and out of circuit, by using the connections of Figure
22.
 FIGURE 22. Complete scratch/rumble filter, with switching.

Note that if the Figure 20 and 21 designs are to be built as a single unit, a few
components can be saved by making the R1-R2-C3 biasing network common to
both circuits.

The next, (and final) installment will describe a miscellaneous collection of useful
transistor circuits and gadgets. NV