Federal University of Santa Maria

Post-Grad. Program in Electrical Eng. – PPGEE

Center of Studies in Energy and Power Systems - CEESP

Fuel Cell Systems

Clean Energy System Integration

F.A. Farret, PhD

16:34 1
 Outline

What is a fuel cell?

Basic operation of a fuel cell
Types of fuel cell
Hydrogen as a fuel
Fuel cell performance
Dynamic response
Generated heat
Energy storage
Fuel cell controllers
Conclusions

16:34 2
 What is a Fuel Cell?

A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical energy into

electrical energy, similar to batteries;
First demonstrated by sir William Grove (1839);
Used in the 50’s by NASA (Apolo and Gemini Projects);
It is characterized by what separates the anode from the
cathode (electrolyte);
It conducts ions from the anode to cathode to form
water, electricity and heat as by-products;
It uses a catalyst to speed the reactions up (Pt, Ni and C);
The operating temperature depends on the fuel cell type
(going from about 50 oC to 1000 oC).

16:34 3
 Basic Operation of a PEM Fuel Cell

Membrane
Anode Cathode

Hydrogen
Hydrogen Oxygen (air)

e_

Load

16:34 4
 Basic Operation of a PEM Fuel Cell

Major Components (MEA):

anode:  fuel oxidation

cathode:  oxidant reduction
electrolyte:  ion transportation
catalyst:  reaction speed

16:34 5
 Basic Operation of a PEM Fuel Cell

Anode reaction (oxidation):

H 2  2H   2e 

Cathode reaction (reduction):

 1
2H  2e  O 2  H 2O  heat
2

Overall reaction:
1
H 2  O 2  H 2O
2
16:34 6
 Basic Operation of a PEM Fuel Cell

Fuel cells create power by oxidizing hydrogen atoms into

protons and electrons on the anode electrode and reduce
oxygen atoms with protons on the cathode electrode.

Generally, Platinum is used as the catalyst in an ordinary

Polymeric Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC).

An alternative catalyst consists of organic molecules as well as

iron or manganese on a metallic substrate. These materials are
less costly, slower and more easily available than platinum.

Humans and animals obtain energy from the same reaction as

fuel cells since they breathe in oxygen and bind hydrogen with
it in their cells to form water.

16:34 7
 Basic Operation of a PEM Fuel Cell

Electric potential: PEM: 0.6 V(dc)*0.7 A/cm2  0.42 W/cm2/cell;

Virtually no effects on the environment;

Countries of large area are more suitable for distributed

generation (DG), depending on hydrogen provision;

Characteristics: silent, flexible, safe, clean, non seasonal,

relatively long lasting, easily deployable, expensive and with
technology/market not mature enough for intense use;

Hydrogen and oxygen can be encountered in any part of the

world: strategic;

It may replace most of the present technologies since it can

generate and store energy in large amounts for long times.

16:34 8
 Fuel Cell Stack

Single cell: 0.6 Vdc, 0.7 A/cm2

5-10 kW for residences
Multiple cells for higher voltage:

Connected in series: VS = nVFC

+ - + - + - + -

Connected in parallel: IS = nIFC

+ - + -

+ - + - L

16:34 9
 Fuel Cell Stack

16:34 10
 Example of a Practical Setup
(Colorado School of Mines)

16:34 11
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

It operates at the very high temp of

650 °C (1,200 °F);

Efficiency: ~60% compared to 42% of

the phosphoric acid fuel cell;

With waste heat use, efficiency ~85%;

It does not require an external

reformer to convert energy-dense
fuels into hydrogen;

Due to the high temperatures, these

fuels (molten carbonate) are
converted into hydrogen within the
fuel cell itself by a process called
internal reforming.

16:34 12
 Fuel Cell Types

Characteristic PEMFC DMFC AFC PAFC MCFC SOFC

proton proton
potassium phosphoric molten carbonades solid oxide
electrolyte exchange exchange
hydroxide acid (Li, K, Na) (ZrO2-Y2O3)
membrane membrane

temperature
o 50~90 50~130 50~250 180~200 650 750~1050
( C)

charge carrier H H OH  H CO 32 O2

catalyst Pt Pt Pt, Ni Pt Ni, LiNi Ni

H2 (pure or H2 H2 H2 CO
and H2 and CO
fuel CH3 OH
reformed) (pure) (reformed) reformed & CH 4 reformed & CH 4

CO  10ppm adsorbed CO  1%
poison CO, CO 2 H 2 S  0.5ppm H 2 S  1ppm
intermediates H 2 S  50ppm

power gen.,
main portable portable power gen., power gen.,
space co-generation,
applications transportation transportation co-generation co-generation
transportation

16:34 13
 Fuel Cell Applications

Portable Cars, boats, Distributed power

electronics and domestic generation,
equipment CHP CHP, also buses

P (W) 1 10 100 1k 10k 100k 1M 10M

Higher energy Potential for zero Higher efficiency,
density than batteries. emissions, less pollution,
Faster recharging higher efficiency quiet

AFC MCFC

SOFC

PEMFC

PAFC
16:34 14
 Summary of Fuel Cells Features

Extremely low emissions

High efficiency
Fueled by Hydrogen
High cost
Current applications are for
premium power and residential
May include heat recovery
Higher risk

16:34 15
 Hydrogen as a Fuel

 Energy density
 Safety
Fuel Wh/g kWh/L
Hydrogen 33 ???*
 H2 generation Diesel fuel 13.2 21.1
Gasoline 8.4 12.6
 reform of natural gas
Methanol 6.2 5.0
 electrolysis of H2O
 controlled CO2 production
 Example of H2
 H2 delivery Consumption
 pipelines Gen. power: 0.7 kW average
 tanks Energy: 0.7 x 30 x 24 = 504
 compressors kWh/month
H2: 33 Wh/g  15.28 kg

*Volume depends on pressure and

temperature
16:34 16
 Production of Hydrogen

- electrolysis of water, photolysis, electrolysis of vapor,

thermo chemical decomposition or photo-electrochemical
processing of water;

- reform or gasification of petrol or coal;

- reform of ethanol or methanol;

- catalytically reformed or thermal cracking of natural gas;

- gasification of biomass;

- fermentation or photo decomposition of organic compounds;

- partial oxidation of hydrocarbon.

16:34 17
 Typical Fuel Cell Power Plant
dc-dc converter dc-ac inverter
+ DC + + DC
dc output for the
auxiliary
components

DC AC
_ _

+ voltage
regulator
+ _
start ac output
battery 127/220 V

electrical system

exhauster fuel cell stack

S + _
reforming H2 S H2
purge
system

air blower air

air for air

reaction exhaustion

Water air
cooling water fuel cell stack cooling
fuel water DI water
feeding
fan
water storage
water
S excess
H2 solenoid valve

H2 pressure regulator

DI bed heat exchanger water pump

16:34 18
 Brazil - COPEL (PAFC)
(200 kW – US$800,000.00)

16:34 19
 Power Peak Shaving

CURE

CEEE
CEEE
blk
red
mains user
el = 77% FC = 50%

H2 FC
blk + red

O2 - H2O  = 35%
H2O+heat
+ heat

Peak reduction using electrolysis

16:34 20
 Power Peak Shaving

CURE CEEE

red blk

mains user
FC = 50%

H2 FC
blk –red

 = 35%
H2O+heat

Peak reduction using pure hydrogen

16:34 21
 Power Peak Shaving

CURE CEEE

Vm Pt
mains user
r = FC = 50%
80%
fuel reformer H2 FC
Pt - Vm

 = 35%
O2 + H2O H2O+heat

Peak reduction using hydrogen/reformer

16:34 22
 Power Peak Shaving

9
8
7
Demand (MVA)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Hour

Demand curve with constant limitation of peak

16:34 23
 Power Peak Shaving

9
8
7
Demand (MVA)

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Hour

Demand curve with constant reduction of peak

16:34 24
 Combined Heat and Power – Cogeneration

To the heat
recovery system
Cooling
air out

Trap
Supply of for dirt H2 pump
H2 anode
electrolyte
Reactant air +
cathode water out

Humidifier
Reactant
Cooling air or Air in
water in Blower for
Blower for
cooling air reactant air

16:34 25
 Fuel Cell Performance: efficiency

 The fuel cell electrical efficiency can be defined as:

electrical energy produced per mol of fuel

el 
change in the enthalpy of formation

VFC .i FC .t  J / mol 
el 
-hf  J / mol 

 hf = -241.83 kJ/mol (water  steam – LHV)

-285.84 kJ/mol (water  liquid – HHV)
16:34 26
 Fuel Cell Performance: efficiency

 FC electrical work per mol 

change in the Gibbs free energy of formation

 The fuel cell maximum efficiency can be defined as:

change in the Gibbs free energy of formation
max 
change in the enthalpy of formation

 gf
max  g  h  T s
h f

Gibbs free energy is the energy available in a fuel to do external work, neglecting
any work (like moving electrons) done by changes in pressure and/or volume.

16:34 27
 Fuel Cell Performance: open circuit voltage ( VOC)

gf
 Reversible VOC for a hydrogen fuel cell: Eo 
2.F
F  Faraday constant (the charge in one mole of electrons = 96485 C)

Temp gf Eo
State of water max
(oC) (kJ/mol) (V)

Liquid 25 -237.2 1.23 83%

Liquid 80 -228.2 1.18 80%

Gas 100 -225.3 1.17 79%

Gas 400 -210.3 1.09 74%

Referred to the HHV (-

(-285.84 kJ/mol)
16:34 28
 Fuel Cell Performance: open circuit voltage

 The maximum theoretical voltage using all the

hydrogen enthalpy of formation is given by:

1.48 V, using the HHV

hf
Emax,t  =
2.F
1.25 V, using the LHV
(HHV = -285.84 kJ/mol)

 The above voltages are related to a 100% efficient

cell. So, the FC efficiency can be obtained by:

VFC f  fuel utilization coefficient;

el  f . generally about 95%.
1.48

16:34 29
 Fuel Cell: Electrical Equations

i FC
Current density: J (A/cm2)
A

Cell electrical power: PFC  VFC .i FC (W)

Stack voltage: VS  n.VFC (V)

Stack power: PS  VS .i FC  n.VFC .i FC (W)

16:34 30
 Fuel Cell Performance - Example

 The stack efficiency can be electrochemically calculated as:

PS
el 
- hf

 Considering the stack supplying 5 kW:

J
5000  
el  s
 J   1 mole  5   kg 
285.84  103   
    8. 5  10  s 
 mole   2.02  103 kg   

16:34 31
 Fuel Cell Performance – Example cont…

J
5000  
el  s
 J   kg 
141,505  103   .8.5 105  
 kg   s 

5000.  J s 
el     41.6%
12,028  J s 

 These results are similar when using the following equation:

VFC 0.65
el  f .  0.95   el  41.7%
1.48 1.48

16:34 32
 Generated Heat and Temperature Variation

 Pel 1 1.48
Q g  Pt  Pel   Pel  Pel (  1)  Pel (  1) (W)
 el  el Vc

hs  efficienty of the heat sink (hs )

Q  cmT

Q rem  hs  Q g (W)

dT Q g  Q rem Q g  Q rem
 
dt cm C

16:34 33
 Overall (Total) Efficiency

  Q
Q  (W)
u th g


Pe  Q P   
Q
u e th g
t  

Pe  Q Pe  Q
g g

16:34 34
 Fuel Cell Performance: flux of reactants
(for reading)

 From the basic FC operation, we know that 1 molecule of H2

makes 2 electrons to circulate through the external circuit.
 In one mole of H2 we have N molecules of H2 (N = 6.0221023 -
Avogadro’s number)
 Now, for one mole of H2  2N electrons circulating through the
external circuit.
 Considering the charge of one electron (e = -1.60210-19 C), the
charge q in 1 mole of H2 is:

q  2.N.e  2.F (C)

F  Faraday constant or the charge in one mole of electrons = 96,485 C

16:34 35
 Fuel Cell Performance – H2 flow rate
(for reading)
 Equation below shows the charge per mole of H2. For a
certain amount of H2 (certain number of moles):

q  2.F.  H 2 moles   2.F.H 2 (C)

 The H2 flow rate now is obtained dividing this

equation by time and not considering the signal:

q 1  H2 
 I FC  2  F  H 2   2  F    (C/s=A)
t t  t 


I FC  2  F  H (A)
2
.
H2  Hydrogen flow rate (moles/s)
16:34 36
 Fuel Cell Performance – H2 flow rate
(for reading)
 The last equation showed the resulting current for a certain H2
flow rate. If we rearrange the equation, we have the necessary H2
for a certain current (or the H2 usage flow rate):

 I FC
H 2,u  (moles/s)
2.F

 This equation is valid for one cell. For a stack, with n cells:

 n.I FC
H 2,u  (moles/s)
2.F

16:34 37
 Fuel Cell Performance – H2 flow rate
(for reading)
 Considering the power supplied by the stack, the FC
current is given by:

PS
PS  n  VFC  I FC  I FC  (W)
n  VFC

 Replacing this value in the previous H2 flow rate equation:

 n  I FC n PS
H 2 ,u    (moles/s)
2F 2  F n  VFC

16:34 38
 Fuel Cell Performance – H2 flow rate
(for reading)
 Or:
 PS
H 2 ,u  (moles/s)
2  F  VFC

 Considering the molar mass of H2 (2.0210-3 kg/mole):

 PS  moles  3  kg 
H 2 ,u   2 . 02  10
2  F  VFC  s   mole 
 

 8 PS
H 2 ,u  1 . 05  10  (kg/s)
VF C

16:34 39
 Fuel Cell Performance – Example
(for reading)
 Finally, including the fuel utilization factor f:

 8 PS 1
H2,u  1.05  10   (kg/s/cell)
VFC  f

 Consider a FC stack supplying a 5 kW load as:

PS = 5 kW VFC = 0.65 V f = 0.95

5000 1
H 2,u  1.05  10 8  
0.65 0.95

H 2,u  85  106 (kg/s/cell)

16:34 40
 Fuel Cell Performance: internal V drops

Fuel cell output voltage:

V fc = E Nernst - Vact - V ohmic - Vcon

Voltage drops:
• Activation (reaction kinetics)
• Ohmic (electrolyte + contact resistances)
• Concentration or mass transport (mass flow limitations)
• Internal currents and/or fuel crossover

J.M. Corrêa, F.A. Farret, V.A. Popov e M.G. Simões “Simulation of Fuel Cell Stacks Using a Computer
Controlled Power Rectifier with the Purposes of Actual High Power Injection Applications,” IEEE Trans. on
Industry Applications, July/August 2003.
16:34 41
 Fuel Cell Performance

For a fuel cell operating at 80 oC  gf = - 228.2 kJ/mol and Eo = 1.18 V.

Considering just the activation voltage drop:

1.4
Eo = 1.18 V
Fuel Cell Voltage (V)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
2
J (A/cm )

16:34 42
 Fuel Cell Performance

Considering just the internal current (Jn = 1.8 mA/cm2)

and activation voltage drops:
VFCo = 1.09 V

1.4
Eo = 1.18 V
Fuel Cell Voltage (V)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
J (A/cm2)

16:34 43
 Fuel Cell Performance

Considering just the internal current and ohmic voltage drops:

1.4
Eo = 1.18 V
Fuel Cell Voltage (V)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
2
J (A/cm )

16:34 44
 Fuel Cell Performance

Considering just the internal current and concentration voltage drops:

1.4
Eo = 1.18 V
Fuel Cell Voltage (V)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
2
J (A/cm )

16:34 45
 Fuel Cell Performance

Considering all voltage drops:

1.4
Eo = 1.18 V
Fuel Cell Voltage (V)

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
2
J (A/cm )

16:34 46
 Fuel Cell Performance

= 41%
=
@ 600 mV Power
Voltage density
(mV) & 315 mW/cm2
(mW/cm2)
1000 450

= 50%
= 900 PFC 400
@ 745 mV 800 VFC 350
& 114 mW/cm2 300
700 2
3
600 250 = 31%
=
1 @ 464 mV
500 200
& 418 mW/cm2
400 150
300 100

200 50
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

Current density (mA/cm2)

16:34 47
 Fuel Cell Performance

V fc = E Nernst - Vact - V ohmic - Vcon

G S
E Nernst   T  Tref   RT lnpH*   12 lnp 
*
O2
2F 2F 2F  2


1

 
E Nernst  1.229  0.85.10 3 T  298.15   4.31.10 5 T ln pH* 2  ln pO* 2 
 2 
 

G is the change in the free Gibbs energy (J/mol)

F is the constant of Faraday (  96,487 C )
S is the change of entropy (J/mol)
R is the universal constant of gases ( 8,314 J / K  mol )
T is the absolute temperature of the operating cell (K)
Tref is the reference absolute temperature (K)
* *
pH2 and pO 2
are the partial pressures (atm) of the hydrogen and oxygen, respectively

16:34 48
 Fuel Cell Performance

V fc = E Nernst - Vact - V ohmic - Vcon

*
Vact  [1   2 .T   3 .T. ln c O 2
 
  4 .T. ln(iFC )]

 i 's are the parametric coefficients for each cell model ( i  1 ,2 ,3 ,4 ).

i FC is the fuel cell operating current (A)

C - contacts
Vohmic  iFC (R m  R C ) m - membrane

 2 2.5
 iFC   T   iFC  
181 .6 1  0.03   0.062    
M    A   303   A  
Rm  M 
A   iFC   4.18 ( T 303 ) / T 
  0.634  3  .e
  A 

16:34 49
 Fuel Cell Performance

V fc = E Nernst - Vact - V ohmic - Vcon

 J 
Vcon 
 B. ln1  
J max 
 

B  RT / 2F is a constant depending on the cell and its operating state ( V );

J is the actual current density of the cell electrode ( Amp/ cm2 ).

Vact  Vcon
Ra 
i fc

16:34 50
 Fuel Cell Performance

Typical Parameters of a Ballard Mark V Fuel Cell

(see also: PhD Thesis by Ramos, D.B., PEM fuel cells management for integration to power grid
aiming at the operational efficiency, PPGEE-UFSM, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil, 2010, pp 30-32.)

Parâm. Valor Parâm. Valor

T 343.15 K 1 -0.948
. .
A 50,6 cm2 2 0.00286+0.0002.lnA+4.3 10-5 ln(CH2)
 178  m 3 7.6.10-5
P O2 1.0 atm 4 -1.93.10-4
PH2 1.3 atm*  23.0
RC 0.001  Jn 2 mA/cm2
B 0.016 V Jmáx 1500 mA/cm2

pO* 2 pH* 2
C *
O2  CH* 2 
5.08 106 e 498 / T 1.09  10 6 e 77 / T

16:34 51
 Dynamic Response

Charge double-layer effect:

- -
+ +
- +
+ +
Electrode - - +
-
(cathode) - -
- + + +
Electrolyte
+ +
-
-- -
+
- + +
+ +
- -
16:34 52
 Basic or Electrochemical Model
for the FC Dynamic Response

V fc = E Nernst - Vact - V ohmic - Vcon

Ra RM + RC iFC

ENernst C VFC Load

1
E
C ic .dt  i fc .R ohm  i fc .R L  0

E 1

RL  R ohm  RL  R ohm C ic .dt  i fc

Time coefficient:   (RL  R ohm )C

16:34 53
 Dynamic Response

reactants E oc v fc
FC  
membrane + _ + _
va vr

dv
C Ra Rr 1/ R L
dt
ia
ic i fc

i fc  ia  ic _
+ Ra RM + RC iFC

vc 1
ia 
Ract

 Rconc Ra C 
ic .dt ENernst C VFC

_
Load

V fc = E Nernst - Vact - V ohmic - Vcon

16:34 54
 Dynamic Response

va va

dv 1
Ra  idt
C Ra C
dt
ia ic
ic ia

_ _ 
+ +

i fc i fc
Figure 7.12 Options of equivalent circuits to represent a charge double layer:
(a) solution by derivative; (b) solution by integration.

16:34 55
 Electronic Model for the Dynamic Response

Q1 R2
Ls
Ds
R1 Q2
Vs RL

C1

16:34 56
 Ra RM + RC iFC

Dynamic Response +

ENernst C VFC Load

Example: for an application of a 15 A step load current:

(Load closure)
40
Stack Voltage (V)

30

20

10

0
0

.5

.0

.5

.0
0.

1.

3.

4.

6.

7.

9.
10

12

13

15
Time (s)

16:34 57
 Dynamic Response

Example: for an application of a 15 A step load current:

40
Stack Voltage (V)

35

30
0.0 1.5 3.0
Time (s)

16:34 58
 Dynamic Response
Parameter measurements

(Load step)
vfc(V)

Eoc
voi vai
VCo

Ra RM + RC iFC
vr
+

ENernst C VFC Load

_
vL

t0 ti t(s)
instant of the
interruption

16:34 59
 Example of Parameter measurements

Digital storage oscilloscope plot of the current interruption

characteristic of the cell plotted as in Figure below;

32 vfc(V)
28
Eoc
24 voi vai
Stack voltage (V)

VCo
20

16
vr
12

8
vL
4

0 t0 ti t(s)
0,0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1,0 1,2 1,4 1,6 1,8 2,0
instant of the
t(s) interruption

16:34 60
 Dynamic Response
Parameter measurements
1) Make the current interruption test and plot the current interruption
characteristic; Ra Rr=RM + RC IL

2) Obtain on this plot the following values at the current interruption

instant: Eoc , VCo , Vr , VL and measured I L ; +
3) At the interruption test, the membrane Rm plus contact resistance C VFC=VL Load
ENernst
Rc is Rr  Vr / I L which does have current through it and has to be
calculated apart at every instant ti of the voltage discharge by: _
Eoc  VCi  VLi
Rri  Rc  Rmi  vfc(V)
I Li
In a way, the value of Rri will be constant for a given load current, or Eoc
voi vai
even going to vary according to the load current. VCo

4) At this instant the activation resistance becomes:

vr

Eoc  VL
Ra0   Rr
IL vL

5) The initial capacitance voltage is: VCo  I L Ra0 t0 ti t(s)

instant of the
interruption
6) From equation (7.36) comes: vai  Eoc  vLi
16:34 61
 Dynamic Response
Parameter measurements
Ra Rr=RM + RC IL

7) Assuming a constant and large value of C , for a time instant as

close as possible to the current interruption instant, from equation
+
(7.38) comes:
ENernst C VFC=VL Load
dvai VCo I v vLi
   L   ai  (7.40)
dt t  t0 Ra 0C C t t t0 t t  t0 _
and from equation (7.39) comes:
vfc(V)

IL
C for i 1 (7.41) Eoc
vLi voi vai
VCo
t t t 0

From equation (7.37) comes:

vr

t0  ti
Rai  for i 1 (7.42)
E v vL
C  n( oc Li )
VCo
t0 ti t(s)
instant of the
interruption

16:34 62
 Example of FC parameter measurements

Using a 32-cell PEM stack with an effective membrane area

A  100 cm2 , whose current interruption characteristic is given in Figure
10 and tested to obtain the stack parameters at J L  520 mA / cm 2 .
t(s) voi(V) 32
0.0000 16.269
28
0.2000 16.269
0.4000 16.269 24

Stack voltage (V)

0.6000 16.269
0.7356 16.269 20
0.7357
16
0.7405 24.035
0.7455 24.348 12
0.7520 24.753
0.7670 25.601 8
0.7990 26.976 4
0.8740 28.758
1.0000 29.757 0
1.2000 30.016 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
1.6000 30.040 t(s)
Figure 7.10 Plotting of the FC current interruption
test for the circuit in Figure 7.8

16:34 63
 Example of FC parameter measurements
Step 1. Using a digital storage oscilloscope, it was plotted the current
interruption characteristic of the fuel cell as indicated in Figure 10;

Step 2. With the plot in Figure 7.10, obtain Eoc , VCo , Vr , VL and
measured I L ;
vfc(V)
Eoc  29.148 V
VCo  Eoc  vo1  29.148  22.273  6.875 V Eoc
vai
voi
Vr  22.273  16.269  6.004 V VCo

VL  16.269 V
vr
I L  100 cm 2  520 mA / cm 2  52 A
vL
Step 3. Assuming uniformly distributed current through the FC
membrane, Rr  Vr / I L  6.004 / 52  0.1455  . This value can be t0 ti t(s)
compared with the one obtained from calculation with equations (7.7) instant of the
interruption
and (7.8) not taking into account the contact resistance. The small
differences to be corrected are due to: the membrane thickness
(   0.178 m ), unevenly distributed current through the membrane and
effects of the test temperature conditions ( T  30 C ).

Eoc  VL 29.1480  16.2690

Step 4. Ra 0   Rr   0.1455  0.1028 
IL 52

16:34 64
 Example of FC parameter measurements

Step 5. The current interruption happened at t0  0.7334 s when it was

registered:
VCo  I L Ra 0  52  0.1028  5.3456 V
vfc(V)

Step 6. Assuming a constant and large value of C for an instant very E

oc
close to the current interruption time (next instant), from equation (7.41)v oi
vai
VCo
comes:
IL 52
C   44.44 mF vr
vLi 22.390  22.273
t t t0 0.7336  0.7335 t t0
vL

Step 7 From the digital oscilloscope data, at t1  0.7335 s and t0 ti t(s)

instant of the
t2  0.7336 s from the beginning of the test, the respective values of the interruption

output voltage were vL1  22.273 V and vL 2  22.390 V . Therefore, the

activation voltages vai  Eoc  voi were:

va1  Eoc  vL1  29.148  22.273  6.875 V

va 2  Eoc  vL 2  29.148  22.390  6.758 V

16:34 65
 Example of FC parameter measurements
From equation (7.42) it is possible to calculate the variation of Rai ( t )
as a function of time:

ti(s) vLi(V) Rai

0.7335 22.27300 0.015229
0.7336 22.27582 0.007971
0.7337 22.27800 0.007611
0.7400 22.45100 0.005541
0.8000 24.05100 0.004914
0.9000 26.29990 0.004146
1.0000 27.59000 0.003894
1.2000 28.79500 0.003164
1.4000 29.00510 0.002849
1.6000 29.03400 0.002781
1.8000 29.04000 0.002158
2.0000 29.14800 -

From equations (7.7 and (7.8), comes:

2
  353.15  2 .5 
181.6 1  0.03  0.52   0.062    0 .52  
  303.15  
m   0.0017533 m
 23  0.634  3  0.52    e [ 4.18( 353.15303.15 )/ 353.15 ]

178 108
Rm  4.9841  0.0017533 
0.00506

Finally, from equation (7.9) and step 3:

Rc  Rr  Rm  0.145500  0.001753  0.143745 

16:34 66
 Fuel Cell Control Systems

 Humidity control

 Temperature control

 Reactant flows and/or pressure control

 Electrical control (P,V,I)

16:34 67
 Humidity Control
Exit air relative humidities (%)
(inlet air: temperature 20oC, RH 70% at 1 bar)
( = stoichiometry rate – just the right amount or proportion)

Temp (oC)  = 1.5 =2 =3 =6  = 12  = 24

20 218 145

30 199 120 79

40 282 201 114 69 46

50 215 169 120 68 41 27

60 133 104 74 42

70 85 67 48

80 56 44 31

90 38 30

16:34 68
 Humidity Control

Ps
 air   3.57  10 7    8.29  10 8  
m (kg/s)
VFC

300

2
250
6
Too
Relative Humidity (%)

200
wet
150

100

Too
50
dry
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Temperature (oC)
16:34 69
 Humidity Control

Blower  air
m
Href Humidity l*
Speed Blower Stack
Controller
+ Controller
_
Hout H2O, vapor

Input Air
Humidity Humidifier
Controller

16:34 70
 Temperature Control

Tref  . m.air
Temperature m Blower/
Stack
Controller Pump
+
Tout _

16:34 71
 Temperature Control

35 70 oC
50 oC
30 25 oC
Voltage (A)

25
20
15
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Current (A)

16:34 72
 Pressure/flow Control

High
pressure Hydrogen
anode purge
hydrogen
storage electrolyte
Reactant air +
cathode
PH* 2 water out

Reactant air in

16:34 73
 Pressure/flow Control

 P2 
 V  0 . 02  ln  
P
 1 

35 3 atm
(V)(V)

2 atm
da pilha

30 1 atm
Stack Voltage

25
Tensão

20

15
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Corrente(A)
Current (A)

16:34 74
 Storage system using fuel cells +
electrolyzer + metal hydrides
Voltage and current signals
Electrolyzer of the unit and module

Flow and pressure

signals of hydrogen

Hydrogen bus Hydrogen valves control

Program of the monitoring and control

Data acquisition Labview
Voltage and current signals
Fuel cell of the cell and module

Water flow signal

Metal hydride Water pump control

Water
Water valves
temperature
signal control

Water temperature signal

Microcontroller Climate metal

hydride signal

16:34 75
 Storage system using fuel cells +
electrolyzer + metal hydrides

Metal hydrides are metals which have been bonded to

hydrogen to form a new compound;
Any hydrogen compound that is bonded to
another metal element can effectively be called a
metal hydride;
Generally, the bond is covalent in nature, but some
hydrides are formed from ionic bonds;
The hydrogen has an oxidation number of -1. The
metal absorbs the gas, which forms the hydride;
The most common examples of metal hydrides include
aluminum, boron, lithium borohydride and various salts;
Metal hydrides are often used in fuel cell applications
that use stored hydrogen as a fuel.

16:34 76
 Storage system using fuel cells +
electrolyzer + metal hydrides

GONZATTI, F.; FARRET, F.A.. Mathematical and experimental basis to model energy storage systems composed of electrolyzer, metal hydrides and fuel
cells. ENERGY CONVERSION AND MANAGEMENT, v. 132, p. 241-250, 2017.
GONZATTI, F.; MIOTTO, M.; FARRET, F.A. . Proposal for Automation and Control of a PEM Fuel Cell Stack. JOURNAL OF CONTROL, AUTOMATION 77
16:34
AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS, v. 24, p. 5, 2017.
 Storage system using fuel cells +
electrolyzer + metal hydrides

Quantities involved in the desorption process

GONZATTI, F.; FARRET, F.A.. Mathematical and experimental basis to model energy storage systems composed of electrolyzer, metal hydrides and fuel
cells. ENERGY CONVERSION AND MANAGEMENT, v. 132, p. 241-250, 2017.
GONZATTI, F.; MIOTTO, M.; FARRET, F.A. . Proposal for Automation and Control of a PEM Fuel Cell Stack. JOURNAL OF CONTROL, AUTOMATION
AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS, v. 24, p. 5, 2017.
16:34 78
 Storage system using fuel cells +
electrolyzer + metal hydrides

Metal hydrides
16:34 79
 Storage system using fuel cells +
electrolyzer + metal hydrides
Oxygen (O2) Hydrogen (H2)
Anode Cathode
Diafragm

Electrolyte Electrolyte
(alcaline solution) (alcaline solution)

Source: Adapted from Ursua, Gandia and Sanchis (2012).

Operating principle of an alkaline electrolyzer

16:34 80
 Storage system using fuel cells +
electrolyzer + metal hydrides

The alkaline electrolyzer

16:34 81
 Storage system using fuel cells +
electrolyzer + metal hydrides

GONZATTI, F.; FARRET, F.A.. Mathematical and experimental basis to model energy storage systems composed of electrolyzer, metal hydrides and fuel
cells. ENERGY CONVERSION AND MANAGEMENT, v. 132, p. 241-250, 2017.
GONZATTI, F.; MIOTTO, M.; FARRET, F.A. . Proposal for Automation and Control of a PEM Fuel Cell Stack. JOURNAL OF CONTROL, AUTOMATION
16:34 AND ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS, v. 24, p. 5, 2017. 82
 Perspectives of the FC Integration

Peculiarities of the FC association:

1) H2 and O2 are present in any place of the planet;
2) it does not depend on the year season;
3) products and by-products: electricity, heat and water;
4) modularity;
5) point of maximum efficiency does not match with maximum power.

Fuel cell + PV and/or wind power:

1) solar panels only generate under daylight; wind power only with wind;
2) H2 may be converted by water electrolysis (77%) or reform;
3) in integrated systems, they may dispense battery banks;
4) PV and wind power as back up for FC and vice-versa;
5) because they are quiet and clean, both FC and PV are suitable to
supply hospitals, libraries, supermarkets, schools and other ambient.

16:34 83
 Conclusions

 This module presents the fundamentals of a fuel cell and

its basic operation.
 Fuel cell types and the use of hydrogen as a fuel were also
discussed;
 Evaluation of a PEM fuel cell performance considering static
and dynamic responses with regards to efficiency and
generated heat;
 Fuel cell models and controllers for temperature, humidity
pressure and flow were discussed and an experimental
setup was presented;
 Fuel cells can be used with hydrogen storage to feed large
amounts of energy for long periods.

16:34 84
 Federal University of Santa Maria
Post-Grad. Program in Electrical Eng. - PPGEE
Center of Studies in Energy and Power Systems - CEESP

Fuel Cell Systems

Clean Energy System Integration

Contact address: Prof. Felix A. Farret

Universidade Federal de Santa Maria - Campus – Camobi
CEP 97.105.900 - Santa Maria - RS - Brazil
Tel.: (+55-55)3220.8456 Fax: (+55-55)3220.8030
E-Mail: fafarret@gmail.com H-Page: www.ufsm.br/ceema
16:34 85
 Exercise

The equation :
 8 PS 1
H 2,u  1.05  10 . .
VFC f
gives the amount of hydrogen as related to electrical power.

Suppose that an electric car travels 10 miles per kWh. How

much hydrogen would be needed to give the car a range of 300
miles if the source of electricity is an on-board fuel cell with
an efficiency to the drive train about 50% of the ideal ?

16:34 86