INGLE SLIT DIFFRACTION

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Learning Objectives

 Discuss the single slit diffraction pattern.

Light passing through a single slit forms a diffraction pattern somewhat different from those
formed by double slits or diffraction gratings. [link] shows a single slit diffraction pattern. Note
that the central maximum is larger than those on either side, and that the intensity decreases
rapidly on either side. In contrast, a diffraction grating produces evenly spaced lines that dim
slowly on either side of center.

(a) Single slit diffraction pattern. Monochromatic light passing through a single slit has a central
maximum and many smaller and dimmer maxima on either side. The central maximum is six
times higher than shown. (b) The drawing shows the bright central maximum and dimmer and
thinner maxima on either side.

The analysis of single slit diffraction is illustrated in [link]. Here we consider light coming from
different parts of the same slit. According to Huygens’s principle, every part of the wavefront in
the slit emits wavelets. These are like rays that start out in phase and head in all directions. (Each
ray is perpendicular to the wavefront of a wavelet.) Assuming the screen is very far away
compared with the size of the slit, rays heading toward a common destination are nearly parallel.
When they travel straight ahead, as in [link](a), they remain in phase, and a central maximum is
obtained. However, when rays travel at an angle relative to the original direction of the beam,
each travels a different distance to a common location, and they can arrive in or out of phase.
In [link](b), the ray from the bottom travels a distance of one wavelength farther than the ray
from the top. Thus a ray from the center travels a distance farther than the one on the left,
arrives out of phase, and interferes destructively. A ray from slightly above the center and one
from slightly above the bottom will also cancel one another. In fact, each ray from the slit will
have another to interfere destructively, and a minimum in intensity will occur at this angle. There
will be another minimum at the same angle to the right of the incident direction of the light.

Light passing through a single slit is diffracted in all directions and may interfere

constructively or destructively, depending on the angle. The difference in path length for

rays from either side of the slit is seen to be 4.1: Single-Slit Diffraction

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After passing through a narrow aperture (opening), a wave propagating in a specific direction
tends to spread out. For example, sound waves that enter a room through an open door can be
heard even if the listener is in a part of the room where the geometry of ray propagation dictates
that there should only be silence. Similarly, ocean waves passing through an opening in a
breakwater can spread throughout the bay inside. (Figure \PageIndex{1}). The spreading and
bending of sound and ocean waves are two examples of diffraction, which is the bending of a
wave around the edges of an opening or an obstacle—a phenomenon exhibited by all types of
waves.

Figure \PageIndex{1}: Because of the diffraction of waves, ocean waves entering through an
opening in a breakwater can spread throughout the bay. (credit: modification of map data from
Google Earth)

The diffraction of sound waves is apparent to us because wavelengths in the audible region are
approximately the same size as the objects they encounter, a condition that must be satisfied if
diffraction effects are to be observed easily. Since the wavelengths of visible light range from
approximately 390 to 770 nm, most objects do not diffract light significantly. However,
situations do occur in which apertures are small enough that the diffraction of light is observable.
For example, if you place your middle and index fingers close together and look through the
opening at a light bulb, you can see a rather clear diffraction pattern, consisting of light and dark
lines running parallel to your fingers.

Diffraction through a Single Slit

Light passing through a single slit forms a diffraction pattern somewhat different from those
formed by double slits or diffraction gratings, which we discussed in the chapter on
interference. Figure \PageIndex{2} shows a single-slit diffraction pattern. Note that the central
maximum is larger than maxima on either side and that the intensity decreases rapidly on either
side. In contrast, a diffraction grating produces evenly spaced lines that dim slowly on either side
of the center.

Figure \PageIndex{2}: Single-slit diffraction pattern. (a) Monochromatic light passing through
a single slit has a central maximum and many smaller and dimmer maxima on either side. The
central maximum is six times higher than shown. (b) The diagram shows the bright central
maximum, and the dimmer and thinner maxima on either side.

The analysis of single-slit diffraction is illustrated in Figure \PageIndex{2}. Here, the light
arrives at the slit, illuminating it uniformly and is in phase across its width. We then consider
light propagating onwards from different parts of the same slit. According to Huygens’s
principle, every part of the wave front in the slit emits wavelets, as we discussed in The Nature
of Light. These are like rays that start out in phase and head in all directions. (Each ray is
perpendicular to the wave front of a wavelet.) Assuming the screen is very far away compared
with the size of the slit, rays heading toward a common destination are nearly parallel. When
they travel straight ahead, as in part (a) of the figure, they remain in phase, and we observe a
central maximum. However, when rays travel at an angle θ relative to the original direction of
the beam, each ray travels a different distance to a common location, and they can arrive in or
out of phase. In part (b), the ray from the bottom travels a distance of one wavelength λ farther
than the ray from the top. Thus, a ray from the center travels a distance λ/2 less than the one at
the bottom edge of the slit, arrives out of phase, and interferes destructively. A ray from slightly
above the center and one from slightly above the bottom also cancel one another. In fact, each
ray from the slit interferes destructively with another ray. In other words, a pair-wise cancellation
of all rays results in a dark minimum in intensity at this angle. By symmetry, another minimum
occurs at the same angle to the right of the incident direction (toward the bottom of the figure) of
the light.
Figure \PageIndex{3}: Light passing through a single slit is diffracted in all directions and may
interfere constructively or destructively, depending on the angle. The difference in path length
for rays from either side of the slit is seen to be D sin θ.

At the larger angle shown in part (c), the path lengths differ by 3λ/2 for rays from the top and
bottom of the slit. One ray travels a distance λ different from the ray from the bottom and arrives
in phase, interfering constructively. Two rays, each from slightly above those two, also add
constructively. Most rays from the slit have another ray to interfere with constructively, and a
maximum in intensity occurs at this angle. However, not all rays interfere constructively for this
situation, so the maximum is not as intense as the central maximum. Finally, in part (d), the
angle shown is large enough to produce a second minimum. As seen in the figure, the difference
in path length for rays from either side of the slit is D sin θ, and we see that a destructive
minimum is obtained when this distance is an integral multiple of the wavelength.

Thus, to obtain destructive interference for a single slit,

\underbrace{D \sin θ = mλ}_{\text{destructive interference}}

where

 m = ±1, ±2, ±3,...,

 D is the slit width,
 λ is the light’s wavelength,
 θ is the angle relative to the original direction of the light, and
 m is the order of the minimum.

Figure \PageIndex{3} shows a graph of intensity for single-slit interference, and it is apparent
that the maxima on either side of the central maximum are much less intense and not as wide.
This effect is explored in Double-Slit Diffraction.

Figure \PageIndex{3}: A graph of single-slit diffraction intensity showing the central maximum
to be wider and much more intense than those to the sides. In fact, the central maximum is six
times higher than shown here.

At the larger angle shown in [link](c), the path lengths differ by for rays from the top and
bottom of the slit. One ray travels a distance different from the ray from the bottom and arrives
in phase, interfering constructively. Two rays, each from slightly above those two, will also add
constructively. Most rays from the slit will have another to interfere with constructively, and a
maximum in intensity will occur at this angle. However, all rays do not interfere constructively
for this situation, and so the maximum is not as intense as the central maximum. Finally,
in [link](d), the angle shown is large enough to produce a second minimum. As seen in the
figure, the difference in path length for rays from either side of the slit is , and we see
that a destructive minimum is obtained when this distance is an integral multiple of the
wavelength.
A graph of single slit diffraction intensity showing the central maximum to be wider and much
more intense than those to the sides. In fact the central maximum is six times higher than shown
here.

Thus, to obtain destructive interference for a single slit,

where is the slit width, is the light’s wavelength, is the angle relative to the original
direction of the light, and is the order of the minimum. [link] shows a graph of intensity for
single slit interference, and it is apparent that the maxima on either side of the central maximum
are much less intense and not as wide. This is consistent with the illustration in [link](b).
Calculating Single Slit Diffraction

Visible light of wavelength 550 nm falls on a single slit and produces its second diffraction
minimum at an angle of relative to the incident direction of the light. (a) What is the width
of the slit? (b) At what angle is the first minimum produced?

A graph of the single slit diffraction pattern is analyzed in this example.

Strategy

From the given information, and assuming the screen is far away from the slit, we can use the
equation first to find , and again to find the angle for the first minimum .

Solution for (a)

We are given that , , and . Solving the equation

for and substituting known values gives
Solution for (b)

Solving the equation for and substituting the known values gives

Thus the angle is

Discussion

We see that the slit is narrow (it is only a few times greater than the wavelength of light). This is
consistent with the fact that light must interact with an object comparable in size to its
wavelength in order to exhibit significant wave effects such as this single slit diffraction pattern.
We also see that the central maximum extends on either side of the original beam, for a
width of about . The angle between the first and second minima is only
about . Thus the second maximum is only about half as wide as the central
maximum.

Circular-aperture Diffraction

Light behaves as particle and wave. Diffraction is a phenomenon that describes the
wave nature of the light. Diffraction can be classified into two, namely, Fresnel
diffraction (near field diffraction) or Fraunhofer diffraction (long distance diffraction).
Circular aperture diffraction is an example of Fresnel diffraction. The diffraction pattern
of circular disc shaped intermediate dark and bright fringes with a central bright spot,
formed when light passes through a small circular aperture, is known as Circular-
Aperture Diffraction.
This circular spot formed at the center known as Airy disc is the description of best spot
of light that a perfect lens of circular aperture can make. Nearby, the circular patterns
formed are those known as Airy patterns. These are named after George Biddle Airy.
The concentric circular rings will get fainter as it moves from the central spot. The
circular aperture is given by

where

Since smaller aperture is used, the displacement can be given by

y=D tan θ = D sin θ ≈ Δ θ
Here
y – Displacement
D– screen distance
From the above formulae, we can calculate the displacement, wavelength, or diameter
of an aperture with given known values, and this is done by small angle approximation.
The examples for circular apertures are the eyes and optical instruments like camera,
microscope, telescope and so on. These are diffraction limited.
Diffraction limited is the ability to produce images with angular resolution limited by
aperture resolution. Rayleigh creation is used to calculate this resolution.

Optical Pyrometer

Pyrometer
A pyrometer is a device that is used for the temperature measurement of an object. The
device actually tracks and measures the amount of heat that is radiated from an object.
The thermal heat radiates from the object to the optical system present inside the
pyrometer. The optical system makes the thermal radiation into a better focus and
passes it to the detector. The output of the detector will be related to the input thermal
radiation. The biggest advantage of this device is that, unlike a Resistance Temperature
Detector (RTD) and Thermocouple, there is no direct contact between the pyrometer
and the object whose temperature is to be found out.
Optical Pyrometer
In an optical pyrometer, a brightness comparison is made to measure the temperature.
As a measure of the reference temperature, a color change with the growth in
temperature is taken. The device compares the brightness produced by the radiation of
the object whose temperature is to be measured, with that of a reference temperature.
The reference temperature is produced by a lamp whose brightness can be adjusted till
its intensity becomes equal to the brightness of the source object. For an object, its light
intensity always depends on the temperature of the object, whatever may be its
wavelength. After adjusting the temperature, the current passing through it is measured
using a multimeter, as its value will be proportional to the temperature of the source
when calibrated. The working of an optical pyrometer is shown in the figure below.
 Optical Pyrometer - Working

As shown in the figure above, an optical pyrometer has the following components.

1. An eye piece at the left side and an optical lens on the right.

2. A reference lamp, which is powered with the help of a battery.

3. A rheostat to change the current and hence the brightness intensity.

4. So as to increase the temperature range which is to be measured, an absorption screen is fitted

between the optical lens and the reference bulb.
5. A red filter placed between the eye piece and the reference bulb helps in narrowing the band of
wavelength.

Working
The radiation from the source is emitted and the optical objective lens captures it. The
lens helps in focusing the thermal radiation on to the reference bulb. The observer
watches the process through the eye piece and corrects it in such a manner that the
reference lamp filament has a sharp focus and the filament is super-imposed on the
temperature source image. The observer starts changing the rheostat values and the
current in the reference lamp changes. This in turn, changes its intensity. This change in
current can be observed in three different ways.

1. The filament is dark. That is, cooler than the temperature source.

2. Filamnet is bright. That is, hotter than the temperature source.

3. Filament disappears. Thus, there is equal brightness between the filament and
temperature source. At this time, the current that flows in the reference lamp is
measured, as its value is a measure of the temperature of the radiated light in the
temperature source, when calibrated.

Optical Pyrometer-Temperature Measurement

Advantages
1. Simple assembling of the device enables easy use of it.

2. Provides a very high accuracy with +/-5 degree Celsius.

3. There is no need of any direct body contact between the optical pyrometer and the object. Thus,
it can be used in a wide variety of applications.
4. As long as the size of the object, whose temperature is to measured fits with the size of the
optical pyrometer, the distance between both of them is not at all a problem. Thus, the device can
be used for remote sensing.

5. This device can not only be used to measure the temperature, but can also be used to see the heat
produced by the object/source. Thus, optical pyrometers can be used to measure and view
wavelengths less than or equal to 0.65 microns. But, a Radiation Pyrometer can be used for
high heat applications and can measure wavelengths between 0.70 microns to 20 microns.
Disadvantages
1. As the measurement is based on the light intensity, the device can be used only in applications
with a minimum temperature of 700 degree Celsius.

2. The device is not useful for obtaining continuous values of temperatures at small intervals.

Applications
1. Used to measure temperatures of liquid metals or highly heated materials.

2. Can be used to measure furnace temperatures.

3. Sextant, instrument for determining the angle between the horizon and a
celestial body such as the Sun, the Moon, or a star, used in celestial
navigation to determine latitude and longitude. The device consists of an arc of a
circle, marked off in degrees, and a movable radial arm pivoted at the centre of
the circle. A telescope, mounted rigidly to the framework, is lined up with the
horizon. The radial arm, on which a mirror is mounted, is moved until the star is
reflected into a half-silvered mirror in line with the telescope and appears,
through the telescope, to coincide with the horizon. The angular distance of the
star above the horizon is then read from the graduated arc of the sextant. From
this angle and the exact time of day as registered by a chronometer, the latitude
can be determined (within a few hundred metres) by means of published tables.
4. The name comes from the Latin sextus, or “one-sixth,” for the sextant’s arc spans
60°, or one-sixth of a circle. Octants, with 45° arcs, were first used to calculate
latitude. Sextants were first developed with wider arcs for calculating longitude
from lunar observations, and they replaced octants by the second half of the 18th
century

“Use and Applications of the Astronomical Telescope”

Guidelines for Writing the Report
Report

In this report you will summarize the results from “The Astronomical Telescope I” and “The
Astronomical Telescope II” experiments. You will synthesize what you learn regarding the two
main properties of a telescope. You will apply what you learned to elaborate and answer some
questions regarding the use and applications of telescopes.

In “The Astronomical Telescope I” experiment you had the chance to learn the concept of
angular resolution, how it is calculated and how the aperture (diameter) of the telescope is related
to the resolution. You learned how this property allows you to distinguish fine details in an
astronomical object or to resolve binary stars. During the experiment you were able to learn how
small the size of an arcsecond is. All of this helps you to appreciate the technical challenges of
resolving fine details of celestial bodies that we observe.

In “The Astronomical Telescope II”, you learned about the light gathering power of a telescope
and how that is related to the aperture of a telescope. You also familiarize yourself with the
magnitude system, which is how astronomers quantify the brightness of stars and other celestial
objects. You also learned how the aperture (diameter) of a telescope relates to the brightness of
the stars that can be seen and how that determines the faintest stars you can see with it.

Your report should be understandable to a reader unfamiliar with the details of the experiments.
The report should cover the purpose of the experiment, the methods used to gather your data, the
physical principles your data is meant to demonstrate, the results derived from your data, and
conclusions drawn from your results, including reading errors and personal effect when taking
readings. Finally it will include applications of the two main properties of telescopes. Be
thorough but concise – explain everything that is required straightforwardly and without
embellishments or irrelevant details.

Regarding errors, do not include mistakes or vague statements. What it is relevant in an

experiment are reading errors and how those will influence the final values. Errors may be
caused by the instruments used to take the measurements (rulers, meter stick), or introduced by
the observer deciding when the “canals” (lines) or “stars” merge or when the each of the six
artificial stars are no longer visible to the observer. Be specific and mention numbers. How you
can trust in the final values that you give? Do not be vague and include statement such as” I was
careful and I trust my values” or “my values are precise” or “I estimate that my errors are small”.
These statements have no value regarding errors and may lower your grade.

Another important aspect of the report is that some questions and topics included in the text of
the write up or being suggested must be integrated in the text of the report. Do not simply list the
answers to these questions or the topics. “Yes” or “no” answers are not valid unless you include
an explanation of your reasoning.
You are asked to solve several problems at the end of the write up of the experiment Telescopes
II, on pages 4.8 (problems 4 to 8). Answer those in a separate section. And make sure you
include the formulas, all the steps followed and intermediate calculations. If you cannot show
how you got your final values, you may not receive much credit.

The report should contain all of the following sections:

 Introduction
 Purpose of the experiment
 Discussion of the physical principles and any equations used
 Short description of how the data were obtained (i.e. the procedure)
 Data tables, graphs, and calculations
 Discussion, including comparison of results with excepted values, sources of error, and
any other required analysis
 Conclusions
 Original (signed) data sheets attached at the end

Guidelines for Each Section

Introduction
The telescope is the main tool used by astronomers. Specify that this report summarize the two
main properties of the telescope. Also specify what you learned about the measurement system
used by astronomers to measure the brightness, the magnitude and angular size of an object.
Astronomers seek ever-larger telescopes because a telescope’s diameter is the main parameter
that determine its ability to separate closely-space celestial bodies or details and make extremely
faint objects visible. To explore how these relationships work, you used a telescope with an
adjustable aperture to look at artificial stars, simulating the detrimental effects of smaller
apertures in the resolution and light-collecting power.

Purpose of the Experiment

For this part, explain that through the two experiments you explored the two basic properties of
the telescope as a tool for collecting light from celestial bodies. Explain how the aperture size of
the telescope relates to its abilities to resolve objects of small angular size and detect objects
much fainter than the human eye can see. Specify that you used an empirical model given by the
Dawes’ Limit equation to predict the minimum aperture necessary to resolve the two objects in
the target. Specify that you used experimental values of the resolving power for those targets to
test the validity of values predicted by the Dawes formula. State how you used of the magnitude
system to quantify brightness, and the Dawes’ Limit to quantify a telescope’s resolving power.

Discussion of Physical Principles and Equations

Explain the concept of angular size of an object. Include the equation to calculate the angular
size of an object using its physical size and the distance to the object. Also describe the Dawes’
Limit equation and how it empirically relates angular resolution to the size of the telescope
needed to reach that resolution.
Discuss the magnitude system, especially how brightness ratios and magnitude differences are
related. Describe how a telescope’s light collecting area relates the range of magnitudes of stars
it can detect.

Methods
Very briefly describe how you carried out your experiment here. In particular, explain how you
manipulated the aperture size of your telescope with an iris diaphragm to find the apertures at
which the simulated stars and “canals” became unresolved and how you measured the aperture
sizes. How did you use an empirical model that predicted the minimum aperture and how did
you compare your experimental results with the values given by the Dawes’ Limit equation?

Describe how you adjusted and measured the aperture of your telescope to find and to plot the
relationship between the telescope’s aperture size and faintest magnitude (faintest) star visible
through it. Briefly include how the simulated target stars were calibrated on the magnitude scale.

Data Tables and Graphs

In this section, type all data tables neatly, with all values reported in the correct units to the
correct number of significant figures. To figure out the number of significant figures, pay
attention to the significant figures of your values of the aperture read using the ruler. Should you
consider the values (and the reading uncertainties) of the distance measured with the meter stick?
Which one of the uncertainties is more relevant and why?

If you do the calculations with a calculator, you may get a lot of figures. Some of those figures
are not valid. It is you who must determine how many of those figures are significant and omit
the rest.

Include 2 tables of your trials measuring the diameter of the telescope aperture for “canal” and
the “double star”. One table for the canals and another for the double star, with the averages of
your data at the bottom.

Your calculations of the results for the angular size of your observing targets and the aperture
required to resolve them according to Dawes’ Limit must be included in the table next to the
average of the two experimental values for an easy comparison.

Also include a third table with the magnitudes and the aperture sizes at which stars of each
magnitude disappear. The aperture sizes must be listed with the correct units (your choice of
centimeters or millimeters).
Plot the above values here in this section. Be neat. You can do the plot by hand, but use a ruler to
draw each axis. Include a regularly-spaced scale for both axes, with enough divisions so it is easy
to plot and read the values plotted.

Remember that you will be asked to compare your plot from the Astronomical Telescope II to
the figure on page 4.2 of that experiment’s introduction – make sure that magnitude and aperture
size are on the appropriate axes (but do not report aperture size in inches – use either centimeters
or millimeters).

Important: at the end of the report, attach all original, signed data sheets and include all plots!

Discussion
Here you will discuss your results. For the Astronomical Telescope I data, include percent error
calculations comparing the averages of your measurements of the aperture of the telescope
necessary to resolve the separation of the two lines and the two dots to the values calculated with
the Dawes’ Limit formula. Comment on the size of your percent errors and possible sources of
uncertainty. Do not speculate on possible mistakes you might have made, and remember that
rounding to the correct number of significant figures is not a source of error.

How well do your results agree with the empirical Dawes’ formula? Include here the answers to
any short-answer questions directly related to your experimental results in the “your report”
sections of the lab manual or on your data worksheets, unless otherwise instructed. Include the
answers to questions as integral parts of the text, not as isolated or numbered answers to prompts.
Also paraphrase the questions in the text as context for your answers—do not force a reader to
search for the question in the lab manual!

Conclusions
Briefly summarize your results. Include here how you should address the practical applications
of your methods.

Applications of the properties of telescopes

Include in this section detailed solutions to the 3 problems included in separate pages at the end
of these instructions. These problems are an application of some of the concepts learned in these
two experiments, and allow you to answer some interesting questions.