8

Analysis of error in
Measurement system
Aim: - Analysis of error in measurement system.

INTRODUCTION:-
A measurement systems analysis (MSA) is a specially designed experiment that seeks to
identify the components of variation in the measurement. Just as processes that produce a
product may vary, the process of obtaining measurements and data may have variation
and produce defects. A measurement systems analysis evaluates the test method,
measuring instruments, and the entire process of obtaining measurements to ensure the
integrity of data used for analysis (usually quality analysis) and to understand the
implications of measurement error for decisions made about a product or process, MSA is
an important element of Six Sigma methodology and of other quality management
systems. MSA analyzes the collection of equipment, operations, procedures, software and
personnel that affects the assignment of a number to a measurement characteristic.

A measurement systems analysis considers the following:

 Selecting the correct measurement and approach
 Assessing the measuring device
 Assessing procedures and operators
 Assessing any measurement interactions
 Calculating the measurement uncertainty of individual measurement devices and/or
measurement systems
Common tools and techniques of measurement systems analysis include: calibration
studies, fixed effect ANOVA, components of variance, attribute gage study, gage e
testing analysis and others. The tool selected is usually determined by characteristics of
the measurement system itself.

Factors affecting measurement system:

Factors might include:
 Equipment: measuring instrument, calibration, fixturing etc.
 People : operators, training, education, skill, care
 Process : test method, specification
 Samples: materials, items to be tested (sometimes called “parts”), sampling plan, sample
preparation, etc.
 Environment : temperature, humidity, conditioning, pre-conditioning ,
 Management: training program, metrology system, support of people, support of quality
management system, etc.
Purpose:-
If measurements are used to guide decisions, then it follows logically that the more error
there is in the measurements, the more error there will be in the decisions based on those
measurements. The purpose of Measurement System Analysis is to qualify a
measurement system for use by quantifying its accuracy, precision, and stability.
An example from industry serves to illustrate the importance of measurement system
quality:
A manufacturer of building products was struggling to improve process yields, which had
a significant impact on product cost. Experience indicated that there were several process
and environmental characteristics that influenced the process yield. Data were collected
on each of the variables believed to be significant, followed by regression and correlation
analysis to quantify the relationships in statistical terms.
The results showed no clear correlation between anything - in spite of years of anecdotal
evidence to the contrary! In fact, the underlying strong correlation between variables was
confounded by excessive error in the measurement system. When the measurement
systems were analyzed, many were found to exhibit error variation 2-3 times wider than
the actual process spread. Measurements that were being used to control processes were
often leading to adjustments that actually increased variation! People were doing their
best, making things worse.
As you can see from this example, Measurement System Analysis is a critical first step
that should precede any data-based decision making, including Statistical Process
Control, Correlation and Regression Analysis, and Design of Experiments. The following
discussion provides a broad overview of Measurement System Analysis, along with
a spreadsheet analytical tool that can be downloaded (Gage R&R Worksheet).

Characterization:-
A measurement system can be characterized, or described, in five ways:
Location (Average Measurement Value vs. Actual Value):
Stability refers to the capacity of a measurement system to produce the same values over
time when measuring the same sample. As with statistical process control charts, stability
means the absence of "Special Cause Variation", leaving only "Common Cause
Variation" (random variation)
Bias, also referred to as Accuracy, is a measure of the distance between the average value
of the measurements and the "True" or "Actual" value of the sample or part. See the
illustration below for further explanation.
Linearity is a measure of the consistency of Bias over the range of the measurement
device. For example, if a bathroom scale is under by 1.0 pound when measuring a 150
pound person, but is off by 5.0 pounds when measuring a 200 pound person, the scale
Bias is non-linear in the sense that the degree of Bias changes over the range of use.
Variation (Spread of Measurement Values - Precision):
 Repeatability assesses whether the same appraiser can measure the same part/sample
multiple times with the same measurement device and get the same value.
Reproducibility assesses whether different appraisers can measure the same part/sample
with the same measurement device and get the same value.
The diagram below illustrates the difference between the terms "Accuracy" and
"Precision":
Efforts to improve measurement system quality are aimed at improving both accuracy
and precision.

Requirements:-
Following are general requirements of all capable measurement systems:
o Statistical stability over time.
o Variability small compared to the process variability.
o Variability small compared to the specification limits (tolerance).
o The resolution or discrimination of the measurement device must be small relative
to the smaller of either the specification tolerance or the process spread
(variation). As a rule of thumb, the measurement system should have resolution of
at least 1/10th the smaller of either the specification tolerance or the process
spread. If the resolution is not fine enough, process variability will not be
recognized by the measurement system, thus blunting its effectiveness.
Measurement Systems Analysis Fundamentals
Determine the number of appraisers, number of sample parts, and the number of repeat
readings. Larger numbers of parts and repeat readings give results with a higher
confidence level, but the numbers should be balanced against the time, cost, and
disruption involved.
Use appraisers who normally perform the measurement and who are familiar with the
equipment and procedures.
Make sure there is a set, documented measurement procedure that is followed by all
appraisers.
Select the sample parts to represent the entire process spread.
This is a critical point. If the process spread is not fully represented, the degree of
measurement error may be overstated.
 If applicable, mark the exact measurement location on each part to minimize the impact
of within-part variation (e.g. out-of-round).
Ensure that the measurement device has adequate discrimination/resolution, as discussed
in the Requirements section.
Parts should be numbered, and the measurements should be taken in random order so that
the appraisers do not know the number assigned to each part or any previous
measurement value for that part. A third party should record the measurements, the
appraiser, the trial number, and the number for each part on a table.
Stability Assessment
Select a part from the middle of the process spread and determine its reference value
relative to a traceable standard. If a traceable standard is not available, measure the part
ten times in a controlled environment and average the values to determine the Reference
Value. This part/sample will be designated as the Master Sample.
Over at least twenty periods (days/weeks), measure the master sample 3 to 5 times. Keep
the number of repeats fixed. Take readings throughout the period to capture the natural
environmental variation.
lot t e data on an & R chart - consult the Statistical Process Control section of the
Toolbox and calculate control limits.
Evaluate the control chart for statistical control. Again, consult the Statistical Process
Control section of the Toolbox for assistance with this assessment.
Bias Assessment
Referring to the R chart, subtract the Reference Value from to yield the Bias:

- Reference Value
Process Variation = 6 Standard Deviations (Sigma)
Calculate the Bias percentage:
Bias Percentage = Bias / Process Variation

Analyze the results. If there is a relatively high value, examine the following potential
root causes:
Appraisers not following the measurement procedure
An error in measuring the Reference Value
Instability in the measurement. If the SPC chart shows a trend, the measurement device
could be wearing or calibration could be drifting.

DEFINITION OF ERRORS IN MEAEUREMENT SYSTEM:-

A number of crucial definitions are first needed to ensure clarity of discussion. These are
as follows. Measurement error is defined as the difference between the distorted
information and the undistorted information about a measured product, expressed in its
Measurand. In short, an error is defined real wrong, false, no go) value at the output of a
 measurement system minus ideal (true, good right, go) value at the input of a
measurement system according to (1):
X = – (1)
Where X is the error of measurement, is the real untrue measurement value, and is
the ideal true measurement value.

HOW ERRORS ARISE IN MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS:-

A measurement system under ideal condition has no errors. Real measurement results,
however, will always contain measurement error of varying magnitudes. A systematic
(clearly defined process) and systemic (all encompassing) approach is needed to identify
every source of error that can arise in a given measuring system. It is then necessary
decide their magnitude and impact on the prevailing operational conditions. Measurement
system errors can only be defined in relation to the solution of a real specific
measurement task. If the errors measurement systems given in technical documentation
are specified, then one has to decide how that information relates to which
Measurand
o input
o elements of the measurement system
o auxiliary means
o measurement method
o kind of reading
o environmental conditions
o Output.

TYPES OF ERRORS IN DEFINED CLASSES:-

Systematic error (bias) is a permanent deflection in the same direction from the true
value. It can be corrected. Bias and long-term variability are controlled by monitoring
measurements against a check standard over time. Random error is a short-term
scattering of values around a mean value. It cannot be corrected on an individual
measurement basis. Random errors are expressed by statistical methods.

LIST OF ERROR SOURCES IN MEASUREMENTS:-

Systematic errors or bias are repeatable errors existing with the specified source, these
can be adjusted out or compensated for The terms 'bias' and have same meaning. Bias
defined in the International Vocabulary of Metrology, VIM, as the difference between the
measurement result and its unknown true value To investigate sources of systematic
errors, a general checklist of error sources in measurement should be used, which has
been collected by specialists working in the field concerned.
The main sources are:
 1. Lack of gauge resolution
Resolution better called (but rarely done so) discrimination is the ability of the
measurement system to detect and faithfully indicate small enough changes in the
characteristic of the measurement result.
2. Lack of linearity
A test of linearity starts by establishing a plot of the measured values versus
corresponding values of the reference standards. This obtains an indication of whether or
not the points fall on a straight line with slope equal to 1, which indicates linearity
(proportional variation) -
Nonlinearities of gauges can be caused by the following facts:
Gauge is not properly calibrated at the lower and upper ends of the operating range,
Errors in the values at the maximum or minimum range,
Worn gauge,
Internal design problems (in, say the electronic units of the gauge)
3. Drift
Drift is defined as a slow change in the response of a gauge. Short-term drift is frequently
caused by heat buildup in the instrument during the time of measurement Long- term drift
is usually not a problem for measurements with short calibration cycles.
4. Hysteresis
Hysteresis is a retardation of the effect when the forces acting upon a body are changed
(as in viscosity or internal friction), for example, a lagging in the values of resulting
magnetization in a magnetic material (as iron) because of a changing magnetizing force.
Hysteresis represents the history dependence of a physical system under real
environmental conditions.

UNCERTAINTIES OF MEASUREMENTS:-
Uncertainty is a measure of t e „goodness‟ of result. Without such a measure, it is
impossible to judge the fitness of the value as a basis for making decisions relating to
health, safety, commerce, or scientific excellence. Uncertainty of measurement is a
parameter associated with the result of a measurement that characterizes the dispersion of
the values that could reasonably be expected. In this model, it is understood that the result
of the measurement is the best estimate of the value of the Measurand, and that all
components of uncertainty, including those arising from systematic effects, contribute to
the dispersion.
Typical example for systematic effects is uncertainties of Systematic error that generally
can be corrected either numerically or technically.
Measurement standards that generally are negligibly small in comparison with
uncertainty of the measurement system in total, Standard deviation are the generally used
parameter for expressing the value of uncertainty. It is defined as the point of inflection in
the Gaussian normal distribution of randomly scattering values. Evaluation of uncertainty
 is an ongoing process that can consume time and resources. It can also require the
services of someone who is familiar with statistical data analysis techniques.
Measurement result is the best estimate of the value of the Measurand. Standard
uncertainty in the measurement result is expressed with standard deviation. Combined
standard uncertainty in the measurement result has to be calculated by the error
propagation law for statistical characteristics. Type A uncertainty in the measurement
result is expressed as a deviation evaluated by the method of statistical analysis from a
series of observations. Type B uncertainty in the measurement results is expressed as
deviation evaluated by methods other than the statistical analyses of series of
observations. Expanded uncertainty in the measurement result is expressed the quantity
of an interval that is large enough to include that action of the distribution fraction of the
measured values that might be reasonably attributed to the Measurand.

Conclusion:-
Measurement Systems Analysis is a key step to any process improvement effort.
By understanding existing measurement systems a team can better understand the data
provided by those system and make better business decisions.