NEW HIGHWAY PROJECT

NEW
HIGHWAY
PROJECT

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MODULE-3
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Transportation is vital phenomenon for the economic development of any region
since every commodity produced whether it is food, clothing industrial products or
medicine needs transport at all stages from production to distribution. There transportation
contributes to the economic, industrial, social and cultural development of any country.
Three basic modes of transportation are land, water and air. The road or the highway not
only includes the modern highway system but also the city streets, feeder roads and village
roads, catering for a wide range of road vehicles and the pedestrians.
The transportation by road is the only mode which gives service to one and all. This mode
has also the minimum flexibility for travel. It is possible to provide door to door service
only by road transport.
The planning, design, construction and maintenance of road and roadway facilities to cater
to the needs of road traffic are covered under road engineering or highway engineering.
3.1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS
The classification of road based on location and function is as follows;
1. National Highway (NH).
2. State Highway (SH).
3. Major District Roads (MDR).
4. Other District Road (ODR) and
5. Village Roads (VR).
1 National Highway (NH): are main highways running through the length and breadth of
India, connecting major ports, foreign highways, capitals of large states and large
industrial and tourist centers including roads required for strategic movement for the
defense of India.
2 State Highway (SH): Theseare arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national
highways of adjacent states, district head quarters and serving as the main arteries for
traffic to and from district roads.
3 Major District Roads (MDR): are important roads within a district serving areas of
production and markets and connecting those with each other or with the main highways
of a district. The MDR has lower speed and geometric design specification than NH/SH.
4 Other District Roads (ODR): are serving rural areas of production and providing them
with outlet to market centers, Taluk Head Quarters, block development head quarters,

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block development head quarters or other main roads. These are of lower design
specification than MDR.
5 Village Roads (VR): are roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each other to
the nearest road of a higher category.

3.2 HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

The position or the layout of the centerline of the highway on the ground is called an
alignment. The horizontal alignment includes the straight path, the horizontal deviations
and curves. Changes in gradient and vertical curves are covered under vertical alignment
of roads.

3.2.1 ENGINEERING SURVEY FOR HIGHWAY LOCATION

1. Map Study.
2. Reconnaissance Survey.
3. Preliminary surveys.
4. Final location and detailed surveys.

1 MAP STUDY:
All different possible alignments and nature of terrain should be stuided with the help of
available and map of the area.

2 RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY:
The main objective of this survey is to examine the general characteristics of the area for
determining the most feasible route. This includes:
1. Traffic Reconnaissance Survey and
2. Engineering Reconnaissance Survey

3 PRELIMINARY SURVEY:
The first step in the preliminary survey is to establish the primary traverse. Following five
things are recommended in the reconnaissance.

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Fig1.1. PROPOSED ALIGNMENT [Reference: Google Earth, Date: 08/05/17 Time: 17:50]

4 DETAILED SURVEY:
Leveling work is of great importance as the vertical alignment, earthen work calculations
and drainage details are to be worked out from the level notes. The cross section levels are
taken up to the desired width and intervals in plane terrain.

3.2.2 TOPOGRAPHICAL FEATURES: After establishment of the centerlines of

preliminary survey, the topographical features are recorded. All geographical and other
man made features along the traverse and a certain width on either side are surveyed and
plotted.

3.2.3 LEVELLING WORK:Leveling work is also carried out, side by side to give the
centerline profiles and typical cross sections.

3.2.4 DRAINAGE STUDIES AND HYDROLOGICAL DATA: Drainage investigation and

hydrological data are collected so as to estimate size of cross drainage structures.

3.3 OBJECTIVES OF PRELIMNARY SURVEYS

1 To survey the various alternate alignments proposed after the reconnaissance and to
collect all the necessary physical information and details of topography, drainage and soil.

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2 Compare the different proposals in view of the requirements of a good alignment.

3 To estimate quantity of earthwork materials and cost of alternate proposals.
4 To finalize the best alignment from all consideration.

3.3.1 SOIL SURVEY: Soil survey is an essential part of the preliminary survey as the
suitability of the proposed location is to be finally decided based on the soil survey
data.

3.3.2 DRAWINGS
The following drawings are usually prepared in a highway project.
I. Detailed plan and longitudinal section
II. Detailed cross section
III. Drawings of road inter sections
IV. Drawings of cross drainage works, if any.

3.4 GEOMETRIC DESIGN

3.4.1 IMPORTANCE OF GEOMETRIC DESIGN:
The geometric design of highway deals with the dimensions of visible features of the
highway such as alignments, sight distance and inter sections. The geometric design of the
highway should be designed to provide optimum efficiency in traffic operations with
maximum safety at reasonable cost and comfort to passengers. The geometric design deals
with the following elements.

3.4.2 Cross Section Elements:

Under cross section elements, the considerations for the width of payment, formation level,
the surface characteristics and cross slope of pavement are included.

3.4.3 Pavement Surface Characteristics:

The pavement surface depends on the pavement type which is decide on the availability of
materials and funds, volume and composition of traffic, sub grades and climatic
conditions, construction facilities and cost consideration. The important surface

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characteristics of pavement are the friction or roughness, light reflecting characteristics,

drainages of surface water, dust proof, smoothness etc.
3.4.4 Friction:
The friction between the vehicles tyre and pavements surface is one of the factor
determining the design speed and sight distance requirements in stopping and accelerating
the vehicles.
For the calculation of stopping distance, the longitudinal frictional coefficient values are
0.35 to 0.40 have been recommended by the IRC depending upon the speed.
In the case of horizontal curve design, IRC has recommended the lateral coefficient of
frictions as 0.15.
3.4.5 Camber or Cross Slope:
Cross slope or camber is the slope provided to the road surface in the transverse direction
to drain off the rain water from the road surface.

(Fig no: 3)
Table no: 13
Sl.No. Type of Road Surface Range of camber in areas of rainfall
range
Heavy Light
1 Cement concrete and 1 in 50 (2%) 1 in 60(1.7%)
Bituminous surface
2 Thin Bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5%) 1 in 5 (2%)

In our case the camber selected is 1 in 40 since the road surface selected is thin bituminous
surface.
3.4.6 Width of roadway or formation:
Width of formation of roadway is the sum of the width of pavement or carriage way
including separators if any, and the shoulders, formation width is the top of the width of
the highway embankment or the bottom width of highway cutting excluding the side
drains. The width of roadway standard by IRC are given in below table

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Table no: 14
Sl no Class of road Width of carriageway
1. Single lane 3.75m
2. Two lanes, without raised kerbs 7.0m
3. Two lanes, with raised kerbs 7.5m
4. Intermediate carriageway (except on important 5.5m
roads)
5. Multilane pavements 3.5m per lane

3.4.7 SIGHT DISTANCE

The minimum sight distance available on highway at horizontal & vertical curves and at
intersection should be of sufficient length to stop vehicles collision.
Three sight distances situations are considered in this design.
1] Stopping or absolute sight distance
2] Safe overtaking or passing sight distance
3] Safe sight distance for entering into controlled intersection

3.4.7.1 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE:

The absolute minimum sight distance is equal to the stopping sight distance, which is also
sometimes called non passing sight distance.
S.S.D. –Lag distance / Braking distance
S.S.D. (m)= 0278vt+v2/254f
Where v=speed in KMPH
f= longitudinal coefficient of friction
The safe stopping distance various speed recommended by IRC are given below.

Table no: 15
Design speed [km/hr]

20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 100

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Safe stopping sight distance

[in meters]

20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180

3.4.7.2 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE:

The minimum distance open to the vision of driver of a vehicle intending to overtake slow
vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction is known as minimum
overtaking sight distance or the safe passing sight distance.
OSD=0.28vbx5+0.28VbxTx2s+0.28VT
Where,
Vb=speed of overtaking vehicle (KMPH).
T=Reaction time of driver [2 sec]
V=speed of overtaking vehicle or design speed (KMPH)
T=√ 4x3.6s /A
S=spacing of vehicle = (0.2Vb+6)
A=acceleration, kmph/s
Safe over taking sight distance value for various speeds
Table no: 16
Speed (KMPH)
40 50 60 65 80 100
Safe overtaking sight distance [m]
165 235 300 340 470 640

3.4.7.3 SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTION

It is important than all approaches of intersecting road must have clear view across the
corner from sufficient distance so as to avoid collision of vehicles. This design of sight
distance at intersection may be built on three possible conditions.
1] Enabling the approaching vehicle to change speed
2] Enabling approaching vehicle to stop

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3] Enabling stop vehicle to cross a main road.

3.5 HORIZONTAL & VERTICAL ALIGNMENT:

For smooth change in any direction, horizontal curves are introduced an super-elevation is
provided by raising the outer edges of pavement to counteract the centrifugal force
developed on a vehicle Transversing a horizontal curve.
The gradient & vertical curves are introduced in the vertical alignment of a highway.
3.5.1 DESIGN SPEED:
The design speed is the main factor on which geometric design elements depends such as
the sight distance, horizontal curve, super elevation, the extra widening of pavement,
length of horizontal transition curve and length of summit and valley curves are all
depends on design speed.
Table no: 17
Road classification Plain Rolling Mountainous Steep
Rolling Min Rolling Min Rolling Min Rolling Min
ODR (KMPH) 65 50 50 40 30 25 25 20

In our case cross-slope of the country is to be 25% therefore it is a rolling terrain & we are
designing the road as O.D.R So the design speed taken as 40 KMPH.
3.5.2 SUPER ELEVATION:
In order to counteract the effect of centrifugal force and to reduce the tendency of vehicle
to overturn or skid, The outer edge of pavement is raised with respect to inner edge thus
providing a transverse slope through out the length of the horizontal curve, this is also
known as cant or banking.
Super elevation is given by the following relation
e+f=V21/127R
Where
e= rate of super elevation
f=coefficient of lateral friction=0.15
V=speed of vehicle (KMPH)
R=radius of horizontal curve, m
Radius beyond which super elevation is not required
In our case the super elevation is in between 0 to 0.07.

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3.5.3 RADIUS OF HORIZONTAL CURVE:

For a certain speed of vehicle, the centrifugal force is dependent on the radius of the
horizontal curve to keep the centrifugal ratio within a low limit, the radius of the curve
should be kept correspondingly high.
R ruling / min= V2 /127 (e+f)
Where
V=Ruling / min. design speed in KMPH.
E=Rate of super Elevation
F=Design transverse coefficient of friction
3.5.4 WIDENING OF PAVEMENT ON HORIZONTAL CURVE:
On horizontal curve especially when they are not of very large radii, it is common to widen
the pavement slightly more than the normal width.
We=n12/2R+V/9.5/R
Where
N= No. of traffic lanes
L=Length of wheel base of longest vehicle (i.e.6.1m)
R=Radius of horizontal curve (in meters)
V=Design speed, in KMPH
It has been practiced therefore to provide the extra width of pavements on horizontal curve
when the rating is less than about 300m.
3.5.5 DESIGN OF HORIZONTAL CURVES:
A horizontal highway curve is a curve inclined to provide change in direction to the central
line of road when a vehicle transverse a horizontal curve, the centrifugal force acts
horizontally outwards through the Centre of gravity of the vehicle.

1 Design of Horizontal Curve 1.

1. Design speed = 50Kmph
2. Maximum rate of super elevation = (e) = 0.07
3. co-efficient of lateral friction = (f) = 0.15
Δ1=26ͦ
𝑣2
R= 127(𝑒+𝑓)
502
=127(0.047+0.15)

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=89.47 m
Say 90 m
𝑣2
e= 225∗𝑟
502
=225∗90

e = 0.123
Check for f:
𝑣2
f= (127∗𝑟) − 0.07
502
=( ) − 0.07
127∗90

= 0.14

Length of the curve

L = (π x R x ∆) / 180
= (π x 90 x260) / 180
= 40.846 m
Tangent length
T = R x tan (∆ / 2)
= 90 x tan (260/ 2)
= 20.77 m
Length of chord
Lc = 2R x sin (∆ / 2)
= 2 x 90 x sin (260/2)
= 40.5m

2 Design of Horizontal Curve 2.

1. Design speed = 50 Kmph
2. Maximum rate of super elevation = (e) = 0.07
3. Co-efficient of lateral friction = (f) = 0.15
Δ2=57ͦ
𝑣2
R= 127(𝑒+𝑓)
502
=127(0.047+0.15)

=89.47 m

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Say 90 m
𝑣2
e= 225∗𝑟
502
=225∗90

e = 0.123
Check for f :
𝑣2
f= (127∗𝑟) − 0.07
502
= (127∗90) − 0.07

= 0.14

Length of the curve

L = (π x R x ∆) / 180
= (π x 90 x 570) / 180
=89.547 m
Tangent length
T = R x tan (∆ / 2)
= 90 x tan (570 /2)
= 48.86 m
Length of chord
Lc = 2R x sin (∆ / 2)
= 2 x 90 x sin (570/2)
= 85.88 m

3.5.6 DESIGN OF VERTICAL CURVES

SUMMIT CURVE 1
V = 50 KMPH
v= 13.88 m/s
t= 2.5 s
f= 0.37
Gradient: 1 in 25.9 (rise)
1 in 25 (rise)
1.96
n1 = 50.75

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= 3.86%
0.98
n2 = 22.02

= 4%
N = n1 + n2
= 3.86+4
N = 0.078 (7.8%)
Length of the curve
𝑁𝑆2
L1 = 4.4

 v2 
SSD = vt    
 2 gf 

 13.88 2 
= (13.88  2.5   
 2  9.81 0.37 
= 34.7+26.53
SSD =61.23m Say 61m
Assume L>SSD
𝑁𝑆2
L= 4.4
61.242
= 0.078 ∗ 4.4

= 66.48 m

Overtaken Vehicle speed,

Vb = V - 16
= 50-16
= 34 kmph=9.4m/s

S = 0.7  Vb   6

= 0.7  9.44  6
S= 12.608 m

T = √(4s/a)
= √(4  12.608)/1

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= 7.10m

d1= Vb  t
= 9.4  2
= 18.8 m

d2 =b + 2S
=VbT+2S
=(9.44  7.1)+(2*12.608)
d2=92..24

d3= V  T 

= 13.8  7.1
= 98.55 m

OSD = d1+d2+d3
= 18.88+92.24+98.55
= 209.67m

SUMMIT CURVE 2
V = 50 KMPH
v= 13.88 m/s
t= 2.5 s
f= 0.37
Gradient: 1 in 34.48(rise)
1 in 16.94(rise)
0.17
n1 = 5.67

= 2.99%
0.12
n2 = 2.01

= 5.97%
N = n1 +n2
=0.029+0.059

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N = 0.088 (8.8%)

Length of the curve

𝑁𝑆2
L1 = 4.4

 v2 
SSD = vt    
 2 gf 

 13.88 2 
= (13.88  2.5   
 2  9.81 0.37 
= 34.7+26.53
SSD =61.23m Say 61m

Assume L>SSD
𝑁𝑆2
L= 4.4
61.24^2
= 0.088 ∗ 4.4

= 75.01 m

Overtaken Vehicle speed,

Vb = V - 16
= 50-16
= 34 kmph=9.4m/s

S = 0.7  Vb   6

= 0.7  9.44  6
S= 12.608 m
T = √(4s/a)
= √(4  12.608)/1
= 7.10m

d1= Vb  t
= 9.4  2
= 18.8 m

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d2 =b + 2S
=VbT+2S
=(9.44  7.1)+(2*12.608)
d2=92..24
d3= V  T 
= 13.8  7.1
= 98.55 m

OSD = d1+d2+d3
= 18.88+92.24+98.55
= 209.67m

SUMMIT CURVE 3
V = 50 KMPH
v= 13.88 m/s
t= 2.5 s
f= 0.37
Gradient: 1 in 12.19(rise)
1 in 30.30(fall)
2.39
n1 = 29.12

= 8.2%
1.58
n2 = 47.19

= 3.3%
N = n1 -n2
=0.082-0.033
N = 0.049(4.9%)

Length of the curve

𝑁𝑆2
L1 = 4.4

 v2 
SSD = vt    
 2 gf 

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 13.882 
= (13.88  2.5   
 2  9.81 0.37 
= 34.7+26.53
SSD =61.23m Say 61m

i. Assume L>SSD
𝑁𝑆2
L= 4.4
61.24^2
= 0.049 ∗ 4.4

= 41.76 m
ii. Assume L<SSD
9.6
L= 2S – N
9.6
= 2 × 61.24 –0.049

= 73.43 m

Overtaken Vehicle speed,

Vb = V - 16
= 50-16
= 34 kmph
=9.4m/s

S = 0.7  Vb   6

= 0.7  9.44  6
S= 12.608 m\
T = √ (4s/a)
= √ (4  12.608)/1
= 7.10m

d1= Vb  t
= 9.4  2
= 18.8 m

d2 =b + 2S

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=VbT+2S
= (9.44  7.1)+(2*12.608)
d2=92.24
d3= V  T 

= 13.8  7.1
= 98.55 m
OSD = d1+d2+d3
= 18.88+92.24+98.55
= 209.67m

VALLEY CURVE 1
V = 50 KMPH
v= 13.88 m/s
t= 2.5 s
f= 0.37
Gradient: 1 in 23.80 (fall)
1 in 23.25(rise)
0.31
n1 = 7.21

= 4.2%
0.31
n2 = 7.08

= 4.3%
N = -n1–(+n2)
= -0.042-(0.43)
N = -0.085 (8.5%)

COMFORT CONDITION:
1
2
𝑁𝑉3
L=2∗( )
𝐶

Her c = allowable rate of change of super elevation

= 0.6 m/s
1
0.085∗13.88^3 2
L =2 ∗ ( )
0.6

Lc = 38.92 m

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HEADLIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE:

L > SSD / HSD
𝑁𝑆2
L = 1.5+0.0355
0.085 ×61.24^2
= 1.5+0.0355

L = 207.60 m.

VALLEY CURVE 2
V = 50 KMPH
v= 13.88 m/s
t= 2.5 s
f= 0.37
Gradient: 1 in 41.66 (fall)
1 in 33.33(rise)

0.41
n1 = 16.70

= 2.4%
0.41
n2 = 13.47

= 3.0%
N = -n1–(+n2)
= -0.024-(0.030)
N = -0.054 (5.4%)

COMFORT CONDITION:
1
2
𝑁𝑉3
L=2∗( )
𝐶

Her c = allowable rate of change of super elevation

= 0.6 m/s
1
0.054∗13.88^3 2
L =2 ∗ ( )
0.6

Lc = 31.01 m
HEADLIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE:
L > SSD / HSD

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𝑁𝑆2
L = 1.5+0.0355
0.054 ×61.24^2
= 1.5+0.0355

L = 131.89 m.

VALLEY CURVE 3
V = 50 KMPH
v= 13.88 m/s
t= 2.5 s
f= 0.37

Gradient: 1 in 11.9 (fall)

1 in 10.20(fall)
0.73
n1 = 8.6

= 8.4%
1.21
n2 = 12.26

= 9.8%
N = n1–n2
= 0.084-0.098
N = 0.014 (1.4%)

COMFORT CONDITION:
1
𝑁𝑉3 2
L=2∗( )
𝐶

Her c = allowable rate of change of super elevation

= 0.6 m/s
1
0.014∗13.88^3 2
L =2 ∗ ( )
0.6

Lc = 15.79m

HEADLIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE:

L > SSD / HSD
𝑁𝑆2
L = 1.5+0.0355

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0.014×61.24^2
= 1.5+0.0355

L = 34.19 m.
VALLEY CURVE 4
V = 50 KMPH
v= 13.88 m/s
t= 2.5 s
f= 0.37

Gradient: 1 in 20.49 (fall)

1 in 27.02(fall)
3.38
n1 = 67.79

= 4.9%
3.38
n2 = 90.62

= 3.7%
N =-n1–(+n2)
= -0.049-(+0.037)
N = -0.086 (8.6%).

COMFORT CONDITION:
1
𝑁𝑉3 2
L=2∗( )
𝐶

Her c = allowable rate of change of super elevation

= 0.6 m/s
1
0.086∗13.88^3 2
L =2 ∗ ( )
0.6

Lc = 39.15m
HEADLIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE:
L > SSD / HSD
𝑁𝑆2
L = 1.5+0.0355
0.086×61.24^2
= 1.5+0.0355

L = 210.04 m.

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3.5.7 EARTH WORK CALCULATION:

Total length = 1100m
Interval = 20m
Side slope = 1.5 (cutting)
1.0 (filling)
Road width = 7.5m
Estimation of earthwork

AREA VOLUME

CHAINAGE CUTTING FILLING CUTTING FILLING

0 4.11 _ 82.2 _

20 4.805 96.1

40 3.775 2.45 75.5 49

60 1.56 3.61 31.2 72.2

80 0.53 3.14 10.6 62.8

100 0.39 2.485 7.8 49.7

120 0.57 3.335 11.4 66.7

140 0.775 3.21 15.5 64.2

160 5.425 0.64 108.5 12.8

180 3.645 0.64 72.9 12.8

200 4.205 84.1

220 7 140

240 6.285 125.7

260 4.625 92.5

280 3.05 2.77 61 55.4

300 1.635 1.5 32.7 30

320 1.75 1.7 35 34

340 1.365 2.425 27.3 48.5

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360 0.915 3.665 18.3 73.3

380 0.05 5.527 1 110.54

400 0.105 5.532 2.1 110.64

420 0.275 3.6 5.5 72

440 0.67 2.97 13.4 59.4

460 0.77 3.81 15.4 76.2

480 1.395 3.06 27.9 61.2

500 4.74 3.695 94.8 73.9

520 7.68 4.49 153.6 89.8

540 5.05 2.19 101 43.8

560 5.135 1.225 102.7 24.5

580 7.185 0.2 143.7 4

600 3.115 5.145 62.3 102.9

620 5.075 10.15 101.5 203

640 6.37 0.11 127.4 2.2

660 1.76 1.96 35.4 39.2

680 1.58 2.09 31.6 41.8

700 2.35 2.58 47 51.6

720 0.17 4.72 3.4 94.4

725 0.36 4.02 7.2 80.4

730 0.695 2.685 13.9 53.7

735 0.58 2.505 11.6 50.1

740 0.32 4.15 6.4 83

760 5.08 101.6

780 5.695 113.9

820 4.83 96.6

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840 5.305 106

860 0.92 7.935 18.4 158.7

880 0.855 8.23 17.1 164.7

900 9.5 4.155 190 83.1

920 9.63 0.85 192.6 17

940 1.18 10.46 23.6 209.2

960 3.22 18.45 64.4 369

980 8.25 16.885 165 337.7

1000 11.37 12.76 227.4 255.2

1020 7.785 155.7

1040 4.625 92.5

1060 0.06 2.62 1.2 52.4

1080 1.385 2.39 27.7 47.8

1100

Design speed V=50 kmph, for ODR Road &Rolling terrain.

[IRC Recommendation Table No. A]
a) Ruling minimum radius of curve:-

 v2 

R (ruling) =  
 127  e  f  
Where R = Ruling Radius
V = Design Speed
e = Super elevation
f = Co-efficient of friction
 v2 
R (ruling) =  
 127  e  f  
 (50) 2 

= 
 127  0.07  0.15  
R = 89.5m say 90 m

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b) Design of Super elevation (e):-

 v2 
e =  
 225  R 
e = 0.123

As the value is greater than maximum super elevation of 0.07, the actual super elevation to be
provided is restricted to 0.07

Check for coefficient of lateral friction developed for full speed:

 v2 
f =    0.07
 127  R 

 502 
=    0.07
 127  90 
= 0.148
As the value is equal to 0.148, the design is safe with a super elevation of 0.07.

c) Design of extra widening:-

Here
No. of Lanes n=1
Length of Wheel base (assume) l = 6.8 m
Width of the Pavement W = 7 m
Extra widening = Mechanical widening + Psychological widening
 n  l²   v 
We =     
 2R   9.5  R 

 1  6.8²   50 
=  
 2  90   9.5  90 
= 0.27+ 0.55
= 0.82m
Provide an extra wide of 0.82m and hence the total width of the pavement
B = W + We
B = 7+0.82
B = 7.82 m.

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3.6 Sight Distance:

Three sight distance situation considered are
1. SSD
2. ISD
3. OSD
The whole length of road is dividing into three parts
1st part
2nd part
3rd part
3.6.1 Stopping sight distance:-
Here t = Total Reaction time of the Driver
t = 2.5 sec.
f =Longitudinal co- efficient of friction
f = 0.35 for V=50 kmph

Table no 18: IRC Recommended values for longitudinal coefficient of friction:

Speed kmph 20 to 40 50 60 65 80 100
30

Longitudinal co-efficient of 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.35

friction (f)

 v2 
SSD = vt    
 2 gf 

 13.88 2 
= (13.88  2.5   
 2  9.81 0.37 
= 34.7+26.53
SSD =61.23m Say 61m

Table no: 19 Stopping sight distance values for different speeds:

Design Speed kmph 20 25 30 40 50 60 65 80 100
Safe stopping sight 20 25 30 45 60 80 90 120 180
distance (m)

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3.6.2 Over Taking Sight Distance:

Fig 3 Overtaking sight distance

d1= Distance traveled by overtaking vehicle A during the reaction time t sec. of the driver
from position A1 to A2.

d2= Distance traveled by the vehicle A from A2 to A3 during the actual overtaking operation in
time T sec.
d3= Distance traveled by on-coming vehicle C from C1 to C2 during the overtaking operation
of A i.e., T sec.
Overtaking sight distance = d1 + d2 + d3
Here,
Total reaction time of the Driver, t = 2sec
Acceleration, A = 4.45 kmph / sec.
S=spacing between vehicles
Table no: 20 Maximum overtaking acceleration at different speeds
Speed Maximum over taking acceleration

V, kmph v, m/sec A, kmph/sec2 a, m/sec2

25 6.93 5.00 1.41

30 8.34 4.80 1.30

40 11.10 4.45 1.24

50 13.86 4.00 1.11

65 18.00 3.28 0.92

80 22.20 2.56 0.72

100 27.80 1.92 0.53

3.7 PAVEMENT
A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of
processed materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to
distribute the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade. The pavement structure should be
able to provide a surface of acceptable riding quality, adequate skid resistance, favorable

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light reflecting characteristics, and low noise pollution. The ultimate aim is to ensure that
the transmitted stresses due to wheel load are sufficiently reduced, so that they will not
exceed bearing capacity of the sub-grade. Two types of pavements are generally
recognized as serving this purpose, namely flexible pavements and rigid pavements. This
chapter gives an overview of pavement types, layers, and their functions, and pavement
failures. Improper design of pavements leads to early failure of pavements affecting the
riding quality.
3.7.1 Requirements of a pavement

An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:

 Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-
grade soil,
 Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it,
 Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles,
 Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
 Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
 Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected, and
 Long design life with low maintenance cost.

3.7.2 Types of pavements

The pavements can be classified based on the structural performance into two,
flexible pavements and rigid pavements. In flexible pavements, wheel loads are transferred
by grain-to-grain contact of the aggregate through the granular structure. The flexible
pavement, having less flexural strength, acts like a flexible sheet (e.g. bituminous road).
On the contrary, in rigid pavements, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by
flexural strength of the pavement and the pavement acts like a rigid plate (e.g. cement
concrete roads). In addition to these, composite pavements are also available. A thin layer
of flexible pavement over rigid pavement is an ideal pavement with most desirable
characteristics. However, such pavements are rarely used in new construction because of
high cost and complex analysis required.

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1 Flexible pavements

Flexible pavements will transmit wheel load stresses to the lower layers by grain-to-
grain transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure. The wheel load acting on
the pavement will be distributed to a wider area, and the stress decreases with the depth.
Taking advantage of these stress distribution characteristic, flexible pavements normally has
many layers. Hence, the design of flexible pavement uses the concept of layered system. Based
on this, flexible pavement may be constructed in a number of layers and the top layer has to be
of best quality to sustain maximum compressive stress, in addition to wear and tear. The lower
layers will experience lesser magnitude of stress and low quality material can be used. Flexible
pavements are constructed using bituminous materials. These can be either in the form of
surface treatments (such as bituminous surface treatments generally found on low volume
roads) or, asphalt concrete surface courses (generally used on high volume roads such as
national highways). Flexible pavement layers reflect the deformation of the lower layers on to
the surface layer (e.g., if there is any undulation in sub-grade then it will be transferred to the
surface layer). In the case of flexible pavement, the design is based on overall performance of
flexible pavement, and the stresses produced should be kept well below the allowable stresses
of each pavement layer.

2 Rigid pavements

Rigid pavements have sufficient flexural strength to transmit the wheel load stresses
to a wider area below. Compared to flexible pavement, rigid pavements are placed either
directly on the prepared sub-grade or on a single layer of granular or stabilized material.
Since there is only one layer of material between the concrete and the sub-grade, this layer
can be called as base or sub-base course.
In rigid pavement, load is distributed by the slab action, and the pavement
behaves like an elastic plate resting on a viscous medium. Rigid pavements are constructed
by Portland cement concrete (PCC) and should be analyzed by plate theory instead of layer
theory, assuming an elastic plate resting on viscous foundation. Plate theory is a simplified
version of layer theory that assumes the concrete slab as a medium thick plate which is
plane before loading and to remain plane after loading. Bending of the slab due to wheel
load and temperature variation and the resulting tensile and flexural stress.

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3.7.3 DESIGN OF PAVEMENT THICKNESS:

The thickness of the pavement is the determination of overall thickness of
the road and the thickness of the individual layers. This is of course dependent on the type
of material choosing for the road. Design of pavement thickness is done below:
Vehicle damage factor = 3.
CBR of sub grade = 1.4% - 8%.
Traffic = 100cvpd.
Design life (n) = 20 years.
No of year of construction after traffic survey (x) = 2
Traffic growth rate( r) = 7.5%=0.075.

Calculation:
[𝟑𝟔𝟓×[(𝟏+𝒓)𝒏 −𝟏]×𝑨 ×𝑫×𝑭]
N= 𝒓

A = p (1+r) ^n
= 100(1+0.075)2
= 115.56
Say 116 cvpd.
N = [365{116[(1+0.075)^20-1]3}]/0.075
= 5.5 MSA.

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Table 1.10: Pavement design for traffic as per IRC 37-2001

Cumulative Pavement W.C B.C GB GSB
Traffic (MSA) thickness
5 620 25 SDBC 60DBM 250 285
10 700 40BC 80DBM 250 330

Total thickness of pavement = 700mm

WC = 40BC
BC = 80DBC
GB = 250
GSB = 330

Fig 1.6 CBR chart for pavement design

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3.7.4 CONCLUSION:

As a New highway alignment is being proposed near Timmasagar this

new alignment is being proposed to connect Anchatgeri as there is no proper road for the
people. This above alignment is being designed as a Other District Road (ODR).Many
alternatives were made for the alignment of the centreline of road. Out of them, the best
alignment is selected which gives a balance section.

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