The Circle and the Tragic Chorus

Author(s): J. F. Davidson
Source: Greece & Rome, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Apr., 1986), pp. 38-46
Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of The Classical Association
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/643023
Accessed: 26-09-2019 17:04 UTC

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Greece & Rome, Vol. XXXIII, No. 1, April 1986

THE CIRCLE AND THE TRAGIC CHORUS

By J. F. DAVIDSON

It is a well-known and often lamented fact that we know very little

about the actual staging of plays in the theatre of Dionysus in the
Fifth Century B.C. What snippets of information we do have date
from later centuries and may reflect contemporary conditions of per-,
formance, or may be mere inference based on fifth-century texts.'
Even though we can derive considerable comfort from Oliver Taplin's
dictum that 'the Greek tragedians signalled all their significant stage
directions in the words',2 much that would enhance our knowledge
of a fifth-century production remains a mystery.
One of the most intriguing aspects of the question concerns the
tragic chorus. We possess the texts of the songs they sang but we
know virtually nothing definite about the dancing3 or music which
accompanied these songs. Vase paintings provide some possible clues
about the general appearance of the chorus, but attempts to work out
details of choreography or movements in the orchestra are hazardous.4
Clear evidence is also lacking about what the chorus did when they
were not performing their songs, which normally accounts for the
greater part of the performance time. Opinion is divided on the
point and depends largely on the value placed on the scholia (on
Aristophanes, Clouds 1352 and Frogs 896) which perhaps suggest
mimed or danced accompaniment to the words of the actors. Majority
opinion seems to find a statuesque or unobtrusive chorus5 more
appealing than an actively mimetic chorus6 possibly distracting
attention from the main action. This viewpoint, however, while
perhaps finding support in the generally accepted unreliability of
scholia7 allied with the demonstrable fifth-century trend towards a
declining contact between 'stage' and orchestra," is necessarily based
in the end on preconceived ideas about the Greek theatre's aesthetic
principles.
This paper is concerned with one minor aspect of the chorus' role
during epeisodia. It does not address itself to the activity versus
inactivity debate, but tentatively explores the broader question of
how the chorus may have been arranged in the orchestra in certain
circumstances. The evidence, such as it is, is sought in the texts of
the plays themselves which remain by far our most extensive and
? Oxford University Press 1986

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 THE CIRCLE AND THE TRAGIC CHORUS 39

reliable, if at times extremely frustrati

main point will be approached by way of
dance in general and a more specific st
formation.

II

It is reasonable to assume that all choral songs were accomp

dance.9 In a variety of contexts, however, in both comedy and
specific reference is made by the chorus themselves (or by
leader as spokesperson) to their own dancing. Thus at Aeschylus,
Eumenides 307, for example, we find an invitation to join in the dance
to ensnare Orestes: d61ye KaG Xopdv owLEv.lo A welcome turn of
events or the delivery of good news often acts as a spur for choral
dance. At Euripides, Hercules Furens 761 the chorus respond to the
silence after Lycus' death screams with rps Xopos 7rparrt4p9a. The
messenger's account of Pentheus' death evokes a similar response at
Bacchae 1153: dvaXopEvaw!Ev flKXLov, as does news of the murder of
Aegisthus at Electra 864-5: &AA' r7TdEL8E/KaAAiVLKov 48av Ep Xopw?. In
Sophocles' Ajax the chorus of Salaminian sailors, celebrating their
leader's apparent change of mood, invite Pan to appear and lead them
in dance: vav yap 4Lo" LEA EL XopEvaaL (701). Similarly at Trachiniae 216-
20 the chorus respond joyfully to the news of Heracles' imminent

arrival: dElpol'
aval-apaUUEL,/ o' ' 0'7TwUop/aL/To7
EVOL/U a'Adv,
KLuOsT oap7L POaKXlaV/ 0 'rTVpaVVE
IE7TLUTPEPWV Tas EpLas
acLLLAAav. 99PEVds./ 6o80t
There are also more oblique references by the chorus themselves
to the dance which is accompanying their song. At Hercules Furens
673-5 and 685-6 the Theban elders sing that despite their old age
they will still celebrate Heracles' victories and serve the Muses: o'
TadvaopLaL -g XdpL-ras/ -ra~s Mo'aatav avyKaraLEL-/ yvs 8a-rUTav avUvyrav11

... OVirW KaTa7TrraotLEV/ Moiaas~ aL' 'X EXdPEVUaav. At Sophocles,

O. T. 896 they ask, if it is the case that impious deeds are honoured,
T bEL 1E XopEVEw; This example in particular draws attention also to
the double function of any chorus as firstly a group of elders, sailors,
furies, or whatever, and secondly as a chorus qua chorus performing
in the orchestra of the theatre of Dionysus.
In all of the above-mentioned passages and others like them, the
chorus are drawing attention to their own dancing which they are in
the process of performing,12 dancing which no doubt reflected the
mood of the song being sung. In other passages, however, the chorus
refer to dancing which is happening or which has already happened13
in off-stage contexts performed either by themselves or, more often,
by others. It is by no means an unreasonable assumption that in
the original performance the actual dancing of the chorus which

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40 THE CIRCLE AND THE TRAGIC CHORUS

accompanied their song brought the other dancin

before the eyes of the audience.
From time to time, of course, it has been su
normal procedure for the tragic chorus to 'ac
subject(s) of their song. George R. Kernodle,14 f
the chorus in the course of a song enacting an o
Phaedra's self-hanging (Eur. Hipp. 765ff.) or an
like the sacrifice of Iphigenia (Aesch. Ag. 22
particular that such enactment by the chorus
enhanced their exploration in song of symbolic
off-stage situations or of the mythical dimension
There are undoubted difficulties with the idea a
principle. Taplin,s15 while finding it attractive, rig
many of the allusions in choral songs are too fle
and some could well be grotesque. His other obje
of corroborative evidence (which, however, hov
virtually any idea concerned with the staging o
of the chorus' corporate identity, and loss of st
the latter case, however, the discrepancy of them
strophe and antistrophe in some contexts leads
accept the likelihood that there were exceptions
to be a normal strophic correspondence in dance
final and major objection that 'the contrast of
action - their removal in time and space, diction
would be destroyed' does not seem lethal, and
with the idea as a distinct possibility within sens
Returning to dance contexts as such, even if w
theory out of hand it would be perverse in the e
where, in an extended passage, the chorus sing o
else or on a former occasion, their own dance mo
sang did not bring this other dancing before the
Examples in this category include Euripides, I.A
the chorus sing of the festivities associated with
and Thetis, and Trojan Women 542ff. where they visualize the
celebrations in Troy when the wooden horse was brought within the
walls of the city. At Bacchae 862ff. the chorus evoke the ecstatic dance
that they have enjoyed in the past while at Ion 1074ff. they visualize
the Eleusinian ritual dances which they believe the presence of Ion
would shamefully pollute.17
In addition, there are occasions when one of the actors may refer
to off-stage dancing which is then mirrored, as it were, in the
subsequent dancing of the chorus. A good example of this is found
at the end of the Bacchae prologue. The disguised Dionysus announces

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 THE CIRCLE AND THE TRAGIC CHORUS 41

that he is going off to Mount Cithaeron

female followers. Immediately upon his departure, the chorus of
devotees who have followed him from Asia perform their entry song,
and it is reasonable to assume that their own dancing in a sense brings
before the audience the rhythms and movements which are to be
imagined as simultaneously taking place on Mount Cithaeron.
To recapitulate, we have isolated three specific types of dance
context: 1. The chorus refer to their own dancing while they execute
it; 2. The chorus refer to off-stage dancing while in their own dancing
evoking at least in general terms that other dancing; 3. The chorus
execute dancing which mirrors off-stage dancing previously referred
to by one of the dramatis personae.
We cannot with confidence, of course, work out the actual dance
steps or even the general movements of the chorus in these cases,
though they would obviously have been appropriate to the mood of
the context in terms of fifth-century B.c. Greek aesthetic perception.
What we can do, however, with reference to 2 and 3 at least is to
establish a principle that the movements and disposition of the chorus
in any given song could reflect dancing imagined as taking place
beyond the sphere of the actual stage action.

III

With this principle in mind, let us turn to the no

sources state that the chorus of Greek Tragedy w
and files,"' as opposed to the fifty strong dithy
formation was circular.19 But given the circular sha
it is difficult to accept that, if the evidence has a
tragic chorus was straitjacketed into rectangular f
every song in every tragedy for the entire duration
One compromise suggestion has been that the re
applied specifically to the marching entry or ex
Siegfried Melchinger22 demonstrates the absu
application even of this idea.
It is clear from the texts themselves that round dances were used
in appropriate places in comedy. For example, at Aristophanes,
Thesmophoriazusae 953ff. the chorus leader invites the chorus to form
a circle for a dance: oppKa XEL/KO Koa J ro aL'v y' ~KUK'oV .. . Such passag
are not, of course, evidence for tragic practice where, in any case, th
number of choreutae was fewer. However, they may justifiably be borne
in mind as supportive data when we consider hints of circular formation
in certain tragic songs.
Pickard-Cambridge23 rightly criticizes S. Ferri24 for overstating th

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42 THE CIRCLE AND THE TRAGIC CHORUS

case for this. It is dangerous to assume, f

or invocational dance, especially an invoc
been cyclic. On the other hand, the feelin
Eumenides 307ff. was circular is hard to r
would be unrealistic to suppose that it was
the relatively small number of extant tr
of Iphigenia's monody at I.A. 1475ff. also
accompanying choral dance was in circular
Quite apart from these specific dances, t
in many of the choral songs of tragedy. T.
the impact of Aeschylus, Agamemnon 997 7EAEU
K'ap may have been reinforced by approp
may be said of passages like &AA' r i~7 T a KaL X
1p-/ KTOV au7pOSEaS KEAEhUOL (Soph. T
LEAapWov P(ovd-/ aLaULv L aL9XaVCOV KKAp/ Aod
Ant. 117-9) where the chorus are describi
by the Argive army. Such allusions are br
that a chorus would hurriedly form a circle
were already in circular formation, however
enhanced.
With regard to more extended passages like Euripides, I. T. 1143f
(in which the chorus recall dances in which they participated in happie
days) and Hercules Furens 687ff. (where reference is made to Deli
ritual dance), Pickard-Cambridge27 sternly points out that the cyc
dance perhaps referred to is in any case not the dance in which the chor
itself is engaged. However, we have suggested with regard to dance
general that, where the chorus refer to dancing elsewhere, it is on
natural to assume that their own dancing in the orchestra would reflec
that other dancing. If the dancing to which reference is made happ
to be cyclic, then surely the chances are that the chorus' own danc
would be cyclic rather than something else. Other possibly releva
passages in this context include Euripides, Helen 1301ff. (especiall
1312-4) in which the chorus sing the story of Demeter and Kore, a
in particular the already mentioned I.A. 1036ff. in which the evocat
of the marriage of Peleus and Thetis is climaxed by a reference to
the dancing Nereids: rrapa U AEvKoqpa7' Vdta0ov/ ELALUaadoEvaL KVKA
ITEVT4jKOVTa KopaL /cLov/ N-qpEwCUs EXdOvaav (1054-7).

IV

It is often the fate of the chorus to be largely ignored by the actors

except where their co-operation in some issue is required. As a

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 THE CIRCLE AND THE TRAGIC CHORUS 43

consequence, there are few indications from the 'stage' as to the

disposition of the chorus in the orchestra. Euripides' Supplices,
however, begins with Aethra, mother of Theseus, encircled by the
chorus of suppliant Argive mothers. This is made clear by Aethra's
remark to Theseus when he arrives: LKEULOLSE 8 a1V KAo80L9/ ppovpovUal
L, CogS 0pKags, E 'KoKA, ( 7TKVOv (102-3).
This direct reference by an actor to the basically circular formation
of the chorus is unique in tragedy.28 We have argued with regard to
choral songs, however, that circularity in an off-stage context sung
about by the chorus may well have been mirrored by the actual
formation of the chorus in the orchestra. As it happens, there is a
recurrent context which may provide a parallel for this during
epeisodia.
At Sophocles, Ajax 723-4 a messenger relates to the chorus how
the Greeks crowded around Teucer on his return to camp and abused
him: a'rTv V KVKA/ ,laO8dV7r~ 9 ppEUrUT-quav. Though the chorus are
obviously not behaving in a threatening way to the messenger, their
very arrangement in circular or partially circular formation could
serve as a tableau to mirror the reported off-stage situation29 even
though the precise relationship between individual and group would
probably not be reproduced.30 Shortly afterwards, in the same
messenger scene, the movement of Calchas in relation to the other
Greek leaders is described: 4K yap avvE'pov Kat 7vpavVLKOv KVKAOV/
KdAxasg Peraarda (749-50) with the same opportunity for tableau
mirror effect.
At Trachiniae 194-5 an old man tells Deianeira and the chorus
that Lichas has arrived with news of Heracles' triumph but has been
unable to reach the house because the Malian people are thronging
round him with questions: KvKA) yadp a(v'v MqAtEv'l SV L aTS AEhC9/ KPLVEL
7rapaalads. At Philoctetes 356-7 Neoptolemus tells his story to the
marooned hero about the Greeks' initial reception of him at Troy: KaL
(A' Evx3 EV KVKApu aupa7s/ 6 iEKOv-ra J7Tig q 4'7 a7a-ET'. The same equivalent
formation of the chorus suggests itself in these examples as also in
Fr. 373 (Radt) which appears to come from a messenger speech
relating Aeneas' actions at the sack of Troy: KvKAWK 8 Taav OL KETW V
nrafrTrAlqrav.
Of course, there are many obvious objections to the idea. For a
start, no connection between the (iv) KVKA9) formula and the chorus
can be proved. Secondly, the use of KV'KAo and related words is only
natural in a context of encirclement and in fact occurs frequently in
passages similar to the Sophoclean ones from Homer onwards. Thus
we find rEpt' 8' avTov dy-qyEpad' Jaaomot paurot/ KVKAda' (Homer, II. 4.211-
2) of the Greeks around the wounded Menelaus, or JTnorE ~wL &'Atov

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44 THE CIRCLE AND THE TRAGIC CHORUS

rEptL KKAOv ,aYWUL (Od. 4. 792) of the circl

their quarry. Numerous examples from oth
aurivrEs aVro KKA EUqrlKdV7rt0 o (Hdt. 1. 43
boar and KE'AEVUE KvKKA 70O (UTpa707oTEov KP
the encirclement of a camp. There is no do
Sophoclean examples could have been use
reference to the chorus whatsoever, and if th
examples from Sophoclean prologues, this
surprising. Thirdly, similar expressions are
where a reference to the chorus is clearly
need look no further than Euripides, Baccha
Dionysus that he has heard of Mount T
7TpEPLdAAEL KU'KAp. Fourthly, the (iv) KV'KAW
vaguer sense of 'round about' or 'all arou
virtually any grouping arrangement.31 Fifthly
any number of other types of scenes relate
particular which cannot be mirrored in such
a-vis actors. Formidable though these objecti
do not necessarily invalidate the idea altoget
Relevant passages are not confined to S
Persians the messenger relates Xerxes' ord
certain Persian ships: WAAgasE KvKAC VqjaOV
later describes the Greek fleet's attack: KvKAW
the encirclement of Psyttaleia: 4t qL 83/ KVKAO
These examples are not especially appropr
'hemming in' could be reproduced in a ge
chorus 'crowding round' the messenger.
There is more promising material in Euri
1136-7 the messenger announces to Peleus and the chorus the
cornering of Neoptolemus by the Delphians: d0s E' v v rEpLaUa&v/
KVKAW Ka7ELXOV.32 Bacchae 1106-7 contains a report to the chorus of
Bacchae of Agave's orders to the Theban Bacchae to surround
Pentheus' tree: 'AE6' 'Ayav' 7-Q'PE, TeLptUTaaaL KVKA/ ro 7d'pTov AdEa9E. At
I. T. 331 a herdsman tells Iphigenia and the chorus how his comrades
finally got the better of Orestes and Pylades: KVKA;K 8 SEpfEPLaA'dV7ES
'6EKdCaLEVI 7rrpOLUL XELP v p6dayav'. A slightly different context is
provided by Orestes 444 as the 'hero' outlines his predicament to
Menelaus: K5KAW yap ELALUaadpEta rrayXdAKoL9 o7TAOLs. The most intriguing
example of all, however, occurs at Hercules Furens 925-7. In recounting
Heracles' purification ritual before the onset of his madness, the
messenger uses the circle formula in a context not appropriate for the
chorus: KKA ' J8 '87' KavoUv/EL"AK7o0 fULOV. Immediately before this,
however, the messenger has described the family audience: xopds

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 THE CIRCLE AND THE TRAGIC CHORUS 45

KaAhhA'oppgo~ EL;(7TKEL TEKv/ OV 7rar;p TE MEy

here to the chorus listening in the orchest
the chorus would no doubt be flattered by

Let us repeat that we are not in any way arguing that whenever the
word KUKAoS was used in a Greek tragedy (even in cases where it
refers, as it often does, to phenomena such as the eyes or the sun or
the cycle of the seasons) that the chorus rushed to form a circle in
the orchestra! We are simply suggesting that if the chorus happened
to be arranged in a basically circular formation then an extra visual
dimension would be available to enhance certain descriptive sequences
in particular which themselves may contain the very hint of the circular
formation adopted.
Of course, the argument itself is circular, and even if the idea could
actually be proved, it would hardly revolutionize our appreciation of
Greek drama. After all, it is a reasonable guess, given the shape of
the orchestra, that circular formation of the onlooking chorus in
epeisodia was at least a not infrequent occurrence. In that case, the
use of the KiKAoS formula might be a happy coincidence, or it might
represent a deliberate exploitation of the convention by the dramatists.
In the final analysis, it may be not so much the particular suggestion
as the general approach which proves important. Attempts to clarify
fifth-century staging have concentrated on obvious targets such as
words for 'house' or 'palace' used in tragedy and their possible
connection with the stage building in the theatre. It may well be, in
fact, that further investigation along the lines taken here may reveal
that tragic texts contain even more hidden stage directions than have
hitherto been realized.

NOTES

1. It may even be that many or all of the few generally accepted 'fa
writers about the fifth-century tragic theatre may stem ultimately f
Aristophanes. See Mary R. Lefkowitz, Hermes 112 (1984), 143-53.
2. 0. Taplin, PCPhS 23 (1977), 129. Cf. his Greek Tragedy in Acti
175. See also P. Arnott, Greek Scenic Conventions (Oxford, 1962), pp. 21-2
3. For informative discussions of Greek dance, see Lillian B. Lawler, The Dance of the
Ancient Greek Theatre (Iowa City, 19654), passim; A. W. Pickard-Cambridge, The Dramatic
Festivals of Athens (Oxford, 2nd ed. 1968 [from now on cited as P.C.F.2]), pp. 246ff.; J. W.
Fitton, CQ 23 (1973), 254-74.
4. See e.g. the sensible criticism by T. B. L. Webster, The Greek Chorus (London, 1970),
p. xi of the approach taken by G. Prudhommeau, La Danse Grecque Antique (Paris, 1965).
5. Taplin, Greek Tragedy in Action, pp. 12-13 states bluntly, 'Between their songs the
chorus will have stood (or knelt or sat) as still and inconspicuous as possible: their role was to
dance and sing, not to be a naturalistic stage crowd.' This (admittedly generalizing) formula

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 46 THE CIRCLE AND THE TRAGIC CHORUS

does not sound quite right, however, for a chorus such

does it take into account the important role of the coryp
6. Advocates of this view include Lawler, op. cit., p. 2
Practice (Westport and London, 1980), pp. 54-56. H.
(London, 1971), pp. 64-67, also inclines to this view, albe
7. P.C.F.2, p. 252, is sceptical about the 'evidence' of t
Metres of Greek Drama2 (Cambridge, 1968), p. 213, reje
8. See e.g. D. J. Mastronarde, Contact and Discontinui
pp. 32-34.
9. See Dale, Collected Papers (ed. T. B. L. Webster and E. G. Turner, Cambridge, 1969),
pp. 34-40, for the disposal of the theory that 'stasimon' meant a choral song not accompanied
by dancing.
10. Quotations from ancient authors are from the relevant OCT unless otherwise noted.
11. One application of this word in the context may be to the chorus' dancing position. Cf.
Bond, ad loc.

12. Cf. e.g. Pindar's use ofxopewv at I. 1.8.

13. Or sometimes even dancing which they anticipate will happen, e.g. Soph. O. T. 1090ff.
14. CJ 53 (1957-8), 1-7.
15. The Stagecraft of Aeschylus (Oxford, 1977), p. 20 n. 1.
16. The Lyric Metres of Greek Drama, pp. 213-4. Cf. P.C.F.2, p. 252.
17. Cf. Pindar's evocation of the Muses' choral performance for the sons of Aeacus at N. 5.22ff.
18. See P.C.F.2, pp. 239ff.
19. The dithyrambic chorus was in fact called KUKAL0o Xopdo. For discussion, see Pickard-
Cambridge, Dithyramb, Tragedy and Comedy (Oxford, 2nd ed. 1962), pp. Iff., and Lawler, op.
cit., pp. Iff.
20. An altar in the centre of the orchestra would make a natural focal point around which to
dance, as is usually assumed anyway for dithyramb. See Lawler, op. cit., p. 11.
21. See Webster, op. cit., p. 112. Lawler, op. cit., p. 26, also envisages considerable freedom
for the choreographer within the course of any given tragedy.
22. Das Theater der Tragodie (Munich, 1974), pp. 69-70.
23. P.C.F.2, p. 239 n. 2.
24. Dioniso 3 (1931-33), 336-45.
25. P.C.F.2, p. 239 n. 2, grudgingly accepts this as a possibility.
26. Eranos 78 (1980), 133-42 (in particular 135-6).
27. P.C.F.2, p. 239 n. 2.
28. At Aesch. Choeph. 983 Orestes is addressing his attendants, though the chorus may also
respond appropriately. Circular formation is also strongly implied in contexts such as Eur. H.F.

525-8 (TrEKv' pOW TrpO ~WrLvaWv/ roApoLaL V4EKPWV KparaSg 4keaTErqLeva/ OXAw " r$ dv p,;v rCv i'iv
vvadopov/ 1raTrepa rE aKpdov7a) in which Heracles describes the suppliant position taken by Megara,
Amphitryon, and the children vis-a-vis the chorus.
29. The chorus cannot, of course, act crowd-scenes realistically, which is one of the reasons
for messenger speeches in the first place. See e.g. J. M. Bremer, 'Why Messenger-Speeches?',
Miscellanea Tragica in Honorem J. C. Kamerbeek (Amsterdam, 1976), pp. 29-48 (in particular,
p. 34).
30. Much depends on whether the messenger was actually in the orchestra or on a 'stage',
and if there was a 'stage', whether this was raised or still at orchestra level.
31. For that matter, it may even designate 'all over', as perhaps at Aristoph. Wasps 432 (oL

6a rTwgaApLw KUKAW
32. Cf. also Andr. KEV7TEiEKKaL
1088-9 TOvS 8aKTUAOVS).
where it is reported Cf. MacDowell,
by the messenger adgroups
how little loc. of suspicious

Delphians kept forming: Els e2 avaere/~r K/KAOUVS 7 XwPEt Aaos' oLK7Jrwp EOU.

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