Pentecostal Hermeneutics

Pentecostal Hermeneutics
Pentecostal Hermeneutics
A Reader
Edited by
Lee Roy Martin
Leiden • boston
2013
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Pentecostal hermeneutics : a reader / edited by Lee Roy Martin.

pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-90-04-25729-0 (pbk. : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-90-04-25825-9 (e-book) 1. Pentecostal
churches—Doctrines. 2. Bible—Hermeneutics. 3. Bible—Criticism, interpretation, etc.
4. Pentecostalism. I. Martin, Lee Roy.
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contents
Preface ................................................................................................................. vii
1. Introduction to Pentecostal Hermeneutics ....................................... 1

Lee Roy Martin
2. A Pentecostal Approach to Scripture .................................................. 11

Rickie D. Moore
3. Canon and Charisma in the Book of Deuteronomy ....................... 15

Rickie D. Moore
4. Yielding to the Spirit: A Pentecostal Approach to Group

Bible Study ................................................................................................... 33
Jackie David Johns and Cheryl Bridges Johns
5. When the Veil is Taken Away: The Impact of Prophetic

Experience on Biblical Interpretation ................................................. 57
John W. McKay
6. Women, Pentecostalism, and the Bible: An Experiment in

Pentecostal Hermeneutics ...................................................................... 81
John Christopher Thomas
7. Pentecostal Bible Reading: Toward a Model of Reading for

the Formation of the Affections ............................................................ 95
Robert O. Baker
8. Deuteronomy and the Fire of God: A Critical Charismatic

Interpretation .............................................................................................. 109
Rickie D. Moore
9. Pentecostal Hermeneutics: Retrospect and Prospect ....................... 131

Kenneth J. Archer
vi contents
10. Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scripture ............................... 149

Scott A. Ellington
11. Hearing What the Spirit Says to the Churches: Profile of a

Pentecostal Reader of the Apocalypse ............................................... 171
Robby Waddell
12. Hearing the Voice of God: Pentecostal Hermeneutics and

The Book of Judges .................................................................................. 205
Lee Roy Martin
13. The Work of the Spirit in the Interpretation of Holy Scripture

from the Perspective of a Charismatic Biblical Theologian ........ 233
Clark H. Pinnock
14. What Does It Mean to Read the Bible as a Pentecostal? ............. 249

Andrew Davies
15. Psalm 63 and Pentecostal Spirituality: An Exercise in Affective

Hermeneutics ............................................................................................. 263
Lee Roy Martin
Bibliography of Works on Pentecostal Hermeneutics ......................... 285

Index of Biblical References ......................................................................... 291
Index of Authors .............................................................................................. 298
Preface
This collection of essays brings together many of the most important con-
tributions to the recent discussion of Pentecostal biblical hermeneutics.
This volume provides easy access for the classroom and for researchers
who are investigating Pentecostal hermeneutics. Those researchers may
be established scholars seeking to bring themselves up-to-date or young
scholars who had not yet begun their academic journeys when many of
the essays were originally written.
Most of the chapters of this reader are reprinted from the Journal of
Pentecostal Theology. From its first issue until now, JPT has been in the
forefront of publishing constructive scholarship on the topic of Pentecos-
tal hermeneutics. The first issue of JPT, in the Fall of 1992, included two
significant articles on hermeneutics: Rickie D. Moore, ‘Canon and Cha-
risma in the Book of Deuteronomy’, and Jackie Johns and Cheryl Bridges
Johns, ‘Yielding to the Spirit: A Pentecostal Approach to Group Bible
Study’. The publication of Scott A. Ellington’s ‘Locating Pentecostals at
the Hermeneutical Round Table’ in the Fall 2013 issue means that, in its
short history, JPT has published more than 30 pieces that contribute to the
development of Pentecostal biblical hermeneutics.
As beneficial as it would have been to republish all of the JPT articles
on hermeneutics (as well as those from other academic journals), consid-
erations of cost and space would not allow it. Therefore, the following cri-
teria guided the composition of this volume. First, each essay must have
made a significant contribution to the discussion of Pentecostal herme-
neutics. Second, each piece must fit into the volume’s overall design in
demonstrating the chronological development of the discipline. Third, an
attempt was made to represent the variety of components that may con-
stitute a Pentecostal hermeneutic. Fourth, it was important to include as
many different writers as possible. Fifth, there was an attempt explore
both the theory and the practice of Pentecostal hermeneutics. Therefore,
while a number of the chapters are purely theoretical, other chapters
engage in the interpretation of specific biblical texts.
Each writer in this compilation argues that a distinctively Pentecostal
hermeneutic is needed. It is acknowledged, however, that not all Pente-
costal scholars are convinced that a Pentecostal hermeneutic is necessary
or legitimate. Some scholars are content to utilize either historical-critical
viii contents
or Evangelical approaches, both of which are founded upon the modernist

notion of rational objective criteria for truth.
It is also acknowledged that the Journal of Pentecostal Theology is not
the only significant source for researching Pentecostal hermeneutics.
Many important contributions to the discussion have been published in
other journals and in monographs. Therefore, an extensive bibliography
is included here.
I would like to offer my thanks to the authors who have agreed to have
their writings republished in this collection. I would also express my deep
appreciation to the all of those Pentecostal readers of the Bible whose love
for the Word of God has stimulated the recent quest for a Pentecostal
hermeneutic. The developments represented in this volume did not occur
in a vacuum. We are particularly indebted to the Pentecostal communi-
ties in which we participate: the local churches, the faculties and students
of Pentecostal colleges and seminaries, and the Society for Pentecostal
Studies. I have been privileged to serve for 21 years at the Pentecostal
Theological Seminary, the home to many who have published seminal
works in the field of Pentecostal hermeneutics. I give thanks daily for my
context, which affords me the opportunity to study the Bible alongside
dedicated Pentecostal colleagues and to teach the Bible to enthusiastic
Pentecostal students.
The ‘word of God is living and powerful’ (Heb. 4.12), and its interpreta-
tion requires a hermeneutic that takes seriously its dynamic and trans-
forming capacity. It is my hope, therefore, that this volume will provide
fuel for continued development and refining of Pentecostal biblical
hermeneutics.
Lee Roy Martin

Cleveland, TN
May 2013
Chapter One
Introduction to Pentecostal Biblical Hermeneutics
Lee Roy Martin*
Only recently have Pentecostal scholars begun to reflect critically upon

their practices of biblical interpretation, but distinctive hermeneuti-
cal approaches were present from the beginning of the movement. The
dynamic Pentecostal revival created a unique interpretive matrix from
which emerged fresh interpretive strategies. The old hermeneutical wine
skins were incapable of containing the new wine of the Holy Spirit that
God was pouring out on all people.
Early Pentecostals found themselves in a position similar to that of the
early Church in the book of Acts. Before the Day of Pentecost, the dis-
ciples had operated under the assumption that Jesus the Messiah would
restore Israel to its proper position in the world (Acts 1.6). The outpour-
ing of the Spirit, however, gave them an alternative vision of God’s plan,
which was supported by a new understanding of Scripture. In the early
church, we find ‘a perplexing tension between a breaking into this world
of the kingdom of God, in which Christian believers act as servants in
God’s redemption of the world, and the need to wait for God to fulfill the
promises of the Old Testament according to God’s own timing’.1
Pentecost produced a radical transformation of the epistemology,
worldview, and hermeneutics of the early believers. Before Pentecost, the
disciples would have subscribed to the common worldview and interpre-
tive assumptions of first-century Judaism (though Judaism itself was not
monolithic). They also would have been influenced by the spread of Greek
philosophy, which was not only ubiquitous in secular contexts but also
was subtly interjected into Judaism through the Septuagint, the Greek
translation of the Hebrew scriptures.
* Lee Roy Martin (DTh, University of South Africa) is Professor of Old Testament and
Biblical Languages at the Pentecostal Theological Seminary in Cleveland, TN USA. He also
serves as Editor of the Journal of Pentecostal Theology.
1 Gerald T. Sheppard, ‘Biblical Interpretation after Gadamer’, PNEUMA: The Journal of
the Society for Pentecostal Studies 16 (1984), pp. 121–41 (139).
2 lee roy martin
The hermeneutics of the apostles changed on the Day of Pentecost.2

Although they continued to utilize many standard Jewish exegetical prac-
tices, their approach to biblical interpretation was altered by at least four
new contextual factors: 1. the life, teachings, and resurrection of Jesus;
2. the gift of the Holy Spirit poured out on the Day of Pentecost; 3. the
mission of the spreading the gospel, which demanded that the disciples go
with haste into the world; 4. the eschatological nature of Jesus’ kingdom,
which required the disciples to wait patiently for the return of Jesus.3
In its radical re-ordering of reality, Pentecost might be compared to the
divine encounters of the Old Testament prophets in their call narratives.
The prophetic experience was an apocalyptic event that deconstructed
previously held assumptions and created new theological perceptions and
new possibilities for God’s people.4 Just as Moses was reborn at the burn-
ing bush, just as Israel was transformed at Mt. Sinai, and just as Isaiah
was reshaped by his vision, so also the early disciples were changed at
Pentecost. The comparison between Pentecost and the prophetic calling
is strengthened further by Peter’s interpretation of Pentecost as the fulfill-
ment of Joel’s promise that servants, sons, daughters, old, and young ‘will
prophesy’ (Acts 2.17). Therefore, the gift of the Spirit is the gift of proph-
ecy; and, consequently, Pentecost creates a community of prophets.5 As
John McKay has argued, the prophetic gift of the Spirit naturally leads to
the prophetic interpretation of Scripture.6 The sermons in the book of
Acts as well as the New Testament documents demonstrate the outwork-
ing of that prophetic hermeneutic.
Like the early church, the first Pentecostals inherited a set of inter-
pretive presuppositions; but while the apostles had been shaped by the
hermeneutical assumptions of Judaism, the early Pentecostal movement
was indebted to the conservative hermeneutical approaches of the late
2 Cf. Sheppard, ‘Biblical Interpretation after Gadamer’, p. 132.

3 Sheppard sees the tension between ‘hurrying and waiting’, along with the ‘passion-
ate personal experiences of the Holy Spirit, as the two features that form the ‘heart of the
Pentecostal tradition’ (Sheppard, ‘Biblical Interpretation after Gadamer’, p. 140).
4 See Rick D. Moore, ‘The Prophetic Calling: An Old Testament Profile and Its Rele-
vance for Today’, Journal of the European Pentecostal Theological Association 24 (2004),
pp. 16–29 (esp. pp. 18–21).
5 See Roger Stronstad, The Prophethood of All Believers: A Study in Luke’s Charismatic
Theology (Cleveland, TN: CPT Press, 2010).
6 John W. McKay, ‘When the Veil Is Taken Away: The Impact of Prophetic Experience
on Biblical Interpretation’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 5 (1994), pp. 17–40 (24–32). Cf.
Larry R. McQueen, Joel and the Spirit: The Cry of a Prophetic Hermeneutic (Cleveland, TN:
CPT Press, 2009).
introduction to pentecostal hermeneutics 3
nineteenth century. The Pentecostal movement emerged from a religious

context that included the holiness movement, the healing movement,
restorationist movements, revivalism, and millenarian movements,7 all
of which carried ramifications for biblical interpretation. Pentecostals,
for the most part, practiced the common populist ‘common sense
approach’8 that took the Bible at face value. They read the Bible literally,9
collapsing the distance between the original context of Scripture and
the context of the reader. Kenneth Archer identifies this early Pentecos-
tal approach as ‘the Bible reading method’,10 a method that consisted in
searching the Bible for all Scripture references to a particular subject and
then synthesizing those references into a theological statement. It is a
harmonizing and deductive method.11
Also like the early church, the first Pentecostals found it necessary to
revise their hermeneutics in light of their Pentecostal experience of the
Spirit.12 The baptism in the Holy Spirit was an apocalyptic inbreaking of
God that altered their worldview. Jackie Johns writes, ‘At the core of the
7 Kenneth J. Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic: Spirit, Scripture and Community (Cleve-

land, TN: CPT Press, 2009), p. 99. Cf. Jean-Daniel Plüss, ‘Azusa and Other Myths: The Long
and Winding Road from Experience to Stated Belief and Back Again’, Pneuma 15.2 (1983),
pp. 189–201 (191). For the impact of millenarian movements on Pentecostalism, see Grant
Wacker, ‘Functions of Faith in Primitive Pentecostalism’, Harvard Theological Review 77
(1984), pp. 353–75 (369–73).
8 Stephen R. Graham, ‘ “Thus Saith the Lord”: Biblical Hermeneutics in the Early Pen-
tecostal Movement’, Ex auditu 12 (1996), pp. 121–35 (124).
9 Russell P. Spittler, ‘Are Pentecostals and Charismatics Fundamentalists? A Review
of American Uses of These Categories’, in Karla Poewe (ed.) Charismatic Christianity as a
Global Culture (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), pp. 103–16 (111–12).
Cf. Wacker, ‘Functions of Faith’, who observes that the practice of snake handling is a result
of literalism (p. 366). Early Pentecostal interpretation is described as ‘precritical’ by Archer,
A Pentecostal Hermeneutic, p. 125; and by Timothy B. Cargal, ‘Beyond the Fundamentalist-
Modernist Controversy: Pentecostals and Hermeneutics in a Postmodern Age’, PNEUMA:
The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 15 (1993), pp. 163–87 (165, 170–71). Archer,
however, prefers to describe Pentecostals as ‘paramodern’ (A Pentecostal Hermeneutic, pp.
28–45), a term that Archer attributes to Jackie Johns (p. 45, n. 137). Sheppard, however,
suggests the term ‘sub modern’ (‘Biblical Interpretation after Gadamer’, p. 127).
10 Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic, pp. 99–127.
11 Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic, p. 102. Although a concordance was often used
to gather the biblical references, the method was simplified by the use of ‘chain refer-
ence’ study Bibles that linked one verse to another through the use of marginal notation
systems. The Bible reading method also formed the basis of reference works in which the
Bible verses had already been collected into topical categories. One of the most popular of
these was Orville J. Nave, Nave’s Topical Bible: A Digest of the Holy Scriptures (Lincoln, NE:
Topical Bible Publishing Co., 1903).
12 Cf. Steven Jack Land, Pentecostal Spirituality: A Passion for the Kingdom (Cleveland,
TN: CPT Press, 2010), pp. 1–9.
4 lee roy martin
Pentecostal worldview is affective experience of God which generates an

apocalyptic horizon for reading reality’.13 Consequently, the addition of
the baptism in the Holy Spirit to the aforementioned context of beliefs
and experiences produced more than an addendum to conservative the-
ology and hermeneutics; it transformed every element and shaped them
into a new whole, which has been called the ‘Full Gospel’ or the ‘Five-
fold Gospel’.14 As the ‘central defining characteristic of the Pentecostal
movement’,15 the Five-fold Gospel places Jesus at the center of Pentecostal
theology and insists that Jesus is savior, sanctifier, Spirit baptizer, healer,
and soon coming king.16 The Five-fold Gospel is ‘the theological grid’ that
‘provided a firm interpretive lens for the fluid Pentecostal community and
their reading of Scripture’.17
Spirit baptism and the resultant Five-fold Gospel did not entirely negate
the previously held theological commitments and hermeneutical assump-
tions of the early Pentecostals, but the new formulation of beliefs and
affections generated subtle (and not so subtle) alterations of older, estab-
lished paradigms. Although early Pentecostals were by no means monolithic
in their approaches, there was a ‘fundamental’ difference between Pente-
costal and non-Pentecostal hermeneutics.18 The hermeneutical paradigm
that developed in early Pentecostalism can be described in a variety of
ways, but I would suggest several significant characteristics.
First, early Pentecostals viewed the Bible as a single unified narrative
of God’s redemptive plan, whose central message may be summarized in
the Five-fold Gospel.19 Herholdt explains:
13 Jackie David Johns, ‘Pentecostalism and the Postmodern Worldview’, Journal of Pen-
tecostal Theology 7 (1995), pp. 73–96 (87).
14 Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, pp. 6, 38. Some non-Wesleyan Pentecostals omit sanctifi-
cation from the formulation, which results in a ‘Four-fold Gospel’ or a ‘Foursquare Gospel’.
15 M. Nel, ‘Pentecostals’ Reading of the Old Testament’, Verbum et Ecclesia 28.2 (2007),
pp. 524–41 (526–27).
16 Marius D. Herholdt, ‘Pentecostal and Charismatic Hermeneutics’, in Adrio König and
S.S. Maimela (eds.), Initiation into Theology: The Rich Variety of Theology and Hermeneutics
(Pretoria: Van Schaik, 1998), pp. 417–31.
17 Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic, p. 137. Herholdt remarks that the elements of the
Full Gospel ‘serve as broad hermeneutical categories within which Pentecostals will inter-
pret everything that they read in Scripture’ (‘Pentecostal and Charismatic Hermeneutics’,
p. 426).
18 Nel, ‘Pentecostals’ Reading of the Old Testament’, p. 525.
19 Like all conservative groups, Pentecostals assumed the inspiration and authority of
Scripture. See Renea Brathwaite, ‘Seymour on Scripture’ (38th Annual Meeting of the Soci-
ety for Pentecostal Studies; Virginia Beach, VA; Feb. 29–Mar. 3, 2012), pp. 12–17.
Thus, the purpose of the Bible is to bring humanity into harmony with God’s
salvific purposes . . . and here I mean salvation and a comprehensive sense of
making all things new and whole. Consequently, interpretation of the Bible
serves understanding, and understanding is part of the process of becom-
ing whole . . . Thus the interpretation of the Bible is part of a process that
answers to the criteria of becoming whole and all that it entails.20
As heirs of the restorationist movements, the Pentecostals believed that
the gift of the Spirit was an indispensible characteristic of the true Church
that must be experienced in contemporary times. The doctrine of justifi-
cation by faith had been restored by the Reformation; sanctification had
been restored by Wesleyanism; divine healing had been restored by the
healing movement; and belief in the return of Jesus had been restored by
the millenarian movements. Spirit baptism was the last piece of the puz-
zle, completing the restoration of primitive Christianity and preparing the
bride of Christ for his return. The twentieth-century restoration of Spirit
baptism to the Church came in fulfillment of Joel’s prophecy that God
would pour out both the ‘early rain’ and the ‘latter rain’ (Joel 2.23). The
early rain fell on the Day of Pentecost and the latter rain began to fall dur-
ing the Pentecostal revival and will continue to fall until Jesus comes.21
Second, viewing the Bible as one grand unified story led the Pentecos-
tals to utilize intertextuality as ‘a justifying mark of a faithful reading’.22
The above-mentioned Bible reading method was a way of tracing Pente-
costal themes from Genesis to Revelation. ‘They found themselves called
to work their way along the “figural pathways of a biblical text” so that
for them the event of scriptural interpretation was itself always a kind of
exodus, a pilgrimage, a journey into God’.23
Third, the Pentecostals’ appreciation for the narrative quality of Scrip-
ture meant that they became a part of the story. Therefore, they no longer
looked at the Bible from the outside; instead, they entered the world of
the Bible, and the world of the Bible shaped their world.24 At a time when
20 Herholdt, ‘Pentecostal and Charismatic Hermeneutics’, p. 425.

21 See Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic, pp. 136–49; and Graham, ‘ “Thus Saith the
Lord”: Biblical Hermeneutics in the Early Pentecostal Movement’, p. 127.
22 Chris E.W. Green, ‘ “Treasures Old and New”: Reading the Old Testament with Early
Pentecostal Mothers and Fathers’ (41st Annual Meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Stud-
ies, Virginia Beach, VA, Mar. 29–Apr. 3, 2012), p. 15.
23 Green, ‘ “Treasures Old and New” ’, p. 15.
24 H.M. Ervin, ‘Hermeneutics: A Pentecostal Option’, PNEUMA: The Journal of the Soci-
ety for Pentecostal Studies 3 (1981), pp. 11–25 (22). Cf. McKay, ‘When the Veil Is Taken Away’,
who likens biblical interpretation to the production of a drama, which includes the actors
on stage and the critics in the audience. Biblical scholars are equivalent to the drama critics,
6 lee roy martin
modern scholarship (both liberal and conservative) excluded consider-

ation of the supernatural and personal experience from the legitimate
means for measuring truth claims,25 the Pentecostals were testifying to
ongoing experiences of the supernatural in the form of healings, miracles,
and the charismata. According to Grant Wacker, ‘Pentecostalism offered
invincible certitude that the supernatural claims of the gospel were really
true, not the old-fashioned gospel of the 19th century, but the awesome,
wonderworking gospel of the first century’.26 Furthermore, the Pentecos-
tal experience altered their epistemology, giving them ‘existential aware-
ness of the miraculous in the Biblical world view’.27
Fourth, the Pentecostal experience of the supernatural not only affirmed
the truthfulness of the supernatural components of the biblical story, but
it also suggested a broader approach to knowing the truth. The charismata
often included an element of divine revelation, and Pentecostals soon
realized that the same Holy Spirit who moved upon the prophets to write
Holy Scripture (2 Pet. 1.21) could move upon them to reveal the meaning
of Scripture as well. For Pentecostals, the role of the Holy Spirit in bibli-
cal interpretation goes beyond the reformed concept of ‘illumination’.28
According to Cargal, Pentecostalism’s ‘emphasis upon the role of the
Spirit in interpreting/appropriating the multiple meanings of the biblical
texts is an important contribution as the Western church seeks to reclaim
its sense of mysticism and the immanence of the transcendent which was
diminished by rationalism’.29 Furthermore, Russell Spittler argues that
even though both Pentecostals and Fundamentalists pursued a literal
approach to the Bible, the Pentecostal criteria for truth was somewhat
different. The fundamentalist approach is based on rationalism whereas,
in the Pentecostal approach, religious experience is more valuable than
who examine but do not participate. Pentecostals, however, are like the actors, who get
on stage and enter into the story (pp. 32–35).
25 See Sheppard, ‘Biblical Interpretation after Gadamer’, pp. 125–26. Sheppard argues
that both liberals and Fundamentalists, ‘because they both laid claim to the same histori-
cism and theory of intentionality, represent’ modernity (p. 126).
26 Wacker, ‘Functions of Faith’, p. 361. Cf. Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic, p. 95.
27 Ervin, ‘Hermeneutics: A Pentecostal Option’, pp. 11–25 (24). On the role of experience
in Pentecostal hermeneutics, see Cargal, ‘Beyond the Fundamentalist-Modernist Contro-
versy’, pp. 178–81; and Roger Stronstad, ‘Pentecostal Experience and Hermeneutics’, Para-
clete 26 (1992), pp. 14–30.
28 See John Christopher Thomas, ‘Women, Pentecostalism and the Bible: An Experi-
ment in Pentecostal Hermeneutics’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 5 (1994), pp. 49, 55;
and French L. Arrington, ‘Hermeneutics’, in Stanley M. Burgess and Gary B. McGee (eds.),
DPCM (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1988), p. 382.
29 Cargal, ‘Beyond the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy’, p. 186.
human reason.30 ‘The truthfulness of Scripture’, writes Kenneth Archer,

‘was discovered relationally, personally, and experientially more so than
“scientifically” ’.31 Like the early Church in Acts 15, the first Pentecostals
included their own experiences as a means of discerning the guidance
of the Holy Spirit.32 Spittler writes, ‘Fundamentalists and neo-orthodox
Christians mount arguments . . . Pentecostals give testimonies . . . There
is a profound difference between the cognitive fundamentalist and the
experiential Pentecostal’.33
Fifth, viewing the Bible as a lived story led also to a theological approach
to narrative parts of the Bible.34 That is, biblical narratives were seen as
examples that the Church should follow, and the book of Acts, in particu-
lar, became the ideal model for the true Church.35 After all, if even the
Old Testament stories are ‘examples . . . written for our admonition, upon
whom the ends of the ages have come’ (1 Cor. 10.11); and if all believers
are to do the ‘works’ of Jesus (Jn. 12.14), who is our ‘example’ (1 Pet. 2.21),
then surely the story of the early Church in the book of Acts must be a pat-
tern that we should follow. ‘These narratives are understood literally, and
taken to be repeatable and expected, and Biblical characters’ experiences
are to be emulated. In this way Pentecostalism shares the primitivism of
movements such as Montanism and the Anabaptists’.36
Sixth, for Pentecostals, the biblical story has its beginning, center, and
goal in Jesus Christ. Herholdt argues that ‘Christ is the picture that serves
to bring the pieces of the puzzle together into a coherent whole’.37 This
means that the Old Testament was read Christologically—sometimes
through the lens of allegory or typology.38 Chris Green explains:
Hence, the key to unlock a particular OT passage’s hidden treasure is to
discover how it speaks of Christ, how it casts him and his mission into
relief . . . Pentecostals of the first generation stood convinced that because
30 Spittler, ‘Are Pentecostals and Charismatics Fundamentalists? A Review of American

Uses of These Categories’, p. 108.
31 Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic, p. 97.
32 See Thomas, ‘Women, Pentecostalism and the Bible’, pp. 41–56.
33 Spittler, ‘Are Pentecostals and Charismatics Fundamentalists? A Review of American
Uses of These Categories’, p. 108. Cf. Ervin, ‘Hermeneutics: A Pentecostal Option’, p. 33; and
Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic, p. 97.
34 Cf. Cargal, ‘Beyond the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy’, pp. 182–84.
35 Cf. Graham, ‘ “Thus Saith the Lord”: Biblical Hermeneutics in the Early Pentecostal
Movement’, pp. 126–28.
36 Nel, ‘Pentecostals’ Reading of the Old Testament’, p. 527.
38 Brathwaite, ‘Seymour on Scripture’, p. 21. Cf.
8 lee roy martin
Christ is the import of OT Scripture, the OT can and should be allowed to

inform theological reflection and ecclesial practice.39
Seventh, early Pentecostals believed that the work of the Holy Spirit is to
restore the last-days Church to its primitive capacity, and that the activity
of the Holy Spirit (including biblical interpretation) takes place within the
context of the Church.40 The presence of God was manifested in the com-
munity by signs, wonders, and gifts of the Holy Spirit; and God’s presence
legitimated the community as the people of God.41 Most often, the setting
for biblical interpretation was the act of preaching, while the congrega-
tion would respond with vocal and physical signs of affirmation (or with
silent protest).
Eighth, the eschatological expectations of the early Pentecostals com-
pelled them to an urgent pursuit of world evangelization. Pentecostals
believed the end to be near—it was the ‘evening light’ (Zech. 14.6–7),42
and the ‘night is coming when no one can work’ (Jn. 9.4). The message of
the Bible was that all the world must be saved, sanctified, filled with the
Holy Spirit, healed, and prepared for the return of Jesus, the soon coming
King; and time was growing short. Thus, for Pentecostals, the Bible func-
tioned to form and equip the Church for its mission of evangelization, and
it functioned as the content of their message to the world. Therefore, they
would read the Bible ‘with the end result in mind’.43
Early Pentecostals attempted to discern the implications of Spirit bap-
tism and the Five-fold Gospel for biblical interpretation, and we must
continue forward in that process of discernment. Our goal should be to
produce a Pentecostal hermeneutic that is faithful to our theology and
ethos and appropriate for our present context. The contributors to this
volume have attempted precisely this kind of constructive approach.
Their work has led to widespread agreement on the general contours of
a Pentecostal hermeneutic. Scott Ellington summarizes the present con-
sensus in terms of
five distinctive accents in a Pentecostal reading of Scripture; that Pentecos-
tal readings are narrative rather than propositional, that they are dynamic
39 Green, ‘ “Treasures Old and New” ’, pp. 12–13.

40 Cf. Herholdt, ‘Pentecostal and Charismatic Hermeneutics’, p. 422.
41 Cf. Nel, ‘Pentecostals’ Reading of the Old Testament’, pp. 533–35.
42 The Church of God Evangel, the official periodical of the Church of God (Cleveland,
TN), began in 1910 as The Evening Light and Church of God Evangel, but the title was shorted
to The Church of God Evangel in 1911.
rather than static, that they are experience-based, that they seek encounter
more than understanding, and that they are pragmatic, emphasizing trans-
formation and application.44
Chris Green expands the list to eight points of general agreement:
1. The work of the Spirit in making faithful interpretation possible, inspir-

ing the readers to make gospel sense of the texts.
2. The authority and sufficiency of the Scriptures’ final, canonical form.
3. The role of the worshipping community in the process of interpreting
the Scriptures.
4. The need for confessional, theological readings concerned primarily
with how the Scriptures work as God’s address to God’s people here
and now.
5. Respect for the irreducible diversity of theological and literary ‘voices’
in the Scriptures.
6. Regard for the over-arching ‘story’ of the history of salvation as a
hermeneutical key.
7. The priority of narrative, literary readings of a text over against historical-
critical readings.
8. The significance of the history of effects for the contemporary interpre-
tative process.45
As Green acknowledges, most of the contemporary discussions regarding

Pentecostal interpretation can be summarized under a triadic paradigm
consisting of the Scripture, the Holy Spirit, and the community of faith.46
This threefold framework is explicated in the chapters that follow, and it
continues to be refined in light of changing contexts and global Pentecos-
tal insights. Pentecostalism is a richly diverse movement with a variety of
expressions, and each expression is deserving of its own particular version
of Pentecostal hermeneutics.
44 Scott A. Ellington, ‘Locating Pentecostals at the Hermeneutical Round Table’, JPT

22.2 (2013), forthcoming.
45 Chris E.W. Green, Toward a Pentecostal Theology of the Lord’s Supper: Foretasting the
Kingdom (Cleveland, TN: CPT Press, 2012), pp. 182–83.
46 See, for example, Rickie D. Moore, ‘Canon and Charisma in the Book of Deuter-
onomy’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 1 (1992), p. 75, n. 1; Land, Pentecostal Spirituality,
pp. 28–34; Thomas, ‘Women, Pentecostalism and the Bible’, pp. 49–56; and Archer, A Pen-
tecostal Hermeneutic, pp. 212–60.
Chapter Two
A Pentecostal Approach to Scripture*
Rickie D. Moore**
How should Scripture be approached? On this question we believe Pente-

costals have some decisive insights which no one else can offer. We Pen-
tecostals bear distinctive witness to a reality and dimension of life in the
Holy Spirit, out of which a uniquely Pentecostal approach to Scripture
emerges. Some of the key aspects of this reality of life in the Spirit and
their import for a Pentecostal approach to Scripture are described in the
following:
1. The Holy Spirit addresses us in ways which transcend human reason
We see this especially in the gifts of the Spirit (I Cor. 12.14) but also in
more subtle ways (Rom. 8.1–27). Thus we know that there is a vital place
for emotion as well as reason, for imagination as well as logic, for mystery
as well as certainty, and for that which is narrative and dramatic as well
as that which is propositional and systematic. Consequently, we appre-
ciate Scripture not just as an object which we interpret but as a living
Word which interprets us and through which the Spirit flows in ways that
we cannot dictate, calculate, or program. This means that our Bible study
must be open to surprises and even times of waiting or tarrying before
the Lord.
* This chapter was first published as ‘A Pentecostal Approach to Scripture’, Seminary

Viewpoint 8.1 (November 1987), pp. 4–5, 11. Editor’s Note: This statement was drafted by
Rick Moore in connection with his work on a committee authorized by the General Execu-
tive Council to look into the development of a comprehensive Bible study program for the
Church of God. As such, this statement was included in the committee’s report to the Execu-
tive Council in September and reflects the synthesis and consensus of those on the com-
mittee, including Chris Thomas, Cheryl Johns, Jackie Johns, and Steve Land, who chaired
the committee.
** Rickie D. Moore (PhD, Vanderbilt University) is Chair of the Department of Theol-
ogy at Lee University in Cleveland, TN, USA.
12 rickie d. moore
2. Experience is vital to knowing the truth
Pentecostal faith is not, as some have caricatured, an experience based

faith. Yet we Pentecostals do see an inseparable interplay between knowl-
edge and lived-experience, where knowing about God and directly expe-
riencing God perpetually inform and depend upon one another. This
accords with the biblical vs the common secular understanding of knowl-
edge. In the Old Testament this is seen in the very word for knowledge,
yada, which points beyond the conceptualization of an object to the
actualization of a relationship. This is why yada is used for marital love-
making (e.g. Gen. 4.1) and covenantal intimacy (e.g. Jer. 1.5; 22.16; 31.34).
This understanding of knowledge is carried forward into the New Testa-
ment, so that, as 1 John teaches, ‘he who does not love does not know
God’ (4.8). We Pentecostals have appreciated this biblical emphasis upon
lived-experience by including testimony in our times of gathering around
the Word and by expecting not just information but transformation. What
would Pentecostal preaching be without the altar call? And by the same
token, what would Pentecostal Bible study be without explicit recognition
and overt responding to the transforming call of God’s Word? Can our
approach to Bible study be Pentecostal if the question ‘What then shall we
do?’ is left unexpressed and unanswered or otherwise loses that urgency
which marks a people of last-days expectancy and global mission?
3. The Spirit calls every individual believer to be a witness of the truth

(cf. Acts 1.8)
The priesthood (1 Pet. 2.5, 9) and prophethood (Num. 11.27–29; Joel 2.28–
32; Acts 2.16–20) of all believers has distinct reality among Pentecostals
in our experience of the Spirit being ‘poured out upon all flesh’ (Acts
2.17). The Spirit gives to some the special gift of teaching but calls every
believer to walk in the light for themselves (1 Jn 1.7; 2.27; cf. Eph. 4.7–17)
and to be a Christ-like witness of that light before others (1 Jn 4.13–17;
Mt. 5.14). These concerns claim deep roots in our Pentecostal heritage. We
see them in the enduring adage, ‘one should walk in the light as it shines
upon his/her path’ (the tradition underlying the Lighted Pathway), and
in our expectation that every convert should be a firsthand partaker and
bearer of the word, thereby edifying the congregation and evangelizing
the lost.
a pentecostal approach to scripture 13
4. Knowledge of the truth is inseparable from active membership in the

localized body of Christ
The corporate experience of the faith has been especially vital to us Pen-
tecostals. Pentecostal faith is born out of a gathering together of believ-
ers (Acts 2.1–4) and continues to be nurtured and sustained by this same
communion of the saints (Acts 2.42–47). We have long testified to the spe-
cial revelation of Christ ‘where two or three are gathered together’ in His
name (Mt. 18.20). We have decried ‘forsaking the assembling of ourselves
together’, for here we experience the indispensable ministry of ‘exhorting
one another, and so much the more, as we see the day approaching’ (Heb.
10.25). In other words, here we experience the reality of being the body
of Christ, bound together as a particular historical community with the
holy bonds of mutual interdependence and accountability. Here the Holy
Spirit speaks as nowhere else, bestowing and blending gifts among all the
members in order to make manifest God’s Word in the edification of the
whole body (1 Corinthians 12; 14; Ephsians 4; Romans 12). The first general
assembly of the Church of God in 1906 grew directly out of this commit-
ment to gathering around the Word in the Spirit with explicit appeal to
the Jerusalem Council of Acts 15, and this same conviction remains a mark
of truly Pentecostal gatherings to this day.
Ironically, while certain cutting-edge trends in recent theology have
moved closer to these Pentecostal emphases (e.g. narrative theology, the-
ology as praxis, the community’s role in interpretation, etc.), we Pente-
costals have tended to move further away from these emphases as we
have adopted the approaches, methods, and, in some cases, the curricula
of other (non-Pentecostal) traditions. We believe that the Pentecostal
content which we have been attempting to infuse secondarily into our
Bible study is being effectively sabotaged by the powerful and pervasive
teaching impact of non-Pentecostal methods. We consider the pursuit of
a distinctly Pentecostal approach to Scripture to be absolutely essential
right now if we are to survive and our children are to become Pentecostal.
We submit that there is a crying need and a divine mandate before us
right now to recover an approach to Scripture which will ‘quench not the
Spirit!’ (1 Thess. 5.19).
Chapter Three
Canon and Charisma in the Book of Deuteronomy*
Rickie D. Moore**
As everyone knows, biblical study is experiencing a revolution. Interpreta-

tion has been thrown wide open as new voices have entered the discussion
and new eyes have encountered the text, as the historical-critical estab-
lishment and its rationalist-fundamentalist counterpart have increasingly
given way to the recognition that what is brought to the text makes a
decisive difference in what is found there.1 The shifting methodological
landscape is no doubt unsettling for many of us, even for those of us rep-
resenting new perspectives. One might well wonder what gaining a voice
means if the polity is to be anarchy. Yet amidst such humbling uncertainty
* First published in the Journal of Pentecostal Theology 1 (1992), pp. 75–92.

** Rickie D. Moore (PhD, Vanderbilt University) is Chair of the Department of Theol-
ogy at Lee University in Cleveland, TN, USA.
1 Of course there are those who would go further and say that what is brought to the
text makes all of the difference—that interpretation, after all, is essentially the ‘creating’
of meaning. This brings us to the vast chasm of hermeneutical debate which has opened
in our time. While I am not prepared here to take on such expansive matters, I would say
that Pentecostals would seem to have a unique vantage point to bring to the discussion.
To put the issue somewhat, perhaps even too, simplistically, it seems to me that Pente-
costals, in their claims for a substantive ongoing revelatory role for the Holy Spirit, find
themselves located in the crossfire between, for want of better terms, the liberal-critical
tradition of biblical interpretation and the conservative Evangelical tradition. It seems that
both of these traditions approach interpretation as a matter which is essentially limited to
the reader and the text. Whereas the former tradition sees this finally in terms of an open
and merely human process, whether focusing on the text or, as is more common nowa-
days, on the reader, the latter sees everything finally in terms of a closed divine deposit.
Pentecostals, on the other hand, would want to approach interpretation as a matter of the
text, the community, and also the ongoing voice of the Holy Spirit. And this opens up a
view of interpretation which can appreciate both the necessary place of human subjectiv-
ity in a dynamic process (seen to be at work in the interpreting community and in the
biblical text), as well as the place of the final authority of God manifested in and through
the process (see the overview of F.L. Arrington, ‘Hermeneutics, Historical Perspectives
on Pentecostal and Charismatic’, in Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements
[ed. S.M. Burgess, G.B. McGee and P.H. Alexander; Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1988],
pp. 376–89). Such an approach draws dismissals from both sides—as a relativizing of
divine authority from the conservative Evangelical side and as an absolutizing of human
process from the liberal-critical side.
16 rickie d. moore
there arises still the hope that a new voice will be heard—a voice from
the text which will be much better than our own.
I approach this study as a Pentecostal and as one who is consciously
attempting to integrate my Pentecostal vocation and perspective with
critical Old Testament scholarship. Such integration is not easy for me,
for I spent many years learning to keep these things mostly separate from
one another. And now that I feel the need to pursue this interface, the way
ahead is far from clear. In terms of examples, there is little for one to follow.2
Thus the present effort is of necessity exploratory and experimental.
I propose here to look at the way in which the book of Deuteronomy
sets forth the place and role of both inscripturated word and prophetic
utterance. Not only does Deuteronomy evidence repeated emphasis on the
establishment of each of these revelatory dimensions, but in chapters 4 and
5 there is seen sustained reflection, I would suggest, on the dialectical and
complementary relationship between canonical word and what I would
term charismatic revelation.
My Pentecostal perspective (or testimony) on Spirit and Word obvi-
ously parallels and is certainly informing my perceptions on the Deuter-
onomy passages. Yet these perceptions, it seems to me, surface elements
in the text that have been hidden and suppressed by other perspectives
of long standing. Briefly stated, the noticing of such dialectical possibili-
ties in Israel’s testimony of revelation has not been served by a historical-
critical tradition that has legitimated the attribution of any tension or
shift in emphasis to different literary sources or redactional layers.3 More-
2 Yet I would note John W. McKay, ‘The Old Testament and Christian Charismatic/
Prophetic Literature’, in Scripture: Meaning and Method. Essays Presented to Anthony
Tyrrell Hanson for his Seventieth Birthday (ed. B.P. Thompson; Hull: University of Hull Press,
1987), pp. 200–17; and ‘The Experience of Dereliction and of God’s Presence in Psalms: An
Exercise in Old Testament Exegesis in the Light of Renewal Theology’, in Faces of Renewal
Studies in Honor of Stanley M. Horton (ed. P. Elbert; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1988),
pp. 3–13.
3 Interestingly, a similar point has been made in certain quarters of Jewish biblical
scholarship, which appreciates the dialectical dimensions of revelation in a way that is
different, albeit not entirely unrelated, to my own. Note the following quote of S. Talmon,
‘Revelation in Biblical Times’, Hebrew Studies 26 (1985), p. 60:
Such a separation of the sources in biblical literature [with respect to revelatory
notions] is entirely unacceptable not only to Jewish exegetes who are considered
‘pre-critical’, such as S.D. Luzatto and D. Hoffmann—not to speak of the medieval
commentators. Scholars trained in critical method such as Benno Jacob, Umberto
Cassuto and M.H. Segal also categorically refuse to divide the concepts of the biblical
belief in God and revelation into the particular formulations of the Elohistic, Jahwis-
tic, Priestly, Deuteronomistic, Prophetic or Chronistic schools. The various names
and epithets of God and the various forms of divine revelation and their multifarious
canon and charisma in the book of deuteronomy 17
over, discernment of these possibilities has been equally impeded among

conservative Evangelical scholars, the primary opponents of the historical-
critical mainstream, insofar as they have been committed to a larger
theological scheme that sees a radical and dispensational break between
charismatic utterance and completed canon.4
My treatment approaches Deuteronomy in its final form—a course that
needs little justification in this day of crumbling consensus.5 Of course, I
realize that where so little justification is needed, little justification can
be claimed.6 For the moment, any deeper justification will have to wait,
perhaps for all of us.
The starting point for this treatment of revelation in Deuteronomy is
18.9–22. This text sets forth the office of the prophet in ancient Israel, with
the words,
Yahweh, your God will raise up for you a prophet like me from your midst,
from among your kindred; him you shall heed (v. 15).7
Peter’s Pentecost sermon in Acts 3, of course, takes this passage as a pro-
phetic reference to Jesus (v. 22)—an eschatological move that Deuteronomy
content are regarded not as expressions of different concepts of Deity but as mani-
festations of the sole and only God who reacts to man’s deeds in many different ways
and allows himself to be perceived by men in sundry modes of revelation.
For a prime example of the more typical way that historical criticism has been applied in
this area, and one involving one of the passages on which I will focus, see A. Rofé, ‘The
Monotheistic Argumentation in Deuteronomy IV 32–40: Contents, Composition and Text’,
VT 35 (1985), pp. 434–45.
4 This relates primarily to the doctrine of the cessation of the charismata after the
completion of the New Testament canon, as developed by Benjamin B. Warfield, but the
doctrine has implications for the broader view of biblical revelation. This point has been
developed more fully in an earlier version of this paper which I presented at the 20th
Annual Meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Studies, 1990. For an extended biblical and
theological challenge of Warfieldian cessationism, see J. Ruthven, On the Cessation of the
Charismata: A Critique of the Protestant Polemic on Post-Biblical Miracles (JPTSup, 3; Shef-
field: JSOT Press, 1996).
5 See, e.g., J.G. McConville, Law and Theology in Deuteronomy (JSOTS, 33; Sheffield: JSOT
Press, 1984), who challenges Pentateuchal criticism on a position no less central and piv-
otal than the linkage between Deuteronomy and Josiah’s reformation. The call to shift
focus to the final form of the text—in large part because of historical-critical scholarship’s
incapacity to sustain consensus on the prior compositional history of the text—was, of
course, sounded first and most influentially by B.S. Childs, Biblical Theology in Crisis (Phila-
delphia, PA: Westminster Press, 1970); and his, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scrip-
ture (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979). See also D.J.A. Clines, The Theme of the Pentateuch
(JSOTSup 10; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1978).
6 Put differently, where any reading can be justified, no reading can be justified. And
does this not bring us precisely to deconstructionism?
7 Translations of the Hebrew in this chapter are my own.
18 rickie d. moore
itself sets up by its closing acknowledgement that ‘a prophet like Moses’

had not yet arisen in Israel (34.10).8 Still the reference clearly points in the
first place to an ongoing succession of prophets, situated as it is beside the
other laws concerning the continuing leadership institutions of ancient
Israel.9
Deuteronomy not only sets forth the prophetic office as a continuing
medium of charismatic revelation but also explicitly sets forth the abiding
place of the written canon in Israel. We see this establishment of canon in
the leadership section just mentioned:
When he (the king) sits on the throne of his kingdom, he shall write for
himself in a book a copy of this law, obtained from the Levitical priests. It is
to be with him, and he should read it all the days of his life (17.18–19).
We see this again in the summary section of the book:
Moses wrote this law and gave it to the priests, the sons of Levi, who carried
the ark of the covenant of Yahweh, and to all the elders of Israel. Moses then
commanded them, ‘At the end of every seven years, at the observance of
the year of release, at the feast of booths, when all Israel comes to appear
before Yahweh your God at the place he will choose, you shall read this law
before all Israel in their hearing’ (31.9–11).
Thus the two revelatory channels, those of canonical writing and charis-
matic speech, are both explicitly set forth in the book of Deuteronomy
and projected forward into Israel’s future life. Moreover, a rather close
relationship is suggested when the stated effects, which Deuteronomy
posits for these two modes of revelation, are compared.
The continuing impact of written revelation is spelled out clearly in
chapter 31.
When all Israel comes to appear before Yahweh your God at the place he
will choose, you shall read this law before all Israel in their hearing . . . that
they may heed and learn to fear Yahweh your God, and that they may be
careful to do all the words of this law. Their children, who have not known
it, should then heed and learn to fear Yahweh your God all the days you live
in the land that you are crossing the Jordan to possess (31.11–13).
And this echoes the role seen for written revelation in the law of the king.
8 This point is perceptively made by P.D. Miller, ‘ “Moses My Servant”: The Deutero-
nomic Portrait of Moses’, Int 41 (1987), pp. 245–55 (p. 249).
9 See the summary argument of M.G. Kline, Treaty of the Great King (Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans, 1963), p. 101.
He should read it all the days of his life, that he may learn to fear Yahweh
his God, by keeping and doing all the words of this law and these statutes
(17.19).
These same themes of heeding God’s word and fearing him are likewise
evident in the passage that introduces the office of prophecy. ‘ Whoever
does not heed my words which he (the prophet) shall speak in my name,
I myself will require it of him’ (18.19). The intended goal of heeding God’s
words is presupposed here by this solemn warning against failure to do
so. Similarly the expectation of responding to the true prophet with sol-
emn fear is presupposed by the concluding disclaimer that the disproven
prophet need not evoke such fear (v. 22).10
This equivalence of canon and prophecy in their stated goals of engen-
dering fear of and obedience to God suggests a close linkage. On the other
hand, the distinction between canon and charismatic utterance would
seem to presuppose that each revelational medium would have its own
respective function. Perhaps Deuteronomy could be seen addressing this
implicitly in the way it accentuates the enduring character of the written
word, while indicating the occasional nature of the prophetic word. Thus,
the written law must be read ‘every seven years’ and passed on to the chil-
dren ‘as long as you live in the land’ (31.10,13). By contrast, the prophet is
someone whom God ‘will raise up for you’ (18.15). The expression ‘raise up’
is plainly linked in biblical usage to the transitory and timely responsive-
ness of God, as becomes clear in the book of Judges (see 2.16, 18; 3.9, 15).
Of course, as soon as the contrast between written revelation and
prophecy is drawn in terms of permanent vs. occasional, some might
be inclined to conclude from this that prophecy was understood here in
Deuteronomy as nothing other than temporary revelation on its way to
becoming permanent written revelation.11 Yet Deuteronomy offers noth-
ing in explicit support of this view, nor does the view seem to square with
10 It is true that the root ‫( גור‬gur) is used instead of the more common word for fear,
‫ ( ירא‬yara), yet 33.8 parallels these two roots in a couplet. One might argue that the object
of fear in Deut. 18.22 is the prophet rather than, as elsewhere, God. However, the Hebrew
syntax is ambiguous, using (after the verb) the preposition ‫( מן‬min) with the third mas-
culine singular suffix, for which NEB proposes the translation, ‘it’, in reference apparently
to the word spoken. But could the suffix not also refer to God? Or, rendering ‫ מן‬differ-
ently, could not the entire phrase be translated, ‘You shall not fear because of him [i.e.
the prophet]’?
11 This would follow from the assumptions of those who would see the New Testament
charismata as being limited to the revelatory function that led to and was eclipsed by the
written canon.
20 rickie d. moore
presentations of the prophetic tradition in other parts of the Old Testa-

ment. While it is true that there is much prophetic utterance which even-
tuates in written canon,12 it is also clear that the Old Testament bears
witness to a number of manifestations of divinely inspired prophetic
speech that do not eventuate in the canonical recording of the verbal con-
tent. Indeed we see this even within the traditions of Moses. We read in
Numbers 11.25, ‘Yahweh came down in a cloud and spoke to him (Moses),
and took some of the spirit that was upon him and placed it upon the
seventy elders; and when the spirit rested upon them, they prophesied’.
Then, after this act of prophesying, for which no record of contents is given,
there follows the ‘unrecorded’ prophesying of Eldad and Medad, the
two men upon whom ‘the spirit rested’ after the rest of the elders had
departed. And with memorable words, Moses checks the intent of his fol-
lower to discredit this prophesying that took place outside of his presence,
‘Would that all Yahweh’s people were prophets; that Yahweh would place
his spirit upon them!’ (11.29).
Other examples of ‘unrecorded’ prophetic utterance13 include the two
occasions when Saul encounters prophetic bands and begins prophesy-
ing among them (1 Sam 10.10–13 and 19.20–24).14 The second occasion is
actually a succession of three episodes in which two groups of messen-
gers precede Saul in encountering the prophets and prophesying. Then
there are the one hundred ‘prophets of Yahweh’ whom Obadiah hid from
Jezebel and Ahab (1 Kgs 18.3–4), presumably to silence their prophesying.
12 Indeed, a consensus of modern scholarship on Old Testament prophecy is that most

of the prophetic ‘writings’ originated as speech and not as literature. See the review article
by W.E. March, ‘Prophecy’, in Old Testament Form Criticism (ed. J.H. Hayes; San Antonio,
TX: Trinity University Press, 1974), pp. 141–77. See also C. Westermann, Basic Forms of Pro-
phetic Speech (trans. H.C. White; Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press, 1967).
13 Some helpful insights on this subject were provided by my colleague, John Christo-
pher Thomas, who has taught a section on the Holy Spirit in the Old Testament as part of
his seminary course, ‘Theology of the Holy Spirit’.
14 While my interest here is the theology within, rather than the history behind, the
text, I would, nevertheless, note in passing that the conventional move to relate these
references to an ecstatic (typically Canaanite) tradition of prophecy, disassociated from
classical Israelite prophecy, so-called (see the classic statements S. Mowinckel, ‘ “The
Spirit” and “Word” in the Pre-exilic Reforming Prophets’, JBL 53 [1934], pp. 199–227), is
undoubtedly informed by the same presuppositions which have left modern scholarship
so ill-prepared to perceive the integration here noted between canon and charisma. For
a recent historical reconstruction of Israelite prophecy which stresses the continuity of a
charismatic dimension, see K. van der Toorn, ‘From Patriarchs to Prophets: A Reappraisal
of Charismatic Leadership in Ancient Israel’, JNSL 13 (1987), pp. 191–218.
Here again, we encounter evidence of inspired utterance, which finds no

record in the canonical writings.15
In addition to all of this evidence against the idea that prophetic speech
was ever seen as only a phase in a revelatory process which ended with
inscripturated canon, there is the story in 2 Kings 22–23. Here, the proph-
etess Huldah is called upon to confirm that the law book found in the
temple is indeed the word of God (22.14–20). It is remarkable how that in
this instance, what could be regarded as an already-canonized revelation is
seen to depend in some sense upon a subsequent charismatic revelation.
All of these examples serve to strengthen the impression that prophetic
utterance, in addition to its role in generating certain portions of the writ-
ten canon, was seen to have a place and function in Israel’s revelatory
experience that stood on its own alongside that of inscripturated revela-
tion. Thus we come back again to this issue of Israel’s theology of revela-
tion, and there seems to be good reason to look once again to the book of
Deuteronomy, where, as was previously noted, the place of written canon
and the office of charismatic utterance are explicitly and emphatically set
forth. Moreover it seems promising to look in particular to Deuteronomy’s
sustained reflection upon the theophany of Yahweh at Horeb (Deut. 4
and 5), since this is the decisive moment from which Deuteronomy is
careful to trace both of these revelatory provisions.16 So in reference to
God’s institution of prophecy we read,
you asked of Yahweh your God at Horeb on the day of the assembly, ‘Let me
not hear again the voice of Yahweh my God, or see this great fire any more,
so that I will not die’. Then Yahweh said to me, ‘What they have spoken is
good. I will raise up for them a prophet like you from among their kindred;
I will put my words in his mouth, and he shall speak to them all that I com-
mand him’ (18.16–18).
And in reference to Israel’s canonical origins we read,
15 Perhaps the ‘sons of the prophets’, mentioned throughout the Elisha cycle (2 Kgs 2.3;
4.1; 5.22; 6.1; 9.1), should be seen as another biblical testimony to prophesying which does
not eventuate in recorded revelation, especially in view of the strong probability that the
term ‘sons’ here denotes representatives of the prophetic vocation and not mere followers
of a prophet. See J.R. Porter, ‘‫’בני־הנבאים‬, JTS 32 (1981), pp. 324–29.
16 Whereas S. Talmon (‘Revelation in Biblical Times’, pp. 55, 65) has recently stressed
that nowhere in ‘ancient Hebrew literature does one find either a systematic or a compre-
hensive description of “revelation,” ’ he goes on to argue forcefully that the ‘Sinai Theo-
phany is the foundation upon which rests the subsequent biblical concept of revelation’.
22 rickie d. moore
On the day you stood before Yahweh your God at Horeb . . . he announced
to you his covenant, which he commanded you to perform, that is, the ten
words; and he wrote them upon two stone tablets (4.10a, 13).
Thus it is perhaps appropriate to find light on the complementary rela-
tionship between prophecy and canon in Deuteronomy’s extended reflec-
tion upon the revelation at Horeb, which is presented in chapters 4 and 5.
I would suggest that this is precisely what we begin to find as we look to
the passage that leads into the Horeb testimony. Moses says,
See, I have taught you statutes and ordinances as Yahweh my God com-
manded me, to do accordingly in the land that you are entering to possess.
Keep them and do them, for that is your wisdom and your understanding
in the eyes of the peoples, who will hear of all these statutes and say, ‘Surely
this great people is a wise and understanding nation’. For what great nation
is there that has a god so near to it as Yahweh our God is to us whenever we
call to him? And what great nation is there that has statutes and ordinances
so righteous as all this law that I am placing before you today? (4.5–8).
The last two verses in this passage seem especially significant. Verse 8 most
emphatically points to the vital and incomparable character of Israel’s
canon, which is denoted here by the words ‘statutes and ordinances so
righteous’. Yet v. 7, with parallel wording, points to the equally vital and
incomparable endowment of having ‘a god so near’. And this latter phrase,
I would suggest, relates implicitly to prophecy, for it is precisely this mat-
ter of divine nearness that Deuteronomy uses to characterize the nature
and origin of prophetic revelation.17 For chapter 4 moves quickly from
here to recall when Israel ‘came near and stood’ before Yahweh at Horeb
(v. 11), where Yahweh, Moses reminds them, ‘spoke to you out of the midst
of the fire’ (v. 12). Then chapter 5 quickly takes up Israel’s initial reaction
to the ensuing experience of divine nearness. Expressing to Moses their
17 See L. Boadt, Jeremiah 1–25 (Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1982), pp. 190–91, who
is one scholar to recognize prophecy’s central concern with divine nearness. Boadt links
Deut. 4.7 with Jer. 23.23, which reads, ‘Am I a God at hand, says Yahweh, and not a God
afar off ?’ This latter verse falls within an extended discussion of prophecy. Here the fun-
damental association of prophecy with divine nearness is assumed, even while Jeremiah is
wanting to uplift Yahweh’s transcendence as well. Boadt goes on to point out the emphasis
among Israelite prophets on divine nearness through the frequently used phrase, ‘Yahweh
is with us’ (Isa. 7.14; Hos. 11.9; Amos 5.14). I am indebted to my graduate assistant, Marcia
Anderson, for sharing this reference with me. P.D. Miller (Deuteronomy [Interpretation;
Louisville, KY: John Knox, 1990], pp. 56–57), however, argues that divine nearness in Deut.
4.7 is identified with God’s law, drawing support from Deut. 30.11–14. However, contra
Miller, the nearness stressed in this latter passage seems to depend upon the immediacy
of Moses’ role of speaking ‘to you this day’ (v. 11).
extreme fear of being consumed by the divine presence, the Israelites say
to Moses, ‘You go near and hear all that Yahweh our God will say, then you
yourself can speak to us all that Yahweh our God will speak to you; and
we will heed and do it’ (5.27). This is, of course the precise moment that
18.16–17 recalls as the originative point of Moses’ prophetic role and also
of Israel’s prophetic office. Thus Deuteronomy grounds prophecy in this
concern for an ongoing revelatory manifestation of divine nearness.
By lifting up the unique phenomenon of Yahweh’s nearness, Deuter-
onomy 4.7 not only points in the direction of prophetic utterance but
also begins to illuminate its distinctive role in Israel’s revelatory experi-
ence. The occasional and responsive nature of prophetic revelation, which
I noted earlier in connection with the verb ‘raise up’ and which is here
reflected in the phrase, ‘whenever we call to him’,18 is now shown to be
vitally significant for its role in manifesting ‘a god so near’.
Deuteronomy 4.7–8, then, seems to constitute an important testimony
to the complementary relationship of written word and charismatic word.
God’s people are called here to recognize and to hold together the law
‘so righteous’, which is firmly and continuously manifest in their written
canon, and the God ‘so near’, which is dynamically and continually mani-
fest in Yahweh’s prophetic revelation.19
This dialectic, I would propose, is a primary focus of chapter 4, which
elaborates a call for Israel to remember the revelation of Horeb (vv. 9–40),
for this is precisely where the law so righteous and the God so near, indeed
where written word and charismatic word, were first experienced together
by Israel. Attention is called to this union right away in v. 13, which says,
‘He [Yahweh] announced to you his covenant, which he commanded you
18 The ‘occasional’ force of ‘whenever’ is generated in Hebrew, of course, by the tem-

poral use of the preposition before the infinitive construct. See BDB, p. 91. Whereas it
is common to think of prophecy more in terms of a unilateral divine initiative than a
divine response to Israel’s call, it is important to realize that God’s prophetic initiative
through Moses, which is the very one emphasized in the book of Deuteronomy, comes as a
response to the people’s request. Furthermore divine responsiveness to Israel seems inher-
ent in the usage of ‘raise up’ (e.g. Judg. 3.15) and in the whole context of the law setting
forth prophecy in Deut. 18, since it is preceded by the prohibition of seeking the help of
pagan mediaries. A later explicit example of God sending a prophet in response to Israel’s
cry can be seen in Judg. 6.7–8, ‘When the people of Israel cried to Yahweh . . . Yahweh sent
a prophet to the people of Israel’.
19 See W. Brueggemann, Creative Word: Canon as a Model for Biblical Education (Phila-
delphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1982), pp. 113–17, who appreciates the dialectical relation of
these verses along other lines of emphases, yet lines which do not seem irrelevant to the
interplay that I have noted between canonical and charismatic revelation. I will comment
on this later.
24 rickie d. moore
to perform, that is, the ten words; and he wrote them upon two stone
tablets’. This declaring and writing of Yahweh, which would later give way
to the declaring and the writing of Moses and those who would follow
after him, clearly represent the written word and the charismatic word
and the fact that they were seen to be held together from this founda-
tional moment of Israel’s covenant. Furthermore, the hortatory force of
the entire recollection of Horeb in Deut. 4 and 5 reflects the concern to
continue to hold together these revelatory aspects against what seems to
be considered the primary threat and tendency of Israel to displace or
diminish the God-so-near (the charismatic-word) side of the dialectic.
Thus v. 12, after recalling that, ‘Yahweh spoke to you out of the midst
of the fire’, emphasizes, ‘you were hearing (‫שׁמﬠ‬, shama) the sound (‫קול‬,
qol) of words20 but saw no form, there was only a voice (‫’)קול‬. Verses 15–24
then go on to develop an extended warning against Israel’s choosing a
form (i.e., an idol) to the neglect of the voice of God (vv. 15–24). Here
the idolatrous form is contrasted with Yahweh’s word, the dynamism and
untamed nearness of which is represented and manifest in the fire.21 This
section begins,
Take heed to yourselves, for you saw no form on the day Yahweh spoke to
you out of the midst of the fire, beware lest you . . . make a graven image for
yourselves, in the form of any figure . . . (vv. 15–16).
Similarly, the section ends,
Take heed to yourselves, lest . . . you make a graven image in the form of
anything which Yahweh your God has forbidden you. For Yahweh your God
is a devouring fire (vv. 23–24).
Against Israel’s temptation to displace Yahweh’s lively presence with a
lifeless form, this passage insists upon heeding Yahweh’s word as mani-
fested in the fire. For the second time we hear, ‘You saw no form’ (cf. v. 12),
20 My translation here accentuates the presence of the participle. The emphasis upon
hearing, not only here but throughout chs. 4 and 5 (e.g. 4.1 and 5.1), reminds one of Samuel
Terrien’s argument for the oracular orientation of Israelite faith (The Elusive Presence [New
York: Harper & Row, 1978], pp. 112, 121, 172, 182, 201, 279)—an orientation which has also
been noted in Pentecostalism. See M.B. Dowd, ‘Contours of a Narrative Pentecostal Theol-
ogy’ (paper presented to the 15th Annual Meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Studies,
1985).
21 One is reminded here of Jeremiah’s later appropriation of this same imagery of fire
to characterize the overpowering immanence of the prophetic word within himself (Jer.
20.8; also 23.29). One might also be reminded of the fire of Acts 2.
but, as v. 36 will later summarize the counterpoint, ‘He let you see his
great fire, and you heard his words out of the midst of the fire’.
It is important how that the next section (vv. 25–31) extends this same
struggle between static form and dynamic word into the context of Israel’s
future history, where Yahweh’s dynamic word, we know, was to be mani-
fest through the institution of prophecy rather than direct theophany. In
the future, we are told, Israel will face the same temptation. And if Israel
makes ‘a graven image in the form of anything’ (v. 25), Yahweh promises
to scatter Israel and make them ‘serve gods of wood and stone, the work
of men’s hands, that neither see, nor hear’ (vv. 26–27). While Yahweh was
earlier seen representing his covenant in tablets of stone (v. 12), the peo-
ple of Israel are here shown the bankruptcy of any attempt on their part
ever to reduce divine revelation to stone or any other static form. Yet if
the Israelites, after experiencing this bankruptcy, then seek Yahweh ‘with
all (their) heart and with all (their) souls’, Yahweh promises (in line with
4.7—‘whenever we call upon him’) that Israel can ‘return unto (‫ﬠל‬, al)
Yahweh and hear (‫שׁמﬠ‬, shama) his voice (‫קול‬, qol)’ (vv. 29–30).22 With
parallel wording, the hearing of the voice here is linked to the hearing
of the voice at Horeb (v. 12). And the ‘God so near’ at Horeb parallels
the restoration to Yahweh’s presence here. Quite appropriately, then, the
ending of this section grammatically parallels the ending of the previous
section on Horeb. The earlier conclusion declared, ‘Yahweh your God is a
devouring fire’ (v. 24), while v. 31 concludes, ‘Yahweh your God is a merci-
ful God’.
The summary section which now follows (vv. 32–40) immediately
brings together these elements of devouring fire and divine mercy: ‘Did
any people ever hear the voice of a god speaking out of the midst of the
fire, as you have heard, and still live?’ (v. 33). This statement is especially
significant for the way it seems intentionally and once again to link the
divine voice, which the preceding section had just projected into Israel’s
future, with the divine voice at Horeb. The inference is registered that
through future prophetic word, as through past theophanic word, Israel
is mercifully kept alive.
22 My translation here brings out the important parallel with 4.12.
26 rickie d. moore
The summary pushes on to the decisive point that Israel’s hearing (from
heaven) and seeing (upon earth)23 of Yahweh’s words and deeds24 have
been provided ‘in order that you might know that Yahweh is God,25 there is
no other besides him’ (v. 35). The point is repeated with imperative force
and with accent on the present, post-Horeb moment:26 ‘Know therefore
this day, and lay it to your heart that Yahweh is God in heaven above and
on the earth beneath; there is no other’ (v. 39). Here again, Moses is setting
the revelation of Yahweh’s dynamic word over against Israel’s temptation
to idolatry. Throughout the chapter we have seen how Israel is warned
against substituting forms from earth and/or heaven (cf. vv. 17–19) for the
living voice of God, substituting artificial ‘gods so near’, as it were, for the
true manifestation of Yahweh’s nearness. Now God’s living word, which
Israel hears and sees, is given as the basis of the revelation which rules out
all of these other gods ‘in heaven above and on the earth beneath’.27
Having affirmed the ‘God-so-near’ aspect of Yahweh’s revelation against
being displaced by a static form, this chapter concludes with a verse that
turns attention to the other aspect of Yahweh’s revelation, the ‘law so
righteous’ (cf. vv. 7–8):
23 4.36 reads, ‘Out of heaven . . . he let you hear his voice . . . and on earth he let you see
his great fire . . .’
24 Both word and deed, which significantly are held together in the Hebrew term, ‫דבר‬
(davar, cf. Deut. 8.3), are stressed in this section. We see this in the appeal to both the
voice, which is heard, and the fire, which is seen, at Horeb (see 4.36). Moreover, the ‘fire
which is seen’ is augmented in this section with the ‘signs and wonders’ that Israel ‘was
shown’ (vv. 34–35) in the exodus and that Israel will see in the future conquest of Canaan
(v. 38). All of this suggests that Israel’s hearing and seeing, and that Yahweh’s dynamic
word, are not being relegated to past history. In addition to this passage, Deut. 34.10–11
also makes a strong linkage between ‘signs and wonders’ and prophecy. Discussing all of
the occurrences of the phrase ‘signs and wonders’ in the Hebrew Bible and pointing up the
phrase’s connection to prophecy is D.N. Fewell, Circle of Sovereignty: A Story of Stories in
Daniel 1–6 (Sheffield: Almond Press, 1988). That miraculous signs as well as words belonged
to prophetic ministry is abundantly clear throughout the OT, especially in the Elijah and
Elisha stories. See my study, God Saves: Lessons from the Elisha Stories (JSOTSup 95; Shef-
field: JSOT Press, 1990).
25 Cf. the comments on ‘a biblical way of knowing’ offered by J.D. Johns and
C.B. Johns, ‘Yielding to the Spirit: A Pentecostal Approach to Bible Study’, JPT 1 (1992),
pp. 109–34.
26 It is not insignificant that this point directly follows a reference to still future mani-
festations of divine revelation in the conquest (v. 38). This post-Horeb generation is made
responsible for what Israel has seen and heard in the past, because Israel is presently see-
ing and hearing, and will continue to see and hear, the same living word of Yahweh.
27 In making this point, I am struck by how 1 John begins with emphasis upon the
living word that has been heard and seen (1.3; cf. 2.27) and ends with a call to renounce
idolatry. Is it possible that this oft-puzzling ending of 1 John is to be illuminated by
the same theological move as we see in Deut. 4?
Therefore you shall keep his statutes and his commandments, which I com-
mand you this day (v. 40).
Interestingly, this statement turns our attention to the past words of God
but does so in relation to the present words of (the prophet) Moses. ‘This
day’ involves emphasis upon the present moment, especially since it has
just been heard in verse 39. It is as if the nearness of divine revelation
needs to be reinforced even with respect to the ‘law so righteous’. A look
at chapter 5 would indicate that this suggestion is on target.
Chapter 5, which is well known for its presentation of the core text
of Israel’s ‘law so righteous’, the decalogue, surrounds this core text with
special stress on the fact that these written words (cf. 5.22) were origi-
nally given and are now continuing to be given in relation to spoken words
which address Israel in the present. The section preceding the decalogue
(vv. 1–5) is especially concerned that the written word not be left in the
past. Moses says,
Hear, O Israel, the statutes and the ordinances that I speak in your hearing
this day, . . . Yahweh our God made a covenant28 with us in Horeb. Not with
our fathers did Yahweh make this covenant, but with us, who are all of us
here alive this day (vv. 1–3, emphasis mine).
The section following the decalogue (vv. 22–33) is especially concerned
with future revelation beyond this initial giving of the written word.
Moses recalls,
These words Yahweh spoke to all your assembly at the mountain out of the
midst of the fire, the cloud, and the thick darkness, with a loud voice; and he
added no more. And he wrote them upon two stone tablets and gave them
to me . . . and you said . . . if we hear the voice of Yahweh our God any longer,
we shall die . . . Go near, and hear all that Yahweh our God says; and speak
to us all that Yahweh our God speaks to you (vv. 22, 25, 27).
God’s positive response to Israel’s specific request here opens the way for
further revelation, not only through Moses’ prophetic role at Horeb (v. 31)
but also through the ongoing prophetic institution that stems from this
moment, as seen in 18.15–18. In this latter part of chapter 5, concern for the
future is registered especially in God’s express desire that Israel’s initial
fear at hearing his spoken word (vv. 23–26) would continue.
28 Here the ‘covenant’, as in 4.13, is used specifically to introduce the decalogue.

28 rickie d. moore
Oh that they had such a mind as this always, to fear me and keep all my
commandments, that it might go well with them and with their children
forever! (v. 29).
Thus, Israel’s fearing before Yahweh’s revelation here in chapter 5 (see
also v. 5) parallels Israel’s hearing and seeing of Yahweh’s revelation in
chapter 4. Each of these responses to God’s dynamic word are made cru-
cial for keeping God’s enduring word.
In summarizing our look at the Horeb testimony of Deuteronomy 4–5,
it is clear that Israel’s having of a ‘god so near’ (as Yahweh is through his
ongoing, dynamic prophetic utterance) is an urgent theological concern
in Deuteronomy. Chapter 4 shows this revelatory provision to be crucial
in resisting the temptation to draw near to idolatrous images of stone.
And chapter 5 shows this provision to be crucial in resisting the tendency
for Israel to draw away from God’s word, reducing it to past inscriptions
of stone, which do not continue to live in Israel’s present or future.
Charismatic word is thus shown here to have a vital, ongoing role
alongside written word. Deuteronomy here seems to see the essential and
distinct contribution of charismatic revelation in terms of the manifest-
ing of God’s nearness in a way that counters an idolatrous manufacturing
of divine presence, on the one hand, and a legalistic distancing of divine
word, on the other. Thus, without charismatic revelation, Israel is prone
both to violate Yahweh’s first word29 and to antiquate his entire word.
In the light of the foregoing considerations, I would suggest some
broader implications. The concerns I have traced in chapters 4 and 5
would seem to be significantly related to the thrust of Deuteronomy as
a whole. In this pivotal book, Moses addresses his last words to the new
generation. He is concerned that God’s word, which had been given and
heard before, be heard, seen and kept now—and not just now but on and
on into Israel’s future. Deuteronomy, it could perhaps be said, is itself
a prophetic word on Israel’s canon—a word through which God makes
himself and his canon present to the new generation. Thus, Deuteron-
omy remembers the paradigmatic revelatory moment of Horeb where God
both wrote and spoke his word, in order for this same revelatory syner-
gism to be manifest in the present and carried forward into the future. Is it
29 I refer here, of course, to the decalogue’s command against idolatry, which is surely
the first command, even though it is possible to be understood as the second word, the first
being, ‘I am Yahweh your God who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house
of bondage’ (5.6). See W. Harrelson, The Ten Commandments and Human Right (Philadel-
phia, PA: Fortress Press, 1980), p. 7.
too much, then, to say that Deuteronomy in general and chapters 4 and 5
in particular offer a past basis, present model and future projection of the
complementary relationship between written word and charismatic word
in the Old Testament?
Reinforcement for this last point could perhaps be found in the very
terminology by which Israel expressed some of its primary epistemologi-
cal and revelatory concepts. I would offer here a couple of suggestions that
might merit further exploration. An especially important term for God’s
revelation is ‫( דבר‬davar). While this is commonly translated as ‘word’, it
is well known that it expresses much more than our term ‘word’, often
requiring the translation ‘event’. This vocabulary would accord with the
argument above for seeing divine revelation as bringing closely together
the notions of written word, spoken word, even manifested or embodied
word. Complementing this, an important term for Israel’s knowing is ‫ידﬠ‬
( yada). Here again, the common translation, ‘to know’, falls short of the
Hebrew notion, for our term ‘know’ points to the conceptualization of an
object, whereas the Hebrew term resists such a subject-object dichotomy
and points more to the actualization of a relationship between knower
and known.30 Again the Hebrew terminology seems to correspond in
a striking way to the foregoing case for seeing Israel’s apprehension of
divine revelation as including ongoing relationship to the manifest pres-
ence of God. Thus God’s word (‫ )דבר‬and Israel’s knowing (‫)ידﬠ‬, terms
which come together in Deuteronomy 4.35, are terms which appear to
correspond profoundly to one another and to the dynamic, integrative
paradigm of revelation pointed to above.
A few concluding remarks are now offered. I have sought to show that
Deuteronomy exhibits an urgent concern to observe a dynamic integra-
tion of canon and charisma in Israel’s ongoing revelatory experience—
a concern developed in Deuteronomy 4 and 5 and expressed most
succinctly in the theological juxtaposing of ‘a god so near’ and ‘a law so
righteous’. Walter Brueggemann, as noted earlier, has appreciated the dia-
lectical relation between these theological affirmations in Deut. 4.7–8. He
sees this reference holding together a ‘delicate and difficult balance’ that
rejects a ‘God-less Torah (legalism)’, on the one hand, and a ‘Torah-less
God (romanticism)’ on the other.31 In view of the foregoing discussion,
I would suggest that the tension be posed in terms of a Spirit-less Word
30 See Johns and Johns, ‘Yielding to the Spirit’.

31 Brueggemann, Creative Word, pp. 113–17.
30 rickie d. moore
(rationalism), on the one hand, and a Word-less Spirit (subjectivism), on

the other. This may bring matters closer to home in seeing what is at
stake in holding together the canonical-charismatic revelatory paradigm
heretofore considered.32 Obviously, to put the issue this way is to point
forward from the text of Deuteronomy to the theological and hermeneuti-
cal concerns of Pentecostalism—a move which may not appear to be so
overdrawn when one considers the historical and theological connections
between the Sinai event (the Horeb theophany) in the Old Testament and
the Pentecost event in the New Testament.33
Within this tension of canon and charisma—a tension that the herme-
neutical traditions of modern Western theology have found ways to
eliminate—Pentecostals must find their way. This tension will provide no
easy place to stand—Sinai didn’t either—but it just may provide the way
for a new voice to be heard, one that we all need to hear.
I return at last to my starting point, where I suggested that my look
at the final form of the text needed little justification in this day when
longstanding formulations and the forms of study which they have rep-
resented have lost their absolute sway. We talk of paradigm shifts, but
the biblical texts that we study would undoubtedly pose such a matter in
terms of idolatry. Aren’t we now witnessing the crumbling of our idols?
And I refer not just to the canons of historical criticism but even to our
claims upon the final form of the text. Would not Moses warn us against
even these, when he says, ‘Take heed to yourselves, since you saw no form
on the day that Yahweh spoke to you at Horeb out of the midst of the fire’
(Deut. 4:15)?
While some would want to read our present hermeneutical revolution
in terms of the triumph of deconstructionism, the biblical texts which
we study would bear witness to the ultimate deconstructionist, Yahweh,
whose word (‫ )דבר‬deconstructs all of our ‘final’ forms—even the enter-
prise of deconstruction itself, which makes an idol of the smashing of
idols (cf. Jehu in 2 Kgs 10). Could all the deconstructing which is going
on in contemporary Western hermeneutics be a disclosure of what we
32 I would add that the dialectical relation between canon and charisma, between pre-
scribed righteousness and divine nearness, and between Torah and God, suggests an inter-
penetration rather than a dichotomization of terms, so that, for example, canon can be
seen to manifest divine nearness (cf. Deut. 30.11–14) and charismatic revelation can be seen
to manifest prescribed righteousness (cf. 2 Kgs 22.15–17), but only as each is inseparably
related to the other.
33 On this see R. Stronstad, The Charismatic Theology of St. Luke (Peabody, MA: Hen-
drickson, 1984), pp. 58–62.
are essentially and finally capable of doing apart from a word which truly
comes forth from the mouth of a living God? Unfortunately, this question
of our deconstructive potential has implications not just for our literature
but also for our politics. Within this context, I would want to approach
the final form of the text, but in the light of the consuming fire. Let every
reader34 decide for him or herself whence this fire comes.35
34 In place of ‘reader’ I could have put ‘worshipper’, for aren’t we all? And hasn’t the
time come for us all to be more honest about what it is or who it is that we are worship-
ping in our reading and in our writing?
35 I gratefully acknowledge the help of my colleagues in the preparation of this study,
especially John Christopher Thomas, Cheryl Bridges Johns, Steven J. Land and James M.
Beaty for their theological insight and their spiritual discernment and support.
Chapter Four
Yielding to the Spirit:

A Pentecostal Approach to Group Bible Study*
Jackie David Johns and Cheryl Bridges Johns**
What, if anything, should be the distinctive characteristics of Pentecostal

group Bible study? Bible study materials published by Pentecostals seem
to assume they are Pentecostal because they contain frequent references
to the baptism of the Holy Spirit, the gifts of the Spirit, and Acts 2.4.1 This
assumption implies that one has only to take theologically conservative,
Scripture-based curricula, remove any objectionable material, add to it
the doctrinal distinctives of Pentecostalism and the results will be Pen-
tecostal Bible study.2 It is ironic that a movement that laid claim to the
restoration of biblical Christianity with a corresponding denunciation of
creeds should so easily take an essentially creedal approach to evaluating
study materials.
There exists among Pentecostals a certain inclination toward a false
dichotomy between content and process. The dichotomy is frequently
expressed in terms of the eternal nature of Scripture and the supposed
temporal nature of methods. Methods are considered value-free tools
which do not affect the truths they mediate and therefore may be bor-
rowed from any number of sources, the social sciences being currently
favored. Consequently, Pentecostals have failed to consider the implica-
tions of their dynamic belief system for issues of epistemology. The end
result of this failure is that we may actually be using methods which negate

** Jackie David Johns (PhD, Southern Baptist Theological Seminary) is Professor of Dis-
cipleship and Christian Formation at the Pentecostal Theological Seminary, Cleveland, TN
USA. Cheryl Bridges Johns (PhD, Southern Baptist Theological Seminary is Professor of
Discipleship and Christian Formation at the Pentecostal Theological Seminary, Cleveland,
TN USA.
1 This generalization is based upon examinations of Sunday school and elective cur-
ricula published by four leading North American Pentecostal denominations: Assemblies
of God, Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee), Pentecostal Holiness, and Church of God
of Prophecy.
2 Several Pentecostal denominations are currently editing and publishing Sunday
school curricula developed by evangelical publishers such as David C. Cook.
34 jackie david johns and cheryl bridges johns
the very message we are attempting to communicate. We may be operat-

ing out of a hermeneutic that is inconsistent with or even in opposition
to our very identity. Specifically, our methods may be militating against
the experiential and relational dimensions of our faith.
Pentecostals are only now beginning to formulate a hermeneutic which
takes seriously the dynamics of the Pentecostal faith. We have found the
rationalism of twentieth-century evangelical Christianity to be an inad-
equate vehicle for passing on a faith which honors the active presence of
the Holy Spirit in the contemporary world. Walter Hollenweger has high-
lighted this difficulty and noted that Pentecostal theologizing has often
been ignorant of its own distinctive ethos.3 William MacDonald has also
highlighted the dynamic, oral witness of Pentecostalism in which testi-
monies of encounters with the living word are affirmed in relation to the
written word, which serves as a check.4 Michael Dowd has aptly described
the dilemma facing Pentecostals attempting to formulate a Pentecostal
hermeneutic: ‘When the only “language game” in town is rationalism it
is not hard to understand why an experiential, relational, emotional and
moral faith would choose not to play by the rules’.5
Dowd called for a Pentecostal approach to Scripture that would incor-
porate both the mind and the affective-spiritual dimensions of existence.
Francis Martin added that it is only through ‘exegesis of the Spirit’ that
true understanding and appropriation of Scripture is possible.6 While dia-
logue and study are rapidly emerging,7 it is evident that much work is
yet to be done to clarify the relationship between Pentecostal beliefs and
Pentecostal processes.
The objective of this paper is to contribute to the ongoing discussion a
paradigm for a Pentecostal approach to small group Bible study. We have
3 In particular see W.I. Hollenweger, ‘Creator Spiritus’, Theology 81 (1978), pp. 32–40,
and his ‘Flowers and Songs: A Mexican Contribution to Theological Hermeneutics’, Inter-
national Review of Mission 60 (1971), pp. 232–44.
4 W.G. MacDonald, ‘Pentecostal Theology: A Classical Viewpoint’, in R. Spittler
(ed.), Perspectives on the New Pentecostalism (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1976),
pp. 58–74.
5 M.B. Dowd, ‘Contours of a Narrative Pentecostal Theology and Practice’ (paper pre-
sented to the 15th Annual Meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Studies, 1985).
6 F. Martin, ‘Spirit and Flesh in the Doing of Theology’ (paper presented to the 15th
Annual Meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Studies, 1985).
7 Note J.K. Byrd, ‘Formulation of a Classical Pentecostal Homiletic in Dialogue with
Contemporary Protestant Homiletics’ (PhD dissertation, The Southern Baptist Theological
Seminary, 1990), and ‘Paul Ricoeur’s Hermeneutical Theory and Pentecostal Proclamation’,
Pneuma 15.2 (1993), pp. 203–14. Also, R.D. Israel, D.E. Albrecht, and R.G. McNally, ‘Pente-
costals and Hermeneutics: Texts, Rituals and Community’, Pneuma 15.2 (1993), pp. 137–61.
a pentecostal approach to group bible study 35
attempted to build this paradigm upon a Pentecostal epistemology8 that

is grounded first in the biblical understanding of coming ‘to know’ God
and second in a dialogue with the epistemology of praxis.
Yada, the Paraclete, and the Scriptures: Basis for a Pentecostal Epistemology
It was suggested above that contrary to the experiential and relational
nature of their faith, Pentecostals routinely dichotomize the content of
Scripture from the learning processes which are reflected in Scripture.
Such a dichotomy fails to see the unity between the God who is to be
known and how that God wishes to be known. However, Scripture itself
is clear that the two cannot be disjoined. Their unity may be clearly seen
in the meaning of ‘to know’ in both the Old and New Testaments, the
Johannine portrait of the Paraclete as teacher, the nature of the Church as
covenant community, and the nature of Scripture as the word of God. In
these the foundation for a Pentecostal epistemology is established.
Yada: A Way of Knowing
There exists in the Old and New Testaments a relatively consistent under-
standing of how one comes ‘to know’. This understanding is rooted in
Hebrew thought and may be contrasted with Greek approaches to knowl-
edge. In the Old Testament the Hebrew word for ‘to know’ is yada (‫)ידﬠ‬.
In general yada is treated as knowledge which comes through experience.9
O.A. Piper has added that this knowledge implies an awareness of the
specific relationship in which the knower stands with the object being
experienced so that ‘full comprehension of the object manifests itself in
8 We have chosen the phrase ‘Pentecostal epistemology’ in order to convey our belief
that there is an approach to knowledge that is consistent with Pentecostal faith, experi-
ence, and practice. What follows is an attempt to describe such an approach. It is not our
intention to imply that Pentecostal experience gives rise to a special form of knowledge
unavailable outside of the baptism in the Holy Spirit. As the text reveals, our true concern
is for a biblical epistemology, an approach to knowing God that is consistent with the
character of his personal self-disclosure as offered in Scripture.
9 J.P. Lewis, ‘‫’ידﬠ‬, in R.L. Harris (ed.), Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament (Chi-
cago: Moody Press, 1980), I, pp. 366–68. It is not our intention to imply the existence of a
static definition for the term yada. As with all literature, precise meaning is determined
by context. James Barr has highlighted the diverse meanings of yada in the Old Testament.
See his Comparative Philology and the Text of the Old Testament (Oxford: Clarendon Press,
1968), pp. 19–23. However, the evidence is overwhelming that the Hebrews operated out
of an epistemology which emphasized encounter and response.
action which corresponds to the relationship apprehended . . .10 Thomas

Groome has concluded that yada is knowing ‘more by the heart than by
the mind, knowing that arises not by standing back from in order to look
at, but by active and intentional engagement in lived experience’.11 It is
significant that yada was used as an euphemism for lovemaking and that
the past participle of yada was used for a good friend or confidant.
This dynamic, experiential, relational knowledge stands in stark con-
trast to the Greek approach to knowledge characteristic of the word
ginoskein (γινώσκειν), which involved a standing back from something
in order objectively to ‘know it’. In comparing ginoskein to yada, Rudolf
Bultmann states, ‘the OT usage is much broader than the Greek, and the
element of objective verification is less prominent than that of detecting
or feeling or learning by experience’.12
With this understanding, if a person knew God, he or she was encoun-
tered by one who lived in the midst of history and who initiated a covenant
relationship which called for a response of the total person. Knowledge of
God, therefore, was not measured by the information one possessed but
by how one was living in response to God. A person was ignorant or a
fool not because of the lack of awareness of facts about God but rather
because of a failure to do the will of God.13 Ignorance, then, implies guilt
as Bultmann explains:
Thus knowledge has an element of acknowledgement. But it also has an
element of emotion, or better, of movement of will, so that ignorance
means guilt as well as error . . . To know Him or His name is to confess or to
acknowledge Him, to give Him honor and to obey His will.14
10 A. Piper, ‘Knowledge’, IDB, III, pp. 42–48.

11 T. Groome, Christian Religious Education (New York: Harper & Row, 1981), p. 141.
12 R. Bultmann, ‘γινώσκω’, TDNT, I, pp. 689–719.
13 G.J. Botterweck, ‘‫’ידﬠ‬, TDOT, V, pp. 448–81.
14 Bultmann, ‘γινώσκω’, p. 698. In his treatment of Old Testament theology from a
canonical context, Brevard Childs also reached similar conclusions concerning knowledge
of God in the Old Testament.
To know God is to know his will. In the Old Testament to know God is not a mysti-
cal experience or merely an inter-personal relationship. Nor is it a feeling of spiritu-
ality. Rather, the knowledge of God is defined throughout as obedience to his will
which has a content . . . Knowledge of his person and will are identical. and both are
grounded in his self-revelation. To lack knowledge of God is described as disobeying
his will and therefore evokes his anger (Old Testament Theology in Canonical Context
[Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985], p. 51).
The New Testament, while employing Greek terms, continues the Hebraic
understanding of ‘to know’.15 Knowing the Lord is still viewed as the result
of encountering God in a manner that results in submission to his will
but with the focus being on knowing God through Jesus Christ. To know
God requires obedient and grateful acknowledgment of the deeds and
commandments of Jesus. Therefore, ‘Christian knowledge is not a fixed
possession but develops in the life of the Christian as lasting obedience
and reflection’.16
John’s first epistle provides a rich illustration of the epistemological
grounding of the New Testament. He seems intentionally to play against
the Greek understanding of knowledge and attacks its implications for the
Christian life, that is, that it is possible to know Jesus without conforming
to him. For John, knowledge of God is grounded in a loving relationship
(1 Jn 4.3, 16, 20), and this knowledge is manifest through obedience to the
known will of God (2.3–5; 5.1–5). God is known through his entering into
human history as flesh, and knowledge of him is inseparable from the
manifestation of his lordship over life (5.6–12). Thus we know that we
know him if we obey his commands (2.3).
The Paraclete: A Means of Knowing
If the first Johannine epistle describes the nature of knowing God through
Christ Jesus, the Paraclete sayings in the Gospel of John describe the means
of attaining that knowledge. There are five sayings (14.16–17, 25–26; 15.26–
27; 16.7–11, 12–15), each of which could be isolated as literary units but
could also fit within the larger text of the ‘Final Discourse’ of Jesus to form
a homogeneous and coherent unit. Raymond Brown has demonstrated
that Jesus and the Paraclete represent a tandem relationship of two sal-
vific figures in the pattern of Moses and Joshua, and Elijah and Elisha.17
The Paraclete was understood to be a ‘second Jesus’ through whom Jesus
was to be experienced. Eskil Franck has further demonstrated that the
primary character of these sayings was didactic rather than forensic as
is often assumed.18 The Johannine portrait of Jesus as rabbi or teacher is
15 Piper, ‘Knowledge’, p. 44.

16 Bultmann, ‘γινώσκω’, p. 707.
17 R.E. Brown, ‘The Paraclete in the Fourth Gospel’, NTS 13 (1967), pp. 120–24.
18 E. Franck, Revelation Taught: The Paraclete in the Gospel of John (Lund: Gleerup,
1985), pp. 13–68.
thus extended to the Paraclete so that Jesus offered to the disciples what
might be called a pneumatic epistemology. He and the Father would be
known through the teaching activity of the Spirit.
Three pneumatic epistemological themes, relevant to this present study,
emerge from the Final Discourse.19 First, the Spirit would teach by bring-
ing experiential knowledge of God. Jesus taught that to know him was to
know the Father (Jn 14.7) and that when the Paraclete came the disciples
would know that Christ is in the Father, they are in Christ, and Christ is
in them (14.20). Thus, the indwelling of the Paraclete would actualize the
indwelling of the Father and Son and fulfill the prayer of Christ for the
unity of the disciples and their unity with the Godhead (17.21). The role of
the Spirit would be to cause believers to know the Lord God in the sense
of knowing by intimate encounter.
Secondly, the central focus of the didactic function of the Paraclete was
that the Spirit would communicate the words of Jesus. In the second Para-
clete saying (14.25–26) Jesus asserted that the Paraclete would teach the
disciples all things and remind them of everything he had said. These
teaching and reminding activities of the Spirit would center around the
historic words of Jesus. The task of the Spirit would be to bring the full-
ness of those teachings to the consciousness of the disciples. This would
be a representation of his words in a living manner so that his commands
would be freshly and appropriately applied to the experiences of the
disciples.20
According to the final Paraclete saying (16.12–15) the Spirit would speak
after Christ his ongoing message to the disciples. The content of the ongo-
ing message would certainly be consonant with the historic life and teach-
ings of Christ but would not be limited to them. The Spirit would bring
new information, information the disciples would need to continue to
exist in the sphere of all truth. This teaching activity would center on the
glorification of Christ by communicating, or literally ‘making known’, that
which is ‘of Christ’, that which belongs to Christ and the Father.
The thrust of both passages was to assure the disciples of the continua-
tion of the teaching ministry of Jesus in spite of his physical removal from
them. The words of Christ were of utmost importance and the Paraclete
19 For a more thorough treatment of the teaching ministry of the Holy Spirit see
J.D. Johns, ‘The Pedagogy of the Holy Spirit according to the Early Christian Tradition’
(EdD dissertation, The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, Louisville, Kentucky, 1987),
now available on www.amazon.com.
20 Brown, ‘Paraclete’, p. 129.
as a personal presence would assure proper reception of and response to

them; both to the glory of Christ. But the true significance of the words
was that they were of Jesus and of the Father.
Thirdly, the Spirit would serve as an internal impetus for the standards of
relational life in Christ. In the discourses, the teachings of Jesus were refined
into the central command to love one another (13.34; 15.9, 10, 12, 17). Love
was the essential characteristic of a disciple and the motivational force
behind obedience to Jesus (14.15, 21, 23; 15.13). Love as expressed in obedi-
ence was to be the disciples’ means of communion with the Father (14.21,
23; 16.27). Even the relationship of Jesus and the Father was described in
terms of love (14.31; 15.10). Further, the witness of the disciples before the
world was dependent upon their love for each other (13.35; 14.31). In as
much as these functions (i.e. obedience to Jesus, communion with the
Father and bearing witness) were attributed to the Paraclete, it follows
that the Spirit would serve to actualize within the disciples this new stan-
dard of living.21 Thus the Spirit brought communion with God and the
corresponding knowledge of God was linked to knowledge of and loving
relationship with the members of the new covenant.
The Covenant Community: Context for Knowing
The covenant community forms the context for encounter with God
and the context for interpretation of the resulting transformation. The
covenant which God offers to people is a covenant to be the people of God.
He dwells in the midst of his people so that the church, being grounded in
covenant relations, operates within an epistemology not of detachment
and manipulation (which is a result of operating only with facts and prin-
ciples) but rather of participation and accountability.22 The community of
the Spirit gives a corporate history to the knowing of God, and it judges
and is judged by individual experiences. There is therefore the avoidance
21 Likewise, the Spirit may be linked to the fulfillment of the teachings of Jesus con-
cerning joy (15.11; 16.20–22) and peace (14.27; 16.33). These were gifts from Jesus through
his words (15.11; 16.33) and presence (16.22, 33) and hence, it may be deduced, would be
received through the Spirit.
22 For an insightful treatment of a relational epistemology, see P. Palmer, To Know as
We Are Known: A Spirituality of Education (New York: Harper & Row, 1983). Palmer calls
for a departure from the ‘information transmission’ model to one that is grounded in an
epistemology that honors the personalness of the knowing process. In such a context edu-
cation becomes spiritual formation in which there is community and obedience to the
truth.
of privatized subjectivism on the one hand and totalitarian objectivism

on the other.
Bible study in this context is an avenue of communion with God and
with others. It is not to be merely an exercise of individual interpretation
in which the private self reigns. In the community of the Spirit there is no
room for private knowledge as expressed in the slogan ‘one truth for you,
another for me, and never mind the difference’. Neither is there room for
‘objectivist tyranny’ in which concern for the Truth gives rise to the slogan
‘there is one truth for me, the same for you, and I mind very much the
difference’.
Knowledge, therefore, in the community of the Spirit is both a desire to
know and to be known. As we are known by that which we desire to know
we advance to the very heart of truth. This type of knowledge is fright-
ening. Like the Israelites at Sinai, we are inclined to shrink from being
known and exposed for who we are in light of who God is. However, the
Holy Spirit offers to us a personal but corporate hope of transformation
and relationship with the one who knows us and yet loves us, so that we
can offer to others a relationship that both knows and loves.
Role of Scripture
Having discussed the nature, means, and context for knowing God, there
remains the question of the place of Scripture in the process. Pentecostals
are ‘people of the Book’. Their allegiance to the Bible as the word of God
and therefore the authority for Christian living is unwavering. Like Evan-
gelicals they proclaim with Donald Bloesch that their
supreme authority is the Word of God revealed and embodied in Jesus
Christ and attested and recorded in sacred Scripture. This Word is not sim-
ply a past event but a living reality that meets us as we encounter Scripture
and the kerygmatic proclamation of the Church. It cannot be reduced to
words, but it is communicated primarily through words.23
However, for many Evangelicals and Pentecostals, encounter with God
has a tendency to be climaxed at some faith experience so that subse-
quent use of the Bible takes on a utilitarian goal of building an objective
support system for that experience. This relegation of experience to the
23 D.O. Bloesch, Essentials of Evangelical Theology (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1979),
p. 239.
past enables them easily to dichotomize Bible study into aims of know-
ing (intellectually), aims of feeling (emotional), and aims of doing (voli-
tional). While many scholars have attempted to balance these goals, a
common result is to place emphasis on one above the others.24 For some
the Bible becomes primarily an answer book for the curious questions
of life, a source of intellectual stability in a world often void of meaning.
For others, there has been a tendency to spiritualize the Bible as a means
of communion with God, that is, a feeling. In that atmosphere it is pos-
sible to downplay the objective aspect of the word of God, taking away its
historical dimension and replacing it with mystical individualism.25 For
others the Bible is reduced to serving as a motivational textbook on Chris-
tian lifestyle. It is either a rulebook or a course on principles for Christian
living rather than the authentic word of God that gives rise to continued
transformation. Each of these approaches fails to appreciate the essential
nature of Scripture as eternal word of God.
The model offered here takes seriously the notion that Scripture is
the word of God, not word about God nor even word from God (if ‘from’
implies distance from God). God is always present in his word. The Spirit
who breathed upon the prophets to speak forth the word continues to
abide with the word. Inscripturated word is ‘out of ’ God only in the sense
that it proceeds from God but never in the sense that it can be cut off
from God. The word is always holy unto the Lord. Yet in it God is reach-
ing out to touch the profane. In Scripture God offers himself to humanity,
inviting creation to know the creator. It expresses his nature and will in
the ‘language’ of humanity. Therefore, Scripture is an objective, concep-
tual fountain out of which knowledge of God flows. It is the standard by
which experience is to be interpreted and judged. But the study of Scrip-
ture must always be approached as sacred encounter with God.
24 The best example of trying to balance the approach is no doubt F.B. Edge’s Teaching
for Results (Nashville: Broadman Press, 1956). This work has remained in print for over
35 years.
25 John Wesley seemed to have achieved a balance between the subjective-objective
nature of biblical interpretation. For Wesley, ‘Scripture can only be understood through
the same Spirit whereby it was given’ (see his suggestions for Bible study in the ‘Preface’
to Explanatory Notes upon the Old Testament [1765], I, p. viii). Wesley gave admonition to
‘Read the Scripture, with the single purpose of knowing the whole will of God, and with a
fixed determination to do that will’. There must be prompt and total obedience to the light
of Scripture. Early Methodism proceeded upon this conviction. The bands and societies
therefore were places where believers were closely examined as to how they were measur-
ing up to the light of God’s word.
Summation
In summary, both the OT and the NT make it clear that in order to know
God one has to be related to God in such a manner as to live in response
to his known will. One does not move, however, from theory (ideas, facts
about God which have been derived from an objectification of material
relating to God) to practice (decision to follow God’s commands). This
approach employs a Greek epistemology rather than a biblical one and
negates the covenantal grounding of our knowledge which encompasses
the total person. One therefore learns about God by encountering God
and responding appropriately out of that encounter. The Holy Spirit is the
presence of God, the means of encounter. The church as community of
the Spirit forms the context of the encounter. The Scriptures are objective,
conceptual, personal word of God and as such govern the processes by
which he is known. Utilizing Johannine imagery, one is instructed by the
Spirit in all things, and this instruction comes via divine-human encoun-
ter as defined and facilitated by the Scriptures. Furthermore, this instruc-
tion takes place within the context of covenant relationships governed
by love.26
A Dialogue with Praxis

Praxis has come to be a common epistemological term in the field of
Christian education, especially among those who are within the tradi-
tion of liberation theology.27 Basically, the term means ‘reflection-action’
and expresses a linking of knowing and doing. Current usage represents
a move from the traditional theory-to-practice paradigm. A praxis episte-
mology shares many characteristics with the process of knowing inherent
in the meaning of yada, yet it fails to capture some of the vital dimensions
26 James Loder speaks of knowledge which is convictional, meaning that one is

transformed in the knowing event. This transformation occurs when ‘the Holy Spirit trans-
forms all transformations of the human spirit’. See The Transforming Moment (New York:
Harper & Row, 1981), p. 92. For Loder such a knowing event follows a fourfold pattern
involving conflict, scanning, release, and mundane ecstasy and verification. Christ is the
one who initiates, mediates, and concludes the process. Convictional knowing experiences
are regulatory of both the self and the world and call forth further transformation. These
experiences are integrated into our personal histories and become interpretive keys for
any future knowing.
27 Representatives of a praxis approach to Christian education would be Thomas
Groome, who has already been cited, and also Daniel Schipani, the author of Religious Edu-
cation Encounters Liberation Theology (Birmingham, AL: Religious Education Press, 1988).
found in the biblical pattern. We will attempt a dialogue between praxis

and yada, lifting up areas of commonality and areas of divergence. Finally,
we will discuss how insights from praxis as a way of knowing can be inte-
grated into a Pentecostal approach to Bible study.
Historical Overview of the Term
In order for one to understand praxis there must first be a conscious move
away from dichotomizing theory and practice, and toward seeing them as
twin moments of the same activity that are united dialectically. Instead
of theory leading to practice, theory becomes, or is seen in, the reflective
moment in praxis. Theory arises from praxis to yield further praxis.
Aristotle saw praxis as a way of knowing which was basically related
to one’s reflective engagement in a social situation.28 It was one of three
ways of knowing, the other two being theoria (θεωρία) and poesis (ποίησις).
Theoria was the highest form of knowledge which utilized only the intel-
lect. Praxis merged thought with doing in the sense of interaction with
society. Poesis merged thought with making, for example, the artisan’s
shaping of material objects. While praxis was beneficial and useful for
moral training, it failed to allow one to attain the highest form of wisdom,
sophia (σοφία). Only theoria could do this. Therefore, Aristotle retained
the essence of the Platonic system which elevated pure reason above the
material realm.
G.W.F. Hegel re-introduced the term praxis in modern times. Hegel
took the term and adapted it to the Enlightenment’s emphasis on critical
reason. He placed theory and practice together in a manner even more
dialectical than Aristotle. Hegel saw praxis in relation to Geist, the all-
powerful and encompassing Spirit which guided the universe toward the
actualization of itself. Praxis, according to Hegel, became the praxis of
Geist. Human knowing was not realized by speculative theorizing apart
from the world but rather was attained through reflection on and partici-
pation in the praxis of Geist within history.
Groome points out that Hegel’s understanding of praxis left little room
for self-initiated active/reflective engagement in the world. Knowledge
comes instead by phenomenological observation of Geist’s activity in
28 The following brief historical overview of praxis is a condensed version of a more

detailed account given by Groome. See Religious Education, in particular ch. 7, ‘In Search
of a Way of Knowing’.
the world. Thus, Hegel remained functionally caught in a Greek theory-

centered manner of knowing.29
Karl Marx was influenced by Hegel’s concept of praxis. He, however,
put humankind in the place of Geist, calling for humans to influence and
shape their own history. Thus, praxis became totally an endeavor within
nature, devoid of any transcendent authority. Human critical reflection
and action would be sufficient for the ongoing revolution of social reality.
Paulo Freire is a Catholic humanist who has most recently popular-
ized praxis as an educational term. He has worked extensively in Latin
America and around the world developing a praxis approach to educa-
tion, both secular and religious. For Freire, praxis is necessary for a person
to be fully human.
Freire bases a great deal of his understanding of praxis upon Marx. He
divides the world into economic categories and calls for human activity in
transforming these structures. People are to be active subjects in the his-
torical process, not passive objects caught in a world in which they have
no control.30 While Freire considers himself a Christian, he leaves most of
the responsibility for praxis up to humanity. At best God is a subjective
presence in the historical process.31
The Limitations and Problems of Praxis
There are problems and limitations with a praxis epistemology, especially

when compared to a biblical understanding of knowledge. In general these
are grounded in its origin in Hellenistic thought. In spite of all efforts to
join theory and practice into a singular moment, there remains in praxis
a fundamental dualism between matter and reason. Because of this dual-
ism, praxis assumes an unbridgeable distance between the knower and
the known. The entire system elevates theory (in the form of reasoning
29 Groome, Religious Education, p. 166.

30 Freire is critical of Pentecostalism. He sees it as a religion which is ahistorical and
passive, fostering cultures of silence and dependency. For Freire the process of conscien-
tization would move one beyond Pentecostalism toward a less ‘opiate religion’. See his
‘Education, Liberation and the Church’, Religious Education 79.4 (1984), pp. 524–36. See
also C.B. Johns, Pentecostal Formation: A Pedagogy among the Oppressed (JPTS, 2; Shef-
field: JSOT Press, 1993). This monograph brings into dialogue the ideas of Freire and the
Pentecostal faith.
31 P. Freire, ‘Letter to a Theology Student’, Catholic Mind 70.7 (Sept. 1972), pp. 6–8.
skills) above all other forms of knowledge.32 This objectification of others

is an unavoidable aspect of this knowledge and the power of transforma-
tion is of necessity grounded in the ‘spirit’ of the individual.
Praxis is therefore an insufficient means of knowing God and achieving
human transformation. Human reflection-action, while important, is dis-
torted and may become self-serving, and thereby hinder true knowledge
of God. Without an authority beyond the self that transcends and even
negates reflection-action, we are left, in spite of our worthy intentions
for the transformation of society, with sinful praxis. In contrast, there is
within the meaning of yada a basis for the grounding of the self in a per-
sonal God who defines the nature and outcome of the knowing event.
This grounding does not relegate human knowing to the passive posture
found in Hegel’s paradigm. Neither does it limit God to the role of a sub-
jective partner in human historical processes.
Another problem with praxis springs from our inability, also due to sin,
truly to know ourselves as subjects in the world in which we live. Trans-
formation of the knower has to occur before that person can contribute
to the righteous transformation of the world. This transformation requires
the knowing person to be known and exposed and changed, thereby
becoming an object as well as an active subject in the historical process.
There is no room for passiveness or resistance toward critical reflection
upon the world. If the basic nature of persons remains unchanged and
human praxis remains separated from responsiveness to revelation, a self-
serving, sinful praxis will emerge. This seems to be the case in histories
of revolutions which began with transforming praxis but soon became
hardened by dogmatic ideology which prevented further praxis.
While Pentecostals have historically emphasized that we are the objects
of God’s transforming grace, we have often neglected to acknowledge that
via transformation we become partners with God in the redemptive pro-
cess. We have failed to respond appropriately in obedience as historical
subjects.33 The solution may well rest in the integration of praxis meth-
odology into the epistemology of yada.
32 C.B. Johns, ‘Affective Conscientization: A Pentecostal Response to Paulo Freire’

(paper presented to the 21st Annual Meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Studies, 1991).
33 Theodore Runyon and others have pointed out that John Wesley’s concept of sancti-
fication included an anthropology which saw humans as active agents in life and as part-
ners with God in the redemptive process. For Wesley, Christianity was a social religion
set in a world that was to be critically analyzed and acted upon. He strongly criticized
the mystics for their advice to cease outward action and to withdraw from the world. See
The Integration of Praxis with Yada
Realization of the inherent limitations of praxis has caused some libera-

tion theologians to speak of an ‘epistemological break’ which ‘consists
in the existential and historical following that yields a praxis knowing
which is distinct from “natural understanding” as well as contrary to it’.34
Daniel Schipani has reformulated liberationist praxis into an ‘epistemology
of obedience’, which is characterized by discipleship as ‘the dynamic, dia-
logical, and discerning following of Jesus’.35 He asserts that the liberation-
ist’s view of praxis must be evaluated in light of the criteria derived from
revelation, and from biblical revelation especially, ‘lest doing the truth
becomes equivalent to making the truth through historical praxis, rather
than practicing the truth which is ultimately being revealed to us’.36
It is evident that a praxis epistemology must be modified in order to
be incorporated into the Pentecostal faith tradition. Schipani’s revision
would come close to capturing the necessary dynamics. God must be
understood to be the ultimate source and judge of all truth. Knowledge of
God involves encounter with and participation in the divine nature which
results in the transformation of the knower. The praxis that would flow
out of such encounter would generate a fresh vision of the kingdom of
God, a vision that incorporates an ethic that is consistent with an episte-
mology which joins knowing and loving.
Since a Pentecostal epistemology understands the knowledge of God
to be experiential and relational, and it facilitates loving obedience to the
known will of God, it should be seen as compatible with human praxis
that is judged and transformed by the word of God. Still the nature and
goals of biblical knowledge are best seen in the Hebrew word yada; to
know is to encounter. Yada stresses the interrelatedness of the knower
and the known. Praxis, on the other hand, offers the modern, Western
mind a practical approach to the encounter. The best solution seems to be
the integration of a praxis methodology into the broader epistemological
grounding of yada.
T. Runyon (ed.), Sanctification and Liberation (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1981). A Wesleyan-
Pentecostal faith should take seriously this social dimension of redemption.
34 J. Sobrino, The True Church and the Poor (trans. M.J. O’Connell; Maryknoll, NY: Orbis,
1984), p. 25. See also his Jesus in Latin America (trans. R.R. Barr; Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1987),
esp. ch. 5, ‘Following Jesus as Discernment’. For the most comprehensive treatment to date
on the epistemological grounding of liberation theology, see C. Boff, Theology and Praxis:
Epistemological Foundations (trans. R.R. Barr; Maryknoll, NY: Orbis, 1987).
35 Schipani, Religious Education, p. 125.
36 Schipani, Religious Education, p. 136.
An Approach to Bible Study

Drawing upon the above consideration of a Pentecostal epistemology and
the dialogue with praxis and using the historic language of Pentecostal-
ism, we have proposed an approach to Bible study which includes four
interactive movements: Sharing Our Testimony, Searching the Scriptures,
Yielding to the Spirit, and Responding to the Call.37 The four movements
are structured around the functions of the Paraclete as set forth in John’s
Gospel and should be viewed as interactive moments. While each move-
ment logically leads into the next in the order given, all four must be held
in dialectic tension as the entire learning experience is surrendered to the
Spirit. Thus, the four movements are best understood as interdependent
organic functions of a dynamic system.
37 This approach is primarily the result of interaction with evangelical Christian educa-
tion theorists. Perhaps the greatest influence upon our thought was our time spent with
Lois LeBar while working on our Master of Arts degrees at the Wheaton Graduate School
of Christian Ministries. LeBar proposed a three-movement approach to Christian teaching.
Stated in two different forms (Way-Truth-Life, Boy-Book-Boy), her process stressed begin-
ning where the learners are by addressing ‘felt needs’ as a means of surfacing ‘real needs’.
The teacher is then to lead the learners into the truth of God’s written word where they
will discover the living word, Christ Jesus, who is the answer to all human needs. In the
third step the learners are led into changes of their lives appropriate to the truth they have
just discovered. See L.E. LeBar, Education that is Christian (Old Tappan, NJ: Fleming H.
Revell, 1958). LeBar’s appeal to us was no doubt influenced by her personal charisma and
skills as a teacher, but her ideas were especially cogent for us as Pentecostals. She believed
in a resurrected Lord who could be known intimately and who would give direction to
those who seek for it from him. She understood Bible study to be a means of personal
encounter with God.
Other Evangelicals have suggested four-movement approaches to Bible study. Donald
Joy addressed the need for Meaningful Learning in the Church (Winona Lake, IN: Light
and Life Press, 1969), by suggesting the teacher move from Intersection to Investigation
to Inference to Implementation. Larry Richards insisted that the need was for Creative
Bible Teaching (Chicago: Moody Press, 1970), and titled his movements ‘Hook, Book, Look,
Took’. The major publishers of evangelical Sunday school curricula have adopted simi-
lar models. However, in our opinion these approaches have all moved to varying degrees
away from LeBar’s commitment to the living, personal presence of Christ.
Another significant influence upon our thought was Thomas Groome’s Christian Reli-
gious Education. Cheryl had the privilege of studying with Groome and Paulo Friere during
an intensive Summer term at Boston College. We found in Groome’s application of Friere’s
thought on shared praxis a system complementary to LeBar and in harmony with our Pen-
tecostal faith. Many of the ideas expressed in this article were first expressed in a paper we
jointly submitted to F.B. Edge during our doctoral studies at The Southern Baptist Theo-
logical Seminary in Louisville, Kentucky. We are grateful for his ongoing encouragement in
this quest. Titles for the four movements were the result of a group project with colleagues
from the Pentecostal Theological Seminary. Members of the group included Steve Land,
Chris Thomas, Rick Moore, and ourselves. The atmosphere and relationships of the Semi-
nary have been especially helpful for the refinement of this ongoing undertaking.
Sharing our Testimony—Yada of Life in the Community
The first movement calls for the participants to share of themselves through
the giving of personal testimony. In this movement the individual and the
group are challenged to know themselves individually and corporately as
subjects of history. Each participant brings to the study a personal knowl-
edge of what it means to be human in a fallen, sinful world. Each brings
expectations of what life could be like. Each is caught in a struggle for full
humanity. Yet there is a commonness to everyone’s knowledge, struggles
and expectations, a shared sense of incompleteness in time.
The Paraclete sayings were given against the backdrop of the disciples’
pending aloneness in the world; Jesus was going to leave them (13.31–14.4).
Before his departure he raised critical issues concerning their relationships
with himself and the Father, their relationships with one another, and
their relationships with the world. It is significant that Jesus, the first Para-
clete, defined the issues facing the disciples as products of the limitations
of time and presence; he could not teach them the things he wanted them
to know because he had to go away. Their relationship was incomplete.
The disciples were caught in a maze of dialectic tensions: they knew (14.4)
but did not know (14.5), they were in the world but were not of the world
(17.6–18), they will be hated (15.18–25) but must themselves love (15.12, 17),
they will be troubled but they will have the peace of Christ (14.27), etc.
The second Paraclete will guide them through these tensions but will not
remove the tensions. On the contrary, he will intensify the believers’ con-
flicts with the world (15.18–27; 16.7–11). Indeed, the entire set of discourses
(chs. 13–17) may be viewed as a call to confront the uncertainties of fol-
lowing Jesus and a promise of divine assistance in that endeavor.
What we mean by the sharing of our testimony is the giving of a per-
sonal account of the ongoing confrontation of the uncertainties of life in
Christ. This is far more than the telling of a story or the recounting of
disengaged facts. It is for us an act of interpersonal engagement in which
individuals offer themselves with their limited knowledge of God and life
to the group for shared critical reflection in a process that confronts the
common tensions of following Christ and thereby contributes to the cor-
porate testimony.
The sharing of testimony is a present action involving memory, reflec-
tion and interpretation. Memory is the pulling of the past into the present.
The events being remembered may be temporally distant or near. They
may even involve the immediate situation or the ideological constructs of
the individual’s belief system. The details may be distorted or accurate. In
any case, memory is a present reality and is therefore an expression of the

present self with its feelings, values and understandings.
Testimony also involves reflection and interpretation. Remembering is
by its very nature a process of reflection. Associations with other events
and relationships are unavoidable. Testimony is a selective act in which
specific events of the past are brought to bear on specific aspects of the
present in an effort to give meaning to the present. It thus involves an
interpretation of the present through a reinterpretation of the past. It is
a confrontation of the present with the past and thereby a confrontation
of the past with the present. Thus the sharing of testimony is an act of
engagement with one’s own past and present.
Furthermore, the sharing of testimony is the offering of the self for the
purpose of ministering to the body of Christ and giving glory to God. It
is a confessional movement of self-denial in which the members of the
group acknowledge (implicitly or explicitly) the incompleteness of their
existence and therefore their need for ongoing transformation. The indi-
vidual offers the self for interpretation by others and God. In the reception
of a testimony the group members enter into critical reflection upon and
interpretation of what they have heard. Members thereby interpret their
own memories and situations. As they confess their existence as finite,
historical beings in need of transformation they create a corporate con-
sciousness with a shared memory and testimony.
Testimony also carries a sense of participation in the future. Past and
present are confronted in an effort to appropriate coming realities. The
dissonance of living in the kingdom of God while waiting on the full reign
of God is thereby addressed. Experiences, feelings, values, understandings
and expectations, etc., are shared in anticipation of God’s response which
will be discovered in his word. Thus testimony is given in expectation of
dialogue with the Scriptures.
The role of the teacher is that of a guide, one who leads people toward
the life-changing power of the word of God. The human teacher is a part-
ner with the Paraclete-teacher who is leading the followers of Christ into
the realm of all truth. But human teachers remain incomplete in their
own existence. They are ‘first among learners’, and not depositors of truth.
In preparation for this first movement the teacher must complete a thor-
ough study of the passage to be considered and must reflect upon the life
issues of the group members. By reflecting on the manner in which the
passage and the needs of the people interact, the teacher is able to select
an appropriate focus for the testimonies to be given.
In calling forth testimonies the teacher may pose a question, raise an

issue, or open the discussion in any manner that invites the participants
to enter into shared reflection upon their own experiences. Methodologi-
cally, testimony requires personal expression which may be given through
a variety of media such as art, mime, role-play, monologue, dialogue, or
the simple telling of one’s story. Responses to these expressions should
surface similarities in life experiences and help to create critical aware-
ness of common issues facing the participants. These should be carefully
articulated. The central issue is that the members of the group have the
opportunity to reflect upon their present in light of their past and with
anticipation of their future.
Searching the Scriptures—Yada of the Word
The second movement involves the searching of the Scriptures under con-
sideration in an effort to know the word of God. It is here that the issues
of epistemology must be clearly brought into dialogue with the task of
hermeneutics. How is biblical interpretation to be done so as to facili-
tate a dynamic, relational, and obedient knowledge of God? The tradi-
tional hermeneutical approach leaves much to be desired inasmuch as it
assumes that one can objectively understand the text by utilizing certain
scientific tools. This approach ignores the subjective ‘pre-understanding’
that the interpreter brings to the text, and through its own subjective pre-
understanding (i.e. a false assumption of objectivity) discounts any reli-
ance upon the Holy Spirit as subjectivism.
The new hermeneutic as developed by Bultmann and others empha-
sizes the pre-understandings we bring to the text, but fails to honor the
objective nature as well as the unity of the text. Certainly our approach
acknowledges the presuppositions we bring to the text. The first movement,
‘Sharing our Testimony’, involves a confession of pre-understandings. How-
ever, we are committed to the objective authority of the text to judge all
of life, including these presuppositions. Our approach is to bring life to
the text so that the word of God might interpret us. The key element in
understanding the text is the power of the Holy Spirit to work in spite of
and even through our subjective nature.
Francis Martin has dealt with the issue of the role of the Holy Spirit in
biblical interpretation by calling for a ‘critical hermeneutics of the Spirit’.38
38 Martin, ‘Spirit and flesh’, p. 1.

Utilizing Paul Ricoeur’s categories of ‘explaining’ and ‘understanding’,

Martin has constructed guidelines for ‘exegesis according to the Spirit’,
which ‘presupposes that the reader is in living contact with the same reali-
ties about which the author in the Sacred Text is speaking’.39 The Scrip-
ture is to be understood, therefore, via the Holy Spirit who unveils the
mystery of God’s plan of salvation.
Martin’s work is consistent with the teaching functions of the Paraclete
as presented by John. The second Paraclete saying (14.25–27) addresses
the need of the disciples for a deepened knowledge of the teachings of
Christ. As in the first saying, the Paraclete is identified with the Spirit, and
the Spirit’s role in continuing the ministry of Jesus is reiterated. But here
the Paraclete will be sent in the name of Jesus and will teach ‘all things’
and ‘remind’ the disciples of everything Jesus has said. These two clauses
are parallel thoughts, that is, the reminding of everything Jesus has said
is synonymous with the teaching of all things.40 But the ‘all things’ which
the Spirit will teach (v. 26) also stand in contrast to ‘these things’ which
Jesus has already taught (v. 25), so that the role of the Spirit as teacher will
be to add to what Jesus has taught. Jesus as teacher in human flesh has
been limited to the time of his ‘abiding with’ the disciples but the Spirit
will not be limited.41
But what is the intended extent of ‘all things’ (v. 26)? What will the
Spirit add to what Jesus has taught? Will the Spirit teach quantitatively
more than Jesus, literally ‘all things’? Since the teaching of all things is
synonymous with the reminding of everything Jesus has said, the answer
is no. Rather, the function of the Spirit-teacher will be to interpret the
sayings of Christ so as to enable the disciples to see the full meaning of
Jesus’ words.42 His reminding will be a representing in a living manner;
the words of Jesus will, through the Spirit, be freshly applied to the lives
of the disciples.43 The Paraclete will bring the words of Jesus to bear in a
meaningful way on all the situations of life.
Rick Moore has offered exegetical grounding for a Pentecostal approach
to God’s word. His exegesis of Acts 15 (the Jerusalem Council) has yielded
the following aspects of the hermeneutical process involved in the passage:
39 Martin, ‘Spirit and flesh’, p. 1.

40 R.E. Brown, The Gospel according to John (xiii–xxi) (AB; Garden City, NY: Doubleday,
1970), pp. 650–51.
41 D. Moody, Spirit of the Living God: The Biblical Concepts Interpreted in Context (Phila-
delphia: Westminster Ptess, 1968), p. 166.
42 Brown, John, p. 650.
43 Brown, ‘Paraclete’, p. 129.
(1) comprehending God’s word entailed attending to the testimony of

God’s activity in human experience; (2) comprehending God’s word
entailed affirming the participation of each and every believer; (3) com-
prehending God’s word entailed a corporate process of discernment
which went beyond individual perception and human reason; (4) compre-
hending God’s word was bound to the eschatological mission of edifying
the church and extending the gospel. Moore further points out that the
new covenant’s emphasis on the outpouring of the Spirit on all flesh (Jer.
31.31–34) calls for everyone to receive the word (‫ )דבר‬of God and thereby
come to full knowledge (‫ )ידע‬of the covenant.44
We have concluded that searching the Scriptures in a group should bear
certain characteristics. It should be personal. Each person must engage
the text as one called to hear and receive the word of God. It should also
be corporate and interactive. Individual interpretations should be submit-
ted to the group for critical reflection in an attempt to achieve a con-
sensus of understanding. Also, the text must be approached in a manner
consistent with its nature as the word of God. It is an objective, historical
reality which cannot properly be understood outside of the bounds of rea-
son. Yet, it is a personal, subjective word that is carried along by the Holy
Spirit. Out of the text flows the infinite presence of God which addresses
the finite limitations of humanity. The Scriptures must be approached as
an avenue for personal and corporate engagement with God. The know-
ing of the word involves the engagement of the whole person. It is an act
of reason but is not limited to reason. Because of these considerations we
suggest that the study of Scripture be inductive in nature.
The inductive approach assumes that the interpreter has a spirit of
openness and is willing to do a thorough analysis of the text before draw-
ing general conclusions. This approach elicits a deep personal engage-
ment with the text in a manner that gives the text integrity by allowing it
to ‘speak for itself ’. The power of transformation is realized when Scrip-
ture is honored and allowed to address us. Francis Martin describes this
process as having a ‘liberating power’ because of the distance established
between ourselves and the text.45
The inductive process first overviews the text in order to gain an under-
standing of the larger picture (main divisions, major themes, historical
44 R. Moore, ‘Approaching God’s Word Biblically: A Pentecostal Perspective’ (paper

presented to the 19th Annual Meeting of the Society of Pentecostal Studies, Fresno, CA,
1989).
45 Martin, ‘Spirit and Flesh’, p. 33.
and literary context, and relation of the individual parts of the whole).
Observations are made on relationships between events, characters, ideas,
etc., and finally conclusions are derived based upon these observations.
The inductive process is based upon the assumption that the books of the
Bible contain good literary structure and that this structure reveals the
thought of the author. This process of interpretation when illumined by
the Holy Spirit puts us in touch with the source realities of the Scripture
so that we know ourselves to be addressed by the author himself. It is
critical that the students receive the text unto themselves and dialogue
with it.
Primarily the role of the teacher is to guide the participants in the
inductive process of interpretation and thereby invite and facilitate dis-
covery. In order to encourage engagement instead of detachment, lecture
is not to be the predominant mode of this movement. Of course, there
will be lectures given, especially when there are gaps in knowledge of
textual issues or when the participants’ exposure has been limited. But
the teacher must avoid any posture, method, or terminology that tends
to separate the learners from the text. Once the learners have become
skilled in the method, the teacher serves as a facilitator of dialogue, mak-
ing sure all points of view have been heard and the central issues have
been addressed.
As the group searches the Scripture they will be prompted to reflect on
their own life issues. Reflection should be ongoing throughout the four
movements of the Bible study. However, movement to life should not
keep the participants from thoroughly studying the text. The focus of this
movement should be to attend to the Scripture.
Yielding to the Spirit—Yada of the Spirit
Parker Palmer’s observation that ‘we may bring truth to light by finding it
and speaking its name, but truth also brings us to life by finding and nam-
ing us’46 aptly describes the dynamics of this third movement. Yielding to
the Spirit is that transforming encounter between the truth of Scripture
and the truth found in our own selves.
Typically, Bible study materials written from the objectivist theory-to-
practice stance take a deductionist tone of ‘now here is the truth, go and
46 Palmer, To Know, p. 60.

do likewise’. Such an approach is based on the Platonic assumption that if

one knows the truth (reflectively) one will do the truth. Theoria must first
be apprehended, for only then can it be actualized in the world.
These study materials tend to reduce the Holy Spirit to a prompter or
mild-mannered coach. He is often portrayed as a quiet voice that will
speak to the heart, urging one to live in the truth. The role of the teacher
is to give out the objective truth (the word of God) and the Holy Spirit
will take that word and make sure it does not return void. Unfortunately,
we often go out from Bible study without any real change having taken
place in our lives.
The Holy Spirit cannot be tamed and domesticated. In John’s descrip-
tion of the Paraclete, the Spirit is understood to be the living presence
of the sovereign God. The Spirit is an authoritative presence leading the
church in its confrontation with the world.47 Specifically, the Spirit bears
witness to Jesus (15.26–27). Eskil Franck has described this function as
revealing ‘an actual, living, and authoritative knowledge about Jesus,
which provokes response in people’.48 The Spirit also ‘convicts’ the world
of sin, righteousness and judgment (16.4–11). To convict means ‘to expose’49
with the sense of proving wrong.50 The Spirit makes clear the presence of
sin. In the final Paraclete saying (16.12–15) the Spirit is portrayed as guid-
ing the disciples into all truth by speaking what he receives from Christ
and the Father. The context suggests a meaning of guiding into and within
the whole sphere of truth.51 However, in this case the message of the Spirit
is extended beyond the confines of the words of the historical Jesus. He
will receive (lambanein) words directly from Jesus and deliver them to the
disciples.52 He will proclaim what is yet to come. Thus the Spirit will bring
the mission and being of the resurrected Christ into the present reality of
the church.
This epistemology demands that the church be responsive to God’s
critique of the individual and the church. The Holy Spirit is the agent of
encounter with the holy God which results in transformation. The Spirit is
not a domesticated cultivator of good works. As God’s word becomes known,
the individual and the group are known and named for who they are. They
47 Brown, John, p. 690.

48 Franck, Revelation Taught, p. 56.
49 C.K. Barrett, The Gospel according to St John: An Introduction with Commentary and
Notes on the Greek Text (London: SPCK, 1960), p. 405.
50 D.A. Carson, ‘The Function of the Paraclete in John 16.7–11’, JBL 98 (1979), pp. 549–51.
51 Barrett, St John, p. 408.
52 Barrett, St John, p. 407.
are exposed and have the choice of obedient response with its resulting
transformation or denial of the truth with its resulting degeneration.
But God is also critiquing the world. Yielding to the Spirit means
attending to the Spirit’s living presence in the world. The Spirit contextu-
alizes the Scriptures, working within the believer to interpret the world.
As God’s word becomes known, the world is also known and named for
what it is. To yield to the Spirit is to join oneself to the presence and mis-
sion of Christ in the world.
In this movement the task of the teacher is to assure that the group is
called into accountability for living in the light of God’s word.53 In essence
the objective is for the members of the group to renew their covenant
to live under the lordship of Christ by surrendering to the transforming
power of God’s Spirit. The basic method is to place the testimonies of
the group into dialogue with the discovered truth of the word. Critical
memory is to be surfaced and engaged with the fresh knowledge flowing
from the text. The core question of the movement is ‘What is the Spirit
saying to the church through this passage about our lives and the world
in which we live?’
Specific methods should recognize the need for individual and corpo-
rate response. Creative expression through the writing of prayers, songs,
poems, or letters is appropriate, as is the offering of other creative talents.
The key is that these expressions flow from the soul that is surrendered
to the Spirit. In that atmosphere the Spirit is free to engage the believers
as he chooses. As the group attends to the Spirit he may choose to make
himself known through the charismata or through a quiet voice from
within the individuals. But we must allow him to set the boundaries of
his activities. The task of the teacher is to yield to the Spirit so that the
group is invited to do the same.
Responding to the Call—Yada of the Father’s Glory
The ultimate objective of Bible study is to know God and live in his pres-
ence. Jesus understood the knowledge of God to be synonymous with
53 We are using the term ‘accountability’, in the sense of encouraging the individuals
and the group to take account of themselves as opposed to requiring that an account be
settled. In general this responsibility is observed by keeping prior knowledge of God fresh
in the memories of the group members.
eternal life (Jn 17.3). He also associated this life with the glory of God when
he added
I have brought you glory on earth by completing the work you gave me to
do. And now, Father, glorify me in your presence with the glory I had with
you before the world began (Jn 17.4–5 NIV).
It is the task of the Paraclete to bring glory to Christ. He will do this by
receiving that which belongs to Christ and proclaiming it to the disciples.
But that which he would receive of Christ was also of the Father (16.14–15).
The glory of the Father and Son is one glory just as they are one. Thus the
Holy Spirit causes believers to know the glory of God and to return that
glory unto him. Just as Jesus understood the process of giving glory to
flow out of the completion of the work of God, so we must give God glory
through submission to his will.54
As we yield to the word of the Spirit we are convicted and transformed
and thereby become a people of conviction, a people who have experi-
enced what Craig Dykstra terms ‘imaginal insight’.55 A new testimony
emerges, one in which we confess what we have seen and what we have
heard and what we are compelled to be and to do. If we truly want to
know God we must respond in loving obedience to the light he has shed
upon our paths. The question of this movement is ‘Lord, what would you
have us do in response to your word?’
The role of the teacher in this movement is to provide opportunity for
response and to lead the group in processing the personal and corporate
call of the Spirit. As in the other movements, this response is both indi-
vidual and corporate. By testifying to the conviction we have received, we
give to the community our experience for verification and interpretation.
In such a context the power of the word of God is both particular and
general. Through shared accountability a consensus of the Spirit arises
and with it a sense of corporate journey. No one should be left to ‘go it
alone’.
54 The theme of giving glory to God through works that grow out of grace is often
repeated in the New Testament. Consider especially Rom. 12.1–8; Eph. 4.1–16; Phil. 2.1–13;
1 Pet. 1–2.
55 Dykstra defines imaginal transformation as moral growth through those ‘events that
give our lives their particular shape and quality, and out of which our responses to life
often seem to flow’. In these experiences ‘the deepest patterns of the nature of reality and
existence, and of our relationship to them, are revealed, and our own essential convictions
are rooted in them’ (Vision and Character [New York: Paulist Press, 1981], pp. 87–88).
Chapter Five
When the Veil is Taken Away: The Impact of

Prophetic Experience on Biblical Interpretation*
John W. McKay**
It is now nineteen years since I was baptized in the Holy Spirit. For the
first nine of these I was still lecturing in biblical studies at Hull University
and so inevitably was much occupied with trying to fit my new-found
experience together with the sort of biblical and theological study we do
in our universities. It was no easy task.
I found the two uncomfortable companions, like neighbours who
acknowledge each other’s existence but prefer to live separate lives, not
interfering with one another, as it were on opposite sides of a garden wall.
It could not be so with me, for in my life critical theology and committed
prophetic/charismatic/Pentecostal experience had come together under
the same roof and the ensuing tensions proved impossible to live with.
The result was initially a lot of very deep rethinking and a total reassess-
ment of what we are doing in teaching the Bible to Spirit-filled believers.
The following discussion presents some of the conclusions.
My motivation is mainly to help students searching for a Pentecostal
approach to studying the Scriptures, because I am convinced that there is
an urgent need for a fresh approach to Bible teaching that will meet the
needs of the revival of faith that today is running worldwide, almost all of
it Pentecostal in origin and inspiration.
There are basically two ways of studying Scripture. One is objective and
analytical, interesting in itself, but imparting little or nothing of the life
of God to the student. The other, the way explored here, draws us to God
* This article is excerpted from a book with the same title, published by Kingdom
Faith Ministries. It omits the book’s chapters on shared experience of the life and ministry
of Jesus, of the Lordship of Jesus and of the Fatherhood of God. Other chapters have been
slightly abbreviated and only introductory and concluding paragraphs have been included
in the sections on the biblical books as prophetic/charismatic literature and on the Drama
of Salvation. Fuller treatment of individual books of the Bible can be found in McKay’s The
Way of the Spirit (available at http://www.thewayofthespirit.com).
** Before his death in 2001, John McKay (PhD, Cambridge University) was Director of
Studies at Roffey Place in Horsham, England.
58 john w. mckay
and gives life. When I discovered new life in Christ through the infilling
of his Spirit, I knew nothing else would ever satisfy.
I wrote the first draft of the book from which this article is taken about
eleven years ago. Its theological viewpoint has been well tested since then,
both in preaching and teaching, but in that time much has also changed.
Today there is far more dialogue between charismatics and biblical schol-
ars than there was in the 1970s. In some ways that is good, but in others
damaging, for compromise resulting from dialogue has so weakened the
charismatic movement that the term ‘charismatic’ now prompts corre-
spondingly weak notions about experience of the Holy Spirit. It is, how-
ever, hard to find a suitable alternative. ‘Pentecostal’ evokes thoughts of
denominational streams, ‘spiritual’ is not specific; enough, ‘revival’ fails to
highlight baptism in the Spirit and the spiritual gifts. I personally prefer
‘prophetic’, though to some that might imply limiting the Spirit’s activity
to one particular gift. In this discussion the terms ‘prophetic’, ‘charismatic’,
‘Pentecostal’, and ‘spiritual’ are for the most part used interchangeably,
except when the specific reference of each is necessitated by the context.
Removing the Veil
But whenever anyone turns to the Lord, the veil is taken away. Now the Lord
is the Spirit . . . (2 Cor. 3.16–17)1
About the time when renewed faith was leading me out of academic
theology to go and preach the gospel, the converse was happening with
another Anglican priest/academic who said he had lost his faith. He felt
it necessary to relinquish his holy orders, but did not feel any correspond-
ing necessity to cease teaching theology in university. That is quite simply
because academic theology can be taught and studied without faith. It is,
after all, a purely mental discipline, in theory at any rate.
The Conflict of Theology and Faith

In a university theology department students are taught to analyse the
text of Scripture as objectively and critically as possible. Efforts to stimu-
late faith are usually discouraged on the grounds that anyone, Christian,
Muslim, Buddhist, atheist, agnostic or whatever, should be as free to study
1 For convenience, biblical quotations are taken from the NIV, though I have occasion-
ally retranslated an odd word or phrase (all acknowledged in footnotes).
when the veil is taken away 59
theology as he or she is to study history or philosophy or any other degree

subject. In practice most students, though by no means all, do have some
kind of Christian faith, while the number of lecturers who would admit
to active Christian commitment is also not negligible. However, the quali-
fications required for studying theology are not belief or religious devo-
tion, but so many A-levels, as is only right and proper in an academic
institution. The debate as to whether this state of affairs is also right from
a Christian viewpoint is an old one and I do not wish to get involved in
it here. My concern is simply to discuss the problems it raises for Spirit-
filled Christians.
In contrast to my ex-priest colleague, I found it increasingly difficult
to be purely academic about my faith, because the Spirit was speaking to
me about loving, setting captives free, opening blind eyes, and glorifying
Jesus, which are hardly the sort of exercises one usually associates with
university departments. It is often said that charismatics are strong on
praise, but weak on theology. I would rather say that they are strong on
praise and strong on their own brand of theology, but unhappy about the
sort of dispassionate, uncommitted theology one frequently encounters
in an academic setting. In theory a Pentecostal theologian should have
no problem about teaching in a seminary, but in practice much of the
theology taught in ministerial training centres differs little in approach
from that found in universities. There is clearly a tension that needs to be
resolved. It is with such matters that I am here concerned.
Dialogue without Compromise—the Analogy of Drama

It seems to me that the two things, academic biblical study (whether
pursued by liberal or conservative scholars makes little difference) and
prophetic Christianity, operate at two very different levels. I see a kind of
analogy with the world of drama, the academic being in some ways like
the reviewer whose task is to analyse, criticize, and comment on the play,
the charismatic more like the producer or the performer on stage. One
individual may attempt to handle each of these functions separately at
different times, but he or she will have great difficulty in doing them both
together. Inevitably there must be a great deal of tension between the
two, though it is hoped that in the end they might function to each other’s
mutual benefit, even if at times criticism and hurt may be the more appar-
ent marks of their relationship.
Since my training is in biblical theology, I shall limit myself to this
area. Whether my views apply equally to wider areas of theological study,
I must leave others more competent than myself to judge.
60 john w. mckay
Now in this context of biblical theology I should be quite unhappy with

any theological position that is based on compromise or ideas about a
middle way. Indeed I should regard such a theology as being as worthless
as the opinion of a person mid-way between an actor and a drama-critic,
for he or she would be neither one nor the other and equally useless to
both. However, if compromise is unacceptable, there is the obvious dan-
ger that the academic’s arguments might so undermine the faith of the
charismatic that he or she would cease to function as one, or conversely
that the charismatic might so dogmatically oppose the academic’s opin-
ions that he or she would become unwilling even to countenance rational,
theological assessment. We see both tendencies operating from time to
time among theological students in particular, but also among Christians
in general. In the field of drama responses like these would either cause
the play’s performance to deteriorate from lack of attention to criticism,
or to collapse altogether through defection of the actors.
Charismatics and academic theologians must somehow learn to live
together, even if in a state of tension, like actors and their critics. That
may prove not too difficult so long as the academic and the charismatic
are two different people, but the problem takes on a totally different
appearance when they become one and the same person. That was my
own particular problem, but it is one that is becoming more widespread
as the influence of prophetic Christianity grows. So in a sense this is an
autobiographical essay, since it is written from personal experience as
well as from academic reflection. As such it should be of some value to
others who are either charismatics or academics, even if they are not both,
especially since they tend, increasingly in our time, to brush shoulders
with each other.
Biblical Scholarship and Revelation from the Spirit

In reading the views expressed in this discussion, it should be borne in
mind that they are not all based on the findings of academic scholarship.
Many of them are based on realizations that have resulted from my own
experience of the Holy Spirit. ‘Revelation’ is the only word I know that
adequately expresses their source, even if that may sound pretentious to
some people; but at the same time it would be quite untruthful for me
to deny a considerable amount of intellectual reflection as well. A much
better way of explaining what I mean is to use an expression of Paul’s, the
one that furnishes the title of this article, concerning the removal of a veil.
In 2 Cor. 3.14–18 he contrasts the understanding with which the Bible (the
Old Testament only in his day) is read before and after ‘anyone turns to
the Lord’. He says that beforehand it is read as it were with a veil over the
mind, but afterwards with the veil removed. He attributes the change to
the action of the Spirit, for, he says, ‘the Lord is the Spirit’, and he goes on
to speak about contemplating the Lord’s glory, presumably in the reading
of Scripture, since that is what the paragraph is all about.2 Then he reiter-
ates emphatically that this ‘comes from the Lord, who is the Spirit’. The
message seems clear enough: the Spirit enables us to read the Bible with
some new clarity that could not be possible without his aid.
Now charismatics commonly do speak of some disclosure experience
similar to Paul’s when they read the Bible after baptism in the Spirit. They
tell of passages illuminated in new ways, of texts that take on new mean-
ingfulness, of verses that burn themselves into the memory, of completely
new appreciations of whole books of the Bible, of a positive urge to read
page after page of the text, of exciting new discoveries about God’s self-
revelation in Scripture, and so forth. Charismatics who speak enthusiasti-
cally of their latest insights from reading Habakkuk or Jude will tell how
before baptism in the Spirit some months earlier they did not even know
these books existed, or certainly that they had no idea what was in them,
let alone that they held such spiritual treasures.
For my own part, I well recall, for example, having spent three years
as a PhD student mulling over Deuteronomy (among other things), and
then, on re-reading it some years later in the light of my experience of
the Holy Spirit, being surprised to discover the immense spiritual trea-
sures in it that I had simply failed to appreciate before. Indeed I can hon-
estly say that I came to understand more, not just about the content of
Deuteronomy, but about the content of almost every other book in the
Bible, and particularly in the New Testament, in the months following
my own experience of Pentecost, than I had in all my years of theological
study. There was certainly some kind of veil removed, for it was one of the
most exciting and memorable experiences of my life re-reading the Bible
from cover to cover, genealogies, statistics, priestly regulations and all,
and finding in it, chapter after chapter, treasures I never realized existed.
Furthermore, where before there had been only dim perception of the
Bible’s meaning as a whole, or no perception at all, now it all seemed to
make excellent sense.
2 NIV translates ‘reflect the Lord’s glory’. NIV footnote suggests ‘contemplate’, cf. RSV
‘beholding’.
62 john w. mckay
Biblical Literalism, Biblical Criticism and Biblical Experience of the

Prophetic Dimension
We have not received the spirit of the world but the Spirit who is from
God, that we may understand what God has freely given us. This is what we
speak, not in words taught by human wisdom but in words taught by the
Spirit, expressing spiritual truths to spiritual men (1 Cor. 2.12–13).3
It is often said that charismatics have no adequate doctrine of Scripture,
which is in some ways true, though perhaps it would be more accurate
to say that they have problems with all existing doctrines of Scripture.
That is not always because they consider them wrong, but rather because
they find them insufficient for explaining their own appreciation of God’s
word. Since charismatics are drawn from a wide variety of backgrounds,
some of them are fundamentalists, others are rationalists or liberals, and
others are of every shade of opinion in between. Most, however, would
express some frustration about the inadequacy of the traditional modes
of interpretation they have inherited for describing their own views. Now
this problem arises mainly because prophetic understanding operates on
a different plane from all others.
The Academic Approach

The fundamentalists maintain a doctrine of literal inspiration of Scripture
in all its detail, whether theological, historical, or scientific, and so, for
example, would argue that the world was created literally in six days, that
there actually was a first-created pair named Adam and Eve who origi-
nally lived in a garden called Eden which must at one time have been
geographically locatable, that people really did begin to speak different
languages when a tower project at Babel collapsed, and so forth. To the
fundamentalists the laws of Israel were dictated word for word by God
to Moses on Mount Sinai, and in a similar fashion the utterances of the
prophets are the very speeches of God himself. Thus every word of Scrip-
ture is cherished as an infallible word of God to be read, studied, learned
and obeyed, but not criticized or questioned.
By contrast the rationalists maintain that everything in the Bible should
be open to criticism. They hold that it contains the depositions of people
who were poets, philosophers, theologians, historians, and the like, and that
3 So NIV footnote, cf. RSV. NIV text reads ‘in spiritual words’.
their writings should be read and analysed in much the same way as those
of any other poets, philosophers, theologians, and historians. Thus the Bible
is seen as a record of the reflections of religious individuals about God,
rather than of the revelations of God himself to people, and it is sacred not
because it is God-given, but because it has become hallowed by centuries
of tradition and use. According to this view the laws of Israel were sim-
ply accumulated over the generations, but, because of the sanctity of the
memory of Moses, became attached to his name. Similarly, the utterances
of the prophets are the collected poems and sayings of literary persons,
well trained in the art of poetry, and to a lesser extent in prose-writing,
people who also had some shrewd insight into matters political and
theological. Thus, for example, Amos was probably no simple shepherd
receiving messages from heaven, but a man of some culture and learning,
perhaps a leisured sheep-farm owner, who had the time and freedom to
devote to theological speculation. His writings should therefore be read
with the same open critical eye with which one might read the works of
any modern-day Bonhoeffer or Barth.
Between these extremes of interpretation lies a whole array of interme-
diate opinions that tend to one side or the other. Views that lean towards
fundamentalism are usually called ‘conservative’, while the rationalist
tendency is known as ‘liberal’. The conservative tendency is sometimes
also referred to as ‘literalist’ and the liberal as ‘critical’, or even ‘radical’.
Conservative opinion tends to be strongest in the evangelical wing of
the churches, liberal in the non-evangelical. Set side by side these varied
views form a complete spectrum of biblical interpretation. It may there-
fore seem surprising that the charismatic, or indeed anyone else, should
find no place in its modulating shades of opinion where he or she feels
entirely happy and at home.
This spectrum is, however, a fairly modern one. While it is possible to
detect precursors to it in the writings of particular theologians through the
centuries, particularly since the Reformation, it is only one that has held
centre stage in the past 150 years. Liberal theology only began to become
influential in the second half of the last century and fundamentalism was
born as a reaction to it at the beginning of this century. In earlier times
the liberal-conservative debate would have attracted little attention.
There is an older form of interpretation, popular before the Reforma-
tion and still sometimes used today, that sits loose to such questions about
literal, historical value, neither affirming nor denying the Bible’s accuracy
at these levels. This kind of interpretation is almost entirely occupied with
tracing hidden, spiritual meanings in the text. For example, it would see
64 john w. mckay
the real value of the flood story not in the fact that it preserves a record
of something that happened long ago, but in the fact that it symbolizes
or foreshadows the saving work of the church. In this view the ark car-
rying Noah and his family through the flood-waters to safety becomes a
prototype of the church carrying Christians through the water of baptism
to salvation. In a similar way the restored Jerusalem of the Old Testa-
ment prophets’ visions becomes a portrayal of the heavenly Jerusalem of
Christian end-time hope. Among the more common terms used to denote
such spiritualizing interpretation are ‘typology’, ‘allegory’ and ‘anagogy’.
Limited examples of these methods are found in the New Testament itself,
for instance in Paul’s figurative use of the stories about Sarah and Hagar in
Gal. 4.21–31, or Peter’s use of the flood story in 1 Pet. 3.20–21, or Hebrews’
use of the laws of temple, priesthood, and sacrifice in chs. 7–10. However,
this form of interpretation is rarely used today, except occasionally in
preaching, and to the modern mind it seems esoteric and antiquated.
Charismatics would also find such older methods rather awkward, for
they are as much contemporary Christians as any. They may indeed be
spiritually very sensitive, but they are also historical realists and would
tend to start from the literal sense of the text in much the same way as
the present-day conservatives or liberals. It is not because of any desire
to retreat into spiritualizing that charismatics feel uncomfortable in the
company of modern biblical interpreters. What then is their problem?
The Prophetic Mentality

The answer to that question is quite simply that charismatics are prophets,
or at least prophetically sympathetic, and so read the Bible with the eye
and intellect of prophetical persons. Let me illustrate what that means.
Once in a conversation about a lecture course on mysticism a colleague
remarked to me in some frustration, ‘How can our students ever hope
to understand mysticism? Surely only mystics themselves can properly
appreciate the records of mystical visionaries. It must take a mystic to
understand the mystics!’ Charismatics might expostulate similarly about
the Bible (or much of it), that only prophetical persons can properly appre-
ciate the records of prophetical figures. Or again, another academic, a New
Testament scholar with Pentecostal sympathies, once spoke to me of his
exasperation when reading the works of fellow New Testament scholars
who have no clear appreciation of the prophetic mentality of people like
Luke or Paul or John.
Of course, to the non-charismatic such an attitude will seem exclusivist
and arrogant, but it is very much in tune with similar viewpoints expressed
by prophetical individuals in other times. For example, Tertullian in the

early third century spoke of a division between the ‘spiritual’ Christians
of his own (Montanist) church and the ‘natural’ believers (psychici) in
the other churches and claimed that only the former truly appreciated
what the Spirit of God was saying to the faithful.4 Similar sentiments are
found in the writings of Irenaeus in the late second century,5 but even
before that we find something much the same in the New Testament
itself. Indeed Paul appears to have been the one who first introduced the
distinction when he wrote to the Corinthian church:
The man without the Spirit (psychikos) does not accept the things that come
from the Spirit of God, for they are foolishness to him, and he cannot under-
stand them, because they are spiritually discerned. The spiritual man (pneu-
matikos) makes judgments about all things’
(or perhaps better ‘has the measure of them all’; 1 Cor. 2.14–15). Jude also
draws a distinction between those who ‘follow mere natural instincts’ and
those who ‘have the Spirit’ (Jude 19).
This is the context in which the charismatics’ dilemma must be under-
stood. From this view the bulk of current biblical interpretation, whether
conservative or liberal, is the work of the natural mind searching for
meaning in God’s word using the common techniques of scholarship
shared with other secular disciplines, such as history, literary criticism, or
philosophy. This kind of investigation has immense value and it would be
totally misguided to underrate it, but charismatics find themselves frus-
trated in the face of it, since it bypasses and fails to recognize a complete
dimension that they see so very clearly in their Bible, indeed the one they
regard as the most important of all, in the light of which they would wish
all else to be viewed, the dimension they might call the spiritual (pneuma-
tikon), or the charismatic, or the prophetic.
As I try to give this dimension more concrete conceptual definition, I
feel, very much like Paul, that that would be more effectively done ‘not
in words taught us by human wisdom but in words taught by the Spirit’
(1 Cor. 2.13). In its light I sometimes find the conservative view easier to
sustain, occasionally the liberal, but more frequently neither. It would be
wrong to think of it only as a yardstick for measuring opinions of liber-
als and conservatives against each other, for it operates at a different level
altogether and often has nothing to say about the arguments of scholarship
4 Cf. Tertullian, Against Praxeas, 1.

5 Irenaeus, Adv. Her. 5.6.1 (cited in Eusebius, Eccl. Hist. 5.7.2).
66 john w. mckay
at all. Conservatism is a theology of biblical literalism, liberalism a the-

ology of biblical criticism, but I would call the charismatic approach a
theology of biblical experience—or, perhaps better, ‘shared experience’.
That aptly expresses the charismatics’ awareness of the similarity between
their own experience and that of the prophets, apostles and Jesus, and
also their awareness of being active participants in the same drama in
which the biblical personages were involved, of playing the same sort of
part as they played in it, and of doing so in the same prophetic manner.
All will become clearer as I proceed.
Shared Experience of the Power of the Holy Spirit
And you will receive the gift of the Holy Spirit. The promise is for you and
your children and for all who are far off—for all whom the Lord our God
will call (Acts 2.38–39).
On the day of Pentecost Peter invited his hearers with these words to
share in the apostles’ experience of the Holy Spirit. Pentecostals claim
that the invitation is still open and that acceptance of it radically changes
a Christian’s view, not only of his or her own faith, but also of the faith of
the early New Testament church, and even of the prophetic personalities
of the Old Testament.
Prophetic Appreciation of the Gifts of the Spirit6

In the early 1970s I came into contact with an ever-increasing number of
Christians who claimed a spiritual endowment that gave them access to
similar gifts today. Then I experienced some of these gifts myself and I
vividly remember being quite startled by my discovery of what they really
were. That, however, is another tale for another time. The important point
here is perhaps best summarized in a Job-like confession that to that point
I had heard of these things with my ears, but now I could say, ‘My eyes
have seen’ (cf. Job 42.5). That is to say, before that time I had a theological
or intellectual attitude to such matters, however confused or dimly per-
ceived, but now they had become a living part of my own experience. Or,
to put it another way, I had accepted Peter’s invitation and was beginning
to learn something of the extent of its implications.
6 This, of course, relates to the spiritual gifts spoken about not only in the book of Acts,
but also in other New Testament passages such as Rom. 12.6–8 and 1 Cor. 12.7–11.
Quite apart from being surprised to discover just how different the
spiritual gifts looked from the inside than they had formerly appeared
from the outside, I was now for the first time, in a fairly elementary way,
made aware of the challenge that shared experience presented to tradi-
tional biblical interpretation. To begin with, I could no longer acquiesce
in the views held by non-charismatics about the gifts and found myself
instantly dissatisfied with almost every commentary on the subject that I
read. Since I now knew for myself that the gifts were a living part of Chris-
tian experience available today as well as in the first century, I could no
longer even discuss the possibility that they might be simply an expression
of primitive religion or of a lost idyllic age of the church’s early history,
and certainly not the view that they were unintelligible. Of course, the
mere experience of such phenomena as tongues, prophecy, supernormal
knowledge, and healing was in itself no guarantee that these were the
same gifts as those known to the earliest Christians, but at least the pos-
sibility was now worth exploring, and the further I looked, the more con-
vinced I became that I was indeed sharing experiences of the same genre
as those, not only of the early Christians, but also of the Old Testament
prophets and of Jesus himself.
The miraculous and the supernatural in Scripture readily become part
of charismatics’ shared experience. They dream significant dreams that
are more than mere phantoms of the night, but tell of God and his will.
They see mystic visions of the Lord in his holiness and they hear the voice
of God speaking, sometimes audibly, but more normally in the silence of
their hearts. I refuse to recognize mere psychological explanations for these
experiences, because, like the similar phenomena of which Paul speaks in
1 Corinthians 14, they edify and build up the believer and the community
of believers in their faith in God and their love for one another.
Of course there can be a quite human element in all this, even a spuri-
ous one. That has led many to dismiss charismatic Christianity as coun-
terfeit, but the same problem was present in ancient times and the Bible’s
answer to it is certainly not to reject the Spirit’s work. On the contrary it
bids us sift and discern what is of God and hold on to that: ‘Do not put out
the Spirit’s fire; do not treat prophecies with contempt. Test everything.
Hold on to the good’ (1 Thess. 5.19–21). John tells us to test the spirits to see
whether they glorify the incarnate and risen Christ (1 Jn 4.1–3), and when
that is done it becomes immediately clear that present-day charismatic
activity is indeed genuine.
68 john w. mckay
Prophetic Views of Biblical Experience

Now that all sounds exceedingly dramatic, as indeed it is, but the effects
of such shared experience for biblical interpretation are also dramatic,
though in a very different way. It becomes increasingly difficult, for
instance, for a liberal theologian who experiences this new dimension to
view the miraculous and supernatural elements in the Old and New Tes-
taments in terms of mythology or legend, and one immediate temptation
for such a person is to jettison all his or her scholarship and become a
fundamentalist. Some do fall to this temptation, though the step is not
a necessary one. Fundamentalists make doctrinal claims, charismatics
experiential. No charismatic could ever appeal to his or her shared expe-
rience to uphold such doctrines or prove such facts as the fundamentalist
cherishes, for example the scientific veracity of the creation narrative in
Genesis 1, or the literal existence of a fish that could carry Jonah in its belly
without harming him. Prophetic insight has very little to say about such
matters, though it does warm instantly to the emphasis on God’s goodness
in the creation story or to the message in the book of Jonah about the
need for obedience in a prophet. Prophetic experience does not destroy
or bypass one’s reasoning faculty! It is still possible for charismatics to
remain fairly liberal in their theological views, as some actually do.
Nonetheless, the major effect of shared experience is to make the char-
ismatics treasure parts of the biblical record they might beforehand have
viewed with much scepticism. Not only the miracle stories in the Gospels,
but those actions attributed to the power of the Spirit in Acts and the pro-
phetic narratives in the Old Testament also become particularly precious.
One area where shared experience completely transforms biblical
interpretation is that of the prophetic word. The liberal views prophecy
as something inspirational only in a very loose and vague sense, relating it
more to natural sagacity, shrewd insight, and inherited traditions than to
anything else. Prophetic experience, however, encourages a very different
view, for the mediation of messages directly received is of the very essence
of charismatic prophecy. Sometimes these messages are delivered in verse
form, sometimes in prose, sometimes only the gist of the message is given
and not in any particularly marked style, but always there is something
received, some direct revelation that is passed on. Sometimes it will be
communicated immediately, at other times it will be kept for a later occa-
sion when the congregation is assembled together to hear it. Charismatic
prophecy is something like the rehearsing of a conversation with a friend,
only in this instance the friend is the Lord himself. ‘Thus says the Lord’
means literally that to charismatics, and so to them the liberal view of

prophecy must remain entirely inadequate.
Equally, however, charismatics would find it hard to acquiesce in the
fundamentalist view of literal, mechanical inspiration, as though God had
precisely dictated every single word that is spoken. On some rare occa-
sions it may seem like that, but generally the dictum of Paul holds good,
that ‘the spirits of prophets are subject to the control of prophets’ (1 Cor.
14.32). Charismatics will tell that a prophecy is spoken in faith, that is, that
it is indeed a word from God. Pressed about such an utterance charismatics
would normally admit that, while they believe it comes from God, it is not
always possible to draw an absolute line of demarcation between what is
from God and what is from oneself. The utterance is certainly inspired,
but it is filtered through a human channel, with the result that it is in the
end only a near, hopefully very near, approximation to what God wants
to communicate. Or, as Paul puts it in 1 Cor. 13.9, ‘we prophesy in part’
(i.e. imperfectly). That helps us understand why George gives his proph-
ecy in King James’s English, Mary hers in her local dialect, William his in
cultured speech; or why Isaiah spoke with a Hebrew style quite different
from Ezekiel’s. The prophet’s rehearsal of what God has said will have a
degree of precision similar to the degree of exactitude which that indi-
vidual might attain in reporting some important conversation, a degree
that will vary from person to person, and will even vary according to the
mood of the speaker.
Now at this point we are confronted with the problem of determining
how much any prophecy is of God and how much of the prophet himself
or herself. That is to say, we find ourselves acutely involved in the prob-
lems of discerning true and false prophecy. That, however, simply attests
further to the reality of shared experience in charismatic/Pentecostal and
biblical traditions, for the same problem was as acute in both Old and
New Testament times as it is today (cf. 1 Kings 13; 22; Mt. 7.22; 1 Jn 4.1).7
7 The prophetic writings in the Bible have stood the test of time and have been fully rec-
ognized as authentically inspired of God in a way that is unique, and hence are accepted as
sacred scripture. They do, however, still reveal the individual personalities of the prophets
themselves in considerable measure.
70 john w. mckay
The Bible as Prophetic Literature
In the past God spoke to our forefathers through the prophets at many times
and in various ways, but in these last days he has spoken to us by his Son
(Heb. 1.1–2).
All charismatics are convinced that in some way or other God does actu-
ally speak to people, whether to individuals, church groups, whole con-
gregations, or even to some in the wider non-church community, through
visions, auditions, prophecies, dreams, or ‘in various ways’, as Hebrews
puts it, but certainly that he does speak. And so they find no need to dis-
miss as merely legendary the stories of God’s conversations and communi-
cations with Abraham, Moses, Samuel, Solomon, Peter, Paul, or whomever.
From their own experience and their conversations with other Spirit-filled
Christians they know that such things are not uncommon, and so they view
the literature that tells of them somewhat differently from liberal scholars,
who would tend to use words like ‘myth’ or ‘legend’ in their discussions
about it. The expression I myself prefer is ‘charismatic (or prophetic)
literature’, because the biblical books are often very similar to the sort of
writing we find in contemporary charismatic (auto)biographies, accounts
of church renewal, records of healing and revival ministries, and the like,
of which there are plentiful examples in our bookshops today.
It is clearly impossible to discuss all the books in the Bible here, or to
maintain that they all contain the same level of charismatic literature though
it is surprising how much of it one finds in the most unexpected places,
such as in Numbers, Deuteronomy, Proverbs, Song of Songs, 2 Chronicles,
or Ezra and Nehemiah.8
On this point the prophetic books hardly need any comment, for they
are unquestionably charismatic literature, or at least to the charismatic
they are. Collections of prophetic utterances are not commonly found in
print today, but the exiled Camisards in London and their English converts
at the beginning of the eighteenth century published many such books
which they entitled Prophetical Warnings. However, present-day charis-
8 Comments here are of necessity brief and representative. The prophetic/charismatic

thrust of each book in both Old and New Testaments is fully discussed in my four-volume
work, The Way of the Spirit. See also J.W. McKay, The Old Testament and Christian Charismatic/
Prophetic Literature’, in B.P. Thompson (ed.), Scripture: Method and Meaning: Essays Pre-
sented to Anthony Tyrrell Hanson (Hull: Hull University Press, 1987); idem, ‘The Experiences
of Dereliction and of God’s Presence in the Psalms: An Exercise in Old Testament Exegesis
in the Light of Renewal Theology’, in P. Elbert (ed.), Faces of Renewal: Studies in Honor of
Stanley M. Horton (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1988); idem, ‘My Glory-A Mantle of Praise’,
SJT 31 (1978), pp. 167–72; idem, ‘Psalms of Vigil’, ZAW 91 (1979), pp. 229–47.
matics have heard and probably uttered many prophecies themselves and
so from their experience of the spoken word recognize the literary cat-
egory instantly. Since I have already discussed how a charismatic’s view
of prophecy differs from that of the liberal or the conservative, there is no
need to say more on the subject at this point.
The New Testament presents fewer problems in this context than the
Old. The Synoptic Gospels can be read as charismatic biographies, partic-
ularly Luke’s, in which a greater emphasis is put on the action of the Spirit
in the initiation of Jesus’ ministry (4.1–30), on his and his followers’ experi-
ences of joy in the Spirit (cf. 10.17, 21), on prayer (cf. 6.12), and on teaching
to prepare the disciples for receiving the Spirit themselves (11.1–13; 24.49).
John’s Gospel is also very full of teaching about the Spirit and about the
Christian’s need to receive him, particularly in chs. 3–7 and 14–16.
Acts, especially in the first half, is replete with charismatic hero stories,
tales of outpourings of the Spirit, of healings and other miracles, of visions,
of praise and rejoicing, of power-filled ministries, of divine guidance. It is
not without reason that this book has sometimes been nicknamed ‘the
Acts of the Holy Spirit’.
Revelation is the only book in the New Testament that actually calls
itself ‘prophecy’ (1.3; 22.7, 10, 18). It was written about a visionary experi-
ence of the author when he was ‘in the Spirit’ on one occasion (1.10) and
is certainly to be described as prophetic literature. It could almost be said
that every single book in the New Testament is about some aspect of life
in the Spirit. There is scarcely a chapter in which the charismatic does not
find echoes of things he or she might want to say about his or her own
experience of life in the Spirit or of things that other charismatics have
told, whether in print or by word of mouth, about their experiences.
There is little doubt in my mind that the majority of the books of the
Bible, in both testaments, are, in their very different ways and to different
degrees, classifiable under the general title of charismatic or prophetic
literature. But if that can be said about individual books, how far can it
be said about the Bible as a whole? It is to that question we must now
address ourselves.
The Drama of Salvation, or Creating the End-Time Church of the Spirit
And afterward,
I will pour out my Spirit on all people.
Your sons and daughters will prophesy,
your old men will dream dreams,
your young men will see visions.
72 john w. mckay
Even on my servants, both men and women,

I will pour out my Spirit in those days (Joel 2.28–29).
The question raised at the end of the last section touches on the long
debated issue of whether or not there can be found any overarching the-
matic unity in Scripture. Some say the Bible has no consistent theological
theme at all, but only many varied strands, and so they speak of diversity
in the Bible rather than unity. They maintain that there is no need to look
for a common theological interest in such different materials as laws of
sacrifice, prophetic utterances, hymns of praise, wisdom sayings, and his-
torical narratives. Perhaps this question of theological unity will never be
resolved, but it is my belief that there is a coherence, though it is one that
I would prefer to call experiential or charismatic rather than academic or
theological, and I believe that this coherence can be grasped when we
view the biblical records in the light of shared experience.
In the book from which this article is taken I have sketched, on the
model of a theatrical drama, what I believe could serve as an expression
of the operative sense of coherence to be found in a charismatic approach
to the biblical corpus. The essential drama, as it unfolds from Genesis, has
to do with the restoring of paradise or Eden. In the garden there were two
special trees: the tree of the knowledge of good and evil and the tree of
life. Driven from the garden humankind now has access to neither. They
had tasted of one and that left them in a condition of sin, in need of for-
giveness. Deprived of the other, their only future is death. These two trees
represent the twin poles or foci of our drama, which is about God restor-
ing humanity to a right relationship with both, first through his patriarchs,
priests, prophets and kings, then more fully through Jesus and the church,
and finally in his New Heaven at the end of time. At every turn prophetic/
charismatic experience points the way forward to the fulfilment of God’s
purpose in restoration.
The essential message of the New Testament story is that the age of
the Spirit has come, first in Jesus and then in his disciples, who prove
themselves to be persons like the Old Testament prophets, persons such
as the Old Testament believed God would raise up to fulfil his purpose
in bringing blessing to all the families of the earth. Eden is not exactly
restored, but there is an Eden-like quality about life in the early Christian
community, where joy is one of the chief characteristics of its members.
Since the world as a whole still remains under God’s curse and in need of
redemption, our drama continues to be played out with many of the same
tensions and uncertainties as before, but there is now a new factor in it,
for the followers of Christ have been granted access again to the source of
life, lost since Eden, from which they can draw strength for the role they
must play in the continuing outworking of God’s purpose. Sin with respect
to the tree of the knowledge of good and evil is now atoned for by the
sacrifice of Christ, ‘the Lamb of God, who takes away the sin of the world’,
and the wholesome virtue of the tree of life is now embodied in the gift of
Christ, ‘who will baptize with the Holy Spirit’. (Jn 1.29, 33). In the power
of the grace and Spirit he supplies, his followers now live the Eden-life in
considerable measure, as Ezekiel and other prophets had said they would.
And that is very much a charismatic or prophetic quality of life.
Such a view of the Bible’s coherent message is far from complete. Today
almost 2000 years have passed and the hard truth is that Eden has still
not been restored. History is littered with evidence of humanity’s continu-
ing unfaithfulness. And the record of the Christian church has not always
been that good! So we are compelled in all honesty, even. at this stage,
to raise once more the question that runs through the entire drama: can
God’s purpose ever really be fulfilled?
But again we can approach it with hope. At the end of the first century,
John, one of Jesus’ original disciples, was granted a vision, in which he
saw the course of history to come, through many times of trial, to God’s
final hour to the blessings of Eden fully restored and humankind in Christ
reigning at the last as was intended at the beginning. It is towards the
hope engendered by this further vision of Eden’s final accomplishment in
what John calls the New Jerusalem that the drama tends. That, however,
is in itself a further indication of the prophetic quality of New Testament
faith, for it is of the very essence of prophecy to have some such future
vision. Hence this final act is, and must always be, one led and domi-
nated by the eschatological race of prophets, those who in some measure
share in the vision and experience of the ancient prophets, persons such
as those whom today we would commonly call Pentecostal or charismatic.
Their vision, like that of the Old Testament prophets, is still an urgent
and excited one, still forward looking, and still one of hope for a glorious
finale. It is surely significant that as the curtain falls on the New Testa-
ment stage we hear John’s voice say, ‘He who testifies to these things says,
“Yes, I am coming soon.” Amen. Come, Lord Jesus’ (Rev. 22.20).
In the time that has passed since then the gospel has indeed reached
many peoples and the end John saw is now nearer than most care to
imagine. The power of God’s Word and his Spirit that worked in creation,
which has upheld God’s purposes through history, which motivated his
prophets, which lived in Christ, which gives us a foretaste of Eden today,
still works for the final recreation of all things.
74 john w. mckay
The Charismatic, the Academic, and the Word of God
But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit comes on you; and you will
be my witnesses (Acts 1.8).
Such a drama-outline could hardly cover every aspect of Old and New
Testament teaching, theology, and literature. Sometimes the literature,
rather than illustrating charismatic experience, depicts the responses of
those who have not appreciated it, as in the case of Job’s counsellors, for
instance. Our Bible is no simple-minded manual containing naive descrip-
tive outlines of what prophetic religion should be like, but rather a dra-
matic account of the lives, experiences, and insights of men and women
who themselves came into living experience of that kind of religion or
into contact with other living exponents of it. It is essentially the story of
the dynamic activity (the Spirit) of God and of people’s varied responses
to that. Hence it tells not only of prophets, but also of judges and sages, of
kings and warriors, of craftspeople and fishermen, indeed of all sorts and
conditions of people. It paints pictures of individuals who acted by the
power of the Spirit, but equally of persons who did not; it paints pictures
of times when the Spirit was very active in history, but equally of times
when religion was decadent or arid. But always the measure or the ideal
is that picture of the eschatological church of the Spirit, that race of pro-
phetical persons whose purpose is to see Eden restored. It is to that end
that the whole drama moves, and so it finds its apex in the life-story of the
one who ushered in the final age of the Spirit, Jesus Christ.
Its contemporary value derives from the observation of the continu-
ity of his work in the apostolic church and the implication of the whole
drama that that work should still be continued today. It bids us align our-
selves with Jesus and the apostles, to share their experience, to come out
of the audience, and join the players in the final act, to wait in our own
Jerusalems until we too are endued with the same power from on high.
Once we do that, we find the curtain (or the veil) removed altogether and
ourselves on stage holding hands with the apostles and seeing everything
from their Pentecostal perspective.
For a biblical scholar, acceptance of that invitation creates an immedi-
ate problem. The academic task requires that one stand, as it were, off-
stage, like a critic or reviewer, so that one can observe the drama with
the more objective eye of scholarship, whereas the Holy Spirit draws one
on stage with the actors. Thus such persons find themselves pulled in two
directions, the one calling them to stand back and analyse what they see,
the other urging them forward to participate in the action. Ideally, I sup-
pose, it ought to be possible to do both, especially in ministerial training
institutions, but in the critical atmosphere of academic theology the ten-
sion is considerable, often even unbearable.
Communicating Spiritual Truths in Scholarly Language

There is another aspect to this dilemma, one that is perhaps best illus-
trated through a brief autobiographical comment. I was myself attracted
to the life of scholarship in the first instance by what I then called ‘the
riddle of the Bible’. To me, as indeed to so many others, the meaning
of Scripture was by no means as evident as it has now become. While it
attracted me as God’s Word, the book itself was an enigma. It purported to
be a deposit of revelation, but for the most part all that was revealed to me
in it was a series of puzzles, albeit exceedingly fascinating ones. And so I
spent many hours discussing the problem of Deuteronomy, the problem
of Mark’s Gospel, the problem of Christ, the problem of faith, and so forth.
The essential message of Scripture quite simply eluded me, as it did every-
one else with whom I discussed these problems, or at least as it seemed to
do, since no one was able to provide me with answers that satisfied. And
so, failing to find anyone who could guide me through the maze, I came
to regard scholarship as a tool which might somehow unearth the Bible’s
hidden meaning, but only gradually and after many years of hard study
by many hard-working, highly educated individuals. The field was far too
vast for anyone scholar to handle alone. My own part must therefore be
that of making some small contribution to a sum total of international
scholarship that might some day produce something like a satisfactory
solution to the riddle of the Bible. I must, however, admit to having expe-
rienced an increasing sense of despondency; the more I pursued this quite
limited objective, the more aware I became of the confused complexity of
theological debate, and proportionately I despaired of scholarship’s ever
discovering a solution.
It was for reasons almost entirely unrelated to these that lone day asked
God to baptize me with his Holy Spirit just as he had done for his early
disciples and seemed to be doing for an ever-increasing number of Chris-
tians in our time, but subsequent to that, and to my own great surprise, I
found myself reading my Bible with completely new understanding. The
veil Paul spoke about had been lifted and for the first time in my life I
discovered that it all made very good sense. The riddle had quite simply
vanished-yes, in a moment of time—and over the days and weeks that
76 john w. mckay
followed, as I watched the jigsaw of the various books and chapters of the
Bible progressively reforming themselves into a coherent whole, I mar-
velled that I had not seen it all before.
It was an exhilarating discovery, but also a painful one, for it deprived
me of most of my former scholarly purpose. It could no longer be my aim
to help resolve the riddle of the Word of God; the Holy Spirit had done
that for me. My studies had now manifestly to change focus, from my
search for meaning to clarification of my new understanding. Similarly,
the focus of my teaching had to change, from presenting the current state
of scholarly opinion and debate to communicating my new discoveries.
Now, this is precisely the point at which the real acuteness of my
dilemma becomes manifest. Since my insight into the coherence of Scrip-
ture has not come by purely academic processes, it is difficult to com-
municate it in purely academic terms. In a sense there is an analogy with
romantic love. Anyone who loves his or her partner will understand what
I mean when I say that I love my wife, but I find it well-nigh impossible
to explain the nature of my love to anyone else. The words I use may con-
vey an impression of something good, intimate, happy and worthwhile,
but will scarcely satisfy someone who persists in asking for definitions.
Similarly, those with spiritual experience comparable with my own will
usually understand what I say without my having to explain too much,
whereas others will mostly fail entirely to grasp my meaning. In other
words, I realize that the Spirit of truth is more capable of leading others
into all the truth than I can ever hope to be, even with my accumulated
wisdom and learning.
Here is no theoretical difficulty, but a very practical one. I have dis-
covered over the past seventeen years, indeed to my great frustration at
times, that baptism in the Spirit can often give less literate people a much
better appreciation of the message of the Bible than three years of uni-
versity education in a theology department can give to more intellectu-
ally capable undergraduates, or a similar period of study in a theological
college or seminary to ordinands. However, this observation is not really
much different from that made by Paul, for example, whose experience in
this respect seems to have been remarkably similar to my own, for he was
firmly convinced that the truth about ‘Christ and him crucified’ or ‘God’s
secret wisdom’ could never be communicated as successfully through
careful and erudite presentations of the gospel message as through ‘dem-
onstration of the Spirit’s power’ or when ‘God has revealed it to us by his
Spirit’ (1 Cor. 2.1–10). We may likewise recall how even Jesus’ teaching was
not so easily understood by his own disciples before their experience of

the Spirit at Pentecost as after it.
Unfortunately statements of this kind can and do convey an impression
of arrogance, particularly to those who are engaged in the work of bibli-
cal scholarship. As I have already noted, however, that in itself is part of
the charismatic’s dilemma, also shared with the early apostles, and so I
can do little more about it than Paul did when he wrote to the Corinthi-
ans, namely apologize for not being able to express myself about it more
acceptably and assure the reader that the intention is quite the converse
(2 Corinthians 10). My own debt to biblical scholarship is very great and
can certainly not all be laid aside.
The Spirit makes us Witnesses, not Analysts

A third major area of tension between charismatics’ experience and their
scholarship lies in the shared experience with the apostles and the proph-
ets of a compulsion to speak about one’s new vision. Just before the ascen-
sion, according to Acts 1.8, Jesus forewarned his disciples that receiving
the Holy Spirit would turn them into witnesses. Now there is a world of
difference between the activities of scholarly research and witnessing.
Academics will probe and analyse, or debate and hypothesize, until they
find a solution that seems reasonable. They may themselves be convinced
of its rightness, though they will recognize that further research may cause
them to modify their views, and so they will want to present their find-
ings in print for wider, more public discussion and debate. Charismatics
cannot adopt such an approach to their disclosures. Their conviction of
their essential rightness is based on revelatory experience, the confirma-
tion of the Word, and their own corresponding faith, not on experimental
investigation or argument, and consequently is much more absolute. They
feel little desire to proffer their beliefs simply for discussion, but feel more
like an explorer who has discovered a new world and wants to tell every-
one else about it, inviting them to come and see it and even to settle in
it. Hence charismatic writing is seldom publication of ideas or theories
for debate, but witness, the declaring of what has been ‘seen and heard’
(cf. Mt. 11.4; Acts 2.33; 4.20). Here is no mere dogged determination to do
something about Jesus’ commission to evangelize, but rather an eager-
ness to proclaim what the Spirit has revealed. If charismatics are unhappy
about purely academic analysis of their visions, they are equally unhappy
about evangelical pressurization. They do not see their function as one
of persuasion, but simply of declaration. They are not trying to convince
78 john w. mckay
others of the rightness of a theory, but to tell them of their discovery, as

explorers tell of a new country. There is nothing to debate, even if the
audience is sceptical. They are quite simply witnesses.
Now witnessing, the declaring of what one has ‘seen and heard’, is not
an academic exercise. It may claim to be a presentation of truth that has
not been seen by other scholars, but in itself it has nothing scholarly about
it. It is the audience, or the jury, that finds itself engaged in the academic
work of testing the witness, but the witness can never change the story if
he or she is to remain true to what has been seen and heard. The witness
simply cannot engage in the academic task at that level any more, for if
this happens there is the implicit admission that witness may not be true.
And there also lies a dilemma.
Much of what I have written here may seem to add to the impression
alluded to earlier, that there is something anti-intellectual in the pro-
phetic mentality. The impression is an unfortunate one, for their experi-
ence usually stimulates charismatics to very deep thought about God, the
Bible, and the needs of society. It is not that charismatics cease to think
theologically; quite the contrary. However, their theological perspective
has changed, and changed so radically that they find their views no longer
fit with those of the majority of today’ s biblical theologians, and further-
more that they fail to find much satisfaction from participating in their
debates. It is my convinced opinion that a charismatic’s view of the Bible
must be different from everyone else’s, be they fundamentalists, conserva-
tives, liberals, radicals, or whatever. Their views are based on doctrines,
assumptions and hypotheses, albeit sometimes diametrically opposed ones,
about the nature of Scripture and revelation. Charismatics’ are based on
what they discover themselves thinking after they have been baptized in
the Holy Spirit. And as we have seen, this discovery is itself more in the
realm of experience than of doctrine, for it is a discovery that one has
stepped out of the audience into the play where one shares in so many,
if not ultimately all, of the experiences of the actors, particularly of the
charismatics/Pentecostals of the last act in the New Testament church.
The Wealth of the Witness of the Spirit

It is for these reasons that this article contains no weighing of the view-
points of other scholars and no listing of the works of others with whom
I am in agreement or disagreement. In one sense there is no debate. Pro-
phetic experience leads me to treasure the biblical records with a new
love that makes me less willing to dismiss as much as the liberals tend to
do, but it does not persuade me therefore to accept all the historical con-
clusions of fundamentalism. But then, it tells me of things about which
neither of these speak, and there lies its great attraction. The word that
comes most readily to mind for describing these things is not fundamen-
talism, nor radicalism, nor any other ‘-ism’, but truth. The witness of the
Spirit, as Jesus says in John’s Gospel, is essentially to truth—not to any
truth about technical, historical or scientific data and statistics, which are
properly subjects for scholarly research, but to the truth about the word
of God, and that speaks to me of salvation, forgiveness, blessing, hope,
love, joy, peace, power, and the like. Pre-eminently that truth is about
Jesus, who, as we have it in John’s Gospel, is himself the Truth (14.6). So
the Spirit shows me the truth of Scripture (or resolves the riddle of the
Bible) and the truth of Jesus (or resolves the riddle of the incarnation), but
perhaps the two are one, for even the Bible itself recognizes an interplay
between the written word of God and the incarnate Word of God. Both
speak of the same truth, and the Spirit witnesses equally to both. That
is not to say there is no truth in the things that liberals or conservatives
say, but that there is a more profound truth that neither of these, in the
charismatic’s eyes at any rate, have ever grasped. That alone comes from
the Spirit of God, not by any human intellectual process.
Of course, charismatic experience offers no magical solution to so
many of the problems that the scholars handle, such as the date of the
Exodus, or the editorial arrangement of the book of Ezekiel, or the author-
ship of the Pastoral Epistles, but it does bear witness to the basic truth of
the accounts of what the biblical personalities experienced in their rela-
tionships and encounters with God or his messengers, and to the essen-
tial truth of their aspirations and hopes for those who believe in Christ.
The charismatic’s main argument with biblical scholars of the academy is
therefore about the nature of belief. Charismatics want scholars to begin
believing that what they are analysing is not just myth, or legend, or the
theological ruminations of pious intellects, if they are liberals, nor simply
ancient history or doctrinal presentations, if they are conservatives, but
living Christian experience as it was and as it still should be. Like Peter,
they want the critic to lay aside his or her pen for a moment and to step
on stage to see what this Spirit-life is really like. But then every scholar or
student who accepts that challenge will find themselves, as I do, longing
for some new kind of scholarship through which they can express these
new-found revelations and understandings.
That, in the end, is the invitation of Scripture itself. Does not our Drama
of Salvation end with such a call from the Spirit and the Bride (of Christ,
80 john w. mckay
the church) who say ‘Come!’? It is those who are ‘thirsty’ who will come,
and when they do, they will drink of the water of life freely given by
God. And that water is the Spirit of God himself, flowing from his throne
and the Lamb. Our calling is not so much to receive understanding as
to receive life. But in the light of that life there is indeed a freshness of
understanding unknown to and unknowable by the natural intellect. The
Christian, who has tasted such things and knows that nothing else can sat-
isfy in the same way, must inevitably become a witness—but not without
understanding. And that is why the Spirit cuts through all our debates and
scholarship to lead us into all truth, his truth.
Chapter six
Women, Pentecostalism, and the Bible:

An Experiment in Pentecostal Hermeneutics*
John Christopher Thomas**
Perhaps few topics have generated the kind of discussion amongst Pen-
tecostal scholars over the past few years than that which has emerged
around the issue of ‘Pentecostal Hermeneutics’. Scholars who have
entered into this debate range from those who deny the need for a dis-
tinctive Pentecostal hermeneutic, preferring to follow certain evangelical
models, to those who are in dialogue with a number of methodologies
that have emerged within the last couple of decades. While no consensus
has emerged as of yet, it appears that many scholars working within the
Pentecostal tradition are less content to adopt a system of interpretation
that is heavily slanted toward rationalism and has little room for the role
of the Holy Spirit.
Several reasons account for the desire on the part of some Pentecostal
scholars to identify and articulate a hermeneutic that is representative of
the tradition and its ethos. Disappointment with the results of rationalism
is one major factor in the emergence of this trend. Owing to the promises
made for rationalism, growing out of the Enlightenment, many western
thinkers became convinced that pure reason was the key to interpreta-
tion of any literature, both biblical and non-biblical. But the results of an
unbridled rationalism have been anything but uniform, as witnessed in
the diversity of current theological thought, which in and of itself suggests
that there is more to interpretation than just reason.1

** John Christopher Thomas (PhD, University of Sheffield) is Clarence J. Abbott Pro-
fessor of Biblical Studies at the Pentecostal Theological Seminary in Cleveland, TN USA
and Director of the Centre for Pentecostal and Charismatic Studies at Bangor University,
Wales.
1 This assessment is true even of evangelical theology, where an extremely high view of
Scripture has brought little consensus on a variety of interpretive matters.
82 john christopher thomas
The dearth of serious critical reflection on the role of the Holy Spirit in
the interpretive process has also whet the appetite of several Pentecostal
scholars for an approach which seeks to articulate what the Spirit’s role
is and how the Spirit works specifically. It is, indeed, one of the oddi-
ties of modern theological scholarship that both liberal and conservative
approaches to Scripture have little or no appreciation for the work of the
Holy Spirit in interpretation.2 Obviously, such a hermeneutical compo-
nent is of no little interest to Pentecostal scholars.3
Another contributing factor to this recent surge of hermeneutical activ-
ity amongst Pentecostals is the belief of several scholars that the role of
the community in the interpretive process is extremely important. Given
the community orientation of Pentecostalism, on the one hand, and the
excesses of a somewhat rampant individualism among interpreters gener-
ally (both liberal and conservative), on the other hand, reflection on the
place of the community in the hermeneutical process would appear to be
a natural next step in the development of a Pentecostal hermeneutic.
Finally, the recent paradigm shift(s) in the field of hermeneutics gener-
ally has encouraged some scholars that the time is right to enter into a
serious discussion about Pentecostal hermeneutics. Not only have insights
from recent hermeneutical discussions confirmed the appropriateness of
certain Pentecostal interpretive emphases (such as the importance of
experiential presuppositions in interpretation and the role of narrative
in the doing of theology), but also the insights gained from a diversity
of approaches to the biblical text have given some Pentecostals courage
to believe that they too have some contribution to make to the current
hermeneutical debate.
While it might sometimes be thought, or even charged, that Pentecos-
tals desire to articulate their own hermeneutical approach just to be dis-
tinctive, in point of fact, it would appear that just as Pentecostals have
been able to help the church rediscover a number of biblical truths with
regards to pneumatology, so they may also have gifts to give when it
comes to the interpretive process itself.
But what would a Pentecostal hermeneutic look like and, more impor-
tantly, how would it function? What would be the essential components
2 C. Pinnock, The Scripture Principle (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1984), p. 155.
3 One of the few serious treatments of this topic amongst Pentecostals is the work of
J.W. Wyckoff [‘The Relationship of the Holy Spirit to Biblical Hermeneutics’, (PhD, Baylor
University, 1990)], who after a historical survey proposes a model regarding the Spirit’s role
based largely on an educational paradigm of teacher.
women, pentecostalism, and the bible 83
of such an interpretive approach and how would one settle on them?

These are just the beginning of a multitude of questions which this
topic raises.
This short study does not seek to offer an exhaustive overview of the
topic of Pentecostal hermeneutics, nor to articulate in a detailed fashion
a sophisticated theory of interpretation.4 Rather, it seeks to explore one
possible paradigm, which is derived from the New Testament itself. After
a brief discussion of this interpretational paradigm, the approach will be
tested by attempting to gain leverage on a particularly difficult issue by
the use of insights derived from this biblical paradigm.
II
It is possible, of course, to find a number of different hermeneutical

approaches in the New Testament and several full-length studies have
been devoted to the use of the Old Testament by various New Testament
writers.5 Of these many interpretive approaches, one in particular has had
a special appeal for many Pentecostals especially at the popular level. This
4 For some recent attempts at Pentecostal hermeneutics, cf. the following: G.T. Shep-
pard, ‘Pentecostalism and the Hermeneutics of Dispensationalism: Anatomy of an Uneasy
Relationship’, Pneuma 6 (2, 1984), pp. 5–33; M.D. McLean, ‘Toward a Pentecostal Herme-
neutic’, Pneuma 6 (2, 1984), pp. 35–56; H.M. Ervin, ‘Hermeneutics: A Pentecostal Option’, in
Essays on Apostolic Themes (ed. Paul Elbert; Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1985), pp. 23–35;
F.L. Arrington, ‘Hermeneutics’, Dictionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (ed.
Stanley Burgess, Gary B. McGee; Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988), pp. 376–89; R. Stron-
stad, ‘Trends in Pentecostal Hermeneutics’, Paraclete 22 (3, 1988), pp. 1–12; R. Stronstad,
‘Pentecostal Experience and Hermeneutics’, Paraclete 26 (1, 1992), pp. 14–30; J.D. Johns
and C. Bridges Johns, ‘Yielding to the Spirit: A Pentecostal Approach to Group Bible
Study’, JPT 1 (1992), pp. 109–34; A.C. Autry, ‘Dimensions of Hermeneutics in Pentecostal
Focus’, JPT 3 (1993), pp. 29–50; R. Israel, D. Albrecht, and R.G. McNally, ‘Pentecostals and
Hermeneutics: Texts, Rituals and Community’, Pnuema 15 (1993), pp. 137–61; T.B. Cargal,
‘Beyond the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy: Pentecostals and Hermeneutics in a
Postmodern Age’, Pneuma 15 (1993), pp. 163–87; R.P. Menzies, ‘Jumping Off the Postmod-
ern Bandwagon’, Pneuma 16 (1994), pp. 115–20; G.T. Sheppard, ‘Biblical Interpretation after
Gadamer’, Pneuma 16 (1994), pp. 121–41; J. McKay, ‘When the Veil Is Taken Away: The
Impact of Prophetic Experience on Biblical Interpretation’, JPT 5 (1994), pp. 17–40; R.D.
Moore, ‘Deuteronomy and the Fire of God: A Critical Charismatic Interpretation’, JPT 7
(1995), pp. 11–33; R.O. Baker, ‘Pentecostal Bible Reading: Toward a Model of Reading for
the Formation of Christina Affections’, JPT 7 (1995), pp. 34–48; and K.J. Archer, ‘Pentecostal
Hermeneutics: Retrospect and Prospect’, JPT 8 (1996), pp. 63–81.
5 On this topic cf. especially E.E. Ellis, The Old Testament in Early Christianity (Grand
Rapids: Baker, 1992); R.B. Hays, Echoes of Scripture in the Letters of Paul (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1989); C.A. Evans and J.A. Sanders, Luke and Scripture: The Function of
Sacred Tradition in Luke-Acts (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1993).
approach is that revealed in the deliberations of the Jerusalem Council

as described in Acts 15.1–29, which has recently shown up in certain aca-
demic discussions on Pentecostal hermeneutics.6
As is well known, the Jerusalem Council came together to determine
if Gentile believers in Jesus must convert to Judaism in order to become
full-fledged Christians. Luke relates that when Paul and Barnabas arrived
in Jerusalem with the report regarding the conversion of the Gentiles,
certain believers who were members of the religious party of the Phari-
sees (τινεs τῶν ἀπὸ τῆς αἱρέσεως τῶν Φαρισαίων) demanded that the Gen-
tile believers 1) be circumcised and 2) keep the law of Moses. As a result
of this report and its somewhat mixed reception, the apostles and elders
gathered together to look into this matter (ἰδεῖν περὶ τοῦ λόγου τούτου).
The first person to speak, Peter, begins by noting the actions of God
among them. It was God who chose to allow the Gentiles to hear the Gos-
pel (through the mouth of Peter) and believe. It was the God who knows
all hearts who testified as to the validity of their faith by giving them the
Holy Spirit. God had made no distinction between Jew and Gentile either
in the giving of the Spirit or in the cleansing of hearts. In the light of such
experience, Peter reasons that to place the yoke (of the Law?) upon these
Gentiles would be tantamount to testing (πειράζετε) God. In contrast to
the bearing of this yoke, Peter says it is by faith that all are saved!
This speech is followed up with a report by Barnabas and Paul, which
also places emphasis upon God and the things that he did through them
among the Gentiles, such as signs and wonders.
James now takes center stage and addresses the group. He not only
interprets Peter’s testimony to mean that God has received the Gentiles as
a people unto his name, but he also goes on to argue that this experience
of the church is in agreement with the words of the prophets, citing Amos
9.11–12 as evidence. Therefore (διό), in the light of what God had done
and the agreement of these actions with the words of the prophets, James
concludes that the Gentiles who are turning to God should not have their
task made more difficult by requiring of them the observance of circumci-
sion and the keeping of the Law of Moses. Rather, these Gentile converts
are to be instructed to ‘abstain from food polluted by idols, from sexual
immorality, from the meat of strangled animals and from blood’. In the
letter written to communicate the findings of this meeting to the church
6 Cf. the discussion by F.L. Arrington, ‘Hermeneutics’, pp. 387–88 and R.D. Moore,
‘Approaching God’s Word Biblically: A Pentecostal Perspective’ (A Paper Presented to the
19th Annual Meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Studies, Fresno, CA, 1989).
at large, the decision is described as resulting from the Holy Spirit, for
v. 28 says, ‘It seemed good to the Holy Spirit and to us not to burden you
with anything beyond the following requirements’.
Several things are significant from Acts 15 for the purposes of this inquiry.
First, it is remarkable how often the experience of the church through the
hand of God is appealed to in the discussion. Clearly, this somewhat unex-
pected move of God in the life of the church (the inclusion of the Gentiles)
was understood to be the result of the Holy Spirit’s activity. It is particularly
significant that the church seems to have begun with the church’s experi-
ence and only later moves to a consideration of the Scripture.
Second, Peter’s experience in the matter of Gentile conversions has led
him to the conclusion that even to question the Gentile converts’ place in
or means of admission to the church draws dangerously close to testing
God. Apparently Peter means that to question the validity of the Gentile
believers’ standing before God, in the face of what the Spirit has done,
is to come dangerously close to experiencing the wrath of God for such
undiscerning disobedience. In this regard it is probably not without sig-
nificance that earlier in Acts (5.9) Peter asked Sapphira how she could
agree to test the Spirit of the Lord (πειράσαι τὸ πνεῦμα κυρίου) through her
lie. The results of her testing are well known. Is Peter implying a similar
fate for those who stand in the way of the Gentile converts?
Third, Barnabas and Paul are portrayed as discussing primarily, if not
exclusively, their experience of the signs and wonders which God had per-
formed amongst them as a basis for the acceptance of the Gentiles. That
such a statement would stand on its own, says a great deal about the role
of the community’s experience of God in their decision-making process.
Fourth, James also emphasizes the experience of the church through the
activity of God as a reason for accepting the Gentile converts. It is clear that
Luke intends the readers to understand that James adds his own support to
the experience of the Spirit in the church, for James does not simply restate
Peter’s earlier words, he puts his own interpretive spin upon them.
Fifth, it is at this point that Scripture is appealed to for the first time
in the discussion. One of the interesting things about the passage cited
(Amos 9.11–12) is that its appeal seems primarily to have been that it
agreed with their experience of God in the church.7 But how did James
(and the church with him) settle on this particular text? Did Amos intend
7 As L.T. Johnson [Scripture and Discernment: Decision Making in the Church (Nashville,
TN: Abingdon, 1996), p. 105] observes, ‘What is remarkable, however, is that the text is con-
firmed by the narrative [events previously narrated in Acts], not the narrative by Scripture’.
what James claims that the text means? Could not the believers from the
religious party of the Pharisees have appealed with equal or greater valid-
ity to other texts that speak about Israel’s exclusivity and the Gentiles’
relationship to Israel (cf. esp. Exod. 19.5; Deut. 7.6; 14.2; 26.18–19)?
When one reads the Hebrew text of Amos 9.11–12, or a translation based
upon the Hebrew text, it becomes immediately obvious that there is no
explicit reference to the inclusion of Gentiles as part of the people of God.
In point of fact, in the Hebrew text, Amos says that God will work on
behalf of the descendants of David ‘so that they may possess the remnant
of Edom and all the nations, which are called by the name, says the Lord
that does this’. Although it is possible to read the reference to Edom and
the other nations in a negative or retaliatory sense, it is also possible to see
here an implicit promise concerning how Edom (one of the most hostile
enemies of Israel) and other nations will themselves be brought into the
(messianic) reign of a future Davidic king.8 Whether or not such a mean-
ing was intended by Amos is unclear.
By way of contrast, the lxx rendering of Amos 9.11–12 seems to intend
a message about the inclusion of other individuals and nations who seek
to follow God. At this crucial point, the text of Acts is much closer to the
lxx, which reads, ‘That the remnant of men and all the Gentiles, upon
whom my name is called, may seek after (me), says the Lord who does
these things’. The difference in the Hebrew text and the lxx seems to have
resulted, in part, from reading Edom (‫ )אדום‬as Adam (‫ )אדם‬and taking the
verb ‘they shall possess’ (‫ )יירשו‬as ‘they shall seek’ (‫)ידרשו‬.9 Whatever may
account for this rendering,10 it is clear that James, as described in Acts
15.17, shows a decided preference for the lxx’s more inclusive reading.
But why did James choose this particular text for support when other
Old Testament passages appear to offer better and clearer support for the
inclusion of Gentiles within the people of God? Such a choice is difficult
8 So argues W.C. Kaiser, ‘The Davidic Promise and the Inclusion of the Gentiles (Amos
9:9–15 and Acts 15:13–18): A Test Passage for Theological Systems’, JETS 20 (1977), p. 102.
9 C.F. Keil, Minor Prophets (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1975), p. 334 n. 1 and D.A. Hub-
bard, Joel & Amos (Leicester; IVP, 1989), p. 242.
10 Some argue a Hebrew text that challenges the MT at this point lies behind the lxx.
Cf. M.A. Braun, ‘James’ Use of Amos at the Jerusalem Council: Steps Toward a Possible
Solution of the Textual and Theological Problems’, JETS 20 (1977), p. 116. R.J. Bauckham
(‘James and the Jerusalem Church’, in The Book of Acts in Its First Century Setting, vol. 4;
Palestinian Setting [ed. R.J. Bauckham; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1995), pp. 415–80)
argues that the composition and interpretation of the Scriptural quotation in 15.16–18 is
the result of ‘the skilled use of contemporary Jewish exegetical methods and . . .’ (how)
‘. . . the quotation is exegetical linked with the terms of the apostolic decree’ (p. 453).
to understand until one views it within the broader context of the Lucan
narratives. Specifically, Luke seems concerned to demonstrate that the
promises made to David are fulfilled in Jesus and thus have implications
for the church.
In the gospel, Joseph is identified as a descendant of David (1.27). The
angel speaks to Mary regarding Jesus saying, ‘The Lord God will give him
the throne of his father David, and he will reign over the house of Jacob
forever; his kingdom will never end’ (1.32–33). Zechariah (apparently)
speaks of Jesus when he says, ‘He has raised up a horn of salvation for us
in the house of his servant David’ (1.69). Joseph and Mary go to the city of
David for the census because Joseph is of the house and line of David (2.4).
Later, the angels direct the shepherds to the city of David to find Christ
the Lord (2.11). In Luke’s genealogy of Jesus, David is mentioned (3.31). In
a dispute over the Sabbath Jesus appeals to the actions of David (6.3). The
blind beggar near Jericho addresses Jesus as the Son of David when he
calls for help (18.38–39). In a discussion with the Sadducees and teachers
of the Law Jesus says that although the Messiah is called Son of David,
David calls him Lord (20.41–44).
This same emphasis continues in the book of Acts. Peter states that
the Holy Spirit spoke Scripture through the mouth of David (1.16). In the
Pentecost sermon Peter attributes scripture to David again (2.25) and says
that he foretold the resurrection of Jesus (2.29–36). A little later in the
narrative David is again identified as one through whom the Holy Spirit
spoke (4.25). In Stephen’s speech David is described as one who enjoyed
God’s favor (7.45). Several references to David are found in chapter 13 in
Paul’s sermon at Pisidian Antioch. David is said to have been a man after
God’s own heart whose descendant is the Savior Jesus (13.22–23). Jesus is
said to have been given ‘the holy and sure blessings promised to David’
(13.34) and his death is contrasted with that of David (13.36).
That Luke would continue his emphasis on David should surprise no
one. It would appear then, that part of the reason for the choice of this
particular text from Amos is to continue the emphasis on the continuity
between David and Jesus. It may also be significant that the first citation
of Amos (5.25–27) in Acts (7.42–44) speaks of exile, while Acts 15 speaks
of restoration.11 Consequently, to cite the rebuilding of David’s fallen tent
11 For a comprehensive discussion of this approach cf. P.-A. Peulo, Le problème ecclésial
des Acts à la lumière de deux prophéties d’Amos (Paris: Cerf, 1985). ). Cf. also J. Dupont,
‘ “Je rebâtirai la cabane de David qui est tombée” (Ac 15, 16 = Am 9, 11)’ in Glaube und Escha-
tologie (ed. E. Grässer and O. Merk; Tübingen: J.C.B. Mohr [Paul Siebeck], 1985), pp. 19–32.
as the context for the admission of Gentiles into Israel was perhaps the
most effective way of making this point.
Sixth, James rather clearly speaks with authority as he discloses his
decision. That the decision is closely tied to the previous discussions is
indicated by the use of therefore (διὸ). That James has the authority to
render a verdict is suggested by the emphatic use of the personal pronoun
I (ἐγὼ κρίνω). But as the epistle itself reveals (v. 24), the decision was one
that involved the whole group and the guidance of the Holy Spirit.
Seventh, several stipulations were imposed upon the Gentile converts.
Most significant is the omission of a reference to circumcision. Aside from
the directive to abstain from sexual immorality, the other commands refer
to food laws. Their intent is a bit puzzling. Are they to be seen as the
lowest common denominator of the Torah’s dietary laws or as the true
meaning of the food laws? Are they intended to be seen as universally
valid? The practice of the later church (and perhaps Paul’s own advice
in 1 Cor. 8.1–13) has not viewed the food laws as binding, however.12 Per-
haps it is best to view them as (temporary) steps to ensure table fellow-
ship between Jewish and Gentile believers. When the composition of the
church changed to a predominately Gentile constituency, it appears that
these directives regarding food were disregarded.
III
What sort of hermeneutical paradigm may be deduced from the method

of the Jerusalem Council and what are the components of this model?
Of the many things that might be said perhaps the most obvious is the
role of the community in the interpretive process. Several indicators in
the text justify this conclusion. 1) It is the community that has gathered
together in Acts 15. Such a gathering suggests that for the author of Acts it
was absolutely essential for the (entire?) community to be in on the inter-
M. Turner (Power from on High: The Spirit in Israel’s Restoration and Witness in Luke-Acts
[JPTS 9; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996], pp. 314–15) argues strongly for a inter-
pretation which emphasizes ‘. . . that Zion’s restoration is well under way as a consequence
of Jesus’ exaltation to David’s throne’.
12 There is some evidence that the decree regarding food was still followed as late as
177 CE in Gaul. Eusebius’ report (E.H. V.1.26) of one female Christian’s response to her
tormentor, shortly before her martyrdom, illustrates this point. She said, ‘How would such
men eat children, when they are not allowed to eat the blood even of irrational animals?’
(cited according to the translation of K. Lake, Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History I [London:
Heinemann, 1926], p. 419.
pretive decision reached. 2) It is the community that is able to give and

receive testimony as well as assess the reports of God’s activity in the lives
of those who are part of the community. 3) Despite James’ leading role in
the process, it is evident that the author of Acts regarded the decision as
coming from the community under the leadership of the Holy Spirit. All
of this evidence suggests that any model of hermeneutics which seeks to
built upon Acts 15 cannot afford to ignore the significant role of the com-
munity in that process.
A second element which must be mentioned at this juncture is the role
the Holy Spirit plays in this interpretive event. In point of fact, appeal is
made to the action of God and/or the Holy Spirit so often in this pericope
that it is somewhat startling to many modern readers. For not only is the
final decision of the Council described as seeming good to the Holy Spirit,
but the previous activity of the Spirit in the community also spoke very
loudly to the group being in part responsible for the text chosen as most
appropriate for this particular context. Such explicit dependence upon the
Spirit in the interpretive process clearly goes far beyond the rather tame
claims regarding ‘illumination’ which many conservatives (and Pentecos-
tals) have often made regarding the Spirit’s role in interpretation. While
a model based on Acts 15 would no doubt make room for illumination in
the Spirit’s work, it would include a far greater role for the work of the
Spirit in the community as the context for interpretation. While concerns
about the dangers of subjectivism must be duly noted, the evidence of
Acts 15 simply will not allow for a more restrained approach.
The final prominent component in this interpretive paradigm is the
place of the biblical text itself. Several observations are called for here. First,
the methodology revealed in Acts 15 is far removed from the historical-
critical or historical-grammatical approach where one moves from text to
context. On this occasion, the interpreters moved from their context to the
biblical text. Second, the passage cited in Acts 15 was chosen out of a much
larger group of Old Testament texts which were, at the very least, diverse
in terms of whether Gentiles were to be included or excluded from the
people of God. It appears that the experience of the Spirit in the commu-
nity helped the church make its way through this hermeneutical maze. In
other words, despite the fact that there were plenty of texts that appeared
to teach that there was no place for the Gentiles as Gentiles in the people
of God, the Spirit’s witness heavily influenced the choice and use of scrip-
ture. Third, scripture was also apparently drawn on in the construction of
certain stipulations imposed upon the Gentile converts to ensure table fel-
lowship between Jewish Christian and Gentile Christian believers. This step
seems to have been a temporary one and these stipulations in no way treat
the Gentile converts as less than Christian nor as inferior to their Jewish-
Christian brothers and sisters. These points unmistakably reveal that the
biblical text was assigned and functioned with a great deal of authority in
this hermeneutical approach. However, in contrast to the way in which
propositional approaches to the issue of authority function, Acts 15 reveals
that the text’s authority is not unrelated to its relevance to the community,
its own diversity of teaching on a given topic, and the role which the scrip-
ture plays in the constructing of temporary or transitional stipulations for
the sake of fellowship in the community.
In sum, the proposed Pentecostal hermeneutic built on Acts 15 has
three primary components: the community, the activity of the Spirit, and
the Scripture. In order to gauge the usefulness of this paradigm, it will
now be tested by addressing a specific particularly difficult issue currently
facing the church.
IV
Perhaps one of the most significant current debates within the ecclesi-
astical world is that regarding the role of women in the ministry of the
church. A number of problems complicate the issue, not least of which is
the fact that the New Testament evidence ranges from texts that describe
women as active participants in ministry to those that advocate the (com-
plete) silence of women in the church. Although various approaches to
these texts have been followed, for many interpreters the question comes
down to one, did Paul (or someone writing in his name) mean what he
said regarding silence? Normally, one of three interpretive decisions is
made. 1) One possibility is that Paul intended for women to remain silent
and, therefore, outside the ministry of the church. The passages which
appear to advocate a leading role for women must mean something else
or, at the least, be interpreted in a fashion that would not contradict the
silence passages. 2) Another option is to say that Paul meant what he said
regarding silence but did not intend these statements to be taken as uni-
versally applicable. Rather, they were directed to specific situations and
have nothing, or very little, to contribute to the broader question. 3) Still
another approach is to say that Paul simply did not mean what he seems
to have said. Therefore, these texts do not contradict those which assign
a leading role to women in the ministry of the church.
Each of these interpretive options, regardless of the theological orienta-
tion of the interpreters, is grounded in a somewhat rationalistic approach
to the biblical text, which seeks to determine, primarily through historical-

critical investigation, the meaning of these passages and how it is that
they might fit together. For the most part, Pentecostals have followed the
lead of others in attempting to come to a decision regarding this crucial
issue. Unfortunately, there exists at present a logjam in most Pentecostal
groups that shows few signs of breaking up. It is to this issue that the
paradigm contained in Acts 15 is now applied.
The Pentecostal Community

As with the approach found in Acts 15, the appropriate place to begin this
discussion is with the community in which this attempt at interpretation
is to take place. Pentecostals should have little trouble with this com-
ponent for the movement itself has been one in which community has
played a leading role. For our purposes, the community is here defined as
those individuals called out of the world by God who have experienced
salvation through Jesus Christ and are empowered by the Holy Spirit to
do the work of ministry in this present world. This community could be
a single, local Spirit-filled body or a group (or denomination[s]) of such
congregations. One of the crucial elements would be the presence of a suf-
ficient level of knowledge of one another, accountability, and discernment
within this community to safeguard against the dangers of an uncontrolled
subjectivism and/or a rampant individualism. It would be a community
whose shared experience of the Spirit would allow for testimony to be
given, received, and evaluated in the light of Scripture. Therefore, as far
as this issue is concerned, interpretation is no private affair, in the sole
possession of scholars, but is the responsibility of the community. This
observation remains valid even if, as in Acts 15, a group of leaders repre-
senting the larger group is called upon to perform such a function.
The Work of the Holy Spirit

It is within such a community that the experiences of the Spirit, or the acts
of God, are manifested. As in Acts 15, the activity of God is made known
to the larger community through testimonies about the work of the Holy
Spirit. What sorts of testimonies would such a Pentecostal community
hear regarding the role of women within the movement, and from whence
would they come? The testimonies from the past found in the pages of
publications from around the world like the Apostolic Faith, Bridegroom’s
Messenger, Church of God Evangel, Pentecostal Holiness Advocate, Pentecos-
tal Evangel, and many others would bear witness to the fact that God has
gifted women to do the work of ministry in the Pentecostal revival. The
ministerial records from various denominational archives would reveal

the ways in which the Spirit has endowed sons and daughters with gifts
for ministries that circle the globe and manifest themselves in the planting
of churches, founding of schools and orphanages, publishing newsletters
and magazines, working with the poor and oppressed, as well as singing,
preaching, teaching, and supporting the church financially. In addition
to these forms of testimony, would not those converted, sanctified, Spirit
Baptized, healed and called into the harvest through the ministries of our
sisters join in the raising of their voices as to God’s actions among us?
In the face of such powerful testimonies to the activity of God in the
church, is a response like Peter’s not appropriate—why do you wish to test
God by placing restrictions upon the ministry of our Pentecostal sisters?
If indeed God is giving gifts to women for ministry, are we not in dan-
ger of divine wrath if we test God by ignoring his actions? What if there
are some in the broader community who object that they have not seen
such ministry among women? One could only respond that most of those
in Jerusalem had not seen Gentile converts with their own eyes, but in the
end were willing to accept the testimony of others who had witnessed such
conversions. At least within the Pentecostal community, the work of the
Spirit would lead most to the conclusion that God does intend for women
to take a leading role in ministry. But what about the biblical texts? Do
they not, at least in some respects, contradict what the Spirit appears to
be doing in the community? How should these texts be approached and
what exactly do they tell us about women in ministry?
The Role of the Scripture

The dilemma at this point is the nature of the biblical evidence itself. For,
in truth, the New Testament seems both to affirm and deny a leading role
for women in the ministry of the church.
On the one hand, it must be acknowledged honestly that there are pas-
sages which state that women are to remain silent in the congregation
(1 Cor. 14.33b–35) and under no circumstances are they permitted to teach
or have authority over a man but must be silent (1 Tim. 2.11–12). Both texts
have proven to be notoriously difficult to interpret in part because they
seem to be contradicted or at the least modified by other passages in the
same epistle (1 Cor. 11.5) or group of epistles (Titus 2.4).13
13 One Pentecostal scholar goes so far as to suggest that the passage found in 1 Cor.
14.33b–35 is a later interpolation into the text. This somewhat radical decision is based
On the other hand, there are a number of texts which appear to assume
a prominent role for women in the church’s ministry. These texts indi-
cate that: 1) it was expected that women had the gift of prophecy (Acts
21.9) and/or would pray and prophesy in the community’s public worship
(1 Cor. 11.3–16); 2) women were regarded as co-laborers in ministry by Paul
(Rom. 16.3, 12; Phil. 4.3); 3) somewhat technical terminology for minis-
try functions could be assigned to women, note in particular the term
διάκονον (Rom. 16.1) and the use of ἀπόστολος in Rom. 16.7;14 4) a woman
could take the lead in instructing a man more fully in the way of the Lord
(Acts 18.26), and 5) women hosted house churches (Acts 12.12; Rom. 16.3;
1 Cor. 16.19; Col. 4.15), which no doubt included more than simply provid-
ing space for worship.15
In the light of the experience of God in the community, there can really
be no doubt which texts are most relevant to Pentecostals on the question
regarding the role of women in the ministry of the church. Simply put, it
would appear that given the Spirit’s activity, those texts which testify to
a prominent role for women in the church’s ministry are the ones which
should be given priority in offering direction for the Pentecostal church
on this crucial issue. To the objection that might be raised on the basis
of the silence passages, one can only respond that this objection is quite
similar to the one that some of those present in Acts 15 could have pro-
duced regarding the exclusion of Gentiles. Despite the fact that a couple
of silence passages do indeed exist, the powerful testimony of the Spirit
in the life of the church coupled with numerous New Testament passages
that clearly support a prominent role for women in ministry necessitate
a course of action which not only makes room for women in the ministry
of the church but also seeks to enlist all the talents of these largely under
utilized servants of the Lord in the most effective way possible for work
in the harvest.
A final way in which the Scripture might function in grappling with this
issue concerns the possible need for the adoption of temporary stipula-
tions in order to preserve the ‘table fellowship’ of the broader community.
As with those adopted in Acts 15, these stipulations should be grounded
almost wholly on internal considerations. Cf. G.D. Fee, First Corinthians (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1987), pp. 699–705.
14 There may even have been an order of widows in the early church (1 Tim. 5.9–10).
15 Cf. the relevant discussions in D. Birkey, The House Church: A Model for Renewing the
Church (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1988), and V. Branick, The House Church in the Writ-
ings of Paul (Wilmington, DE: Michael Glazier, 1989).
in the biblical tradition, in no way serve to undermine the legitimacy of

women as ministers, and most likely be looked upon as temporary stipula-
tions for the sake of genuine sensitivities on the part of some, both male
and female, in the larger community of faith. However, it must perhaps
be observed from the outset that the cultural and social context of a given
community will be quite important in determining the specific stipula-
tions adopted and could very well mean that stipulations might vary some
in different parts of the world.
Chapter Seven
Pentecostal Bible Reading: Toward a Model of Reading

for the Formation of the Affections*
Robert O. Baker**
Introduction
James sits quietly in his room. He stares blankly out of his window. His
slackened face yields no awareness of the world around him. During his
bad spells he will go days without speaking or acknowledging that he is
spoken to. On a good day, those times when he will interact with those
around him, he speaks with a passionless, flat voice, never betraying any
emotion. Like most chronic schizophrenia patients, James suffers from
anhedonia, a syndrome that is thought to be caused by damage to the
brain’s neural reward mechanism, rendering the afflicted individual unable
to experience joy, affection, desire, pride, or humor.1 With the exception
of the loss of pride, much New Testament criticism today would seem to
be like the work of a schizophrenic on a good day.
New Testament scholarship in general has displayed at least one of
the major symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia. It lacks emotion. In their
attempt to arrive at a scientific objective understanding of the text, schol-
ars have inadvertently distorted the meaning of the texts they seek to
explain. To seek to understand the ideational/rational content of a text
without also seeking to experience and reflect upon its emotive effect is
to skew the text’s message. A rational approach to the biblical text is in
effect, then, a schizophrenic one. By committing to read the text objec-
tively from a critical distance, the professional reader subverts the text’s
evocative power or is at least unable to express the feeling that the text
evokes in him or her.

** Robert O. Baker (PhD, Baylor University) currently resides in Bradenton, FL USA.
1 M.E. Walsh, Schizophrenia: Straight Talk for Family and Friends (Warner Home Medi-
cal Library; New York: Warner, 1985), pp. 39–49.
96 robert o. baker
Probably all of us have experienced certain affective responses as we

have read biblical narratives, but these subjective feelings have not gen-
erally been seen as the domain of critical scholarship. Commenting upon
the rational focus of contemporary reader-response criticism, Stephen
Moore quoting Jonathan Culler has noted:
The experiences that modern audience-oriented critics ascribe to their
hypothetical readers are in contrast to their ancient or Renaissance coun-
terparts, ‘generally cognitive rather than affective: not feeling shivers along
the spine, weeping in sympathy, or being transported with awe, but having
one’s expectations proved false, struggling with an irresolvable ambiguity, or
questioning the assumptions upon which one has relied.2
To focus on the affective impact of a text places the critical scholar into
the subjective realm of the emotions, decentering him or her from the
objective distance that the biblical studies guild values so highly.3
Pentecostal scholars are in a unique position to deconstruct the Enlight-
enment myth and ideal of critical and passionless objectivity. As Pentecos-
tals, we focus not only on orthodoxy (right belief), but also on orthopraxy
(right action), and orthopathy (right feeling). Steven J. Land rightly notes
that this threefold emphasis collapses the false dichotomy between reason
and feelings.4 Pentecostal readings, being informed by such a synthesis,
are more holistic than has traditionally been the case in scholarly circles.
In the present intellectual climate of postmodernism and deconstruction,
where there is a breakdown of metaphysical hierarchies—object/subject,
content/form, body/soul, scholarly/confessional—it would seem that the
biblical studies guild is now more open to the holistic readings that Pente-
costal scholars can bring to the field. Our agenda includes pushing at the
edges of traditional concerns, moving beyond the discovery of a history
behind the text, or the ideology of biblical discourse, toward an articu-
lation of the formative rhetoric of the Christian canon. In this paper, I
hope to take a few modest steps toward articulating how reading the Bible
affects readers in their entire person.
I realized the importance of the emotional impact of the Scriptures on
a particularly painful occasion. Word came to my family that my pater-
2 J. Culler, On Deconstruction: Theory and Criticism after Structuralism (Ithaca, NY: Cor-
nell University Press, 1982), p. 39, quoted in S.D. Moore, Literary Criticism and the Gospels
(New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989), p. 96.
3 Moore, Literary Criticism, p. 97.
4 S.J. Land, Pentecostal Spirituality: A Passion for the Kingdom (JPTSup, 1; Sheffield: Shef-
field Academic Press, 1993), pp. 13–14.
pentecostal bible reading 97
nal grandfather was near death. I was a teenager at the time and it had
been several years since I had seen my grandparents. It was of singular
importance to be with my grandfather one last time. A flurry of activity
ensued: the purchase of plane tickets, the hurried packing of bags, a rush
to the airport, and a desperate wait to see if we would even be allowed
on the last flight that evening. When we arrived at the small regional air-
port, a family member was waiting and took us directly to the hospital.
As we approached the nursing station, a nurse held up her hand, signal-
ing us to wait until she finished her phone conversation. As we stood
and waited she said into the phone, ‘Doctor, I wanted to inform you that
Mr Baker just expired.’ Those words crushed me. All of the hurry then
seemed pointless.
My father asked the nurse to refrain from notifying my grandmother,
as he preferred to tell her himself. We arrived at my grandparents’ home
at about 3 am. My grandmother was awake, waiting for us. As I walked
into the living room to give her a hug I saw her worn Bible open to
John 14, ‘I go to prepare a place for you’. She had been reading in her chair
before our arrival, drawing comfort from the Scriptures. My father told
her, ‘Dad’s gone.’
‘I know,’ she said, ‘they called me.’
‘I told them not to call, I didn’t want you to be by yourself when you
found out.’
‘I wasn’t alone.’
That simple affirmation and the knowledge that she had been reading
from John evoked in me an awareness of the comforting presence of God.
There was no decrease in sorrow, but I knew that God was with us in our
sorrow. ‘I go to prepare a place for you.’ It is ironic. A passage that osten-
sibly communicates the absence of Jesus communicated to my family in
that time of loss the presence of Jesus. My reading of Jn 14.1–2 perhaps did
not reflect the straightforward meaning of the text, but it certainly was an
affective reading.
My example points out some of the problems of reading the Scriptures
for affect: problems that this paper will by no means completely overcome.
Emotional response is both highly subjective and contextual. Whether or
not the readers have had their morning cup of coffee or how they are get-
ting along with their spouse affects their affect. Different readers will feel
differently when reading the same text. The same reader may feel differ-
ently when performing a second reading of a text. It is this subjectivity of
reading for affect that makes it a difficult topic to examine and discourse
upon critically.
98 robert o. baker
In this paper I will attempt to outline an approach to doing an affec-

tive reading in the New Testament. I will then seek to apply it to the pas-
sion of Jesus in John as a test case. It is important however to examine
first some theoretical and methodological presuppositions for performing
such a reading.
Roland Barthes
Roland Barthes in The Pleasure of the Text proposes that reading is an

erotic activity that can result either in pleasure or bliss. The text of plea-
sure is defined as follows:
The text that contents, fills, grants euphoria; the text that comes from culture
and does not break with it is linked to a comfortable practice of reading.5
On the other hand, the text of bliss is defined as follows:
The text that imposes a state of loss, the text that discomforts (perhaps
to the point of a certain boredom), unsettles the reader’s historical, cultural,
psychological assumptions, the consistency of his tastes, values, memories,
and brings to a crisis his relation with language.6
Simply stated, the former affirms the reading subject. The latter confronts
and affronts the reading subject.
Roland Barthes is a semiotician. As such his theory of criticism focuses
on societal myths and the nature of language itself. For Barthes a myth
is that which makes social structures appear natural, the way things are
meant to be. Therefore texts that challenge our social assumptions or
demythologize them could function as blissful texts. An example of a
myth is the view of women in the 1950s. At that time it seemed natural to
many persons that a husband should go to work and a wife should stay
at home and care for the couple’s children. In retrospect Barthes would
argue that there was nothing natural about this arrangement at all. What
made the arrangement seem natural was the ideology by which males
oppressed females. The text of bliss then unmasks ideology for what it
really is: not nature but social power.7 The text that challenges our social
assumptions, our ideologies, is blissful. The end of bliss is anarchy because
in the blissful text the reading subject experiences an abrupt loss of his
5 R. Barthes, The Pleasure of the Text (trans. R. Miller; New York: Hill & Wang, 1975),
p. 14.
6 Barthes, Pleasure, p. 14.
7 R. Barthes, Mythologies (trans. J. Cape; New York: Noonday Press, 1972), pp. 118–31.
or her relationship to society resulting in complete solitude.8 The bliss of

the reader is the contemplation of the destruction of all culture and his
or her selfhood.9
As a semiotician Barthes is also concerned with the reader’s relation-
ship to language. The text of pleasure confirms the reader’s relationship to
language. Such discourse is ‘obedient, conformist, and plagiarizing’.10 The
text of bliss on the other hand affronts the reader, it represents the death
of language.11 The text of pleasure is a ‘readerly’ text; that is, it maintains
the reader’s comfortable relationship to language. The text of bliss how-
ever is a ‘writerly’ text; that is, there is a rupture or disfiguration of lan-
guage.12 The author is dead,13 there is no definite correspondence between
the signifier and the signified, the reader himself or herself infuses his or
her own meaning into the sign from the reading side.
The above synthesis of Barthes’ position represents an extreme sim-
plification of his views. He is difficult to understand and often seems to
revel in contradicting himself. While Barthes’ approach to literature is not
appropriate to the type of reading that I would like to perform, there are a
few attractive features to his work.14 He speaks about language and liter-
ary texts with a passion that is refreshing when compared to the sterility
of much Anglo-Germanic discourse in the New Testament arena. A sec-
ond strength of his work is that he speaks of a text’s power both to affirm
and to confront, to comfort, and to challenge. In addition he lays down
certain criteria for determining what makes a text pleasurable or blissful.
Although one may not entirely agree with Barthes’ approach to affective
reading, his work makes one point clear: alternative reading of texts can
be done in a scholarly manner.
While Barthes’ approach to reading literature has some attractive fea-
tures it has some drawbacks as well. Barthes’ views on language are not
helpful for a discussion of the New Testament. It is difficult to see how
the blissful state of complete isolation from society and from the meaning
13 See Barthes’ essay, ‘The Death of the Author’, in Image Music Text (trans. S. Heath;
New York: Noonday Press, 1977), pp. 142–48.
14 Barthes has in fact shown some interest in studying biblical texts. For an example
see ‘The Struggle with the Angel: Textual Analysis of Genesis 32.32–33’, in Image Music
Text, pp. 125–41.
100 robert o. baker
of language can advance our understanding of literature that purports to

reveal God. If language is meaningless, then there is no meaningful revela-
tion and the effect of Scripture is to show that there is no signification,
no meaning, no God.
The second deficiency of Barthes’ work for my purposes is his erotic use
of language. The word translated ‘bliss’ is the French word jouissance, an
everyday polite term for orgasm. I do not care to do an orgasmic reading
of the New Testament, nor do I think such a reading would be appropri-
ate. Barthes’ language is unabashedly erotic, and many of his examples
are highly suggestive.15 Using sexually charged language is not the most
appropriate means of speaking about biblical texts. Most biblical texts are
not erotic, therefore it would seem appropriate to use another terminol-
ogy for its affective impact.16
Finding an Appropriate Affective Terminology
It is not unreasonable to assume that the Bible contains texts designed to

evoke not just proper understanding (orthodoxy) or just proper actions
(orthopraxy) but also proper feeling (orthopathy17 or orthokardia).18 To
get at the affective impact of Bible reading it is important to use language
that is consonant with the language of the Scriptures themselves. Gregory S.
Clapper offers a framework that is more suitable than Barthes’ approach
for discussing the affective impact of the Scriptures in his book John Wesley
on Religious Affections: His Views on Experience and Emotion and their Role
in the Christian Life and Theology.
There are two advantages to utilizing Clapper’s terminology. First of
all he speaks of Christian affections as being more stable and enduring
than just mood and emotion; he proposes that Christian affections are
more like virtues.19 Steven Land, who argues for a similar view of Christian
affections, offers the following explanation:
Love in particular and Christian affections in general are not passing feel-
ings or sensate episodes. Affections are abiding dispositions which dispose
the person toward God and the neighbor in ways appropriate to their source
15 Among Barthes’ favorite literary examples is the Marquis de Sade.

16 Two possible examples of erotic biblical texts might be Song of Songs and Revelation.
17 Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, p. 41.
18 G.S. Clapper, John Wesley on Religious Affections (Pietist and Wesleyan Studies, 1:
Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, 1989), pp. 154–56.
19 Clapper, John Wesley, p. 85.
and goal in God. Feelings are important but they come and go, are mixed
and of varying degrees of intensity. Moods too are variable, but affections
characterize a person. One might, with adrenaline flowing, heart pumping
and mood considerably elevated, breathe a silent thanks after a near miss
on the highway. But this does not mean that one is a grateful person, much
less a thankful Christian.20
So it may be seen that focusing on affections offers a distinct advantage
for doing an affective reading. Affections are less variable and less context-
dependent than are emotions or moods. Reading for affections frees the
reader to focus on the features of the text rather than on the variable
contexts of the reading audience.
The second advantage is that the language used by Clapper to describe
Christian affections is more akin to the language used in the New Tes-
tament itself. Clapper enumerates the Christian affections as follows:
thankfulness or gratitude; faith, which is more like personal trust than
an affirmation of propositions; hope, the assurance of God’s present work
in believers and of future glory; love, ‘the sum of all religion, the genu-
ine model of Christianity’; fear, a holy awe that leads to repentance; joy,
which the believer can experience even in sorrow or abject circumstances;
and temperance, an abstinence from pleasures that do not lead to God.21
The similarity of affective language between the Gospel of John and
Clapper is striking. Note the following examples from John:
Love
This is my commandment, that you love one another as I have loved you.
No one has greater love than this, to lay down one’s life for one’s friends
(15.12–13).22
Peace and Courage
I have said this to you, so that in me you may have peace. In the world you
face persecution. But take courage; I have conquered the world! (16.33).
Fear or Awe expressed in worship
He said, ‘Lord, I believe.’ And he worshiped him (9.38).
Thomas answered him, ‘My Lord and My God!’ (20.28).
These few examples make it clear that while there is not an exact cor-
respondence, the affective language provided by Clapper, at least in the

21 Clapper, John Wesley, pp. 86–87.
22 All quotations from the Bible are from the NRSV unless otherwise specified.
102 robert o. baker
case of John’s Gospel, offers a closer analogy than Barthes for describing
the affective response anticipated by the implied author of John.
A Reader-Response Theory
The reader-response theory of Wolfgang Iser offers an avenue for per-

forming an affective reading of a biblical text that avoids the weaknesses
of Barthes’ approach while affirming that the reading experience can be
affective as well as cognitive.
Iser’s View of the Text

Iser views the literary text as a communicative object. This object is
intended by an author and is filled with indeterminacies or gaps.23 The
text contains instructions on how those gaps should be correctly filled.24
The text does not refer to some hidden meaning that the interpreter is to
dig out; rather the text is a potential experience that is realized by a flesh-
and-blood reader. The role of the interpreter then is to experience the text
by reading according to the rules of reading contained in the text.25
The Reader
Iser argues that literary texts are so structured that actual readers may
properly fill in the indeterminacies of the text, that is, they may realize the
communication intended by the author.26 Iser defines the implied reader
as ‘those predispositions . . . necessary for a literary work to exercise its
effect’, or as a ‘network of response-inviting structures which impel the
reader to grasp the text’.27 Stated simply the implied reader is a reading
role offered to the actual reader of the text.
The implied reader is a set of rules in the text by which the reader can
form a gestalt from the various perspectives in the text. These perspec-
tives include the perspectives of the narrator, the characters, the plot, and
23 W. Iser, The Act of Reading (trans. D.H. Wilson; Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University
Press, 1978), p. 21.
24 Iser, Reading, p. 38.
26 Iser, Reading, pp. 107–108.
the reader. The convergence of these perspectives is where the meaning

of the intended communication lies.28
The implied reader and the real reader are separate entities. The real
reader is never able fully to suspend his or her disbelief, nor would such
a state be desirable. Just as the literary work lies in a dialectic between
the text and the reader so also the realization of the implied reader lies
between the actual reader reading and the implied reader encoded in
the text.29 It is this reality that makes for multiple readings. Each reading
is ‘a selective realization of the implied reader’.30
For Iser the implied reader is a transcendental identity and it is there-
fore inappropriate to use outside sensibilities as an interpretive prism.
The interpreter’s lens should be ground from the text itself. That is not to
say that real readers do not rely on personal experience to actualize the
text; rather, what Iser objects to is the self-conscious use of qualifications
such as Freudian psychology that are determined before one’s encounter
with the text.31
Therefore to perform an affective reading from the perspective of
Wesley’s understanding of Christian affections would clearly place me
outside of Iser’s approach to reader-response criticism. What I propose to
do however is to read the text from the perspective that there are certain
affections highly valued by the implied reader in John’s narrative world.
It is my argument that the implied reader views the formation of certain
Christian affections as a rhetorical goal of the text. It is the goal of the
implied author that the intended readers should not just have the correct
beliefs, or perform the right actions, but also experience the appropriate
affections.
Iser’s View of Concretization

Concretization is ‘the activity by which the text is put together in read-
ing which leads to the reader’s cognition of it as meaningful experience’.32
The schematic text contains gaps. It is these gaps that the real reader fills
in to create consistency from the literary text.33 By filling in the meanings,
28 Iser, Reading, pp. 35–36.

31 R.C. Holub, ‘Implied Reader’, in I. Makaryk (ed.), Encyclopedia of Contemporary Liter-
ary Theory (Toronto: University of Toronto Press), p. 562.
32 M.J. Valdes, ‘Concretization’, in Makaryk (ed.), Contemporary Literary Theory, p. 527.
104 robert o. baker
the reader creates an aesthetic object, a literary work from the literary
text.34 R. Alan Culpepper sums up the process of concretization nicely:
As the reader adopts the perspectives thrust on him or her by the text, expe-
riences it sequentially, has expectations frustrated or modified, relates one
part of the text to another, and works out all the text leaves for the reader
to do, its meaning is gradually actualized.35
As the actual reader processes the literary text he or she is constantly
seeking to form a consistent narrative.
An Affective Reading of Jesus’ Death in John
My thesis is that the death of Jesus as it is recounted in the Fourth Gospel

(Jn 19.30) is the culmination of two affective-narrative strands woven into
the fabric of John’s narrative. By means of a selective sequential reading, I
will seek to show how John has structured the Gospel in order to inculcate
the Christian affections of love and fear in the actual reader.
By the time the reader of the Fourth Gospel has created the literary
work to the point of Jesus’ death, she or he has formed certain assump-
tions concerning that event. What is it that the reader experiences as he
or she stands at the foot of the cross with the beloved disciple and the
women, those who love Jesus and rejoice at Jesus’ return to the Father
(14.28)? First of all it is a fearful experience.
The Death of Jesus and the Christian Affection of Fear

Fear, it will be recalled, is not a slavish fear, but is more akin to awe. It
is a perception of God in his otherness, his transcendence, his incompre-
hensible greatness.36 In John, this affection is expressed in a worshipful
response to Jesus. In 9.38 the healed blind man worships Jesus after the
revelation that Jesus is the Son of Man. Likewise Thomas worships Jesus
when he is revealed as the resurrected Christ (20.28).
The awe or fear that the Johannine Jesus impresses in the hearts of
believing readers begins in the Gospel’s prologue (1.1–14). It is here that
the reader comes to know the divine origin of Jesus. Before the incarna-

35 R.A. Culpepper, Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1983),
p. 209.
36 Clapper, John Wesley, p. 87.
tion, Jesus was the Logos, coexistent and coeternal with God. It is this
Logos who is the agent of creation. It is this Word who is the life and light
of all humanity. It is this Divine Person who becomes flesh and effects sal-
vation for those who believe in him. It is this One who becomes a human
being and has been witnessed by the implied author of the text. The effect
of the prologue is to give the reader a privileged view of Jesus’ identity by
which he or she can gauge the ensuing events and characters.
What follows the prologue is a variety of encounters between Jesus and
characters in the story world. Mark Stibbe asserts that the primary char-
acteristic of the Johannine Jesus is his ‘mysterious elusiveness’.37 Stibbe
traces the elusive nature of Jesus sequentially through the Gospel. In
chs. 1–5 Jesus’ language is elusive. This elusiveness is reflected in his inter-
action with his mother (2.4), the Jews (2.19–21), Nicodemus (3.3–10), the
Samaritan woman (4.10–15), his disciples (4.31–33), and a royal official
(4.48).38 In 5.1–10.42 Jesus is elusive in regard to his movement. Many
attempts are made to capture Jesus, but he is able to evade all attempts
at apprehension. In chs. 13–17 the elusiveness of Jesus is demonstrated by
the opacity of his farewell discourse to his disciples. In chs. 18–19, Jesus
gives himself to those he eluded previously.39 When the reader comes
to the crucifixion and death of Jesus, she or he has an understanding of
Jesus as the elusive mysterious one, and this understanding creates awe
in the reader.
In addition to the understanding of Jesus from the prologue and the
subsequent characterization of him as the one beyond apprehension, the
reader is also able to draw upon certain predictive statements concerning
Jesus’ death that color his or her understanding and experience of that
event. Specifically, in 10.17–18, Jesus asserts that in his death, he will not
be a victim of evil persons; rather the time, the manner, and the neces-
sity of his death are subordinate to his own authority and the command
of his Father. The reader’s memory of these assertions gives the reader a
perspective for understanding Jesus’ yielding of his spirit not as a failure,
but as a mighty act of God.
Finally, the death of Jesus is depicted as his glorification. In 12.23 Jesus
refers to his impending death as the hour of his glorification, expounding
further that it is a ‘lifting up’ by which he will draw all persons to himself.
37 M. Stibbe, ‘The Elusive Christ: A New Reading of the Fourth Gospel’, JSNT 44 (1991),
p. 20.
38 Stibbe, ‘The Elusive Christ’, p. 36.
39 Stibbe, ‘The Elusive Christ’, pp. 36–37.
106 robert o. baker
The view of Jesus’ death as a glorification instead of just a humiliating

victimization gives the reader reason to worship Jesus, not to flee or hang
his or her head in shame.
The combination of these four elements—the depiction of Jesus as God
in the prologue, the characterization of Jesus as the mysterious elusive
one, the portrayal of his death as an act of his own authority, and the
representation of his death as glorification—create a picture of the cruci-
fied Christ as one who is worthy of the reader’s holy awe and worship. A
sense of this awe may be seen in the first stanza of the hymn ‘In the Cross
of Christ I Glory’:
In the cross of Christ I glory,
Towering o’er the wrecks of time:
All the light of sacred story
Gathers round its head sublime.40
The Death of Jesus and the Christian Affection of Love

The Fourth Gospel is so configured that the integration of the death of
Jesus with the events that have gone before fosters the affection of love in
the reader with Jesus as its primary object. Once again in the prologue the
reader is alerted that Jesus, the Logos become flesh, has come to make
persons the children of God and to give them a new birth. These affirma-
tions create in the reader a sense that whatever follows, Jesus is one who
acts in their behalf.
As the readers create the narrative world, following the actions and
words of Jesus through the story, they arrive at his death with an under-
standing that Jesus is on the cross yielding his life because they, the read-
ers, are the objects of Jesus’ love. Jesus’ predictions and teachings are the
main sources for forming such an understanding. In 6.50–51, Jesus makes
an allusion to his death as the offering of his flesh and that those who par-
take of his flesh will never die. In 10.11–18 Jesus teaches that he lays down
his life as a shepherd would for his or her sheep. He lays down his life
because he knows and cares for his sheep. It becomes increasingly clear to
the reader that whatever Jesus does, he does it in his or her behalf.
In his farewell discourse Jesus teaches his disciples and the readers con-
cerning the significance of his death. Jesus makes it clear that his death
not only reveals that they are the objects of God’s love, but also necessi-
40 J. Bowring, ‘In the Cross of Christ I Glory’, in M.E. Aubrey et al. (eds.), The Baptist
Hymnbook (London: Psalms and Hymns Trust, 1962), p. 178.
tates that they are to be loving subjects as well. He shows the disciples and
the reader that the greatest love imaginable is laying down one’s life for
one’s friends (15.13), that they are loved by Jesus (14.21; 15.9) and the Father
(14.21, 23; 16.27). Those who love Jesus are required to obey his command-
ments (14.15; 15.9). In fact, loving one another is requisite to abiding in the
love of Jesus.
As Jesus suffers the humiliation of arrest, trial, crucifixion, and death,
the reader understands the cross as the ultimate expression of love for
him or her. As the reader stands there with the others and together they
see him offer up his life, they love and worship him. They see Jesus as
worthy of all their life and all their love. Isaac Watts expresses the senti-
ment well:
But drops of tears can ne’er repay the debt of love I owe.
Here Lord, I give myself away; ‘tis all that I can do.41
In the Place of a Conclusion: Some Reflections on Process and Method
I have sought to demonstrate that reading the Bible is not just a cognitive
experience, but an affective one as well. As a test case, I offered a reading
of Jesus’ death in the Fourth Gospel. It is my argument that the death of
Jesus is so narrated and so related to the rest of the story that it fosters
the formation of the Christian affections love and fear. The question I
pose to myself now is: how well have I succeeded in my task? This study
raises many more questions than answers. I have had the feeling as I have
reflected on the subject matter, researched sources and sought to organize
my ideas into some sort of cogent argument that I am on to something
significant: namely, that Bible reading is an affective experience and that
this experience is the proper domain of critical biblical research. At this
time, however, I have no sense that I have a handle on how to discourse
on the affective impact of Bible reading.
I followed to the best of my ability the phenomenological approach of
Iser. His model is more formalist than other reader-response approaches,
which allows for reading a text more on its own terms. I question, how-
ever, whether or not I have read the text on its own terms. I drew my
understanding of affections from a 1989 dissertation on John Wesley’s views
of Christian affections. While Wesley’s terminology would seem to offer
the possibility of performing a reading that would benefit the believing
41 I. Watts, ‘Alas and Did My Savior Bleed’, in R.P. Job et al. (eds.), The United Methodist
Hymnal (Nashville: The United Methodist Publishing House, 1989), p. 294.
108 robert o. baker
community, nonetheless, I fear that I may have distorted the affective

experience by the grid I have brought. What remains to be done is in-
depth analysis of the affective language in the Fourth Gospel in order that
its affective rhetoric might be understood on its own terms.
My final question is a methodological one. Iser views the text as nonref-
erential, in the sense that it does not refer to a hidden meaning. The text
for him represents one half of a communication event. The text requires
a reader to complete the circuit of communication. By constructing a nar-
rative from the schematic text, the reader’s view of his or her own world
is then transformed. What is the relationship between participating in the
formation of the story-world and the transformation of the reader? I do not
know that Iser has an answer to this question. It may be that the unan-
swered question is a weakness of his model (or my understanding of it).
It is my hunch that it is important to focus on the referential function
of the biblical text. The Gospels do not refer only to an imaginative story-
world, nor primarily to the historical Jesus, nor to the historical communi-
ties that produced these documents. The primary referent of the Gospels
is the resurrected Christ, who is present to those he loves. It is this tran-
scendent referent that makes me doubt the maxim that there is ‘no sharp
distinction between sacred and profane hermeneutics’.42
Clearly the Scriptures are special texts, having been inspired by the
Holy Spirit. Truly to understand the message of biblical texts, one must
submit to the Spirit who breathed the Scriptures and indwells the read-
ing process. A reading strategy that coheres with and is informed by Pen-
tecostal spirituality is a treasure that Pentecostal scholars can offer the
church and its scribes. Pentecostal Bible reading is a bridge to our non-
charismatic family in Christ. Crossing that bridge will result in our inform-
ing and being informed by the history and present practices of biblical
interpretation.
42 F. Kermode, foreword to Culpepper, Anatomy of the Fourth Gospel, p. vi.

Chapter eight
Deuteronomy and the Fire of God:

A Critical Charismatic Interpretation*
Rickie D. Moore**
This study proposes a fresh approach toward something scarcely seen in

biblical scholarship until recently—a literary theological reading of the
entire book of Deuteronomy.1 My treatment finds the theme of the fiery
revelation of God at Horeb at the heart of the book, something which
modern biblical scholarship heretofore has hardly noticed.2
My subtitle has double meaning. On the one hand, I am offering and
urging an approach to the biblical text that is critical and at the same time
charismatic, in the sense of its self-conscious commitment to read the
biblical text through the lens of Pentecostal experience and confession.
On the other hand, I want to say that the book of Deuteronomy is itself an
act of interpretation that is, in a similar way, both charismatic and critical.
Indeed Deuteronomy is the biblical canon’s first programmatic attempt to
re-read or interpret the canonical tradition previously given,3 and it surely

** Rickie D. Moore (PhD, Vanderbilt University) is Chair of the Department of Theology
at Lee University in Cleveland, TN, USA.
1 Literary treatment of the whole of Deuteronomy in its final form was scarcely
attempted in academic scholarship until Robert Polzin’s Moses and the Deuteronomist
(New York: Seabury, 1980), but Dennis T. Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death of Moses:
A Theological Reading (Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg Fortress, 1994), offered the first full-scale
literary theological treatment. Olson acknowledges the scarcity of attempts to approach
Deuteronomy in this manner, drawing attention to the mixture of genres and particularly its
casting in terms of a speech, which make Deuteronomy less inviting to literary approaches
than, say, the narrative materials of books like Genesis or Samuel (See Olson, p. 2).
2 While it has been common to see the content of the decalogue, and particularly the
first commandment as represented in the Shema, at the center of the book (see P.D. Miller,
Deuteronomy, Interpretation Series [Louisville: John Knox Press, 1990], pp. 14–15, this has
not done justice to Deuteronomy’s fuller emphasis upon the theophanic dimension of the
Horeb revelation.
3 The clearest acknowlegement of this point that I know is Walter Brueggemann, ‘The
Case for an Alternative Reading’, Theological Education 23 (1987), p. 96: ‘The primal script is
the Mosaic event and the Mosaic narrative of Exodus and Sinai. Deuteronomy is a reread-
ing of this ancient script, a second reading (cf. Deut. 17.18, from whence comes the name
Deuteronomy), a derivative reading which is done with authority and imagination’.
110 rickie d. moore
must be seen as a remarkably critical attempt, if criticism has anything

at all to do with being rigorously open to perspectives which stand over
against one’s own standpoint, to voices which intrude, as it were, from
the margin.
A self-consciously Pentecostal perspective comes to the table of modern
biblical scholarship as a voice from the margin. Perhaps for this reason it
is better prepared to see the starkly marginal location of Deuteronomy’s
own word, a context no less marginal than the wilderness and yet ulti-
mately even more marginal than that. It is a word that comes, so Deuter-
onomy claims, from out of the midst of the fire of God. This claim may be
more relevant to a critical understanding of Deuteronomy, and perhaps
even to the dynamic of critical interpretation itself, than ‘critical’ schol-
arship has yet dared to entertain. I hope to show in this paper how I, at
least, have come to believe so. Such an effort has prompted me to begin,
like the book of Deuteronomy, with a story. It is a story that leads to my
interpretation of Deuteronomy that I will then set within the context of
current Deuteronomy scholarship. Yet it is a story that tells not only how
I have come to interpret Deuteronomy but also how Deuteronomy has
come to interpret me.
A Journey in the Study of Deuteronomy
I have been a student of the book of Deuteronomy for a long time. As a

child growing up in a Pentecostal denomination, it was natural for me to
take the first words of Deuteronomy, ‘these are the words of Moses to all
Israel’, as a personal invitation to draw near and to listen with all God’s
people to this one who had stood before the very fire of God on the holy
mountain. I had never seen this fire, but this old man’s words were not
difficult for me to trust, perhaps because of the elders gathered around
me, whose faces at times seemed to reflect what I took to be the light
from that same fire. I felt that I could somehow come close to this fire
and close to these words’.4
Yet there was an awareness, even then, that out beyond the margins of
our Pentecostal community there were other voices with which I would
have to contend, voices which knew nothing of this fire and which stood
ready to offer a fiery challenge to the credibility of my ever knowing it.
4 The Hebrew name for the book of Deuteronomy is ‫( אלה הדברים‬ellah ha-debarim),
‘these are the words’.
deuteronomy and the fire of god 111
I suppose I first learned to fear these other voices from the same source
that had first made me to desire holy fire, that is, the faces of my elders.
I finally encountered these voices in their full force when, as a young
man, I left my father’s house and took a journey into a far (different)
country, where I spent all I had on a graduate program in Old Testament
studies. There I was directed once again to the first words of the book
of Deuteronomy, but now a mountain of scholarship stood before these
words and yielded a very different reading, namely, ‘these are not the
words of Moses’. I learned that to believe otherwise was to be ‘pre-critical’.
And I knew, without it having to be explicitly stated, that to be seen as
‘pre-critical’ in this environment was a fate to be feared worse than death.
Being relegated to the camp of the pre-critical was cursed; being admitted
to the guild of the critical was blessed. I survived that time mostly by hid-
ing in a wilderness between the curse that I feared and the blessing that I
could not bring myself to embrace.
To be more specific, the treatment of Deuteronomy that I encountered
in my ‘critical training’ placed this book at the very center of the canons of
modern biblical scholarship (as in the JEDP hypothesis) with its elaborate
body of writings and prevailing theories on the late dating and complex
redactional history of the Pentateuch.5 This towering fortress of scholar-
ship, with its formidable conclusions about the text and methods used to
reach them, was a far cry from the ethos and impulses of my Pentecostal
confession. This was the case not only with respect to the book of Deuter-
onomy but across the entire range of my ‘critical training’. In a way that
went against my deepest and mostly unconscious longings, I was being
relentessly conditioned to experience criticism and confession as mutu-
ally exclusive opposites.
Then came the day that I was offered a teaching position at my denom-
ination’s Pentecostal seminary. And as Providence would have it, for the
very first semester and on a recurrent basis thereafter I was expected to
teach a course on the book of Deuteronomy. My initial reaction was anxi-
ety. There was no area of study where I felt any wider gap between the
critical approach in which I had been schooled and the confessional inter-
ests for which I was now to be responsible. To my relief, I soon discovered
the work of certain Evangelical scholars who had found ways to defend
5 A representative survey of the historical critical scholarship on Deuteronomy can

be found in R.E. Clements, Deuteronomy, Old Testament Guides (Sheffield: Sheffield Aca-
demic Press, 1989).
112 rickie d. moore
against the skeptical critical conclusions as far as the late, post-Mosaic

dating of Deuteronomy and had done so by re-employing the very meth-
ods developed by the mainstream of historical critical scholarship, namely
a form-critical argument that links the structure of Deuteronomy to an
international treaty form found to be extant during the time of Moses but
not in later centuries.6 In this I found a new way to survive. I came out
of hiding, but not much more than that. My new occupation essentially
amounted to trying not to offend a confession that still seemed threat-
ened, while trying to defend against a criticism that continued to intimi-
date me.
As my journey in teaching Deuteronomy continued, the book that I had
expected to be the last place for discovering an interface between Pente-
costal confession and critical biblical scholarship started becoming for me
the place of liveliest intersection and greatest potential. This took place
under the impact of changes which were happening on several fronts:
(1) in the field of biblical studies, (2) in Pentecostal scholarship, and (3) in
my own relationship to both as a result of my return to a context of study
within a Pentecostal community.
In critical biblical scholarship there was the growing impact of the
paradigm shift from moderism to post-modernism, which is now the rage
in Western culture. The undermining of modernity’s foundation upon an
epistemology claiming neutral objectivity eliminated any credible basis
for keeping marginal perspectives, such as my Pentecostalism would rep-
resent, from being given a hearing in the academic arena. I encountered a
new permission to look at the biblical text through Pentecostal eyes.
Furthermore this was reinforced by the related shift in academic schol-
arship away from the dominance of historiographical concerns and toward
literary approaches and interest in narrative and story.7 In Pentecostal
scholarship this encouraged a conscious interest in the narrative orienta-
tion of Pentecostalism’s own theological heritage. Story or testimony had
been the prime vehicle and mode of discourse in Pentecostal faith from its
beginnings, long before it had become fashionable in academic circles.8
6 M.G. Kline, Treaty of the Great King: The Covenant Structure of Deuteronomy (Grand
Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1963) and K.A. Kitchen, Ancient Orient and the Old Testament (Lon-
don: Tyndale Press, 1966), pp. 90–102.
7 The literature is voluminous, but the shift is well represented by G.W. Stroup, The
Promise of Narrative Theology (Atlanta, GA: John Knox Press, 1981). See also the seminal
article of S. Crites ‘The Narrative Quality of Experience’, JAAR, 39 (1971), pp. 291–311.
8 See M. Dowd, ‘Contours of a Narrative Pentecostal Theology and Practice’, (paper
presented to the 15th Annual Meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Studies, 1985), and
Still the turn toward narrative and literary concerns in critical scholarship
was undoubtedly important in helping Pentecostal scholars like myself
to get in touch with their native ‘tongue’. I began teaching Deuteronomy
at a time when Robert Polzin’s work had made a significant case for the
value of pursuing literary study of this book as well as biblical literature
in general.9
Alongside of these important changes in academic biblical study and in
Pentecostal scholarship, however, there was for me the even more decisive
change of becoming part of a community of Pentecostals where I began
daily to be challenged and helped toward bringing my own faith perspec-
tive into conscious, thoroughgoing dialogue with my biblical scholarship
for the first time. It was not that my own life experiences had been with-
out relation to my critical studies before this time. Part of the discovery
was that they had been having a great deal of effect on my research, but
in ways that were largely in the background and out of conscious view.
I found out that although I had spent many years being trained to inter-
pret texts, I had learned very little about interpreting my own story.10
I believe I can honestly say (or testify!) that this conscious move to
begin bringing my own faith confession into interaction with my technical
work on the text, instead of a compromise or contamination of my criti-
cal study (which is what I had been led to expect from such a move), was
actually encountered as the most critical step I had ever taken in studying
biblical texts. It is precisely what enabled me and forced me to realize that
many of my earlier research choices and conclusions, which had passed
for critical scholarship,11 had actually been the product of largely uncriti-
cal impulses, such as social conformity and intellectual intimidation.
I encountered a great deal of self-discovery, some of it unwelcomed and
painful, which made biblical study more critical and yet at the same time
J.-D. Plüss, Therapeutic and Prophetic Narratives in Worship: A Hermeneutic Study of Testi-
mony and Vision (Bern: Peter Lang, 1988).
9 Moses and the Deuteronomist, cited earlier.
10 A book which focused this insight for me at the time was C.V. Gerkin, The Living
Human Document: Re-Visioning Pastoral Counseling in a Hermeneutical Mode (Nashville,
TN: Abingdon Press, 1984). Far more important than this book, however, was the person
who recommended it to me, Robert D. Crick, an elder on my faculty who took a personal
interest in me in those early years and ‘read me like a book’ with his brilliant pastoral
counseling skills and fathering compassion. He was to me what Morrie Schwartz was to
Mitch Albom in Albom’s wonderful autobiographical account, Tuesdays With Morrie (New
York: Doubleday, 1997). I will be forever grateful.
11 I refer here mainly to papers written for courses in my graduate program at Vander-
bilt University, 1976–1981.
114 rickie d. moore
more confessionally invigorating for me than it had ever been. As I contin-

ued teaching Deuteronomy in this vein and in this setting I became more
and more convinced that it was opening me toward a fresh approach to
the biblical text that could prove very significant and helpful to both Pen-
tecostalism and biblical scholarship as a whole. I did not see some great
new hermeneutical formula. What I saw instead were more and more
instances in the particular text of the book of Deuteronomy where Pente-
costalism’s narrative orientation and instincts seemed capable of freshly
informing and benefiting from a literary-theological approach to the book
of Deuteronomy.
First, I was struck by the way that Deuteronomy went beyond merely
utilizing narrative (a great deal of the literature of the biblical canon
does this) to commending it as the prime means of expressing and keep-
ing the faith. No urging of the book is more prominent than the call to
remembrance.12 What’s more, as the Hebrew canon’s own paradigm for
passing the faith to a new generation,13 Deuteronomy succeeds through
its own example in elevating narrative to a place of primacy and central-
ity for the whole canon. The work of Walter Brueggemann was especially
important in helping me begin to see ‘narrative as Israel’s primal mode
of knowing’ and the significant implications which flow from this.14 Yet
I knew another means of access to such insights. I knew from my own
background as a Pentecostal what it was like to be on the inside of a tes-
tifying, witnessing community where narrative was the central mode of
theological expression. I began to sense that Pentecostals had significant
insights to offer as well as receive in the study of this important aspect of
Deuteronomy.
Specific elements in the narrative content of Deuteronomy began to
appear especially relevant as I continued to pursue what seemed like a
convergence of critical and Pentecostal perspectives on the text. Foremost
here was the emphasis given in the book to the theophanic experience
and revelatory testimony of Mount Horeb. The striking feature was not
just that Deuteronomy repeatedly recalls this event (1.6; 4.10–15; 5.2–33;
18.16–20; 34.10) but also that it seems to strive to make it available and
12 Especially prominent examples are seen in chapters 4 and 8. For a full survey see
Edward P. Blair, ‘An Appeal to Remembrance: The Memory Motif in Deuteronomy’, Inter-
pretation 15 (1961), pp. 41–47.
13 On this see especially D.T. Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death of Moses (Minneapolis,
MN: Fortress Press, 1994), pp. 7–14.
14 See especially his The Creative Word: Canon as a Model for Biblical Education (Phila-
delphia, PA: Fortress Press, 1982), pp. 15–27.
present to the new generation (see especially 5.2–4). Once again I encoun-
tered something that seemed familiar in the light of my experience as
a Pentecostal. I knew something first-hand about a community called
to gather around a root experience of visionary and revelatory encoun-
ter with God in a way that expects the ushering of the present into that
encounter.15 It became apparent that the role of the Pentecost event
(cf. Acts 2) in my own faith tradition suggested important parallels with
the role of the Horeb event in the book of Deuteronomy, parallels of spiri-
tual and experiential dynamics which went beyond the historical evidence
which modern scholarship had turned up for linking the Feast of Pente-
cost to the commemoration of the giving of the Law at Horeb or Sinai.16
I do not think it is going too far to say that I sensed the affirmation of a
charismatic dimension in Deuteronomy that scholarship was ill equipped
to probe. I found one Old Testament scholar who had seen the category
of charisma and the notion of a charismatic tradition as being decisive for
understanding the book of Deuteronomy. Joseph Blenkinsopp, in his book
Prophecy and Canon, argues that the book of Deuteronomy along with the
three divisions of the Hebrew canon were formed in response to an ongoing
conflict of authority claims between an institutional tradition of ‘normative
order’ and a charismatic tradition of ‘free prophecy’.17 Blenkinsopp links
these traditions and categories of analysis on the one hand to Old Testa-
ment scholarship’s longstanding debate on the relationship between law
and prophecy and on the other hand to Max Weber’s sociological typology
of institution versus charisma.18 The view of Deuteronomy that emerges
in Blenkinsopp’s treatment appreciates the strategic impact of a charis-
matic tradition on the book, but sees this tradition as a social threat which
the book of Deuteronomy was fashioned to mitigate and control. Blenkin-
sopp sees a book ‘deeply indebted to prophecy’, but nevertheless shaped
by an opposing clerical scribalism that sought to neutralize charismatic
15 For a recent attempt to develop this insight into a central thesis for Deuteronomy
see J.G. McConville and J.G. Millar, Time and Place in Deuteronomy (Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1994).
16 See R. Stronstad, The Charismatic Theology of St. Luke (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson,
1984), pp. 58–62.
17 Prophecy and Canon: A Contribution to the Study of Jewish Origins (Notre Dame, IN:
University of Notre Dame Press, 1977).
18 Blenkinsopp, Prophecy and Canon, pp. 7–9, 39–46, and 147–52. Blenkinsopp cites
translations of several of Weber’s major works, originally published just before and after
the sociologist’s death in 1920: Ancient Judaism (New York: The Free Press, 1952); The Soci-
ology of Religion (London: Methuen, 1965); and The Theory of Social and Economic Organi-
zation (New York: The Free Press, 1964).
116 rickie d. moore
claims by assimilating their insights and impulses ‘within its own insti-
tutional grid’.19 Rather than ‘ascribing cynical self-interest to these Torah
scribes’, Blenkinsopp wants to respect ‘that they were persuaded of their
own legitimacy and of the inability of prophecy to provide a sound basis
for the life of the community’.20
I do not know whether Blenkinsopp’s analysis was consciously affected
by the charismatic renewal that peaked on his campus of the University
of Notre Dame in the seventies, right before the time his book appeared.21
However, I have come to realize, along with most of the scholars in this
generation, I suppose, that where we stand profoundly affects our read-
ing of the data. Scholars did not talk much about ‘readings’ back during
the time when Blenkinsopp’s volume appeared. However, things have
changed dramatically since then. It is surely becoming much clearer to us
all now that the historical critical methods of that day, though still very
much in use, have themselves given decisive ground on their authority
claims. In the end they too produce nothing other than ‘readings’.22
Blenkinsopp offers one reading of a charismatic dimension in the book
of Deuteronomy, one that is not neutral with respect to the sociological
categories he utilizes. The modern Western academic tradition, which
Blenkinsopp represents with his historical critical methodology and
Weberian sociological analysis, is surely one that sides overwhelmingly
with ‘normative order’ over against ‘charisma’. Notwithstanding the rela-
19 Prophecy and Canon, p. 8.

20 Prophecy and Canon, p. 8.
21 For an account of the Catholic Charismatic Renewal and the early role of the Notre
Dame University campus as a center of this movement, see F.A. Sullivan, ‘Catholic Char-
ismatic Renewal’, in S.M. Burgess and G.B. McGee (eds.), Dictionary of Pentecostal and
Charismatic Movements (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1988), pp. 110–26. It is perhaps con-
firming of my own lack of truly critical engagement at this time to admit that, despite my
knowledge of and interest as a Pentecostal in this well-publicized event, the question of
any relationship between the clash of institution and charisma on the Notre Dame campus
and the discussion of such a clash in ancient Israel by this Notre Dame professor never
entered my mind when I first encountered Blenkinsopp’s book during this time.
22 I make this latter point not in order to dismiss but rather properly to appreciate
Blenkinsopp’s contribution. I believe his analysis is seminal and helpful in pointing to a
decisive charismatic dimension and tradition in the book of Deuteronomy. His application
of Weber’s sociological categories of charisma and institution has allowed him to get at
larger dynamics and concerns in the literature than what one usually finds in historical-
critical work of this sort, and this is to the benefit not only of the study of Deuteronomy
but also of its application to matters of contemporary concern. Blenkinsopp, in fact, uses
his canonical study to suggest a more positive appreciation for charisma in the life of
established religion than one usually finds in modern Western scholarship (Prophecy and
Canon, pp. 151–52), and as a Pentecostal I welcome this as a positive and long overdue step.
tive value he might ascribe to the latter, it is clear that he comes from a
perspective that is defining and viewing charisma from the outside. How
would the charismatic dimension in the book of Deuteronomy read to
someone coming from the other side? I have become convinced that this
latter question is worth pursuing to the potential benefit of all. At the
same time, I recognize that any attempt on my part to do so immedi-
ately encounters some serious problems. First, there is the question of
whether my life-long participation in a North American ‘classical’ Pen-
tecostal denomination, not to mention my graduate training at a secular
university, qualifies me to attempt a reading from ‘the other side’. Marga-
ret Poloma’s sociological study of the leading North American Pentecostal
denomination, The Assemblies of God at the Crossroads, utilizes the same
Weberian categories to show that we North American Pentecostals have
gone a long way already down the road of institutionalization and loss
of our ‘charismatic’ identity.23 Then there is the problem that even with
this insight we find ourselves appropriating definitions, methods, and
approaches to interpretation that derive from ‘outside’ sources.
Yet then does it not require precisely such sources ‘outside’ ourselves
to make our interpretation something more than a self-serving projection
of our own experience and ego, in other words, to make our interpreta-
tion critical? Is it the case, then, that any attempt to read the charismatic
dimension of the biblical text from the inside, such as I am here propos-
ing, will inevitably shut down the ‘outside’ perspective, or critical princi-
ple, which alone delivers us from self-serving subjectivity? Does a critical
approach to interpretation invariably end where a confessional approach
begins? It is at the heart of my purpose here to indicate how I have come
to believe otherwise.
On the surface of things, it should not be surprising that modern thought
has been so successful in training us to see criticism and confession as
clear opposites. There is no doubt that the embrace of confession has too
often served the avoidance of criticism, the stifling of voices different from
or outside of our own. I say, ‘no doubt’, because I have seen this dynamic
not just in others but also in myself. Biblical criticism helped me to get
in touch with a lot of this. Yet I came to find another dimension of criti-
cism that academic criticism, as I have experienced it, scarcely touches.
It is a level of criticism that I find, if anything, more critical insofar as it
23 Assemblies of God at the Crossroads: Charisma and Institutional Dilemmas (Knoxville,

TN: University of Tennessee, 1989), pp. 232–41.
118 rickie d. moore
unleashes a starker challenge to the self-securing tendencies of my own

interpretive standpoint. It is the criticism which I found and experienced
when I pushed more deeply into rather than away from my Pentecostal
confession and experience.
I began to encounter a voice from the text of Deuteronomy that was
more critically demanding of me than critical scholarship ever had been.
This was the voice that brought me to the self-effacing realization that
my academic training as an Old Testament scholar had been dominated
largely by suppressed embarrassment and fear. These two things had
driven me everywhere in my study, but I was too uncritical to notice. I
was secretly embarrassed about the uncredentialed heritage and humble
status of my uneducated Pentecostal elders. Notwithstanding the fiery
‘mountain top’ experiences to which my elders bore witness, and perhaps
more and more because of them, it was a past I wanted to forget and one
which I was desperately trying to ‘rise above’. As far as fear, I was afraid
of scholars and smart people. I was constantly intimidated by them and
in awe of them, never realizing at the time that this was the fear of which
worship is made. I had a chance to recognize the power with which both
of these passions were acting upon me one day when a friend and fellow
graduate student, a Lutheran who had turned down an offer to study at
Yale, asked me what church I attended. My face flushed with shame as he
identified my denomination as Pentecostal and even asked me about speak-
ing in tongues. I was so afraid of my friend’s ‘educated’ opinion of me that I
could do little more than stammer and grope for an awkward escape from
the encounter. I shook off the potential self-revelation of this moment and
went right back to my study carrel that day, suffering no loss of faith in my
critical access to how the ancient authors came to compose the biblical
writings, even though I was completely out of touch with the decisive fac-
tors at work behind my scholarly writing, right there in front of my nose.
When I finally made the turn toward a self-consciously Pentecostal
approach to the text, Deuteronomy met my past-negating embarrass-
ment with its sustained call for God’s people to remember. Remember
your background of homelessness in an extremely rural area where you
depended on a welfare system of daily food allotments (e.g., 8.2–16);
remember that your ancestors were known not for their education but
for a lack of knowledge (8.3,16); remember that your pedigree traces not
from the upper class, middle class or even lower middle class but rather
from slaves (5.15; 15.15); remember even that your background reveals a
humiliating negation of national honor (9.7,13, 25).
Deuteronomy met my fear of intellectual giants with its condemnation
against fear of all the giants that faced God’s people (1.28–35; 7.17–18).
In fact the very context of Deuteronomy is determined by a lamentable

episode of capitulation to this fear (ch. 1). The fear of an old generation
postponed entry into the land, so that a new generation had now to be
addressed with the same covenant choice. This kind of fear is found thriv-
ing here in the absence of the one fear that is prominently commended in
the book of Deuteronomy and one that, I had to admit, was virtually non-
existent in the context of my academic training—the fear of God (e.g.,
4.10; 5.29). Deuteronomy helped me to see the underlying issue whenever
fear was directed to anything other than God. The issue was idolatry. I had
never realized before how much fear had to do with worship.
To put it succinctly, in the face of Deuteronomy’s principal call to have
no other gods before Yahweh, I found that another fear had claimed my
allegiance. Before the call to remember the past and to honor my father
and mother, I found myself given over to repression, embarrassment and
dishonor. Interpreting Deuteronomy through the grid of my Pentecostal
experience and vice versa brought me to a new interpretation of myself—
a rigorously critical interpretation.
I realized at the same time that the book featured a rather rigorous
criticism of the people of Israel and even Moses, who repeatedly is seen
acknowledging his own weakness, failure, and consequent debarment
from the promised land.24 In fact, I cannot remember ever seeing this
degree of self-critical rigor anywhere in the discourse of modern criticism.
Was this critical perspective of Deuteronomy achieved through bracket-
ing out the ‘inside’ confession while opening to the scrutiny of ‘outside’
sources? Reading Deuteronomy in intersection with my Pentecostal
experience led me to another possibility and explanation. For I found on
the inside, indeed at the very heart, of my Pentecostal experience and, I
believe, the charismatic dimension of the book of Deuteronomy as well,
an overwhelming encounter with the ultimate ‘outside’ source, so that
the most radical criticism is disclosed precisely at the core of this confes-
sion. Against modernity’s longstanding dichotomization of confession and
criticism, there is found here a surprising fusion. It may, in fact, be the
constitutive fusion in the radical inaugural moments of charismatic expe-
rience and tradition. I am proposing that in such moments utter confes-
sion and utter criticism implode. It is an utterly confessional moment, for
everything yields to the claim of a theophanic experience. The claim is not
24 See J.G. McConville, Grace in the End: A Study in Deuteronomic Theology (Grand
Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 1993), pp. 133–134, who is the only scholar I have found who
acknowledges the remarkably critical thrust of this literature.
120 rickie d. moore
decided but evoked, so that it is not so much a matter of making a claim as a

matter of being claimed. Yet because this is the case, it is a moment of utter
criticism. To be thus claimed is at the same time to be disclaimed, to be
seized, taken captive and dispossessed of everything previously claimed. It
is to know what it is to stand stripped down to the nakedness and weak-
ness of one’s confession. It is to know how vulnerable one’s claims were
all along and ever will be. It is an experience so radically confessional that
we, like Isaiah, can say nothing less than, ‘I saw God!’ Yet it is so radically
critical at the same time that we cannot help but exclaim, ‘Woe is me!’
Over against this kind of experience I find the tradition of Enlightenment
criticism somewhat trivial and not nearly critical enough.25
Coming from this kind of critical-charismatic experience opens up a
different reading of reality and a different reading of Deuteronomy. The
way I read it (and the way it has read me!), Deuteronomy is itself coming
from this kind of experience, and it is grounded and driven by the theo-
phanic encounter with Yahweh at Horeb. This overwhelming revelatory
moment, I would contend, is the prime issue and theme of the book. This
is where Moses is coming from and where he is insisting that the new
generation, and by extension every new generation, must come from if
they are to live, keep the faith, and inherit the promises of God.
The Death of Moses and the Fire of God
The quickest and clearest way for me to present the outline of this
literary-theological interpretation of Deuteronomy is to do so in contrast
to an alternative one that has recently been offered by Dennis Olson of
25 At least one scholar within the critical guild has ventured to consider how that the
witness to divine wonder in the biblical text represents a critical challenge to the sociology
and epistemology of the Western academic establishment. See W. Brueggemann, Abiding
Astonishment: Psalms, Modernity, and the Making of History (Louisville, KY: Westminster/
John Knox Press, 1991). ‘Abiding astonishment’ is a phrase and a formulation which Brue-
ggemann takes up from Martin Buber (M. Buber, Moses [Atlantic Highlands, NJ: Humanities
Press International, 1946], pp. 75–77). He follows Buber in acknowledging that regardless
of how one thinks about the possibility of supernatural phenomena, the experience of
‘wonder must be accepted as a datum’ that cannot be explained away. Indeed wonder
happens precisely at the point where ‘explanation’ has been overwhelmed and overridden.
Brueggemann seems to think that a modern hermeneutic which has dismissed ‘wonder’
in the name of critical objectivity has done so at the cost of blinding itself from the most
decisive aspect of the literature and the people it has sought to understand, but even more
than that, it has blinded itself from its own ideological stake in the dismissal, evading the
key clue to a truly critical understanding of itself (pp. 41–53).
Princeton University. Olson’s comprehensive treatment of Deuteronomy

is the first thoroughgoing literary-theological approach to the book that
has appeared in mainstream biblical criticism.26 His grasp of the book’s
structure offers what I believe is a breakthrough insight. His convincing
identification of the parts into which the canonical form of the book has
been arranged sets the stage for identifying the theme that holds the parts
together. Thus I follow Olson’s literary insight into the book’s structure in
my own effort to identify the book’s main theme. Yet our different theologi-
cal perspectives, which surely have to do with different ways of perceiving
and pursuing critical interpretation (and perhaps charismatic encounter
as well), yield starkly contrasting understandings of Deuteronomy’s primary
theme. Olson argues that the book’s governing theme is the death of Moses,27
whereas I find it in the theophanic encounter with the fire of God. I will
summarize Olson’s interpretation before offering my own.
Olson introduces his reading of Deuteronomy with the observation that
a series of parallel superscriptions mark the respective beginnings of all
the major sections of the book in its present form.28 The book itself begins
26 Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death of Moses, pp. 4–5, presupposes some of the broad
conclusions of historical critical scholarship as far as attributing the book to a Deuterono-
mistic school whose composition of Deuteronomy took place in multiple stages over a
range of time that turned on two major events: (1) the fall of the northern kingdom, the
place where the Deuteronomists were thought to have originated before being forced to
migrate to the south when the fall of the north occurred (2) the fall of the southern king-
dom, a crisis that provided the Deuteronomic tradition with a chance to offer the nation
a viable way forward in the face of the collapse of the ‘establishment’ traditions of Judah.
Olson does not offer any argument for these conclusions nor does his central argument
depend upon these conclusions in any significant way, since he is treating the book in its
final form. On the other hand, his central argument demonstrates such a thoroughgoing
coherence, integrity and balance in the final shape of Deuteronomy that it would seem
to have the unintended effect of posing a formidable challenge to the historical-critical
claims for multi-staged, multi-layered composition. For a recent and intentional challenge
to these long-held critical positions on the book of Deuteronomy see the historical-critical
treatment of Oxford scholar J.G. McConville, Grace in the End, pp. 45–64.
27 Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death of Moses, pp. 6–22, in presenting his argument
for the theme of Moses’ death, calls it ‘an important recurring theme’ (p. 7) and ‘a central
metaphor’ (p. 17), seemingly careful not to overstate. However, his claims for the theme’s
integral relationship to the book’s entire structure and theological movement (pp. 21–22)
indicate nothing less than seeing the death of Moses as the leading theme.
28 Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death of Moses, pp. 14–15. Olson points to other scholars
who have noted the editorial structuring role of the superscriptions, as early as P. Kleinert,
Das Deuteronomium und der Deuteronomiker (Leipzig: J.C. Hinrich, 1872), p. 167, but Olson
breaks fresh ground in finding in these headings the key for grasping the overall literary
shape of the book and the interrelationship of its parts. Here and in the following para-
graphs I draw from Olson’s own summary of Deuteronomy’s structure, as presented on
pp. 14–17.
122 rickie d. moore
with the most inclusive such superscription: ‘these are the words of Moses’
(1.1). This phrase stands before not only the whole book but also the ini-
tial narrative section, which reviews the events leading up to the present
context of Moses’ address to the new generation.
In 4.44 we encounter the second superscription, ‘this is the torah’. It
introduces what Olson takes to be the most defining section of the book.
This is so since torah, Olson argues, is the most adequate genre term for
Deuteronomy as a whole, and this short section, which recounts the giv-
ing of the decalogue or ten commandments, presents what Olson sees to
be a nutshell summary of the entire book.
The next section begins in 6.1 with ‘this is the commandment, statutes
and ordinances’. The singular noun ‘commandment’ refers, so Olson main-
tains, to none other than the great commandment of the Shema, which is
presented right away in 6.4–5. This command, which only states in a posi-
tive way what the first commandment of the decalogue expresses nega-
tively, is seen to be elaborated in the remainder of this longest section
of the book. First there is commentary on the great commandment itself
extending through chapter 11, argues Olson, and then comes the lengthy
subsection of chapters 12–28, which begins by reiterating the second part
of the earlier superscription, ‘these are the statutes and the ordinances’
(12.1). These detailed laws which, as others have recognized,29 expand
upon the commands of the decalogue, are ultimately to be seen as expan-
sions of the single great commandment.30
Chapters 29–32 form the next section and are introduced with, ‘these
are the words of the covenant’ (29.1)—not the one made with Israel at
Horeb, the verse quickly qualifies, but rather the present one ‘in the
land of Moab’. These chapters feature three new measures, Olson argues,
that are meant to provide for Israel’s future covenant life: (1) a liturgy of
covenant renewal (chaps. 29–30; cf. 31.10–13), (2) a transfer of leadership
from Moses to Joshua along with the writing down of torah (chap. 31), and
(3) the giving of the Song of Moses as a continuing witness (chap. 32).
The final superscription, ‘this is the blessing’, stands before the book’s
last two chapters. They present the last words of benediction that Moses
29 See especially S. Kaufman, ‘The Structure of the Deuteronomic Law’, Maarav, 1.2
(1979, pp. 105–158, whose proposal for seeing the laws of Deut. 12–28 in terms of a series of
legal expansions of the ten commandments in the same order of the decalogue has been
widely accepted in recent scholarship.
30 Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death of Moses, pp. 49–51, points to the long tradition
of recognizing the inclusive role of the great commandment. He cites rabbinic comment
as well as the words of Jesus (Mark 12.28–31).
pronounces over the children of Israel (chap. 33) and then the ensuing
account of Moses’ death, which includes a kind of eulogy of last words
pronounced over Moses (chap. 34).
So the sections of Deuteronomy can thus be summarized:31
Chaps. 1–4
‘These are the words’ (1.1)Past Story
Chap. 5
‘This is the torah’ (4.44)Torah in a Nutshell
Chaps. 6–28
‘This is the commandment,Law for the Present
statutes and ordinances’ (6.1)
Chaps 29–32
‘These are the words New Covenant for
of the covenant’ (29.1)the Future
Chaps. 33–34
‘This is the blessing’ (33.1)Blessing for the Future
The theme of Moses’ death, which obviously dominates Deuteronomy’s
final section, is found by Olson in all the previous sections as well. He
finds that it is not only present in each part but also strategically placed
in a way that unites all the parts together.32
The first section (chaps. 1–4), which highlights the story of judgment
upon the old generation (1.19–2.25), links this death outside the promised
land with Moses’ own death (1.37; 3.22–23). Furthermore, an additional
reference to Moses’ death seems to indicate that it somehow opens the
way, pursued throughout the rest of the book, for the new generation to
enter into life in the promised land (4.21–22).
As regards the second section (chap. 5) Olson acknowledges that there
is no direct mention of Moses’ death.33 However, he argues that the theme
indirectly ‘creeps again upon the stage’ when the people request that
Moses go near and listen to God in their stead, so that they will not have
to risk being consumed by further exposure to the fire of God (4.24–27).
In their words, ‘Why should we die? For this great fire will consume us, if
we hear the voice of God anymore’ (4.25). The shadow of death, suggests
31 Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death of Moses, p. 16.

32 Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death of Moses, pp. 17–22. Here Olson presents a pre-
view summary of the theme’s recurrence in each section. He elaborates this in the subse-
quent chapters of his study.
124 rickie d. moore
Olson, is thus made to fall over the very essence of Moses’ call and role as
revelatory mediator.
In the following legal section, which elaborates ‘the commandment,
statutes and ordinances’ (chaps. 6–28), Olson again finds indirect refer-
ences to the theme of Moses’ death. He points to the golden calf story
(9.8–10.11) where Moses recalls his intercession on behalf of the people
before God. Moses’ 40–day fast, in which he relinquishes the necessities
of life, together with his prostration before Yahweh, wherein Olson sees
‘a posture resembling death’,34 these suggest for Olson a kind of demise, a
‘death’ in quotation marks.35 It is a mediatorial death, here again, by which
the people of Israel are enabled to live.
Olson finds one more such reference to Moses’ death in the law of 18.15–
22, which anticipates God’s future move ‘to raise up a prophet’ like Moses
(18.15, 18). Not only does this passage point toward the time after Moses is
gone, it also recalls once again how that the prophetic role of Moses was
established at Horeb in the context of the people’s reaction to the threat
of death.
You desired of Yahweh your God in Horeb on the day of the assembly, say-
ing, ‘Don’t let me hear again the voice of Yahweh my God, neither let me see
this great fire any more, so that I will not die’ (18.16).
In addition to these references, Olson finds in many of the detailed ‘stat-
utes and ordinances’ (chaps. 12–28) something that ‘resonates with the
theme of Moses’ death’.36 He shows how that numerous laws, such as the
laws of sacrifice, sabbath or of slave and debt release, ‘have to do with giv-
ing something up, letting go, dying, or acknowledging the limits of human
abilities, knowledge, and laws’.37 These injunctions follow the trajectory
of Moses’ own fate, thinks Olson, in their underlying assumption that life
somehow comes through death.
The Moab covenant section of chapters 29–32 in its own way affirms
this idea of life coming through death, argues Olson. This happens spe-
cifically in the way that the covenant mechanisms of the renewal liturgy
of chapters 29–30 and the Song of Moses in chapter 32 provide for pres-
ervation of the community even beyond the anticipated curse of death

35 Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death of Moses, p. 61. Olson here uses quotation marks
repeatedly in making his point, ‘Moses “dies” ’.
and exile outside the promised land (29.16–30.7; 32.26–43). Olson sees
these two communal provisions for ‘life through death’ framing a central
subsection, chapter 31, which explicitly and repeatedly emphasizes the
urgency of the occasion of Moses’ impending death (31.2, 14, 16, 29). Here
the transfer of Moses’ leadership to Joshua and Moses’ words to writing
provide vital means for life to go on.
As Olson sees it, all the foregoing ‘allusions to Moses’ death ‘finally flow
into’ the final section of Deuteronomy (chaps. 33–34) and its account of the
actual death of Moses. Moses pronounces his last words of blessing upon
the individual tribes, which is itself an act of final passage (chapter 33), just
before the closing scene. The act of passing on final words to the chil-
dren characterizes not only this concluding section but also the book as a
whole. And it is an act that from the beginning has been occasioned and
overshadowed, as Olson would emphasize, by the death of Moses.
There is no doubt that Olson has succeeded in demonstrating a greater
place in Deuteronomy for the theme of the death of Moses than has here-
tofore been recognized. To see it as the leading or governing theme, how-
ever, is not justified according to my way of reading the book. Olson’s
view is most vulnerable in his discussion of chapter 5. Granting Olson’s
point that this is the book’s most defining section, nothing less than a
virtual blueprint summary of the whole book in line with its introductory
superscription, ‘this is the torah’ (4.44), it should be quite telling that this
key section offers no explicit reference to Moses’ death. Olson finds no
more than an indirect reference by way of the people’s request for Moses
to stand between them and the death that they fear before the fire of God.
But is it not possible and even more likely that this reference to encounter
with divine fire is not just an indirect allusion to the book’s main theme but
rather the main theme itself? It is surely the commanding theme of chap-
ter 5, insofar as references to the fire of God and the people’s response of
fear frame the presentation of the decalogue (5.4–5; 22–29) and come to
an unparalleled crescendo of divine longing in verse 29, ‘Oh that they had
such a heart as this always to fear me and keep all my commandments’. If
fear as well as obedience makes up the proper response to torah, then this
living fire as well as the written commandments may be what this section
has in view in announcing, ‘this is the torah’.38
38 For an elaboration of this point see my earlier chapter, ‘Canon and Charisma in the
Book of Deuteronomy’.
126 rickie d. moore
This crucial chapter replays Israel’s fearful encounter with the fire of
God at Horeb, and identifies it with what torah is all about and what God
longs for ‘always’. Even as it constitutes the sustained yearning of God, it
can be seen as the sustained emphasis of Moses throughout the entire
book in each of its major sections. Such emphasis belies the perpetual
tendency of God’s people to lose sight of the holy fire (cf. 5.24–27). I do
not think that this is unrelated to modern scholarship’s lack of recogni-
tion of the leading thematic role of the Horeb theophany in the book of
Deuteronomy, which I now intend briefly to show.
Deuteronomy begins with reference to the revelatory event of Horeb
(1.2–3).39 The narrative immediately announces, ‘Yahweh our God spoke
to us at Horeb’ (1.6). There unfolds from this announcement a story of
how God’s people then journey from this mountain, not just in a geo-
graphical way (cf. 2.3) but more importantly in a theological way. They
soon journey away from the presence of Yahweh (1.29–33), who has prom-
ised, as Moses points out, ‘to go before you’ (1.30) even as he ‘went in the
way before you, as in the fire by night’ (1.33). This, then, is a story about
how the consuming fire of Horeb is illegitimately left behind, causing an
unbelieving generation to be consumed (2.16). But this narrative that thus
leads away from the Horeb theophany leads a new generation, and the
reader of Deuteronomy, once again back to it. For the thrust and the heart
of chapter four is a calling of Israel back to the overwhelming charismatic
experience at the mountain of fire.
Be careful and guard yourselves diligently lest you forget the things your
eyes have seen and they depart from your heart, how that you stood before
Yahweh your God at Horeb . . . You came near and stood before the moun-
tain, and the mountain burned with fire unto the midst of heaven, with
darkness, clouds, and thick smoke. Then Yahweh spoke to you from the
midst of the fire. You heard the sound of the words but saw no form, only
a voice (4.10–12).
The remainder of chapter 4 counters Israel’s present and future tenden-
cies to choose idolatrous forms over the living voice of Yahweh (cf. 4.15–
16). This choice poses the burning issue of Deuteronomy: idol forms vs
the formless and form-annihilating fire. As this chapter declares, ‘Yahweh
your God is a consuming fire’ (4.24).
39 One sees not only the geographical reference in verse 2 but also the theological ref-
erence in verse 3, which redefines ‘these words of Moses’ in the superscription as those
‘according to all that Yahweh had given him in commandment to them’, pointing to
Moses’ mediatorial encounter at Horeb between ‘Yahweh’ and ‘them’.
The opening section of Deuteronomy thus moves from Horeb and then
back to Horeb in an effort to show God’s people that the way to keep the
word is to keep coming from the fire from which the word keeps coming.
If the first section of Deuteronomy intends to take Israel back to the
Horeb theophany, then the second section (ch. 5), which is entirely
devoted, as we have seen, to this revelatory event, aims to bring the Horeb
encounter forward to God’s people. As the introductory words of Moses
flatly assert,
Yahweh our God made a covenant with us in Horeb. Yahweh did not
make this covenant with our ancestors, but with us, even all of us who are
alive here today. Yahweh spoke with you face to face at the mountain from
the midst of the fire (5.2–4).
It is obvious from this key passage, especially in view of its appearance
in this most important section of Deuteronomy, that perpetual, living
response to the fire of God is of central concern for the whole book. This
verse provides for the perpetuation of Horeb’s fire just as the recruitment
of Moses in 5.31 provides for the extension of the decalogue revelation that
we see in the legal section which comes next (chaps. 6–28).40 The people
may incline toward having statutes and ordinances without the fire, but
Moses clearly strives here to bring the fire forward with the words.41 This
would, then, apply to the rest of his words in the book.
The legal section (chs. 6–28), however, is not without its own direct ref-
erence to the theme of the fiery theophany at Horeb. In fact the two most
prominent allusions to the death of Moses in Olson’s reading of this section
appear as explicit and direct references to the theophanic encounter on the
holy mountain. The second of these references (18.16–18) replays the scene
at Horeb (cf. 5.24–31) when the people react in fear before the fire of God
and ask for Moses to mediate. This time the scene stresses divine provi-
sion for continuing mediation even after Moses with Yahweh’s promise ‘to
raise up a prophet’ like Moses in the future (18.18). Thus the mediation of
40 The relation of chapter 5 to chapters 12–28 is made explicit in the way that 5.31
recalls how Moses is commissioned to relay the ‘statutes and ordinances’, which are the
very terms we meet in the superscription of 12.1. See Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death
of Moses, p. 46.
41 The same point can be seen in 4.7–8, which indicates that Israel is to be distinct
from the nations not only in having ‘statutes and ordinances so righteous’ (v. 8) but also
in having ‘a God so near as Yahweh our God’ (v. 7).
128 rickie d. moore
holy words and holy fire, it would seem, is not to be limited to the time of
Moses nor to the book of Deuteronomy.42
The legal section’s earlier reference to the Horeb encounter involves
the golden calf narrative, featuring Moses’ 40 days of prostration on the
mountain before Yahweh (9.25), the longest narration of a single episode in
the entire book (9.8–10.11). Whereas Olson seems to find the significance of
this elaborate narrative in the way it subtly points forward to Moses’s
actual death, I find it much more likely that this life-and-death encounter
on Horeb is the main event, to which Moses’ final appointment with God
on Nebo (chap. 34) becomes a mere echo (note 34.10). For where did Israel
first and most deeply discover the truth that life comes through death—a
truth that permeates the specific laws of chapters 12–28, as Olson has so
convincingly shown?43 Was it through the natural death of Moses and
the natural succession of one generation giving way to the next, such as
Moses’ death depicts? I suppose that if this is the only kind of death that
one takes seriously, then this is where the given truth must be sought. But
another possibility emerges for those who would take seriously a theo-
phanic encounter that could ‘scare you to death’ and yet amazingly leave
you alive (cf. 5.26 and 9.19).44 This is the kind of theophanic experience
into which this testimony of Moses’ intercession leads God’s people even
more deeply than before.
The next section, as we have seen, explicitly differentiates the past cov-
enant encounter at Horeb with the present one in Moab (29.1 introducing
chaps. 29–32). Yet a significant connection to the Horeb theophany occurs
in what Olson recognizes as the central portion of this section. Olson,
however, gives virtually no attention to it.45 Surely it should be regarded
as a major moment in the book when God, whose past words have until
this point only been relayed and quoted, now, for the first time in the
book, speaks for himself (31.14). God calls Moses to come with Joshua into
the ‘tent of meeting’, where he ‘appears’ in ‘a pillar of cloud’ and speaks
to Moses and then Joshua (31.14–23). This reference to the Horeb-like
manifestation of God’s own presence may not signify much to those who,
here again, do not take such experiences very seriously, but for those who
do, there is every reason to see in this theophanic account at this point
42 Note how Jeremiah, who is often viewed as the Hebrew canon’s prime example of a
‘prophet like Moses’, sees his prophetic word as divine fire (Jer. 20.9; 23.29).
43 Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death of Moses, pp. 62–125.
44 This kind of death experience just might be decisive enough to put ‘natural death’
in quotation marks.
45 Olson, Deuteronomy and the Death of Moses, pp. 134–135.
in Deuteronomy a major dimension of God’s provision for Israel’s future

covenant life. Alongside the provisions which Olson notices—a covenant
liturgy (chaps. 29–30), a human successor and written canon (chap. 31), and
a covenant song (chap. 32)—there is surely something to be said for the
manifestation of divine presence itself, which is here both demonstrated
presently at the ‘tent of meeting’ and given future significance in the divine
threats (‘I will hide my face’ 31.17, 18) and promises (‘I will be with you’,
31.23) which are spoken within the ‘tent of meeting’. And surely a ‘tent of
meeting’ in and of itself presupposes a major place for continuing revelatory
encounter, at least for those who have ears to hear and eyes to see.46
The final section of Deuteronomy (chaps. 33–34), though it has no
extended reference to the Horeb theophany as we have found in all the
other sections, does have two brief references that could not be more
strategically located. One comes at the very beginning, the other at the
very end. Moses’s blessing on the tribes begins, ‘Yahweh came from Sinai’
(33.2). Just like the message of Deuteronomy as a whole (cf. 1.6), which
altogether represents Moses’ last words to Israel, these last words of bene-
diction are seen to flow ultimately from Yahweh’s revelation at Horeb. In
the final paragraph of the book, concluding attention is brought to how
Yahweh had known Moses ‘face to face’ (34.10). The narrator’s accompa-
nying comment that ‘there had not arisen a prophet like Moses (in this
regard) since’, combines with Deuteronomy’s earlier reference that God
has promised ‘to raise up a prophet like Moses’ (18.18), and together these
words prompt God’s people forward toward the future prospect of ‘face to
face’ encounter with the consuming fire.47
Conclusion
In the light of the foregoing interpretation, I would now offer some sum-
mary reflections and mention a few larger implications.
46 It may be indicative of the negative national prospects which are emphasized in
this chapter (31.16–18, 21, 29) that this people, who had earlier opted for their own tents
rather than the burning mountain (5.30), now find themselves on the outside of the ‘tent
of meeting’ looking on. Modern scholars, such as Olson, who scarcely acknowledge the
theophanic significance of this meeting, seem to be looking on at an even greater distance.
The ‘classroom’ can be a long way from the ‘tent meeting’.
47 On this eschatological effect at the book’s conclusion see the perceptive comments
of P.D. Miller, ‘ “Moses My Servant”: The Deuteronomic Portrait of Moses’, Interpretation
41 (1987), pp. 245–55 (p. 249).
130 rickie d. moore
Approaching Deuteronomy from the inside of my Pentecostal confes-

sion has led me to the conclusion that the fiery theophany of Horeb is the
central theme of the book. There are those who would criticize me for hav-
ing read my own confessional experience into Deuteronomy. Yet would
not the pronounced lack of attention to the Horeb theophany in Deuter-
onomy scholarship render the latter at least equally open to the criticism
of having read the book through its own experience or lack thereof. It all
becomes a matter of what experiences and indeed what criticism we are
willing to take seriously.
My reading has pointed up a number of literary relationships and con-
nections, which can be judged on their own merits. Yet I am forthrightly
acknowledging that the coherence that I have discerned and uplifted in
this reading involves more than literary observations. It has much to do
with pursuing how things appear from the inside of such a confession
as opens Deuteronomy, ‘our God spoke to us’. From the outside, such a
confession is easily regarded as some primitive notion belonging to a pre-
critical world-view where such notions are commonplace, and if com-
monplace, then not expected to be particularly noteworthy, much less
central, in such literature as we have before us. However, from the inside,
such a confession would easily point to the singular claim which evokes
the given worldview, which divides time, and which commands and cen-
ters the deepest commitments of the heart. It would thus not appear sur-
prising to find this claim occupying the thematic center of this writing,
for it would point to the heart of the hermeneutic which is generating
the writing. And if the heart of the hermeneutic, then not a mere buttress
for some more fundamental claim or a means to reinforce a standpoint
already occupied. We are dealing rather with the point where standing
and understanding have their beginning, because this is where they have
been completely lost and found anew. We are dealing, in other words,
with the point where confession becomes profoundly critical.
The voice that comes to claim central position on the inside of this
confession comes from the outside, from the wilderness, from ‘otherness’
itself. It comes from the margin and then marginalizes all who claim it,
who are claimed by it. It will ever put marginal voices in a totally and radi-
cally new light—the voices of widows, orphans and aliens. Without the
experience of the voice that comes from the midst of the fire, as it did on
the day of Pentecost and as it did at Azusa Street, we may never become
critical enough to affirm as we should the other voices from the margins.
Chapter Nine
Pentecostal Hermeneutics: Retrospect and Prospect*
Kenneth J. Archer**
We are not fighting against people or churches, but we

are seeking to replace dead forms of dogmas with liv-
ing, practical Christianity.
The Apostolic Faith, William Seymour
The Pentecostal movement emerged out of the intense Weslyan-holiness
and Reformed evangelical revivals of the late nineteenth century. What
specifically distinguished this movement from the other revival move-
ments was the binding together of the biblical concept of the baptism
of the Holy Spirit with the charismatic phenomenon of speaking in
other tongues. However, we must recognize that even though the bap-
tism in the Holy Spirit with the evidence of speaking in other tongues is
the distinctive doctrine of Pentecostalism, it is not the central essence of
Pentecostalism.
What is at stake in the present hermeneutical debate is not whether
Pentecostals have correctly exegeted the Lukan corpus according to the
traditional historical-critical methodologies, but Pentecostal identity.
Thus, the purpose of this article is to identify the essence of Pentecostal-
ism in order better to appreciate the contemporary debate concerning
Pentecostals and hermeneutics. By doing this I hope to show that a prom-
ising hermeneutic can be extrapolated from the spiritual ethos of classical
Pentecostalism.
The Essence of Pentecostalism
The essence of Pentecostalism is its persistent emphasis upon the super-

natural within the community. G. Wacker, in his article ‘The Functions

** Kenneth J. Archer (PhD, University of St Andrews) is Professor of Pentecostal Theol-
ogy and Christian Studies Director of the Master of Arts in Theological Studies at South-
eastern University, Lakeland, FL, USA.
132 kenneth j. archer
of Faith in Primitive Pentecostalism’, argues that the framework in which

speaking in tongues should be analyzed is the thoroughly experiential
supernaturalistic conceptual horizon.1 This supernaturalistic horizon of
Pentecostalism is ‘marked by living in and from the eschatological pres-
ence of God’.2
Pentecostalism with its manifestation of the charismatic gifts (tongues,
prophecy and healings) ‘offered invincible certitude that the supernatural
claims of the gospel were really true’.3 Pentecostalism perceived itself as
a revival movement that called the church to relive the apostolic experi-
ences that are related in the New Testament.4
At the center of this supernaturalistic horizon stood Jesus the Savior,
Sanctifier, Healer, and soon coming King.5 The christological themes
were rooted in the revivalistic movments of the late nineteenth century.
To these christological themes Pentecostals added one more—Spirit bap-
tizer, and they saw themselves as living in the latter rain (Joel and Acts).6
They viewed this Holy Spirit outpouring as the final act in the drama of
salvation, for the second coming of Jesus was going to happen very soon.
Pentecostal identity was shaped from the beginning by an ‘eschatologi-
cal intensity and an existential identification with “the full gospel” of the
New Testament Apostolic Christianity’.7 Pentecostals, like other restora-
tion groups, were certain that they had recaptured the essential features
of the New Testament church8 and that these supernatural features were
available to all Christians.
This supernaturalistic worldview has been identified as the very reason
for the overwhelming growth of the Pentecostal movement.9 Margaret
Poloma’s recent sociological study of one of North America’s largest Pente-
costal denominations (the Assemblies of God) argues that Pentecostalism
may be seen as an ‘anthropological protest against modernity’ by ‘provid-
1 HTR 77 (1984), p. 360.

2 S. Land, Pentecostal Spirituality: A Passion for the Kingdom (JPTSup, 1; Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), p. 184.
3 Wacker, ‘The Functions of Faith’, p. 361.
4 F. Arrington, ‘Hermeneutics’, in S.M. Burgess and G.B. McGee (eds.), Dictionary of
Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1988), p. 381.
6 See D. Dayton, Theological Roots of Pentecostalism (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson,
1987).
7 M. Dempster, ‘The Search for Pentecostal Identity’, Pneuma 15.1 (1993), p. 1.
9 Wacker, ‘The Functions of Faith’, pp. 374–75.
pentecostal hermeneutics 133
ing a medium for encountering the supernatural’.10 She characterizes the

Pentecostal worldview by the ‘belief in and experience of the paranor-
mal as an alternate Weltanschauung for our instrumental rational modern
society’.11 She points out that this may be seen as an anomaly to the domi-
nant scientific worldview of our day,12 yet it is precisely this supernatu-
ralistic worldview which propels the growth of Pentecostalism within the
modernistic age.13 In presenting the worldview of Pentecostalism,14 I hope
to convey that the essence of the movement is the belief in and encounter
with the supernatural in the Christian life. This experiential worldview is
at the heart of the present hermeneutical debate.
Classical Pentecostals and Scripture
The early Pentecostals’ ‘operative principle of interpretation was the con-

viction that exegesis is best when it is as rigidly literal as credibility can
stand’.15 An extreme example of literal interpretation is to handle snakes
and drink deadly poisons based on a literal reading of Mark 16. This
example serves further to illustrate that when Pentecostals interpreted
the Bible in a literalistic fashion, they did so in order to apply it directly
to their immediate context.16 (Mark 16, then, was understood as indicat-
ing what ‘signs’ should be evident among the Pentecostal community
presently, not as past ‘signs’ which took place within the New Testament
church.) Thus, Pentecostal interpretation placed little or no significance
upon the historical context of Scripture nor would it be concerned with
the author’s original intent (the historical-critical method). The Bible is
the Word of God and understood at face value.17 The horizons of past and
present were fused, or from a critical perspective, confused.
10 The Assemblies of God at the Crossroads (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press,
1989), p. 19; cf. p. xix.
11 Poloma, Assemblies of God, p. xvii.
12 Poloma, Assemblies of God, p. xvii.
13 Poloma, Assemblies of God, p. xx; Wacker, ‘The Functions of Faith’, p. 374. Wacker
makes the same point by saying ‘the movement flourished, in short, not in spite of the fact
that it was out of step with the times, but precisely because it was’.
14 See J.D. Johns, ‘Pentecostalism and the Postmodern Worldview’, JPT 7 (1995),
pp. 73–96.
16 G. Sheppard, ‘Pentecostals and the Hermeneutics of Dispensationalism’, Pneuma 16.2
(1984), p. 22.
17 Arrington, ‘Hermeneutics’, p. 378.
This literal or face value interpreting of Scripture without any concern

for the historical distance allowed Pentecostal preachers to emphasize the
immediate meaning of Scripture. Joseph Byrd, after researching the first
decade of Pentecostal preaching makes the following four descriptive con-
clusions about the sermons:
1. Preaching was spontaneous and not relegated to professional clergy.

2. Preaching participated in the overall trajectory of worship services, it
was not necessarily the climax of the service.
3. The congregation participated in the sermon in terms of responding,
but the sermon also allowed for participation of the congregation more
fully in the ‘altar call’.
4. The sermon reached for an immediate experience for the listeners and
was not characterized by a hermeneutic that spent its time exegeting
a text in a historical-critical manner. Put simply, the preacher focused
on the immediate meaning of a text and not upon what a text meant
in its original context.18
The Holy Scriptures for early Pentecostals were not viewed as a past ‘static
deposit of truth’ but as the present ‘primary source book for living the
Pentecostal life’. The Pentecostal expects all the supernatural manifesta-
tions of the Scriptures to be realized during the present era.19 This ‘re-
experiencing’ of the biblical text was further emphasized in the worship
service by testimonies. These testimonies offered by laity provided evi-
dence that God still was working miracles in the present.20 The testimony
not only served to provide evidence of God’s miraculous power but also
aided in the process of interpreting Scripture. The testimonies presented
by the community helped to shape the understanding of those who were
attending the worship service. Thus the Pentecostal community partici-
pated in the hermeneutical process.
Pentecostals (primarily from the white denominations such as the
Assemblies of God) readily accepted the fundamentalist dispensational
hermeneutic.21 Some have argued that this is a sign of the Pentecostals’
18 J. Byrd, ‘Paul Ricoeur’s Hermeneutical Theory and Pentecostal Proclamation’, Pneuma
15.2 (1993), pp. 204–205 (emphasis added).
21 F. Arrington, ‘Dispensationalism’, in Burgess and McGee (eds.), Dictionary,
pp. 247–48.
desire to find acceptance by the Fundamentalists.22 Yet others argue that

this adoption was a result of the Pentecostal self-identity as God’s eschato-
logical community.23 This wedding of Pentecostalism to a fundamentalist
dispensational hermeneutic has been complicated. Pentecostals who used
dispensationalism had to modify it in order to preserve their emphasis
upon the miraculous in this church age.24
A Summary of Classical Pentecostalism
Some general conclusions can be made about how classical Pentecostals

have viewed Scripture. First, they have seen Scripture as the inspired
Word of God which is authoritative and wholly reliable (cf. any Pentecos-
tal statement of faith). The Bible not only represents a witness to God, but
also it is the very word of God. Thus, the human authors of Scripture are
seen as passive instruments. Inspiration, then, becomes dictation.25
Secondly, as a result of Scripture being received as the objective author-
itative present word of God, they have not recognized a historical distance
between themselves and the text. Biblical statements are understood at
face value with no appreciation for the ancient context in which Scripture
was first delivered.26 This simple pietistic yet critical hermeneutic focused
primarily upon their immediate context.27 Ironically, this approach led to
multiple dimensions of meaning.28 However, this did not lead them to
affirm relativism.
Thirdly, their interpretation was theologically colored by their christo-
logical ‘full gospel’ pre-understanding; therefore, their doctrine would be
22 Sheppard, ‘Pentecostals’, p. 5.
24 See Sheppard, ‘Pentecostals’, pp. 5–33.
25 Arrington, ‘Hermeneutics’, p. 380. Classical Pentecostals never incorporated a theory
of dictation into their Statements of Faith, they asserted that Scripture is authoritative and
most did not even include ‘inspired’.
26 Arrington, ‘Hermeneutics’, p. 380. Cf. G. Walker, ‘Playing for Keeps: The Primitivist
Impulse in Early Pentecostalism’, in R. Hughes (ed.), The American Quest for the Primitive
Church (Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 1988), pp. 196–219.
27 R. Spittler, ‘Scripture and the Theological Enterprise: A View From the Big Canoe’, in
R.K. Johnston (ed.), The Use of the Bible (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1985): ‘I am not at all
prepared to say that such simple pietistic use of Scripture is defective; it is not so much
wrong as limited’ (p. 75). Thus, he says that ‘the historical-critical method is [necessary
but] inadequate because it does not address piety’ (p. 77).
28 T. Cargal, ‘Beyond the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy: Pentecostals and
Hermeneutics in a Postmodern Age’, Pneuma 15.2 (1993), p. 165.
consistent with evangelical Christianity in general.29 The doctrinal posi-

tion produced a stabilization and limitation to the multiple dimensions
of meaning.
Fourthly, the prime interpreter and preacher was the local pastor. The
‘Pentecostal clergy’, as Russell Spittler put it, were for the most part ‘lay
people who quit their jobs’.30 Christian Lalive d’Epinay’s study of the
Pentecostal movement in Chile points out this similar characteristic of
Pentecostal clergy: ‘Nothing in the pastor’s social origins, recruitment or
training separates them from the mass of church members’ and ‘the grad-
ual abandonment of secular activities by the candidate pastor highlights
the fact’ that ‘he is only a layman who specializes to the point of giving
all his time to the church.’31 The distinction between Pentecostal laity and
clergy rested upon the latter being divinely called by God to proclaim the
word of God to the people of God. Consequently, education was not nec-
essary and at times seminary training was seen as a hindrance to effective
preaching.
Thus far we have identified the historical beginning of Pentecostalism
which came as a result of the evangelical revivals of the late nineteenth
century, particularly the Wesleyan-holiness and Keswick higher life
movements. Emerging from this context of American restoration revival-
ism came a distinct Pentecostal spirituality: ‘it was the black spirituality
of former slaves in the United States encountering the specific catholic
spirituality of the movement’s Grandfather, John Wesley’.32 Pentecostal-
ism’s unique doctrine was the wedding together of the holiness concept of
baptism in the Holy Spirit with speaking in other tongues as the physical
evidence for such an experience. Thus, ‘Pentecostals succeeded in doing
what the Holiness Movement could not do in that it offered the believer
a repeatable and unmistakable motor-expression which in effect, guaran-
teed his possession of the Spirit’.33
29 W. Menzies, ‘The Methodology of Pentecostal Theology: An Essay on Hermeneutics’,

in P. Elbert (ed.), Essays on Apostolic Themes (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1985); M. McLean,
Toward a Pentecostal Hermeneutic’, Pneuma 6.2 (1984), p. 51: ‘Most Pentecostals are funda-
mentalists in that they believe in the five fundamentals’.
30 Spittler, ‘Scripture’, p. 75.
31 Haven of the Masses: A Study of the Pentecostal Movement in Chile (London: Lutter-
worth Press, 1969), p. 95.
33 V. Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement in the United States (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1971), p. 122.
The essence of Pentecostalism is the emphasis upon the omnipotent

God breaking into the everyday life of the believer. As Steven Land so
concisely and accurately has explained,
The faith, worldview, experience and practice of Pentecostals was thoroughly
eschatological. They lived both in the tension of the already but not yet con-
summated Kingdom . . . Time and space were fused and transcended in the
Spirit, and at the heart of testimony, expectation and worship was Jesus, the
Savior, Sanctifier, Healer, Baptizer with the Spirit, and Coming King.34
This worldview was and still is antithetical to modernity’s conception of
reality.
Contemporary Pentecostal Hermeneutics
Walter J. Hollenweger’s monumental study of Pentecostalism published

first in German in 1968 opens with this dedication: ‘To my friends and
teachers in the Pentecostal movement who taught me to love the Bible
and to my teachers and friends in the Presbyterian church who taught
me to understand it.’35 Hollenweger’s chiding remark no doubt reflects
a simplistic scholarship among early Pentecostals, even though there
were a few competent scholars. This is no longer the case, however,
for Hollenweger, in a 1992 article states that today ‘one finds scores of
first-class Pentecostal scholars’ and these scholars ‘deserve to be taken
seriously’.36 He concludes the article by saying,
Pentecostalism has come of age. It is now possible to be filled with the Spirit,
to enjoy the specific Pentecostal charismata and Pentecostal spirituality, to
believe in Pentecostal mission, and at the same time to use one’s critical
faculties to develop them and to use them—as any other charisma for the
Kingdom of God.37
Pentecostal scholarship has reached new levels of sophistication as the
Fall 1993 issue of Pneuma: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies
demonstrates. This issue contains essays on the theme of Pentecostal
hermeneutics. ‘Here we see social scientific research coupled with post-
modern methodologies of interpretation and an ability to appeal to the
34 Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, pp. 55–56.

35 W. Hollenweger, The Pentecostals (London: SCM Press, 1972), p. xvii.
36 W. Hollenweger, ‘The Critical Tradition of Pentecostalism’, JPT 1 (1992), pp. 7, 9.
37 Hollenweger, ‘Critical Tradition’, p. 17.
most recent trends in biblical and theological studies.’38 These Pentecos-

tal scholars are utilizing the latest methods in order to represent valuable
aspects of Pentecostal experience and tradition.
The following portion of this paper will focus upon the contempo-
rary Euro-American Pentecostal discussion of hermeneutics. This topic
has generated a lively debate amongst Pentecostal scholars. This can be
attested to by examining the current contents of two prominent Pente-
costal journals; namely, Pneuma and the Journal of Pentecostal Theology.
Scholars are responding to a general call to develop a hermeneutic with
which to construct a theology worthy of the name Pentecostal.39
Pentecostals have a distinct way of reading the Scriptures. They read
them ‘through Lukan eyes especially with the lenses provided by the book
of Acts’.40 This Luke-Acts perspective has led Pentecostals to the conclu-
sion that the believer should have not only a salvation-regeneration expe-
rience but also a second subsequent Spirit baptismal experience. This is
understood to be of considerable importance because with it comes an
endowment of power for evangelism (Acts 1.8), and this experience of
Spirit-baptism should be normative for all believers.
F.D. Bruner and James D.G. Dunn have provided important critiques of
Pentecostal exegetical reading of Scripture. They both set out to evaluate
the claim made by classical Pentecostals that the baptism in the Spirit
is a second and subsequent normative experience for Christians.41 Both
scholars employ the historical-critical exegetical methodologies in order
to recover the author’s original intent.42 Both scholars find Pentecostal
exegesis incorrect in its presentation of a subsequent experience.
Dunn, however, is more sympathetic in his evaluations than Bruner.
Bruner believes that the heart of the gospel is under attack because the
38 G. Sheppard, ‘Biblical Interpretation after Gadamer’, Pneuma 16.1 (1994), p. 127.
40 Dayton, Theological Roots, p. 23.
41 Dunn, ‘Baptism in the Spirit: A Response to Pentecostal Scholarship on Luke-Acts’,
JPT 3 (1993), p. 5, claims this is the thesis of his Baptism in the Holy Spirit; Bruner, A The-
ology of the Holy Spirit: The Pentecostal Experience and the New Testament Witness (Lon-
don: Hodder & Stoughton, 1970), p. 78: ‘Is the Pentecostal teaching on the experience of
the Spirit in conformity with New Testament teaching? . . . should Christians seek a sec-
ond . . . experience subsequent to their Christian initiation? . . . should I have the Pentecos-
tal experience?’
42 Bruner, Theology, p. 153: ‘The final question at stake in our confrontation with Pen-
tecostalism is not: was Luke right or wrong . . . but: does Pentecostalism rightly or wrongly
understand Luke . . .?’
reformation doctrine of justification by faith alone has been impaired.43

Bruner’s comments reveal this concern:
A principal error of Pentecostalism, shared by some of Pentecostalism’s par-
ents and relatives in conservative evangelicalism, is the conviction that the
gospel is sufficient for the beginning but not for the continuing of the Chris-
tian life, for bringing the Holy Spirit initially but not fully . . .
Christians not only once-and-for-all receive the Spirit through the mes-
sage of faith apart from the fulfilling of conditions (Gal. 3:2) but they con-
tinue to be supplied fully with the Spirit and ministered miracles through
the very same message without additional techniques or deeper messages
or secret means (3:5) . . .
The consequence for the Pentecostal doctrine of fullness must be the
abandonment of any condition for the fullness of the Holy Spirit other than
the one, initiating, sustaining, and powerful message of faith in Jesus Christ.
There is for Christians no fuller, no more fulfilling gospel than the gospel
that makes a man a Christian; to assert that there is, is to fall under Paul’s
severest censure (Gal. 1:6–9; 5:2–12).44
Two observations can be drawn from Bruner. First, he believes he has cor-
rectly interpreted Luke-Acts by utilizing the historical-critical exegetical
method. Secondly, he reflects the general attitude of the Reformed tradi-
tion that Pentecostalism jeopardizes the gospel.45 This second observa-
tion touches upon the issue of Pentecostal identity.
Mainline classical Reformed Protestantism has typically viewed Pen-
tecostalism and the Holiness movement in terms of an evangelical ‘sub-
culture’. Pentecostalism and the Holiness movements did not come out
of old-school Presbyterianism but are products of Wesleyan thought. The
structures of Wesleyan thought are not characteristically those of the tra-
dition of ‘Protestant orthodoxy’ and so ‘these movements are not classi-
cal Protestantism but protest against it’.46 Thus, there is more involved
in Pentecostal hermeneutics than the exegesis of Luke-Acts. Pentecostal
experiential spirituality is also at stake.
43 H. Lederle, ‘Pre-Charismatic Interpretations of Spirit-Baptism’, in A Reader on the

Holy Spirit: Anointing, Equipping and Empowering for Service (Los Angeles: International
Church of the Foursquare Gospel, 1993), p. 33.
44 Bruner, Theology, p. 240.
45 D.G. Bloesch, Essentials of Evangelical Theology, II (San Francisco: Harper Collins,
1978), p. 236. Bloesch makes this charge against both the Holiness and Pentecostal
traditions.
46 D. Dayton, ‘Yet another Layer of the Onion or Opening the Ecumenical Door to let
the Riffraff in’, The Ecumenical Review 40.1 (1988), pp. 98–99.
Dunn, according to the editors of the Journal for Pentecostal Theology,

has been the most ‘provocative and stimulating’ dialogue partner for Euro-
American Pentecostal biblical scholars.47 Dunn’s Baptism in the Holy Spirit
in particular and his Jesus and the Spirit in general challenged the classi-
cal Pentecostal understanding of Spirit baptism while at the same time
affirming the charismatic character of the early Church.48 In response to
Dunn’s challenging work, a number of Pentecostals set out to overturn
his conclusions.49 I will focus upon one Pentecostal scholar in particular;
namely, Robert Menzies, an Assemblies of God missionary, who is pres-
ently Professor of New Testament at Asia Pacific Theological Seminary in
the Philippines.
The debate between Dunn and Menzies has been carried out in the
Journal of Pentecostal Theology. Both Robert Menzies and Dunn use the
same exegetical methods, yet Menzies’ argument for a subsequent work
of the Holy Spirit is strong, if not stronger than Dunn’s (Dunn himself
recognizes this). The charge of Menzies and others is that Dunn does not
give Luke enough credence for a view of pneumatology that is distinct
from Paul. Menzies argues that ‘Luke describes the gift of the Spirit exclu-
sively in charismatic terms as the source of power for effective witness’,
and it was Paul who was the first to attribute soteriological functions to
the Spirit.50 Therefore, the central issue concerning the debate between
Dunn and Menzies is: ‘Does Luke separate the outpouring of the Spirit
on individuals from conversion initiation and see it as an empowering
47 This comment made by the editors prefaces Dunn’s article, ‘Baptism in the Spirit’, p. 3.
48 R. Menzies, ‘Luke and the Spirit: A Reply to James Dunn’, JPT 4 (1994), p. 115.
49 Dunn cites the following in his article, ‘Baptism in the Spirit’, p. 4: H.D. Hunter,
Spirit-Baptism: A Pentecostal Alternative (Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 1983);
H. Ervin, Conversion-Initiation and the Baptism in the Holy Spirit: An Engaging Critique of
James D.G. Dunn’s Baptism in the Holy Spirit (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1984); R. Stron-
stad, The Charismatic Theology of St Luke (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1984); F.L. Arrington,
The Acts of the Apostles (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1988); J.B. Shelton, Mighty in Word
and Deed: The Role of the Holy Spirit in Luke-Acts (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991);
R.P. Menzies, The Development of Early Christian Pneumatology with Special Reference to
Luke-Acts (JSNTSup, 54; Sheffield: JSOT Press, 1991). Other scholars who have also recog-
nized a distinctive character to Luke’s pneumatology include H. Gunkel, The Influence of
the Holy Spirit (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1979 [1888]); E. Schweizer, ‘πνεῦμα’, TDNT, VI,
pp. 389–455; D. Hill, Greek Words and Hebrew Meanings (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1967), G. Haya-Prats, L ‘Esprit force du l’eglise (Paris: Cerf, 1975); and M.M.B. Turner,
Power from on High: The Spirit in Israel’s Restoration and in Luke-Acts (JPTSup, 9; Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1996).
50 Menzies, ‘Luke and the Spirit’, p. 117.
gift rather than a soteriological gift?51 Dunn argues ‘no’ and Menzies
argues ‘yes’.
These debates about what the author (Luke) intended his readers to
understand will probably not be solved. Yet as a result of this debate Euro-
American Pentecostal scholarship has demonstrated its ability to defend
its doctrinal distinction with scholarly sophistication. Pentecostal schol-
arship has aided in elevating Acts from a purely historical narrative to a
historical-theological narrative thus giving it the same doctrinal clout as
Paul and John.52 This would be consistent with the traditional Pentecostal
approach to Scripture as a homogeneous whole. Therefore, R. Menzies
(and other Pentecostals) argues for a distinct Lukan pneumatology, yet he
also argues that it is complementary and not contradictory to Paul and/or
the rest of the New Testament.53 However, classical Pentecostal exegesis
did not distinguish between a Lukan and Pauline pneumatology, but read
Paul in light of Acts. Hollenweger was correct when he wrote, ‘When we
look for the biblical roots of the Baptism of the Spirit, we discover that the
Pentecostals and their predecessors based their views almost exclusively
on the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles.’54
The Dunn-Menzies debate touched upon an important issue. Do Pen-
tecostals need a unique hermeneutic in order firmly to establish their
beliefs and practice in Scripture? Robert Menzies declares, ‘The herme-
neutic of evangelicalism has become our hermeneutic’.55 This should
come as no surprise since Robert’s father, William Menzies, has argued
this. W. Menzies regarded redaction criticism’s emphasis upon the author/
editor’s original intention as a positive development within historical
51 Dunn, ‘Baptism in the Spirit’, p. 6; Menzies, ‘Luke and the Spirit’, p. 117.
52 I. Howard Marshall’s Luke: Historian and Theologian (Exeter: Paternoster, 1970)
marked an important shift in evangelical thinking recognizing Luke both as historian and
theologian. See the important work of Pentecostal scholar Roger Stronstad, Charismatic
Theology.
53 R. Menzies, ‘The Essence of Pentecostalism’, Paraclete 26.3 (1992), p. 1; ‘Coming
to Terms with an Evangelical Heritage’, Paraclete (1994), p. 22: ‘Luke’s pneumatology is
different from—although complementary to—that of Paul’. Menzies acknowledges in ‘The
Essence of Pentecostalism’, that D.A. Carson cannot accept two different pneumatological
views in Scripture because it would create problems for an evangelical doctrine of inspira-
tion (p. 7). What is different and complementary for Menzies and Pentecostals is different,
contradictory and destructive for Carson and the evangelical Reformed tradition.
54 The Pentecostals, p. 336. Even Hollenweger believes that James Dunn’s Baptism in
the Holy Spirit interprets Luke through ‘Pauline’ eyes, and Hollenweger himself believes
that Catholics and Pentecostals have some justification from Luke but not from Paul for
their beliefs (p. 350).
55 R. Menzies, ‘The Essence of Pentecostalism’, p. 1.
critical hermeneutics. He believed that redaction criticism is the impor-

tant exegetical key for ‘the kind of hermeneutic required for a Pentecostal
theology of Spirit-baptism initiation accompanied by tongues’.56 Robert
Menzies has utilized redaction criticism in demonstrating a Lukan pneu-
matology that is different from a Pauline pneumatology.
The Menzies represent the predominant Euro-American attitude
within Anglo-Pentecostal scholarship. These scholars constitute a group
which has turned to the evangelical wing of the Church in order to find
‘particular hermeneutical assistance’.57 Cargal correctly recognizes that
North American Pentecostal scholars ‘have tended to align themselves
with evangelicals in their move toward adopting the methods of histori-
cal criticism’.58 For Menzies, this ‘assimilation of the modern Pentecostal
movement into the broader evangelical world is an exciting and positive
event’.59 The Menzies hope that through this assimilation Pentecostalism
will bring the church back to ‘a fuller understanding of the theology of the
Spirit, not an essentially different understanding’.60
Others, however, view this assimilation of Pentecostalism into Evangel-
icalism as destructive to Pentecostal identity and doctrine. Mark McLean
highlights this concern:
A strict adherence to traditional evangelical/fundamentalist hermeneutic
principles leads to a position which, in its most positive forms, suggests the
distinctives of the twentieth century Pentecostal movement are perhaps
nice but not necessary; important but not vital to the life of the Church in
the twentieth century. In its more negative forms, it leads to a total rejection
of Pentecostal phenomena.61
A hermeneutic that focuses only upon what the original inspired author
meant and/or intended first readers to understand will not completely
satisfy the requirements of a Pentecostal hermeneutic. The essence of
Pentecostalism asserts that ‘the spiritual and extraordinary supernatural
56 W. Menzies, ‘Methodology’, p. 8.

57 R. Johnston, ‘Pentecostalism and Theological Hermeneutics: Evangelical Options’,
Pneuma 6.1 (1984), p. 55. He recommends to the Pentecostal community to look to evangel-
icals for help in developing an evangelical hermeneutic with some Pentecostal aspects.
58 Cargal, ‘Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy’, p. 163. This is not the best move
for Pentecostals: ‘Any hermeneutic which cannot account for its loci of meaning within a
postmodern paradigm will become nonsensical and irrelevant’ (p. 187).
59 R. Menzies, ‘Luke and the Spirit’, p. 119.
60 W. Menzies, ‘Methodology’, p. 1. Notice the restorationist theme in his statement.
61 McLean, ‘Pentecostal Hermeneutic’, p. 37.
experiences of the biblical characters are possible for contemporary

believers’.62
This concern has led some scholars to articulate a hermeneutic that is
more representative of the early tradition and ethos of Pentecostalism.63
These scholars desire to move away from a hermeneutical system that
is heavily slanted toward rationalism which tends to downplay experi-
ence and/or the role of the Holy Spirit.64 These scholars are attempting to
present a holistic Pentecostal hermeneutic which can also be used within
the Christian community. French Arrington reflects this: ‘The real issue in
Pentecostalism has become hermeneutics, that is, the distinctive nature
and function of Scripture and the roles of the Holy Spirit, the Christian
community, grammatical-historical research, and personal experience in
the interpretive process’.65 The important role of the Holy Spirit and the
impact of personal experience upon hermeneutics are the most frequently
discussed dimensions. To these categories I now turn.
A common complaint against Pentecostals is that they eisegete their
experiences into the text; thus, they experience something and then find
it in Scripture.66 Roger Stronstad challenges this charge by building upon
the suggestions of MacDonald67 and William Menzies68 who argue that
personal experience should be assigned to a certification or verifica-
tion function at the end of the hermeneutic process. Stronstad contends
that ‘experience enters the hermeneutical enterprise at the beginning
of the hermeneutical process’.69 His article sets out to demonstrate that
62 Byrd, ‘Ricoeur’s Hermeneutical Theory and Pentecostal Proclamation’, p. 205;

Arrington, ‘The Use of the Bible by Pentecostals’, Pneuma 16.1 (1994), p. 105.
63 A hermeneutic which not only elucidates the original meaning of the biblical text
(the supposed function of the historical critical exegetical methodologies) but also answers
the question of what the text means today.
64 J.C. Thomas, ‘Women, Pentecostals and the Bible: An Experiment in Pentecostal
Hermeneutics’, JPT 5 (1994), p. 41.
65 Arrington, ‘Use of the Bible’, p. 101.
66 G. Fee, ‘Hermeneutics and the Historical Precedent: A Major Problem in Pentecostal
Hermeneutics’, in R.P. Spittler (ed.), Perspectives on the New Pentecostalism (Grand Rapids:
Baker Book House, 1976), p. 122.
67 MacDonald, ‘A Classical Viewpoint’, in Spittler (ed.), Perspectives, p. 6, describes
Pentecostal theology as a ‘Christ-centered experience-certified theology’.
68 W. Menzies, ‘Methodology’, pp. 12–13: ‘Personal experience should not be a priority
in establishing theology’ yet ‘testimony and exposition are equally handmaidens to truth’
thus ‘if a biblical truth is to be promulgated, then it ought to be demonstrable in life’. For
Menzies, personal experience should verify or demonstrate the continuity between the
biblical concept and experiential reality.
69 R. Stronstad, ‘Pentecostal Experience and Hermeneutics’, Paraclete (Winter 1992),
p. 16.
‘charismatic experience in particular and spiritual experience in general

give the interpreter of relevant biblical texts an experiential presupposition
which transcends the rational or cognitive presuppositions of scientific
exegesis’.70 Stronstad contends that Pentecostal hermeneutics will have a
variety of cognitive (Protestant grammatico-historico exegesis) and expe-
riential elements (salvation and charismatic experience or at least open-
ness to the reality of contemporary charismatic experience).71 Stronstad
recognizes that charismatic experience in itself will not enable one to
become ‘an infallible interpreter’ of Scripture; yet, charismatic experience
provides an important pre-understanding for Scripture.72 By experiential
verification Stronstad recognizes the need to move beyond an exegesis
which leads to sound biblical theology. He, like all Pentecostals, desires
to incorporate the theological truths into contemporary Christian expe-
rience which testify to the New Testament presentation of Scripture as
ethical-spiritual, experiential theology.73
The emphasis on the important dimension of experience has resulted
from the Pentecostal/Charismatic understanding of God’s presence. Pen-
tecostals recognize not only the fruit of the Spirit to be vital but also the
gifts of the Spirit to be just as vital because the manifestation of God’s
presence has been continuous from creation down to this very day.74 Thus
the supernatural, experiential worldview of Scripture is our worldview;
that is, an understanding of God who is above and beyond creation yet in
and among his people and testified to by signs and wonders.
The role of the Holy Spirit is continually referred to by Pentecostals as
an important element in hermeneutics. A fundamental principle is that
‘Scripture given by the Holy Spirit must be mediated interpretively by the
Holy Spirit’.75 The Holy Spirit is viewed as both inspirer of Scripture as
70 Stronstad, ‘Experience’, p. 17.

71 Stronstad, ‘Experience’, p. 25.
72 Stronstad, ‘Experience’, pp. 25–26.
73 See J. McKay, ‘When the Veil is Taken Away’, JPT 5 (1994), pp. 17–40, who contends
that Charismatic theology is a theology of shared experience. Shared experience expresses
the Charismatic-Pentecostal ‘awareness of the similarity between their own experience
and that of the prophets, apostles and Jesus, and also their awareness of being active par-
ticipants in the same drama in which the biblical personages were involved’ (p. 26). These
shared experiences enable Charismatics and Pentecostals to grasp the central theme of
Scripture—God restoring humanity to a right relationship with him—and therefore call
the person to participate in God’s restoration of his creation. McKay reveals the restora-
tionist motif, which views this era as God’s final act in the drama of salvation.
74 McLean, ‘Pentecostal Hermeneutic’, p. 38.
well as illuminator of Scripture; therefore, the Holy Spirit plays a vital part
in elucidating the contemporary meaning of Scripture.76
Many Pentecostals would argue for a prominent role of the Holy Spirit
in the interpretive process but I have found only one in my research thus
far who has articulated how the interpreter would rely upon the Holy
Spirit. Arrington suggests four ways in which the interpreter relies on the
Holy Spirit:
(1) submission of the mind to God so that the critical and analytical abilities
are exercised under the guidance of the Holy Spirit; (2) a genuine openness
to the witness of the Spirit as the text is examined; (3) the personal experi-
ence of faith as part of the entire interpretative process; and, (4) response
to the transforming call of God’s Word.77
The Holy Spirit enables the interpreter to bridge the historical and cul-
tural gulf between the ancient authors of the Scriptures and the present
interpreter.78 This strong emphasis upon the Holy Spirit comes from the
Scriptures which emphasize the role of the Holy Spirit as revealing God
and God’s will to his people (1 Cor. 2.9–10a).
These two dimensions (experiential and pneumatic) can lead to a
subjectivizing interpretive process; however, it must be pointed out that
Scripture has always stood as the objective standard to which Pentecos-
tals must submit. Thus Bruner, whose work is sharply critical of Pentecos-
talism, recognizes that ‘Pentecostalism quite openly declares that unless it
can support its case biblically it has no final compelling reason to exist’.79
John Christopher Thomas has suggested a holistic Pentecostal herme-
neutic which incorporates Arrington’s concern for a pneumatic illu-
mination and a dialogical role between Scripture and experience.80 He
deduces his paradigm from the Jerusalem council as recorded in Acts 15.
Thomas points out that Acts 15 grants an important role to the commu-
nity and to the Holy Spirit in the interpretive process of dealing with
Gentile Christians.81 Thomas makes several observations concerning this
passage before proposing his Pentecostal hermeneutic. These are worth
76 Arrington, ‘Use of the Bible’, p. 104. Cf. H. Ervin, who said, ‘There is no hermeneu-
tic unless and until the divine hermeneutes (the Holy Spirit) mediates an understanding’
(‘Hermeneutics: A Pentecostal Option’, in Elbert [ed.], Essays, p. 27).
80 Arrington, ‘Dispensationalism’, pp. 32–38; Thomas, ‘Women’, pp. 105–107.
81 Thomas, ‘Women’, p. 49.
mentioning because in them we hear the concerns of some Pentecostals

who find a pure historical-critical methodology to be an oppressive, alien-
ating experience to the common laity. The danger is that the historical-
critical methodology takes the Bible out of the hands of the Christian
community, out of the hands of the ordinary person, and puts it in the
laboratory of the expert who alone has the proper tools and training to
interpret Scripture.82
First, Thomas argues that the methodology revealed in Acts 15 is one
in which the interpretive process moves from the believing community’s
context to the biblical text. This particular biblical move is in reverse
order to the historical-critical method, which starts at the text and moves
to context. Secondly, the Holy Spirit in the community is seen to enable or
illuminate the Christian community to overcome the difficulty of receiv-
ing Gentiles as Christians. There existed plenty of Old Testament passages
which proclaim the impossibility of Gentiles becoming full-fledged mem-
bers of God’s covenant community. Thirdly, Scripture was used in this
process, yet, as applied to the matter of rules for table fellowship, it gener-
ated only a temporary resolution.83 This reveals that the text’s authority
is not unrelated to its relevance to the community or its own diversity of
teaching on a given topic.84
Thomas’s hermeneutic contains three primary components: the com-
munity, the activity of the Holy Spirit, and Scripture. These components
are not static but in dialogue with each other. The community testifies to
the experiences attributed to the Holy Spirit and then engages Scripture
to validate or repudiate the experience or issue.85
Thomas applies this paradigm to the contemporary issue of women
in ministry and in so doing demonstrates how the paradigm can work
and can help to resolve an issue which Scripture in and of itself cannot
resolve. Scripture with the aid of personal testimony through the guidance
of the Holy Spirit can resolve this issue. His hermeneutic regards Scrip-
ture as authoritative and central for the rule and conduct of the church,
because,
ultimately the experience of the church must be measured against the bib-
lical text and in that light, practices or views for which there is no biblical

85 Thomas, ‘Women’, pp. 51–56.
support would be illegitimate . . . this includes respect for the texts’ literary

genre and diversity as well as the unity of Scripture.86
Thomas has thus far presented a hermeneutic which attempts to be con-
sistent with the classical Pentecostal ethos which resists the complete
adoption of an evangelical historical-critical method. The traditional evan-
gelical historical-critical methods would be utilized in the hermeneutic
process but would not monopolize the process. Contemporary Christian
experience must also be included in the hermeneutical process.
In conclusion, Pentecostalism began among the poor and racially mar-
ginalized people in society. Even today Pentecostalism’s greatest growth
is in the so-called third-world countries. Pentecostalism in its classical
beginning should not be viewed as pre-modern or pre-critical but as
sub-modern. Pentecostals were never invited to be equal partners in the
modernist debate, but they still ate from the crumbs which fell from the
table of modernity.87 They demonstrated a modernist mindset by argu-
ing that they had scriptural empirical verification of their spiritual experi-
ence (Spirit baptism resulting in speaking in tongues). Yet, the Pentecostal
worldview contains important concepts which are strikingly similar to
postmodernism.88
Today some Pentecostals attempt to express themselves with a purely
modernistic hermeneutic (the historical-critical method) yet if Pentecos-
talism desires to continue in its missionary objective while keeping in
tune with its classical ethos, then Pentecostalism must have a postmod-
ern accent; an accent which is both a protest against modernity as well as
a proclamation to move beyond modernity; or better, after the modern.89
For Pentecostal scholars a satisfying hermeneutic cannot be uncritical or
even sub-modern, but it must move beyond the historical-critical meth-
odology which has gradually transformed biblical writings into museum
pieces without contemporary relevance.90 Pentecostals believe that God
still speaks today and when God speaks, God has more to say than just

87 Sheppard, ‘Pentecostals’, pp. 127–29.
88 See Johns’s article, ‘Pentecostalism’. Also J.P. Martin, ‘Toward a PostCritical Para-
digm’, NTS 33 (1987), pp. 370–85.
89 See Cargal, ‘Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy’. Also B. Turner, Theories of
Modernity and Postmodernity (London; Sage Publications, 1990), pp. 1–12.
90 E.V. McKnight, Postmodern Use of the Bible: The Emergence of the Reader-Oriented
Criticism (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1988), p. 14.
Scripture,91 yet it will be scripturally sound. This results from the Holy
Spirit being immanent in creation and the community. Thus the Spirit
will speak horizontally with a human voice or through human dreams.
This is possible because humanity is created in God’s image and God took
upon God’s self humanity; consequently, there exists an essential related-
ness which makes communication possible.92
Thomas’s hermeneutical paradigm captures both the dialogical and
dialectical essence of Pentecostalism. Thus we recognize the interdepen-
dence between the Scripture, Spirit, and reader(s). ‘There must be a con-
stant dialogue between the interpreter and the text’, because ‘God’s Word
is not a dead letter to be observed coldly but a word which speaks to
my situation . . .’; therefore, ‘the hermeneutical circle is not only unavoid-
able but desirable’.93 Pentecostalism’s contribution to hermeneutics is
in the area of community participation and experiential understanding.
There exists a promising Pentecostal hermeneutic rooted in the classical
spiritual ethos of Pentecostalism. This hermeneutic will speak with a lib-
erating voice accented by postmodernity.
91 C. Pinnock, ‘The Work of the Holy Spirit in Hermeneutics’, JPT 2 (1993), pp. 3–23.
Pinnock, not a Pentecostal, argues for the same idea in this article: ‘The Spirit helps us
understand what was meant by the biblical authors with a view to our understanding what
God wants to say to us today’ (p. 9).
92 F. Watson, Text, Church and World (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1994), pp. 107–23.
93 G. Stanton, ‘Presuppositions in New Testament Criticism’, in I.H. Marshall (ed.), New
Testament Interpretation (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, rev. edn, 1985 [1977]), p. 66.
Chapter ten
Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scripture*
Scott A. Ellington**
‘Is the Bible the Word of God?’ I frequently ask students this question at
the beginning of their study of the inspiration and the authority of Scrip-
ture. At the Mexican Bible Seminary, where I have taught for a number of
years, the answer is invariably ‘yes!’ What is more, it seldom if ever occurs
to any of my students to ask even the most basic qualifying questions,
such as ‘what do you mean by “Word of God”?’, before answering. Such
enclaves of non-critical acceptance of traditional doctrine are, however,
increasingly rare in the Christian academic circles of our day, while seem-
ing to flourish undisturbed in other parts of the Christian church, most
noticeably in the developing countries of the world.
When, however, I follow this first question by asking ‘how do we know
that the Bible is the Word of God?’, the responses become far less cer-
tain and automatic, requiring as they do some level of critical thought.
Answers tend to range from ‘that’s what the Bible teaches’, to ‘that’s what
my pastor taught us’, to a suspicious ‘don’t you believe that the Bible is
the Word of God?’. The problem is that, in this modern age of doubt,
questioning and discovery, these types of answers, along with many more
sophisticated proofs, are increasingly easy to question and invalidate. The
fact is that Scripture does not attempt to set forth and defend a doctrine
of inspiration and authority, but rather simply speaks authoritatively.
When pressed to provide an answer to my second question (‘Why
do you believe that the Bible is the Word of God?’), I noticed a persis-
tent tendency among Pentecostal students to fall back on testimony of
personal experiences. By that I mean stories taken from their own lives
and experiences in which they understood God to speak to them, and
indeed to ‘come down’ and meet with them, among other ways, in and
through the medium of biblical text. I observed time and time again that
it was possible to question and even cast serious doubts on traditional

** Scott A. Ellington (PhD, University of Sheffield) is Associate Professor in the School
of Christian Ministries at Emmanuel College, Franklin Springs, GA USA.
150 scott a. ellington
understandings of and proofs for infallibility and inerrancy in Pentecostal

groups without seriously challenging their understanding of the Bible as
the authoritative ‘Word of God’. This suggests to me that Pentecostals do
not found their understanding of the authority of Scripture on a bedrock
of doctrine, but that, in fact, their doctrine is itself resting on something
more fundamental, dynamic, and resilient; their experiences of encoun-
tering a living God, directly and personally. Doctrines may be challenged
and even overturned without striking at the very heart of Pentecostal faith
because the central emphasis of Pentecostalism is not a teaching which
must be believed or a proof which can be deduced and defended against
all challenges, but a God who must be reckoned with in direct encoun-
ter. This understanding is not, of course, unique to Pentecostalism, but its
centrality of emphasis and the influence which it has over the daily lives
of adherents is. I believe that this emphasis has a dramatic and important
impact on the way in which Pentecostals do theology.
Pentecostals are far less ready to fight and die in defense of doctrinal
statements than many other theologically conservative Christian groups
seem to be. This, I believe, is not because Pentecostals are less able to
think critically than other Christian groups or that they find doctrine
unimportant. Rather, I propose that, in fact, Pentecostals understand and
utilize doctrine in a fundamentally different way from those traditions
which are more thoroughly grounded in rationalist models1 of consider-
ing the question of the authority of Scripture. For Pentecostals, doctrine
is not essentially generative in function, but rather descriptive. A gener-
ative understanding of the way in which doctrine is utilized could, for
example, begin with the statement the Bible is inspired by God and from
that deduce that it is, therefore, inerrant. But Pentecostals, on the other
hand, utilize doctrine to describe and verbalize lived experience. Formal
doctrinal statements, which are deductive in nature, are, among Pente-
costals, an attempt to organize and understand described experience and
do not attempt to serve as proofs for those things which lie completely
outside the realm of experience. Beliefs are not derived from understand-
ing, but arise from intense individual and corporate experiences of the
presence and action of God in the lives of Christian believers. Doctrine is
descriptive of and, as such, arises out of experience. Pentecostalism begins
1 The term ‘rationalist’ is intended here to refer to all theological models which rely
largely or entirely on the use of reason as a means of approaching theological questions,
while at the same time seeking to exclude all non-rational methodology. All theological
methods are, to some extent, rational, but not all give an exclusive place to the faculty of
reason, devaluing anything which is not primarily if not completely rational.
pentecostalism and the authority of scripture 151
with intense experiences of encountering God. God reveals himself in the

pages of the Bible, in signs and wonders, in worship and prayer in very
real and powerful ways. Pentecostals base their faith first on the God that
they have met and know in relationship, and only then do they attempt,
with greater or lesser success, to articulate their experiences in normative,
doctrinal ways. This is not to say that, for Pentecostals, doctrine is unim-
portant, but it is to recognize that the basic fodder of the doctrinal process
within Pentecostalism is the experience of the community of faith.
The Church of God (Cleveland, Tennessee) has as its earliest official
statement on the authority of Scripture a declaration published in the
Evangel, August 15, 1910, which began by saying, ‘The Church of God
stands for the whole Bible rightly divided. The New Testament is the only
rule of government and discipline.’2 A more detailed statement of faith
on the subject was not adopted until 1948, when the General Assembly of
the church included the statement ‘We believe in the verbal inspiration of
the Bible’ in its statement of faith.3 J. Christopher Thomas implies that the
adoption of a more detailed expression of faith concerning the authority
of Scripture had more to do with the church’s dialogue with the National
Association of Evangelicals than with a felt need within the denomina-
tion. He says, however, that:
Such a history (of the statement of faith) should not be taken to suggest
that Pentecostals did not always believe wholeheartedly in the inspiration of
Scripture, but that Pentecostals had their own concerns alongside the debates
which were mostly going on elsewhere within the Evangelical community.4
C.M. Robeck, in an article on the National Association of Evangelicals,
states that the association between Pentecostals and Evangelicals in the
National Association of Evangelicals, founded in 1942, led to the ‘evan-
gelicalization’ of Pentecostals. He notes that ‘some Pentecostal groups
have rewritten their statements of faith, and others have imported such
“evangelical” issues as “inerrancy” into their theological arenas for the first
time’.5 Thomas6 in particular notes the efforts on the part of Pentecostals
to gain acceptance in evangelical circles through the National Association
2 C. Conn, Like a Mighty Army: A History of the Church of God (Cleveland, TN: Pathway
Press, 1911), pp. 111–18.
3 Conn, Like a Mighty Army, p. 218.
4 J.C. Thomas, ‘The Word and the Spirit’, Evangel 81 (7), p. 5.
5 C.M. Robeck, ‘National Association of Evangelicals’, S.M. Burgess, et al. (eds.), Dic-
tionary of Pentecostal and Charismatic Movements (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990),
pp. 635–36.
6 Thomas, ‘The Word and the Spirit’, p. 5.
of Evangelicals, and he finds very telling the fact that the statement ‘We
believe in the verbal inspiration of the Bible’ was not adopted by the
Church of God until 1948, during this time of early association.
Thomas’s and Robeck’s observations suggest to me that formal doctri-
nal statements on the authority of Scripture among conservative churches
in this century arose out of debates which were not immediately impor-
tant within the Pentecostal church. Pentecostals adopted statements of
scriptural authority which were essentially Evangelical as part of their
effort to gain a wider acceptance in the conservative Christian commu-
nity, and the Evangelical movement in the US has been and is today pre-
occupied with articulating their faith within the framework of modern
rationalism. They are resisting the encroachment of modernity using the
tools of modern scientific method and playing by the rules and within the
restrictions of rationalism. One of the central arguments which I want to
make in this paper is that, even today, doctrinal statements on the inspira-
tion and, derivatively, the authority of Scripture are secondary in impor-
tance among Pentecostals to the experiences of an authoritative God in
and through the Scriptures. Evangelicals use ‘proofs’ for inspiration to try
to support a sagging argument for biblical authority, while Pentecostals
begin with an authoritative encounter with God and then seek to describe
biblical inspiration in the only terms available to them, those of conserva-
tive Evangelicalism.
For some, this suggestion that experience and not doctrinal statements
are at the heart of Pentecostal faith might provoke a deep felt suspicion
that I am proposing that we compromise or even abandon altogether doc-
trinal ‘truths’. In a number of conservative circles, any deviation from the
accepted view would fail the breathalyzer test of established orthodoxy.
I am not trying to reject doctrinal statements, but I am suggesting that
Pentecostals need to begin by asking a different set of questions. Instead
of beginning with a declaration of what Pentecostal doctrine should and
must be, I want to begin by observing what it, in fact, looks like and how
it actually functions.
In this brief study, I would like to examine four proposals: first, that
modern rationalism is limited by its very nature to a partial understanding
of the nature and presence of God and that it has reached boundaries in
its speech about God beyond which it cannot pass; second, that Pentecos-
tals have failed adequately to formulate and articulate models of doctrine
which are true to their tradition, choosing instead to adopt uncritically
the doctrinal models of Evangelical Christians; third, that Pentecostalism
is different from other branches of the Christian church in the way that it
approaches theology and that, therefore, Pentecostals need to formulate a

distinctly Pentecostal theology; and finally, that at the local church level,
theology is frequently oral in form and some thought should be given to
devising a theology which exploits the richness of testimony in the Pen-
tecostal tradition.
Pentecostalism and the Pentecostal Use of Scripture
To a certain extent, it is misleading to speak of a ‘Pentecostal’ understand-

ing of Scripture or ‘Pentecostal theology’ or a ‘Pentecostal hermeneutic’.
There is, in fact, nothing which is completely new and unique to the
modern Pentecostal movement. All Christian churches have emphasized
experience to a greater or lesser extent. Glossolalia, miraculous signs, and
healings have been a part of the Christian experience for 2,000 years and,
with the exception of glossolalia, of the faith of Old Testament Judaism
before the time of Christ. Having stated, however, that Pentecostals have
not invented or discovered a ‘new thing’, it is certainly fair to say that few
if any other Christian churches today take so literally the New Testament
accounts of experiences of lived relationship with God and empowerment
by the Holy Spirit for ministry as do the Pentecostal and Charismatic move-
ments. A faith which in no way attempts to express a personal encounter
with a living God is deeply suspect for many Pentecostals, simply because
it is a foreign concept. God is intensely interested in relationship with his
creation, and Pentecostals understand God’s invitation to relationship in
very literal and concrete terms and have testimonies of encounters with
God which form the basis of their faith and theology.
I admit freely my own frustration and inability adequately and fully
to define ‘Pentecostal experience’, precisely because Pentecostalism is a
movement within the Christian church and, therefore, cannot be wholly
different from any other branch of the body. Having said this though, Pen-
tecostals have a set of shared experiences which, if not wholly different
from those felt by the larger family of Christ, are not universally shared
by the body. All Christians have had some level of experience with God,
but not all Christians share in some of the depths of experience and
insight which have been a part of the modern Pentecostal movement. It
is, therefore, difficult to describe an experience which is not held in com-
mon by all.
Personal and communal experience is, quite obviously, a precarious basis
for faith, being more open to subjectivity and self-deception. Relationship
with God, however, is not a closed system in which the individual believer
is free to manipulate the data to satisfy his or her own desires, needs and
expectations. It is precisely because God is so intrusively real that our
subjective experience is constantly being challenged and proved. Nor is
the Pentecostal understanding of the Christian faith strictly an internal
experience and, therefore, beyond the reach of critical evaluation. Signs,
wonders, and miracles in the Pentecostal community serve to make expe-
riences a shared, community property because they are external evidence
of the power and presence of God working within the community and the
world. Biblical authority in the Pentecostal church rests, in part, on expe-
riences of God in and through the Scriptures which constantly intrude on
the realm of ‘daily life’.
Within Pentecostal and charismatic circles, the Bible is the basic rule
of faith and practice and supplies the corrective and interpretive author-
ity for all religious experience. This belief is not a matter of dogma but
arises from repeated observations of the way in which God utilizes Scrip-
ture interactively. The words of Scripture add language to the relation-
ship which exists between the believer and God. Therefore, ‘what the
Bible says’ is identical with ‘what God says’ in Pentecostal theology, so
that the task of applying biblical teaching to the life of the believer and
the community of faith is essentially an interpretive one, which seeks to
understand in the clearest way possible what it is that God is saying to
the Church in and through the biblical text. A central question in biblical
study in Pentecostal circles is ‘How do we live a Christian life accord-
ing to the Scriptures?’ Along with many more conservative branches of
the Christian church Pentecostals approach the Bible with very practical
questions, expecting to encounter in the Scripture the very words of God
speaking directly to their needs and guiding them in the transformation
which the Holy Spirit is actively carrying on in their lives. It is the trans-
formative action of the Holy Spirit which persistently intrudes on Chris-
tian experience and prevents our interpretations from becoming simply
a process of reading our own needs and wants into the text and hearing
only that which we want to hear.
The Nature of Scripture
That the Enlightenment challenge to authority in all its forms which

in turn has led to the modern critical studies of the Bible has seriously
altered and, in some contexts, even destroyed any coherent notion of bib-
lical authority is such a self-evident notion that I will not take time in this
present work to document it.7 A further and more extreme move in more
recent times has been to subsume all external authority to the particu-
lar context of the individual responding to an authoritative claim. There
are, according to such views, no external sources of authority which are
universal absolutes. It is fair to say that in many, though by no means in
all, northern and western churches, the authority of the Bible has been
qualified in the extreme by questions of the reader’s own context and
background. In fact, some would argue that biblical authority in no way
transcends the immediate context of the reader. Because I cannot estab-
lish any absolute, universal standards from Scripture, so the argument
goes, the meaning of Scripture in my particular context is determined
precisely by that context.
This assumption is one of several that has grown out of a worldview
which demands that all experience be challenged and measured according
to a set of ‘objective’ and ‘scientific’ measures. This scientific and rational
worldview has narrowly defined the parameters within which the biblical
text may be studied and has denied validity to all other approaches to the
Bible. As a result, the modern, western worldview has become the exclu-
sive measuring stick for interpreting Scripture and no room has been left
for this basic understanding of the nature of reality to be challenged. The
American Evangelical movement has chosen largely to defend its notion
of biblical authority within the limits of modern rationalism, trying within
the narrow restrictions of a scientific worldview to defend a Bible which
will not be confined in such tight quarters, but which insists on making
absolute and universal claims which cannot be adequately documented
and verified by experimental method alone.8
7 John Goldingay offers a brief but informative outline of this crisis of biblical authority
in his Models for Scripture (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994), pp. 117–21.
8 Simply on a pragmatic level, this rationalist worldview is rapidly becoming a minority
view. Explosive growth in the third world, particularly among the more doctrinally con-
servative churches, and most noticeably in the Pentecostal and Charismatic movements,
has broken the modernist monopoly on biblical studies. That is to say, the majority of the
Christian church today does not have the same worldview as western rationalism. The first
world church has, it is true, been reasonably successful up until now at silencing these new
voices, either by funding and controlling their educational structures and controlling the
language which is available to them to articulate their faith or by simply denying access
and voice in the church’s political process. This has not always been done intentionally
or even consciously, but the missionary movements of the western world have all too
frequently exported their worldview as though if were inseparable from the gospel mes-
sage, being themselves, at times, unable to distinguish the two. I hope to demonstrate in
this paper the ways in which our worldview has been promoted and exported as though
Steve Land challenges the Pentecostal practice of adopting uncritically

from evangelical circles their statements about the inspiration of Scrip-
ture. He understands the Scripture to be ‘Spirit-Word’, that is, the dynamic
interaction of written text and the Holy Spirit.
The Spirit who inspired and preserved the Scriptures illuminates, teaches,
guides, convicts and transforms through the Word today. The Word is alive,
quick and powerful, because of the Holy Spirit’s ministry. The relation of
the Spirit to Scripture is based on that of Spirit to Christ. Even as the Spirit
formed Christ in Mary, so the Spirit uses Scripture to form Christ in believ-
ers and vice-versa.9
Doctrines of infallibility and inerrancy arose out of but regress from spiri-
tualities which ‘practiced a much fuller doctrine of the Word of God’.10
Land places the authority of the Spirit ahead of the authority of Scripture,
stating that ‘The Spirit was over the church. The Spirit was prior to Scrip-
ture. So, the order of authority was Spirit, Scripture, church. Without the
Spirit there would have been no Word, incarnate or written; without the
Word, no church’.11
Clark Pinnock sees the sharp division between the original inspiration
of Scripture and the present day illumination of Scripture by the Holy
Spirit to be unnecessary. He states that:
Both are crucially important and both belong to that larger process of inspi-
ration in which the Spirit first gave the Scriptures and then repeatedly gives
them again and again to readers. God’s breathing ought to be recognised
both in the formation and in the appropriation of the text.12
Thus, for Pinnock, ‘If the Bible is to become the word of God in our lives,
the letter is going to have to come alive by means of the Spirit’.13 I would
state it even more plainly. The book which we call the Bible is not of
itself the word of God, but only becomes the word of God to the reader
it were part of the gospel and how this view is, at times, incongruous with the experiences
of the Christian faith in cultures which do not share our own worldview. I would submit
that throughout the world and even in many local US church communities the question
of biblical authority is far more active and alive than modern scholarship would have us
believe.
9 Steven J. Land, Pentecostal Spirituality: A Passion for the Kingdom (Sheffield, England:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1993), p. 100.
12 Clark H. Pinnock, ‘The Work of the Holy Spirit in Hermeneutics’, Journal of Pentecos-
tal Theology 2 (April, 1993), p. 4.
13 Pinnock, ‘The Work of the Holy Spirit in Hermeneutics’, p. 5.
or hearer through the action and participation of the Holy Spirit in a

continuation of inspiration. While many conservative Christians would
affirm this understanding, Pentecostals place paramount importance on
the Spirit’s ‘inspiring’ of the biblical text as we receive it. The Pentecostal
understanding of biblical authority depends primarily on experiences of
the Holy Spirit speaking and guiding in and through the biblical text.
This has clear implications for a doctrine of the authority of Scripture.
The Bible is not simply a text about whose propositions we can debate,
it is the authoritative word of God because the same Holy Spirit who
inspired its writers meets us today in its pages. For Pentecostals, biblical
authority does not rest in the text we can justify, but in the God that we
know in and through the text.
Cheryl Bridges Johns, in her book Pentecostal Formation: A Pedagogy
among the Oppressed,14 argues that the modern rationalist scientific
worldview is based on a Greek philosophical understanding of reality,
which sees the ‘knower’ as subject and the thing known as object. There is,
according to Johns, an impenetrable barrier between the knower and the
thing known in Greek philosophy. Greek philosophy is essentially dualis-
tic, setting up a distinct and absolute barrier of separation between the
knowing subject and the object of knowledge: that which is known. Johns
maintains that this approach to knowledge is non-Hebrew and, therefore,
non-biblical. Instead she argues for adoption of the Hebrew notion of
yadaʿ, or knowing in active relationship, as a biblical model for talking
about knowledge of God. Thomas Groome describes yadaʿ as knowing
which ‘arises not by standing back from in order to look at, but by active
and intentional engagement in lived experience’.15 Modern ways of know-
ing approach God as an object of knowledge and not as the subject which
guides us in our discovery of reality. I seek to place the concept of biblical
authority not in a doctrinal setting, but rather in a relational and experi-
ential setting within the community of faith.
Susan Handelman makes the argument that our modern interpreta-
tion of biblical material has been distorted by the fact that we read the
Scripture through Greek lenses.16 She draws from Hans-Georg Gadamer’s
monumental work on the nature of truth and knowledge to illustrate the
14 C. Johns, Pentecostal Formation: A Pedagogy Among the Oppressed (JPTSup, 2; Shef-
field: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993).
15 T. Groome, Christian Religious Education (San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980), p. 141.
16 S. Handelman, The Slayers of Moses: The Emergence of Rabbinic Interpretation in Mod-
ern Literary Theory (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1982).
dramatically different use that words have within the Greek way of under-
standing. Gadamer tells us,
In the earliest times the intimate unity of word and object was so obvious
that the name was considered to be part of the bearer of the name, if not,
indeed, to substitute for him . . . Greek philosophy more or less began with
the insight that a word is only a name, i.e. that it does not represent true
being.17
As a result, words were considered to be mere symbols of some higher
truth and were themselves suspect in their ability to communicate truth.
If this understanding is expanded and applied to the whole of language,
Scripture becomes a place where we go to acquire information about
God and not a place where we go to meet the person of God in a direct
encounter through the words of the text. And if we cannot ‘know’ God
through direct encounter, all we have is knowledge about God and all that
we can do is merely encounter the idea of God. This God is a completely
foreign notion in Pentecostal hermeneutics.
Yadaʿ, on the other hand, is a knowing in active relationship. We do
not simply know about God, but we ‘get to know’ God experientially in
direct encounter. Such knowledge can never be absolutized or reduced to
a series of ‘spiritual laws’ or a pharisaic legalism, but it must arise from
a constant interaction with the known one. Thus, both those who would
reduce the Scripture to a set of abstract rational principles and those who
would try to freeze it into a series of dogmatic moral laws which func-
tion quite independently of their divine author are operating under false
models of knowing.18
Because our knowledge of God is relational and not merely informa-
tional, theology can be better expressed orally, because that is the primary
mode of relational communication among ordinary people in the commu-
nity of faith. Johns has pointed out that Pentecostal theology is essentially
oral in nature. Pentecostalism arises out of experiences of the presence
and action of God in the everyday life of the Christian, in constant dia-
17 Hans-Georg Gadamer, Truth and Method (New York: Continuum, 1975), p. 366.
18 Johns clarifies the type of relationship which we enjoy with the one whom we seek to
know. Because God is sovereign, we can act as subjects of history, transforming the world
around us, only after we have been acted upon as objects of God. Put another way, our
ability as Christians to act transformatively depends first and foremost on God working in
us an inner transformation, a sanctification from the power and effects of sin which would
distort and disable our praxis. Thus, to know God is not an abstract and uninvolved kind
of knowing, but is a knowing in dynamic relationship which changes an individual in the
way that they act and speak and think.
logue with the biblical story, interpreted within the community of faith
and through the guidance of the Holy Spirit. This last element assumes
that our relationship with God can never simply be considered as past
knowledge, but that it is ever a present and dynamic force as we seek to
understand our story in the light of the larger biblical story and to inte-
grate our experiences of God in the larger context of the experiences of
the community of faith, both contemporarily in our present community and
context and historically in the Church tradition and the Scripture itself.
Because this process is decidedly oral and experiential, it includes the
uneducated and uninitiated, and, indeed, it puts the ‘modern’ person at a
distinct disadvantage. The rationalist paradigm in which we have been so
successfully indoctrinated has made it all but impossible for us to avoid
‘demythologizing’ and rejecting everything which does not fit the struc-
ture of reality in which we are immersed. We are robbed of our ability to
imagine any reality outside of the physical, verifiable, predictable, domes-
ticatable world which we have created for ourselves. Thus, the structural
demand with which we approach God in relationship to a great extent
defines the parameters of that relationship. This is not to say that God is
simply a determined Being, but it is to recognize that our faith affects the
shape of our relationship with God.
Testimony and oral expression lend themselves to the understanding
and knowing of the God with whom we are in an active relationship, and it
requires no ‘special knowledge’ or expertise in order to participate actively
in the search to know God. As a result, access to God is not controlled by
a few professionals, but is open to all. By encouraging each member of
the community of faith to share testimonies of his or her experiences of
God and to participate in illuminating these experiences in dialogue with
Scripture, the church community, and the Holy Spirit, the opportunity
and the responsibility to know God is shared equally by all. Because Pen-
tecostal theologizing is oral and experiential, all participate on an equal
footing, with no particular advantage for those who have special training
or superior education. It should not seem strange, therefore, that testi-
mony is at the heart of the speech about God in Pentecostal circles. The
result of this theological approach for the question of biblical authority
is that this authority is not imposed from ‘above’ by church leadership,
but the Bible is experienced as authoritative as the Holy Spirit is found to
be at work in and through Scripture in the lives of each member of the
church community.
The yadaʿ way of knowing directly challenges the fundamental assump-
tion of the scientific method: objectivity. God has objective existence apart
from us, but our ways of knowing God are subjective in nature. In scien-
tific investigations, the knower attempts to separate herself from the thing
known and to be an ‘objective’ observer, that is, to ‘objectify’ or treat as
a distinct and separate ‘object’ of study the thing to be known. Although
such absolute objectivity is, in fact, an illusion, at the very least an attempt
is made to minimize the impact of the knower on the person or thing to
be known.
In interpersonal relationships, on the other hand, knowledge depends
on the knower offering him- or herself to that being which he or she wishes
to ‘know’. Thus, the person of the knower is an essential part of ‘knowing’.
The problem is that, as the knower offers more of herself or himself in the
relationship, the safeguards against subjectivism begin to disappear. But
I am suggesting that knowing God in a Pentecostal setting is, by its very
nature, subjective. Subjectivism, far from being a bad thing, is both neces-
sary and unavoidable in relationships. In fact, apart from entering into a
subjective relationship with God through the person of the Holy Spirit, we
cannot really know God. Clark Pinnock tells us that ‘. . . since to know God
is to know a person, there is a subjective dimension in our interpretation
which requires a living relationship with God and the operation of his
Spirit’.19 Knowledge of God outside of a relationship with God is inevitably
a distorted knowing, and we can know God in a personal relationship only
through the operation of the Holy Spirit. Subjectivism becomes a problem
when it denies the relationship and seeks the good of the believer over
and against God’s will. Subjectivism is negative to the extent that it is
non-relational and selfserving. A question with which Pentecostal schol-
ars must wrestle is ‘how can the Pentecostal approach to theology remain
relational, while avoiding the distortions which are possible in subjective
involvement?’ Johns has suggested a dynamic balance between the indi-
vidual, the Holy Spirit, the Scripture, and the community of faith.20
The person of the Holy Spirit acts as our guide and corrective. Apart
from the active participation of the Spirit, the mere words of the text have
no power to transform us. We are not free, as Ficht has suggested, to cre-
ate God in our own image. If we try to domesticate God to our own pur-
19 Pinnock, ‘The Work of the Holy Spirit in Hermeneutics’, p. 5.

20 An additional element which is all too frequently overlooked in Pentecostal circles
is the value and importance of tradition. Because many Pentecostal churches arose in a
context which was deeply suspicious of creeds, they have often failed to value the ‘testimo-
nies’ of the larger community of faith, both in our present day and historically throughout
the ages.
poses or to force Him out of the process, we are left without the dynamic
of interactive relationship. Johns claims that it is in the process of ‘sharing
our testimony’ that we confess our subjective preunderstanding and that
we make our objective claim. Subjectivism is not denied, as is the case
with some rationalist models, but rather expressly vocalized, so that it
may then be evaluated within the equally subjective community of faith
and in light of Scripture.
Stanley Hauerwas’s book Unleashing the Scripture: Freeing the Bible from
Captivity to America defends the thesis that ‘the Bible is not and should
not be accessible to merely anyone, but rather it should be made available
only to those who have undergone the hard discipline of existing as part
of God’s people’.21 He goes on to say that:
Most North American Christians assume that they have a right, if not an
obligation, to read the Bible. I challenge that assumption. No task is more
important than for the Church to take the Bible out of the hands of indi-
vidual Christians in North America.22
His self-admittedly outrageous statement is based on the understanding
that Scripture is only recognizable as such within the community of faith
and that all who read it as Scripture must do so as a participating member
of that community, under its authority. When this is not done, Hauerwas
argues, the Bible is subverted to serve the political needs of the reader.
Individualism in modern society has made much more real the threat of
a destructive subjectivism, and active participation in a reading commu-
nity is the best safe-guard against subverting the text to the service of
individual self-interest. Biblical authority, then, incorporates the notion of
involvement in the community of faith. Indeed, the Bible is authoritative
for the church community, and to place oneself voluntarily outside of that
community is to fail to recognize the Bible as authoritative.
The thesis of this study is that biblical authority in the Pentecostal
community arises from personal and communal experiences of the trans-
formative power of the Holy Spirit in the lives of individuals, in the com-
munity of faith and in the world. The Spirit utilizes and works in harmony
with and through Scripture to transform the lives of individuals and to
empower them supernaturally to become instruments of God’s transfor-
mation and restoration of fallen creation. Because most formal doctrine
21 S. Hauerwas, Unleashing the Scripture: Freeing the Bible from Captivity to America
(Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1993), p. 9.
22 Hauerwas, Unleashing the Scripture, p. 15.
is expressed through and bound up in a rationalist paradigm, the com-

munity of faith in a dynamic, experiential relationship with God, and
not the academic community, is the proper setting for the discovery and
exploration of a Pentecostal understanding of biblical authority. Pentecos-
tal doctrine, in order to speak to and interpret experiences of encounter
with God, must arise out of experience and be subject to examination and
conceivably alteration by experience, Scripture, and the Holy Spirit. Scrip-
ture acts as a corrective for experience and the biblical text has the last
word. This is not to say that biblical doctrine is inferior or non-essential,
but it is to recognize that the Bible is not essentially a doctrinal treatise.
Rather, it is a record of testimonies, a story of the relationship between
God and his creation. As it moves through stories of creation, fall, trial,
promise, preservation, deliverance, faithfulness, failure, exile, redemp-
tion, and restoration, the biblical forms (oracle, vision, narrative, song,
command, theological treatise, etc.) reflect the diverse ways in which the
biblical authors experienced the revelation of God. Indeed, leaving aside
the question of whether the canon should be considered to be closed, it
can be stated that the community of faith today should understand itself
to be a continuation of the community of faith in which the Scripture was
originally forged. Because the Scripture arose in the community of faith
and can only be legitimately authoritative within that community today,
it is correct to say that, while not originating with the community of faith,
the Bible’s authority nevertheless is formed and functions effectively only
within that community. Although the historical, social, political, cultural,
and economic contexts of each local community of faith are unique, I
argue that the biblical text can only be entered into and re-experienced
in the same setting in which it was originally formed, that is, in the com-
munity of faith. The text cannot be fully understood simply by analyz-
ing it in a detached and objective way. The authority of Scripture can
be adequately understood only by the community which has committed
itself to live under the discipline of that authority because that authority
arises from a living interaction between God and the community of faith.
The biblical text offers a world of communal relationship to God, and one
can fully enter that world only in the community of faith, because finally
it is the community’s story and not just the collected stories of individu-
als. Christian doctrine should arise from and describe the relationship
between the individual, the community of faith, and God, as it is informed
by Scripture.
I argue that, while church doctrines are vital to the preservation and
articulation of the Christian gospel, they are essentially reductionistic
and impersonal when cast in the form of inflexible dogma. A belief in
an authority of Scripture which is doctrinally based and not founded in

personal experiences of encounter with God in and through Scripture is, I
believe, an inadequate source of authority. Indeed, the person that founds
his or her faith on doctrine rather than personal experience informed by
doctrine has chosen a singularly unstable foundation. Doctrines, which
serve an important role in defining and guiding faith, are nevertheless
not the foundation of faith. Faith, in order to be strong, must spring from
and be nurtured by an encounter with God and not just knowledge about
God. The biblical text was forged in (but not merely by) a community
that was in dynamic relationship with the Self Revealing One, and it is the
community of faith which provides the richest setting for the Holy Spirit’s
revealing of God to us through Scripture today. The worldview of such a
community expects and looks for experiences of dynamic, life-changing
encounter with a God who is intent on being known in relationship.23
It matters very much whether we see the Scripture as simply a series
of good teachings or ideas and concepts or even as a sacred history, or
whether we understand it to be a relational world of encounter with God
and the historical community of faith into which we enter, with our intel-
lect, but also with our emotions, intuitions and feelings. I submit that any
reading of the Scripture which is devoid of experiences of encounters
with God and which occurs in isolation from the community of faith is an
inadequate reading which fails to comprehend Scripture’s origin, function
and, ultimately, what Scripture is. Thus, while doctrines are an essential
tool in organizing biblical teachings and evaluating personal and com-
munal experiences, for the Bible to be truly ‘authoritative’ in the life of an
individual and community, God must be experienced and encountered by
that person and community in and through Scripture.
Toward a Pentecostal WorldView
At the heart of the conflict which exists between traditional statements

of the authority of Scripture and a Pentecostal understanding of that
23 David Clines, in his book The Theme of the Pentateuch (Sheffield, England: Shef-
field Academic Press, 1989), understands Scripture to provide a world which the reader is
invited to enter. He says that ‘The Pentateuch as a story therefore performs the function
of creating a “world” that is to a greater or lesser extent unlike the world of the reader,
and that invites the reader to allow the horizons of his own world to merge with those of
the other world’ (p. 102). For Clines it might be unimportant whether this world is real or
imagined, but Pentecostals make the claim that the world of Scripture into which we are
invited is real, because the God which we meet there is real.
authority is the question of worldview. Most modern theology attempts to

bracket out subjective experience, whereas for Pentecostals, experiences
of encountering God are the beginning point of theology and the constant
companion of the theologian. Doctrinal statements are a product of and
not the source of experiences of revelation and encounter.
Walter Wink criticizes modern critical method for its artificiality which
separates the scholar both from the world of the biblical text and from
the practical world of lived Christian experience as it is today. Modern
historical-critical method requires a separation from and objectification
of its focus of study, the biblical text. Wink maintains that the historical-
critical method must practice a functional atheism, separating the text
from the stream of existence and objectifying it. He states that, ‘by detach-
ing the text from the stream of my existence, biblical criticism has hurled
it into the abyss of an objectified past’.24 Thus a vast gulf is fixed between
the reader and the text. Because of this, Wink claims that the fruits of
critical study, which has made the biblical text into an abstract object, are
not readily applied to practical situations of daily use.
Wink also notes that historical method, by its very nature, must exclude
all consideration of the supernatural. In order for historical method to
function, the historian must have a world in which outside interference
and arbitrary divine intervention are excluded. Biblical history can only
be studied and applied in the same way as secular history if we assume
that both operate according to the same ground rules. Supernatural in-
breakings into history do not fall within the realm of explainable cause
and effect and are, therefore, disruptive to the formation of a history
under the historical-critical model.25 Thus, modern criticism is forced to
exclude all consideration of the miraculous, both in the biblical history
and in its application to the life of the church today. Interestingly, the
result is that the supernatural is excluded from the conversation not so
much for reasons of faith, but rather for reasons of expediency. The model
just will not function in a world open to the supernatural.26
24 W. Wink, The Bible in Human Transformation (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1973),
pp. 3–4.
25 Wink, The Bible in Human Transformation, p. 38.
26 Jackie Johns (‘The Covenant Community as Paradigmatic Context for Leadership
Development in the Pentecostal Church. Part One: Pentecostalism and the Emerging
Worldview’. A paper presented at the 23rd Annual Meeting of the Society for Pentecostal
Studies, 1993) develops the notion that a predominantly rational approach to biblical stud-
ies is impoverished in that it limits our access to the text to the single human attribute of
the intellect. He notes that Pentecostal theology is ‘transrational’ and that ‘Pentecostals
David Kelsey27 observes that the mode in which we understand God

to be present in large part determines the resulting form of our theology.
But by choosing one way in which to understand God to be present, there
is a great temptation to eliminate all competing models of understand-
ing. Biblical scholarship which relies on the methods of modern biblical
criticism, tends, unfairly, to bracket out other ways of understanding God
to be present. Thus, those ways of knowing God which are traditionally
identified with rationalism are much less open to knowing God in other
ways, such as emotionally, or in supernatural events which transcend a
strictly scientific worldview. By limiting our imagined notions of the ways
in which God is and is not present, what one effectively does is to bracket
out a relational understanding of knowing God, settling instead for a more
distant and distorted knowledge about God.
It is worth noting that the emotional and the supernatural are elimi-
nated from ‘scientific’ discussions not because they can be invalidated
using scientific method, but rather because they can be neither invali-
dated nor adequately evaluated using such methodology. To exclude the
supernatural from the question of biblical authority is as much a faith
statement as its inclusion.
Parker Palmer, in his classic work To Know as we are Known: Education
as a Spiritual Journey, argues that the entire educational structure pro-
duces a scholarship and a knowledge which is essentially anti-communal.
He describes the way in which we objectify that which we would know in
order to manipulate and control it. This, of course, suggests that scientific
method is not disinterested, but that it, in fact, can be motivated by a
desire not simply to understand, but also to subjugate. ‘We are well edu-
cated people’, Palmer says, ‘who have been schooled in a way of knowing
that treats the world as an object to be dissected and manipulated, a way
of knowing that gives us power over the world’.28 He goes on to say that:
Of course ownership and control are possible only in relation to objects or
things. One cannot own a living being until, by a twist of mind, one turns it
do not limit truth to the realm of reason. For them the spectrum of knowledge includes
cognition, affection, and behavior, each of which is fused to the other two’ (p. 18). By nar-
rowly defining the range of possible approaches that we allow the Holy Spirit to utilize in
revealing God to us, we have greatly impoverished our experience of God.
27 D. Kelsey, The Uses of Scripture in Recent Theology (Philadelphia: Fortress Press,
1975).
28 P.J. Palmer, To Know as we are Known: Education as a Spiritual Journey (San Fran-
cisco: Harper & Row, 1993), p. 2.
into a piece of property, a slave, thus gaining the dominance modern know-
ing strives for.29
He maintains that education mediates the relationship between the
knowing subject and the world, which is the object of knowledge, giving
supremacy to the knowing self over the known world.30 Palmer’s startling
conclusion is that knowledge is not amoral, but that it begins in a ‘place
of passion within the human soul’.31 Thus, we must not only question
the feasibility of objectivity, we must also be aware that, as we make the
necessary move toward attempted objectivity in our evaluations, we are
neither purely rational nor strictly amoral and disinterested.
Exploring a Pentecostal Paradigm
Charles Kraft’s book Christianity with Power: Your Worldview and Your
Experience of the Supernatural explores the ways in which worldview pre-
disposes openness to experience God in the spiritual realm.32 His basic
argument is that those whose worldview is predominantly rationalist are
much less available to supernatural revelation and that they have radi-
cally reduced the range of revelation which they will allow the Holy Spirit
to utilize. Kraft maintains that, while we cannot fully escape from our
worldview, because it is a part of our very identity, we are able to modify
and change it.
Walter Brueggemann speaks of our worldview as not merely opening
us to new ways of viewing the world, but he understands our speech actu-
ally to act to form and transform our reality, that is, to be world creating.
Brueggemann says,
our new intellectual environment acknowledges that human agents are in
process of constituting reality, and that formative work is done through
rhetoric. This means that speech is not merely descriptive, but it is in some
sense evocative of reality and constitutive of reality.33
Speaking of the prayer language of the Psalter he says that
29 Palmer, To Know as we are Known, p. 24.

32 C. Kraft, Christianity with Power: Your Worldview and your Experience of the Super-
natural (Ann Arbor, MI: Vine Books, Servant Publications, 1989).
33 W. Brueggemann, Texts Under Negotiation: The Bible and Postmodern Imagination
(Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1993), p. 12.
in the Psalms the use of language does not describe what is. It evokes to
being what is not until it has been spoken . . . In using speech in this way,
we are in fact doing in a derivative way what God has done in the creation
narratives of Genesis. We are calling into being that which does not yet exist
(cf. Rom. 4.17).34
Brueggemann rejects a more traditional understanding of knowing, say-
ing that
in this post-Cartesian situation, knowing consists not in settled certitudes
but in the actual work of imagination. By imagination, I mean very simply
the human capacity to picture, portray, receive, and practice the world in
ways other than it appears to be at first glance when seen through a domi-
nant, habitual, unexamined lens.35
Reality for Brueggemann is a habit of imagining and not an immovable
universal. ‘The world we take as “given” ’, he says, ‘is a long-established act
of imagination that appeals to be and claims assent as the only legitimate
occupant of the field’.36 For Brueggemann, then, the biblical text is trans-
formative in that it offers to the reader an alternative imagination, out of
which a new reality can be constructed.
While Brueggemann would identify God as intimately involved in this
process of transformation, he refuses to be pinned down on questions of
the form which the presence and activity of God might take. While many
Pentecostals would agree with Brueggemann’s emphasis on the impor-
tance of speech and his criticism of our willingness to accept too readily
the world we are offered as ‘reality’, they would want to identify the action
of God in the direct, personal, and very involved relationship between the
believer and the Holy Spirit. Although Brueggemann is not a part of the
Pentecostal Movement, his concept of the creative imagination, in which
the text of the Bible funds or stimulates belief in a world which does not
yet exist and which we cannot yet see is somewhat similar to the Pente-
costal notion of accepting the Scripture by faith and the words which it
speaks to us and the promises which it makes to us as being spoken and
made by God. By confessing and believing the words of God in Scripture,
words which are couched in a worldview different than our own, we are
invited to imagine a God that transcends our worldview, not so much
destroying it as expanding it and transforming it to include the spiritual
34 W. Brueggemann, Praying the Psalms (Winona, MN: Saint Mary’s Press, 1986), p. 28.
35 Brueggemann, Texts Under Negotiation, pp. 12–13.
36 Brueggemann, Texts Under Negotiation, p. 13.
world. The Bible invites us to see beyond our own worldview and to catch
a glimpse of the world as God sees it.
Because the Pentecostal worldview is not confined to the western
world of scientific method and observable fact, it is open to hearing the
voice of Scripture differently. The authoritative voice of the Bible can no
longer be restricted and reinterpreted by the confines of the possible.
Tongues, complete sanctification of the believer, miracles, and the super-
natural intrusion of the Holy Spirit into the lives of believers are just as
fully a part of what God is saying through Scripture to the church today
as is the command to love, a preoccupation for the needs of the poor and
oppressed, and the commission to preach the gospel. For Pentecostals,
biblical authority need not be modified and contained by the possible, the
practical, or the expedient.
Conclusion
The goal of this study has been to examine the ways in which the Pen-
tecostal community of faith understands and utilizes biblical authority.
I have challenged modern biblical criticism on a number of counts, not
because modern criticism has nothing to offer us, but because modern
scholarship frequently makes a number of assumptions about the nature
of Scripture which are ill-advised and unnecessary. Modern rationalism,
either for reasons of convenience or expediency, has chosen to bracket
out fields of inquiry which they are unable to eliminate using scientific
method. The exclusion, for example, of the supernatural is a decision
which science simply cannot support. It can be neither fully proven nor
disproven because it falls outside the realm of examination by experimen-
tal method and can be neither brought into a controlled environment
nor reliably duplicated. The supernatural and miracles must, in such a
model, be excluded as a statement of faith. Some would argue that this
is necessary, desirable, and even justifiable. My point is simply that this
decision is a faith statement and not the inevitable result of scientific
method. A predominately rationalist worldview unnecessarily restricts
both our approach to Scripture and the ways in which we make ourselves
available to hear from God. By excluding the supernatural and focusing
instead exclusively on the rational, much modern scholarship has become
impoverished in the way that it understands God to be present and has
distanced itself from that which millions of Christians experience as an
important part of their faith.
My thesis is that biblical authority in the Pentecostal community of

faith arises from personal and communal experiences of the transforma-
tive power of the Holy Spirit in the lives of individuals, in the community
of faith and in the world. Pentecostals, I believe, found their belief in the
authority of Scripture not on doctrinal beliefs or theological arguments,
but on experiences of personal encounter with God in and through the
biblical text.
As a result of this present discussion, I would like to make four obser-
vations. Firstly, biblical scholarship which is founded largely or entirely
on a rationalistic understanding of faith and God has met its limits in
today’s world. Stepping back from something in order to obtain ‘objec-
tive distance’ is an essential step toward deeper growth and understand-
ing. If, however, understanding stops at objectification, it must remain
non-relational in nature and, therefore, limited in its application. Modern
biblical criticism has made huge contributions to our understanding of
Scripture and the Christian faith and we will continue to harvest its fruits
for generations. If, however, we choose to cling doggedly to yesterday’s
discoveries and methods, the Christian church will pass us by. Modern
biblical scholarship needs to reexamine and expand its vision. I believe
that the Pentecostal movement offers an important way forward.
Secondly, it seems apparent to me that Pentecostals have allowed
themselves to be drawn into a battle which is not their own. I do not
wish to argue against inerrancy and infallibility, but I want simply to
point out that such ways of articulating the question of biblical authority
arise out of a worldview which is radically different from that into which
Pentecostalism invites us. If it were somehow possible finally to disprove
the doctrines of infallibility and inerrancy, the Pentecostal understanding
of the authority of Scripture would not be noticeably changed. I am not
suggesting that doctrine is not of vital importance, but I do believe that
we are exhausting our ammunition and squandering our strength on the
wrong battlefield. We cannot fully function within a rationalist framework
because that framework can easily be at odds with that which is central
to the foundation of Pentecostal theology, a lived experience of God. We
need to formulate doctrines which rely not just upon that which we think,
but which can accommodate that which we experience as well.
The division in Pentecostal method between academic and church
worlds has led to a kind of theological schizophrenia. We practice one form
of theologizing within the Pentecostal community and a quite different
form when we discuss faith with those who do not claim the same set of
Pentecostal experiences. This split has led some scholars to the conclusion
that Pentecostalism and biblical scholarship are wholly incompatible.

John McKay finds the kind of scholarship which is practiced in reli-
gious academic institutions today to be incompatible with a charismatic
understanding of Scripture. Speaking both of liberal and conservative
factions, McKay states, ‘Their views are based on doctrines, assumptions
and hypotheses, albeit sometimes diametrically opposed ones, about the
nature of Scripture and revelation. Charismatics are based on what they
discover themselves thinking after they have been baptized in the Holy
Spirit.’37 While the rift that McKay observes between Pentecostal and
rationalist approaches to Scripture is certainly there, I do not see this
separation as an uncrossable abyss.
Thirdly, with all the above mentioned qualifiers, I want to maintain that
Pentecostal theology is fundamentally different from the other models of
theology which are prevalent today. Notice I did not say that Pentecostal-
ism is fundamentally different, but that the model of doing theology which
we utilize can and must be different. We must find a way to articulate a
theology which gives free range to our experiences of encountering God
in dynamic and powerful ways. Pentecostal theology and hermeneutics
are different because they arise not primarily out of rational reflection,
but rather out of lived experience. Our theology must reflect that central
element of our faith.
Lastly, in addressing the question of what a Pentecostal theology might
look like, I would like to point to the centrality of testimony in Pente-
costal churches. Because Pentecostal theology is descriptive and oral in
nature, we have quite naturally chosen to do a great deal of our theology
utilizing testimony. This is not a planned move on the part of the Pente-
costal community, but it seems to be simply the best and most natural
approach to articulating experiences. Perhaps the most pressing question
that this present study raises is, what would a more formal theology that
arises out of testimony in the Pentecostal community look like? I believe
that the formulation of such a theology is a vital task for the Pentecostal
community.
37 J. McKay, ‘ “When the Veil is Taken Away” The Impact of Prophetic Experience on
Biblical Interpretation’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 5 (Oct. 1994), p. 39.
Chapter Eleven
Hearing What the Spirit Says to the Churches:

Profile of a Pentecostal Reader of the Apocalypse*
Robby Waddell**
1. In(tro)duction to Pentecostalism: A Text to be Interpreted
This chapter seeks to venture in a postmodern direction by unequivocally

acknowledging my own socio-religious context, Pentecostalism.1 There
are distinctives within the worldview of Pentecostalism which have pre-
disposed the manner in which I interpret the biblical texts.2 Thus in this
chapter, I sketch the contours of Pentecostalism and suggest a possible
hermeneutic which is faithful to the ethos of the movement. Following the
delineation of a Pentecostal hermeneutic, I examine the work on the role
of the Spirit in the Apocalypse by a few Pentecostal scholars to see to what
extent their theological persuasion has affected their work. The chapter
ends with a turn toward the Apocalypse to see what additional insights
the book might contain toward further development of the hermeneutic.
The previous chapters contained two latent methodological slogans
which provide the impetus for the following characterization of the ethos
of Pentecostalism. The first can be referred to as the ‘contextualization
of interpretation’. I.T. Beckwith acknowledges that the supposedly impar-
tial exegeses of biblical texts, often showcasing ‘the ingenuity of inter-
preters’, have consistently been swayed by the scholar’s circumstances,
either political or ecclesiastical, and by the methodology and hermeneutic
* Chapter 3 of Robby Waddell, The Spirit of the Book of Revelation (JPTSup, 30; Bland-
ford Forum: Deo Publishing, 2006), pp. 97–131.
** Robby Waddell (PhD, University of Sheffield) is Professor of Religion at Southeastern
University, Lakeland, FL, USA.
1 For a prospectus on the future of Pentecostal scholarship see the Society for Pente-
costal Studies presidential address of J.C. Thomas, ‘Pentecostal Theology in the Twenty-
First Century’, Pneuma 20 (1998), pp. 3–19; repr. in idem, The Spirit of the New Testament
(Blandford Forum: Deo Publishing, 2005), pp. 4–22.
2 S.A. Ellington has explored the relationship between a distinctive Pentecostal world-
view and the Pentecostal appropriation of scripture (S.A. Ellington, ‘Pentecostalism and
the Authority of Scripture’, JPT 9 [1996], pp. 16–38).
172 robby waddell
applied to the text.3 Like the interpreters before me, I too have been influ-
enced by my circumstances along with my presuppositions concerning
the text of the Apocalypse. As a member of a Pentecostal community of
faith, I acknowledge that I am influenced by a particular Gestalt or pre-
text which predisposes my interpretation of the biblical texts. Any reading
that is explicitly pro nobis must concede that the context of the commu-
nity (in)forms the interpretation.4 In a similar vein, E. Schüssler Fiorenza
accentuates the ‘plurality of meaning’ (the second methodological slogan)
when she observes that the imaginative language of Revelation need not
be exegetically reduced to a one-to-one meaning but rather be allowed to
evoke ‘imaginative participation’.5
3 I.T. Beckwith, The Apocalypse of John (Grand Rapids: Baker Book House, 1967, repr. of
1919 edn), p. 319. Surprisingly, as early as 1919, Beckwith foreshadows the emphasis within
biblical studies that has recently been placed on the reception of the text. Noting the tacit
subjectivism in his observation, Beckwith advises close attention to the historical situation
of the original author and his or her audience as well as attention to the literary influences
of the text, in the case of the Apocalypse primarily Jewish apocalypses and the Old Testa-
ment. I understand this advice to be Beckwith’s attempt to set boundaries for the proper
influences on the scholar in order to produce an accurate interpretation.
4 For an excellent example of a Pentecostal pro nobis reading see F. Cimpean, ‘From
Margins to Center: Pentecostal and Orthodox Readings of Romans 8 in Romania’, JPT
(forthcoming). Cimpean argues that the theological crux of Romans is life in the Spirit as
recorded in ch. 8, the center of the book. The Western interpretation which focuses on jus-
tification by faith is practically mute in the Eastern context of Romanian Pentecostalism
and the Eastern Orthodox church. See also S.E. Fowl (ed.), The Theological Interpretation
of Scripture: Classic and Contemporary Readings (Cambridge: Blackwell, 1997), a reader of
theological interpretations of scripture; idem, ‘The New Testament, Theology and Ethics’,
in J.B. Green (ed.), Hearing the New Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1995), pp. 394–
410; S.E. Fowl and L.G. Jones, Reading in Communion: Scripture and Ethics in Christian Life
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1991); S. Fish, Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of
Interpretative Communities (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980), pp. 303–71.
To refer to a Pentecostal reading as being pro nobis does not engender solipsism because
the reading is formed by what God is presently saying through the scriptures. The partici-
pation between God and the community which is taking place when scriptures are inter-
preted is analogous to the synergistic involvement of God and the individual in salvation.
S. Land writes that salvation requires an ‘affective transformation’, because, ‘[s]oteriology is
not simply the exposition of redemption accomplished and applied, though it is grounded
in what God has done for us. But the ‘for us’ is grounded in the ‘in himself (the pro nobis
in the a se)’ (S.J. Land, ‘A Passion for the Kingdom: Revisioning Pentecostal Spirituality’,
JPT 1 [1992], p. 201).
5 E. Schüssler Fiorenza, The Book of Revelation, p. 22. Note the way in which Fiorenza’s
words resonate with Pentecostal theology. ‘In the Spirit [Pentecostals] participate in the
marriage supper but also live in the ‘not yet’ of a lost world . . . the Spirit acts . . . via the
Word, enabling the believer to travel backward and forward in salvation history and to
imaginatively participate in the events that have been and are yet to be’ (S.J. Land, Pente-
costal Spirituality: A Passion for the Kingdom (JPTSup, 1; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press,
1993), p. 98 [emphasis added]).
hearing what the spirit says to the churches 173
‘Contextualization’ and ‘plurality’ serve as a pair of shibboleths for a

paradigm shift which has been hotly debated in the guild of biblical stud-
ies, a shift away from the diachronic historical-critical method toward
more synchronic narrative methods. Historically, professional biblical
scholars examined texts in terms of source criticism and subsequently
redaction criticism, focusing on the Sitz im Leben of the author and/or
the original audience. These historical methods seek to provide an objec-
tive ground where a critical distance between the scholar and the text can
be maintained so that the exegesis is not tainted with the experience of
the interpreter. Attempting to discover the historical and literary sources
which produced the text, these traditional forms of criticism give little
attention to the final form of the text.6
In a belated response to New Criticism, a movement within literary
studies that concentrated solely on the final form of the text, biblical
studies has produced volumes of scholarship concentrating on the nar-
rative integrity of the biblical texts.7 Although the dominance of the
historical-critical approach within biblical scholarship has waned, narra-
tive approaches, which are increasingly claiming a larger portion of the
academic pie, continue to maintain a prominent place for the pursuit of
objective meaning, albeit within the text, as opposed to historical criti-
cism whose attention is primarily behind the text.8 The emphasis on the
6 An early example of an attempt to rescue a text from the unsatisfactory conclusions
of historical criticism is D.J.A. Clines, I, He, We, and They (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1976). Clines offers a ‘rhetorical’ reading of Isaiah 53, maintaining the passage’s
integrity as a poem and avoiding the historical temptation to crack the code.
7 Very little work has been done on Revelation from a narrative-critical viewpoint with
the exception of the very good work by David L. Barr, ‘The Apocalypse as a Symbolic Trans-
formation of the World: A Literary Analysis’, Int 38 (1984), pp. 39–50; idem, ‘The Apoca-
lypse of John as Oral Enactment’, Int 40 (1986), pp. 243–56; idem, New Testament Story:
An Introduction (Belmont: Wadsworth, 1987). Also see R.J. Bauckham’s work, which is not
necessarily narrative-critical but does give due regard to the final form of the text. For the
most part, narrative criticism in biblical studies seems oblivious to New Criticism’s demise
in its native discipline. Cf. S.D. Moore, Literary Criticism and the Gospels (New Haven: Yale
University Press, 1989), pp. 108–30.
8 For an explanation of narrative criticism in biblical studies see N.R. Peterson, Liter-
ary Criticism for New Testament Critics (Philadelphia: Fortress, 1978); M.A. Powell, What
is Narrative Criticism? (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1990); G.R. Osborne, The Hermeneutical
Spiral: A Comprehensive Introduction to Biblical Interpretation (Downers Grove: Inter Var-
sity Press, 1991), pp. 153–73. W.R. Tate offers an excellent introduction to biblical herme-
neutics by dividing scholarship into three sections (the world behind the text, the world
within the text, and the world in front of the text) (W.R. Tate, Biblical Interpretation: An
Integrated Approach [Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1991]). The origin of modern narrative
theory is traced back to T. Todorov, who coined the term ‘narratology’ in 1969: Gram-
maire du Decameron (The Hagne: Mouton, 1969). See also G. Genette, Narrative Discourse
174 robby waddell
text within narrative criticism has given way (at least in some parts of the
academy) to an emphasis on the reader and his or her context (i.e. reader
response and poststructural criticism).9 These newer approaches, while
not abandoning attention to the final form of the text, attach importance
to what the reader brings to the text as a vital component in the interpre-
tation of meaning.10
Despite the rise of synchronic methods and in the face of the popular-
ity and acceptance of contextual readings (e.g. gender and racial inter-
pretations), the debate continues concerning the extent to which biblical
scholars should explicitly integrate their theological convictions11 when
they engage in biblical studies. Be that as it may, Pentecostals (especially
those of the rank and file) read the Bible theologically as divinely inspired
scripture which can and will speak directly to their present situations
and will affect every aspect of their lives.12 Thus, a Pentecostal reading
(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980); idem, Narrative Discourse Revisited (Ithaca: Cornell
University Press, 1988).
9 Reader response criticism is so discursive that it may have been placed alongside
narrative criticism; however, the juxtaposition of ‘reader response’ with ‘poststructuralism’
reflects the method’s deconstructive accent. See Moore, Literary Criticism and the Gospels;
idem, Poststructuralism and the New Testament: Derrida and Foucault at the Foot of the
Cross (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994); J.P. Tompkins (ed.), Reader-Response Criticism: From
Formalism to Post-Structuralism (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1980).
10 Examples of these contextual readings would include feminist readings, African
American readings, psychoanalytical readings, liberation readings and many other voices
from the margins which have taught that the view from the fringe is not always identical
with the traditional interpretation of sacred texts.
11 See R.D. Moore’s testimonial introduction, where he deconstructs the binary oppo-
sites so prevalent in the academy of criticism and confession. Scholarship has long favored
criticism relegating confession to the church, but Moore shows how these opposites are
not as exclusive as previously thought. Cf. R.D. Moore, ‘Deuteronomy and the Fire of God:
A Critical Charismatic Interpretation’, JPT 7 (1995), p. 20; idem, ‘Canon and Charisma in
the Book of Deuteronomy’, JPT 1 (1993), p. 92. In the latter article, Moore brings together
another binary opposite (written revelation and spoken revelation). Contrary to J. Derrida,
Moore does not privilege writing nor does he privilege speech but rather holds the two in
a continual tension, maintaining a harmony between ‘a law so righteous’ (the inscriptur-
ated revelation) and the ‘God-so-near’ (charismatic revelation). I will comment more on
this later. Although he advocates a synchronic method, Moore questions the infatuation
with the ‘final form’ using the words of Moses as a warning, ‘Take heed to yourselves, since
you saw no form on the day that Yahweh spoke to you at Horeb out of the midst of the
fire’ (Deut. 4.15, the translation from the Hebrew is Moore’s). In God there is no form, only
the consuming fire. Moore concludes with a deconstruction of deconstructionism, calling
into question the idolatry of ‘smashing idols (cf. Jehu in 2 Kings 10)’. For Moore, God is the
ultimate deconstructionist.
12 Pentecostals do not have a monopoly on reading the Bible theologically. Indeed,
Christians, particularly those not involved in professional biblical studies, have always
read theologically. Therefore, the claim that a Pentecostal reading must be theological
would be both synchronic, focusing on the final form of the text, and
theological, allowing the ethos and experience of the tradition to inform
the interpretation theologically. Perhaps owing to the strong ecclesiastical
commitments of most Pentecostal biblical scholars, theological implica-
tions have always been an implicit part of their hermeneutical telos, yet I
am proposing that an explicit theological hermeneutic,13 applied through-
out the interpretive process and not restricted to a posteriori reflection, is
essential in order to produce a Pentecostal reading of a text.
By proposing that a Pentecostal reading must be theological, I am not
disparaging historical methods or non-theological interpretations, for
they continue to offer vital insights into the biblical texts which serve to
enlighten the academy.14 Indeed it is possible for a Pentecostal scholar to
address a topic of interest for Pentecostals without employing an explic-
itly Pentecostal method.15 However, I wish to differentiate between the
examination of a topic which interests Pentecostals and the explicitly
Pentecostal examination of a topic. In this study, it is my intention to
is not exclusive, although a Pentecostal reading will look somewhat different from other
theological readings owing to the differences in the respective socio-religious contexts.
13 F. Watson, Text Church and World, passim, Watson builds on the work of B.S. Childs,
Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (London: SCM Press, 1979); idem, The New
Testament as Canon: An Introduction (London: SCM Press, 1984); H.W. Frei, The Eclipse of
Biblical Narrative: A Study in Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century Hermeneutics (New Haven:
Yale University Press, 1974). See R. Morgan with J. Barton, Biblical Interpretation (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 1988); and A.C. Thiselton’s critical appreciation of Morgan’s work
in A.C. Thiselton, ‘On Models and Methods: A Conversation with Robert Morgan’, in The
Bible in Three Dimensions, pp. 337–56.
14 Hollenweger has argued that Pentecostals should embrace the findings of historical
criticism in their congregations and not limit these historical insights to their seminar-
ies (W.J. Hollenweger, ‘Intellectual Honesty and Healing the Wounds of Division’ [key-
note address presented to the 28th Annual Meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Studies,
1999]). The value of historical criticism for a Pentecostal or any Christian congregation is
debatable. See the dissident comment by S.E. Fowl, ‘Until the historical-critical method
becomes critical of its own theoretical foundations and develops a hermeneutical theory
adequate to the nature of the text which it is interpreting it will remain restricted . . . to the
guild and the academy, where the question of truth can endlessly be deferred’ (S.E. Fowl
(ed.), The Theological Interpretation of Scripture, p. 26).
15 See J.C. Thomas, Footwashing in John 13 and the Johannine Community (Sheffield:
Sheffield Academic Press, 1991). While not explicitly engaging in a Pentecostal method,
Thomas did participate in process of formation within a worshiping and praying Pente-
costal community that innately affected his research and interpretations, thereby leav-
ing traces in the monograph of his Pentecostal theology and praxis. See also J.C. Thomas,
‘Reading the Bible from within Our Traditions: A Pentecostal Hermeneutic’, in J.B. Green
and M. Turner (eds.), Between Two Horizons (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000), pp. 108–22.
Thomas ends with an autobiographical conclusion in which he delineates the formation
and impact provided from his faith community.
176 robby waddell
follow the latter method as I investigate the role of the Spirit in Revela-
tion. The following section is a description of the origins and theological
ethos of Pentecostalism which will serve as a contextual intertext16 for
both the development of a Pentecostal hermeneutic and the application
of that hermeneutic to the text of Revelation. Beyond the conventional
perfunctory justification, the preceding description of my interpretational
context contains personal viewpoints.
2. The Origins and Theological Ethos of Pentecostalism
Since the birth of the movement at the beginning of the twentieth century,
Pentecostalism has affected almost every facet of Christianity.17 Despite its
vast size and perhaps owing to the movement’s demographics, the impact
16 The notion of a Pentecostal ethos serving as an intertext has previously been dis-
cussed in the Fall 1993 issue of Pneuma. These articles encompass the conviction a la
Gadamer (and Ricoeur) that the shared experience of a community may be envisioned
as a text which in turn intersects with a literary text forming the crossroads (or round-
about) of meaning. Utilizing the popular hermeneutical metaphor of a ‘fusion of horizons’,
these scholars envision the relationship between a text and an interpreter: R.D. Israel,
D.E. Albrecht and R.G. McNally, ‘Pentecostals and Hermeneutics: Texts, Rituals and
Community’, Pneuma 15.2 (1993), pp. 137–61; T.B. Cargal, ‘Beyond the Fundamentalist-
Modernist Controversy: Pentecostals and Hermeneutics in a Postmodern Age’, Pneuma
15.2 (1993), pp. 163–87; J-D. Plüss, ‘Azusa and Other Myths: The Long and Winding Road
from Experience to Stated Belief and Back Again’, Pneuma 15.2 (1993), pp. 189–201; J. Byrd,
‘Paul Ricoeur’s Hermeneutical Theory and Pentecostal Proclamation’, Pneuma 15.2 (1993),
pp. 203–14. See also the editorial, M.W. Dempster, ‘Paradigm Shifts and Hermeneutics:
Confronting Issues Old and New’, Pneuma 15.2 (1993), pp. 129–35. The preceding issue of
Pneuma contained four responses which to varying degrees serve as retorts to the articles
previously cited. R.P. Menzies offered the most antagonistic retort: ‘Jumping Off the Post-
modern Bandwagon’, Pneuma 16.1 (1994), pp. 115–20.
The acknowledgment of the relationship between the context of the reader and the lit-
erary text is not unique to theological studies but rather was derived from parallels in the
discipline of literary theory. For a sampling, see A. Jefferson, ‘Autobiography as Intertext:
Barthes, Sarraute, Robbe-Grillet’, in M. Worton and J. Still (eds.), Intertextuality: Theories
and Practices (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), pp. 108–29.
17 To access the history and development of Pentecostalism, a good place to begin
is V. Synan (ed.), The Holiness-Pentecostal Movement in the United States (Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1971); R.M. Anderson, Vision of the Disinherited: The Making of American Pen-
tecostalism (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1972); W.J. Hollenweger, The Pentecostals (Peabody:
Hendrickson, 1972); D.W. Dayton, Theological Roots of Pentecostalism (Metuchen: Scare-
crow, 1987); Land, Pentecostal Spirituality; H. Cox, Fire From Heaven: The Rise of Pente-
costal Spirituality and the Reshaping of Religion in the Twenty-first Century (Reading: MA:
Addison-Wesley, 1995); D.W. Faupel, The Everlasting Gospel: The Significance of Eschatology
in the Development of Pentecostal Thought (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1996). For
bibliographical resources see G. Wacker, ‘Bibliography and Historiography of Pentecostal-
ism (U.S.)’, DPCM, pp. 65–76.
of Pentecostalism on biblical scholarship has been minimal in compari-

son to the movement’s growth. The majority of Pentecostals are located
on the margins of society, but nevertheless constitute twenty-one percent
of organized global Christianity. According to a 1988 survey, seventy-one
percent of the Pentecostals in the world are non-white. The same survey
classifies Pentecostals as being ‘more urban than rural, more female than
male, more children (under eighteen) than adults, more third world than
western world, more living in poverty than affluence, more family-related
than individualist’.18 The gender, racial, and socio-economic characteris-
tics of the movement have been immanent since its inception.
The origins of Pentecostalism can be traced back to a revival held at
the Bethel Bible School in Topeka, Kansas in January 1901, when a teen-
age girl by the name of Agnes Ozman became the first person in modern
times to be ‘baptized in the Spirit and speak in other tongues’. The Bethel
Bible School was under the direction of Charles F. Parham who had been
teaching that the chief distinctive which had been present at Pentecost
as recorded in Acts 2 but was absent in the church of his day was glos-
solalia, popularly referred to as ‘speaking in tongues’. The effect of the
1901 revival was not felt on a world wide scale until William J. Seymour, a
one-eyed black holiness preacher who had been influenced by Parham’s
teaching, moved to Los Angeles, California. It was in Los Angeles that Sey-
mour led a revival at the Azusa Street Mission which lasted for three years
(1906–1909). Those who attended Azusa Street and the hundreds of other
Pentecostal revivals that had sprung up around the world experienced a
resurgence of the gifts of the Spirit as recorded in 1 Corinthians 12, which
had only been practiced in the ecclesiastical margins, at least in the West,
through the centuries.
In addition to the new emphasis on spiritual gifts, Pentecostalism was
also experiencing a new-found equality that was cutting across traditional
lines of race, gender, and socio-economic class.19 Seymour attributed the
diversity of the earliest participants to divine providence, offering an
opportunity to experience the refreshing of the Spirit to those who were
18 D.B. Barrett, ‘Statistics, Global’, DPCM, p. 811.

19 Some observers outside the tradition have wrongly deduced that Pentecostalism
primarily consisted of an escapist theology that appealed to the lower economic status:
R.M. Anderson, Vision of the Disinherited: The Making of American Pentecostalism (Pea-
body: Hendrickson, 1972); L. Pope, Mill Hands and Preachers: A Study of Gastonia (New
Haven: Yale University Press, 1965).
178 robby waddell
otherwise marginal in society. Seymour rejoices over the benefit of his

eclectic congregation in his newspaper, The Apostolic Faith:
If it had started in a fine church, poor colored people and Spanish people
would not have got it, but praise God it started here. God Almighty says He
will pour out His Spirit on all flesh . . . It is noticeable how free all nationali-
ties feel. If a Mexican or German cannot speak in English, he gets up and
speaks in his own tongue and feels quite at home for the Spirit interprets
through the face and people say amen. No instrument that God can use is
rejected on account of color or dress or lack of education. This is why God
has so built up the work.20
Unfortunately, the unity of the early Pentecostal movement suffered from
theological divisions centering on the nature of the Trinity and the essence
of sanctification. The movement was further fragmented by racial divi-
sions and a marginalization of women which infiltrated the movement as
it evolved into separate denominations and was compromised by affilia-
tions with non-Pentecostal organizations. This initial phase of Pentecos-
talism, dubbed ‘classical Pentecostalism’, is represented primarily in the
U.S.A. by the Assemblies of God, Springfield, Missouri; the Church of God,
Cleveland, Tennessee; the Church of God in Christ, Memphis, Tennessee;
and the International Church of the Foursquare Gospel, Los Angeles,
California.
Beginning in the late 1950’s the spiritual renewal which marks Pente-
costalism experienced a resurgence, this time in the mainline churches.21
Unlike the classical Pentecostals, who for the most part left their parent
Holiness denominations, those involved in the ‘Charismatic Renewal’ (as
this phase is commonly labeled) remained within their churches of ori-
gin. This second phase gained national attention in the U.S.A. in 1959,
when Dennis Bennett, the rector of St. Mark’s Episcopal Church in Van
Nuys, California, announced to his congregation that he had been bap-
tized in the Holy Spirit and had spoken in tongues. Glossolalia, albeit a
defining characteristic of the renewal, was only one of many charisms
included in the worship of the Charismatics. The location of the Charis-
matic renewal was not limited to Protestant denominations but included
20 W.J. Seymour, The Apostolic Faith 1.1 (1906), p. 1. Previously cited in Land, Pentecostal
Spirituality, p. 17.
21 P.D. Hocken, ‘Charismatic Movement’, DPCM, pp. 130–60; cf. the following:
A. Bittlinger (ed.), The Church Is Charismatic (Geneva: Renewal and Congregational Life,
World Council of Churches, 1981); R. Quebedeaux, The Charismatics II (San Francisco:
Harper & Row, 1983).
scores of Catholics22 as well as some in the Eastern Orthodox tradition.23

Although the Charismatics were not primarily from lower socioeconomic
classes, the adherents did share a desire with the classical Pentecostals to
return to a more authentic New Testament experience.24
The differences between classical Pentecostalism and the Charismatic
renewal have been delineated on two fronts, namely ecclesiology and
eschatology. As mentioned above, the ecclesiology of the former move-
ment was sectarian and therefore formed new denominations while the
ecclesiology of the latter movement did not venture to establish any
new organization, preferring to remain in the churches of origin. In mat-
ters of eschatology the classical Pentecostals have a distinctively greater
emphasis on apocalypticism than those in the Charismatic renewal.
Indeed, permeating every stratum of Pentecostal theology is an apoca-
lyptic expectation that the parousia is imminent. The derivation of this
apocalyptic accent is best equated with the Wesleyan Holiness revivals
22 F.A. Sullivan, ‘Catholic Charismatic Renewal’, DPCM, pp. 110–26; cf. the following:
N.A. Abbott (ed.), The Documents of Vatican II (New York: Guild Press, 1966); K. Ranaghan
and D. Ranaghan, Catholic Pentecostals (paramus: Paulist Press, 1969); idem, As the Spirit
Leads Us (Paramus: Paulist Press, 1971); E.D. O’Connor, The Pentecostal Movement in the
Catholic Church (Notre Dame: Ave Maria Press, 1971); E.D. O’Connor (ed.), Perspectives
on Charismatic Renewal (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1974); R. Martin,
The Spirit and the Church: A Personal and Documentary Record of the Charismatic Renewal
and the Ways it is Bursting to Life in the Catholic Church (New York: Paulist Press, 1976);
K. McDonnell, Charismatic Renewal in the Churches (New York: Seabury Press, 1976);
K. McDonnell (ed.), Presence, Power, and Praise: Documents on the Charismatic Movement
(Collegeville: Liturgical Press, 1980).
23 B.A. Stephanou, The Charismatic Renewal in the Orthodox Church: 100 questions most
frequently asked about the Orthodox Charismatic Renewal (Fort Wayne: Logos Ministry for
Orthodox Renewal, 1976).
24 This brief sketch of the origin of Pentecostalism will suffice for this study. However,
the movement has experienced additional rejuvenations. Called the ‘Third Wave’, as dis-
tinct from the ‘first wave’ (classical Pentecostalism) and the ‘second wave’ (the Charismatic
renewal), the third phase of the movement, whose participants are primarily evangelical
Christians, shares the emphases on healing, exorcisms, and prophetic speech with the
first two waves, but wishes to distinguish itself in several areas. Third-wavers insist that
the baptism in the Holy Spirit occurs at conversion, as opposed to the Wesleyan view of
subsequence. Furthermore, they avoid such self designations as ‘charismatic’ and ‘Spirit-
filled’ in order to accommodate those in their congregations who do not participate in the
charismatic style of worship; cf. C.P. Wagner, ‘Third Wave’, DPCM, pp. 843–44; idem, ‘The
Third Wave’, Christian Life (September 1984), p. 90. The most recent rejuvenation of Pen-
tecostal motifs in the church has been associated with the so-called ‘Toronto Blessing’. For
a critical appraisal cf. the following: F.D. Macchia, ‘Guest Editorial: ‘The Toronto Blessing’:
No Laughing Matter’, JPT 8 (1996), pp. 3–6; M.M. Poloma, ‘The Spirit Movement in North
America at the Millennium: From Azusa Street to Toronto, Pensacola and Beyond’, JPT 12
(1998), pp. 83–107; L. Pietersen (ed.), The Mark of the Spirit? A Charismatic Critique of the
Toronto Blessing (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1998).
180 robby waddell
of the nineteenth century. Pentecostalism was not created ex nihilo but

rather was the product of several convergent streams within the religious
landscape, creating a current whose impact has yet to be ultimately deter-
mined. In addition to the Wesleyan Holiness doctrine of the pre-millennial
coming of Jesus, Pentecostals have also maintained the Wesleyan distinc-
tives of healing and sanctification, to which Pentecostals added their own
understanding of the baptism in the Holy Spirit. This final characteristic
has been the most conspicuous benchmark for the collective Pentecostal-
Charismatic movement.
The heart of Pentecostal theology is centered on five principal motifs
which have comprised the major tenets of the so-called ‘full gospel’ (i.e.
justification by faith in Christ, sanctification by faith as a second defi-
nite work of grace, baptism in the Holy Spirit evidenced by speaking in
tongues, healing of the body provided in the atonement, and the pre-
millennial return of Christ).25 The emphasis these fundamentals have
received throughout church history may be traced from Luther justifica-
tion) through Wesley (sanctification) to Cullis (healing) and the prophecy
preachers of the nineteenth century (pre-millennial second coming), cul-
minating in the Azusa Street revival (baptism in the Spirit). The full gospel
developed a distinctively Christological accent within Pentecostalism as
its early adherents testified that Jesus Christ was their Savior, Sanctifier,
Spirit Baptizer, Healer, and Coming King.
Often attempts to pigeon-hole the Pentecostal movement by locating it
within the broader stream of Christianity err in a reductionistic fashion,
either by delimiting the movement as being ‘essentially fundamentalist
Christianity with a doctrine of Spirit baptism and gifts added on . . . [or]
as an experience which fits equally well in any spirituality or theological
system—perhaps adding some needed zest of interest’.26 Avoiding this
reductionistic characterization, S.J. Land has offered a litany of paradoxi-
cal continuities and discontinuities between Pentecostalism and other
streams of Christianity. Land writes:
25 The extent to which the fivefold gospel has affected Pentecostalism can hardly be
overstated, as is clearly demonstrated by Land, Pentecostal Spirituality; D.W. Faupel, The
Everlasting Gospel; and D.W. Dayton, Theological Roots if Pentecostalism. Dayton repre-
sents a subtle difference in his work by focusing on a fourfold rather than a fivefold center
by excluding any significant discussion on sanctification, though Dayton acknowledges the
existence of the fivefold model.
[Pentecostalism] is more Armenian than Calvinist in its approach to issues

of human agency and perseverance. It is more Calvinist than Lutheran in its
appreciation of the so-called ‘third use of the Law’ to guide Christian growth
and conduct. It is more Eastern than Western in its understanding of spiri-
tuality as perfection and participation in the divine life (theosis) . . . [it] is
more Catholic than Protestant in emphasizing sanctification-transformation
more than forensic justification, but more Protestant than Catholic in the
conviction that the Word is the authority over the church and tradition for
matters of faith, practice, government and discipline. In its origins Pente-
costalism was more Anabaptist than the magisterial Reformation in its con-
cern for peace and a covenanted believers’ church where discipleship and
discipline are essential features of congregational life. Pentecostalism has a
more Holiness-evangelical hermeneutic than the fundamentalist evangeli-
cal tradition in terms of its actual use of Scripture and understanding of the
role of reason.27
As Land has argued, the ethos of Pentecostalism, albeit distinctive, inter-
sects with every branch of Christianity. Thus, although a Pentecostal read-
ing will be sectarian (i.e. pro nobis), there will certainly be times when
the interpretation will resonate with an ecumenical ring. Indeed it is my
hope that others will be able not only to differentiate themselves from my
interpretations but also to find places of self-recognition.28 For I suspect
that Pentecostals have a distinctive contribution to offer to the academic
disciplines of biblical studies and hermeneutics.
3. Toward a Pentecostal Theological Hermeneutic
Discussions concerning hermeneutics have preoccupied Pentecostal

scholars for almost two decades. A large portion of the attention given to
‘Pentecostal hermeneutics’ has been primarily theoretical, arguing on the
one hand the validity of a Pentecostal distinctive in biblical interpretation,
and on the other hand arguing to what extent postmodern literary theory
27 Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, pp. 29–30.

28 I have gleaned these sentiments from Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, p. 7. See the Soci-
ety for Pentecostal Studies presidential address of C. Bridges Johns, ‘The Adolescence of
Pentecostalism: In Search of a Legitimate Sectarian Identity’, Pneuma 17.1 (Spring 1995),
pp. 3–17; P.D. Hanson, ‘Scripture, Community and Spirit: Biblical Theology’s Contribution
to a Contextualized Christian Theology’, JPT 6 (1995), pp. 3–12; D.T. Irvin, “ ‘Drawing All
Together in One Bond of Love”: The Ecumenical Vision of William J. Seymour and the
Azusa Street Revival’, JPT 6 (1995), pp. 25–53. Cf. W. Brueggemann, ‘II Kings 18–19: The
Legitimacy of a Sectarian Hermeneutic’, HBT 8 (1985), pp. 1–42.
182 robby waddell
should be employed by a Pentecostal interpreter.29 The present contribu-

tion to the discussion is by no means new. The acknowledgement that Bible
reading should be interwoven with theological convictions and insights
was endemic to all premodern biblical interpretation (e.g. Tertullian,
whose Montanist persuasion resonates quite nicely with Pentecostals).30
Tertullian shunned the idea of anyone attempting to interpret the bibli-
cal texts by means of philosophy, for ‘what indeed has Athens to do with
Jerusalem? What concord is there between the Academy and the Church?
What between heretics and Christians?’31 According to Tertullian, coalesc-
ing philosophy and revelation would result in unfaithfulness to the lat-
ter. I do not suspect that the average Pentecostal sitting on a church pew
29 For a bibliography see J.C. Thomas, ‘Women, Pentecostals and the Bible: An Experi-
ment in Pentecostal Hermeneutics’, JPT 5 (1994), pp. 41–56, n. 4; see also K.J. Archer, ‘Pen-
tecostal Hermeneutics: Retrospect and Prospect’, JPT 8 (1996), pp. 63–81. Cf. F.L. Arrington,
‘Hermeneutics’, DPCM, pp. 376–89; R. Stronstad, ‘The Dynamics of a Pentecostal Pneuma-
tology: Essays in Hermeneutics and Theology’ (unpublished monograph); J.W. Wycoff, ‘The
Relationship of the Holy Spirit to Biblical Hermeneutics’, PhD thesis (Baylor University,
1990); M.S. Clark, ‘An Investigation into the Nature of a Viable Pentecostal Hermeneutic’,
DTh thesis (University of South Africa).
While the majority of material on Pentecostal hermeneutics has been theoretical, there
have been a few pieces which have focused primarily on reading a particular text, though
the larger task of defining a Pentecostal style of reading has been on the horizon. I would
like to highlight four such contributions. (1) R.O. Baker, ‘Pentecostal Bible Reading: Toward
a Model of Reading for the Formation of Christian Affections’, JPT 7 (1995), pp. 34–48.
Baker offers a reading of the death of Jesus in the fourth Gospel which was influenced
by his own experience of the death of his grandmother and the affections he was able to
draw on because of his experience. (2) R.D. Moore, “ ‘And Also Much Cattle?!”: Prophetic
Passions and the End of Jonah’, JPT 11 (1997), pp. 35–48. Moore offers a reading of the book
of Jonah based on an assumption that consideration of Jonah’s passions will get at the
heart of the text and parallel the heart of the Pentecostal experience. (3) Thomas, ‘Women,
Pentecostals and the Bible’, pp. 41–56. Thomas renders a reading of Acts 15 and its record
of the Jerusalem Council, offering the practice of the early church as an exemplar for the
contemporary church to use during theological deliberations. Thomas continues by testing
his theory with the topic of women in ministry. (4) L.R. McQueen, Joel and the Spirit: The
Cry of a Prophetic Hermeneutic (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995). This monograph
may be the most extensive attempt to read an entire book of the Bible in a Pentecostal
manner. McQueen delves into his own experience of ‘praying through’ in order to tap into
the idea of lament which permeates the book of Joel.
30 J. McKay, ‘When the Veil is Taken Away: The Impact of Prophetic Experience on
Biblical Interpretation’, JPT 5 (1994), p. 25. McKay acknowledges the partiality of Tertul-
lian for ‘spiritual’ Christians of his own Montanist church as opposed to ‘natural’ believers
(psychici) in other churches. McKay, who also refers to similar sentiments in Irenaeus (Adv.
Her. 5:6:1), pushes further back to the comments in the New Testament. Paul writes to the
Corinthian church, ‘The man without the Spirit (ψυχικός) does not accept the things that
come from the Spirit of God, for they are foolishness to him, and he cannot understand
them, because they are spiritually discerned. The spiritual man (πνευματικός) makes judg-
ments about all things’ (1 Cor. 2.14–15 NIV translation, previously cited by McKay).
31 Prescription against Heretics, 7 (ANF, 3:246).
makes a conscious effort to read his or her scriptures theologically, yet on

the other hand, there is nothing that is non-theological about the expec-
tation maintained by the Pentecostal reader that God will unfailingly
speak through the scriptures. Thus, it is with a somewhat latent effort to
be faithful to the Spirit in which the biblical texts have been written that
Pentecostals read the Bible theologically.
Approaching the Bible theologically is certainly not restricted to Pen-
tecostals. Indeed, a good deal of recent hermeneutical work has argued
that the Bible should be studied outside of a community of faith whose
scripture it is. The debate over the development of a theological herme-
neutic can be seen by contrasting the work of F. Watson32 and P. Davies.33
Watson, on the one hand, argues that every biblical scholar should pur-
sue theological issues while critiquing a biblical text; Davies, on the other
hand, argues that professional biblical studies should be free of all theo-
logical discussion, discussion which he would regulate to the church. I dis-
agree with Watson that theological issues are the only appropriate pursuit
for biblical scholars but I also disagree with Davies that the university has
no place for theological inquiry.34 The key to the issue is that a ‘neutral’
approach does not exist; therefore, the most responsible way forward is
for scholars to acknowledge the subjectivity of their perspectives.35
The reluctance to integrate biblical studies and theology is not limited
to biblical scholars. Theologians as well question whether the techni-
cal analysis of biblical scholars can be relevant for systematic theology.
B.S. Childs has pioneered readings and interpretations that bridge the
gap between biblical studies and theology caused by the professionaliza-
tion of these respective disciplines. Childs calls into question the ability
of historical criticism to begin with the neutral task of description. Childs
writes, ‘It is commonly assumed that the responsible exegete must start
with the descriptive task and then establish a bridge to the theological
32 F. Watson, Text, Church and World: Biblical Interpretation in Theological Perspective
(Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1994).
33 P. Davies, Whose Bible is it Anyway? (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995).
34 See also M.G. Brett, ‘Four or Five Things To Do with Texts: A Taxonomy of Inter-
pretative Interests’, in D.J.A. Clines et al. (eds.), The Bible in Three Dimensions: Essays in
Celebration of Forty Years of Biblical Studies in the University if Sheffield (Sheffield: Shef-
field Academic Press, 1990), pp. 356–77.
35 See I. Paul, ‘The Value of Paul Ricoeur’s Hermeneutic of Metaphor in Interpreting
the Symbolism of Revelation Chapters 12 and 13’, PhD thesis (Nottingham Trent University,
1998), p. 216.
184 robby waddell
problem. It is felt that the real problem lies with the second task. Rather,
the reverse is true.’36
Before proceeding with a possible profile of a theological hermeneutic,
I should perhaps digress by offering a clarification of how the word ‘theo-
logical’ is being used in this context. When juxtaposing ‘theological’ with
‘Pentecostal’, I am suggesting, in agreement with Watson, that Christian
scholars ought to read from a confessional point of view. The intended
meaning of ‘theological’ in this context is more akin to ‘spiritual’ (Rev-
elation 11 the witnesses saw the city ‘spiritually’ and called it Sodom and
Egypt). Spiritual is not mystical because the reality of the spirituality is in
a concrete context of love and passion, pain and pleasure, happiness and
sorrow. Thus, for Pentecostals, a spiritual reading is not a head trip nor
solely a heart trip but rather an exercise in imagination that is grounded
by the contextual realism of the spirituality. Instead of subsuming ‘theo-
logical’ under an Enlightenment rationalistic model, I wish to circumvent
such a dependence, preferring in its place a more Hebrew notion. ‘Theol-
ogy’, which means ‘study of God’, is flipped on its head in Judaism because
God is not the object of study but rather the subject. When reading scrip-
ture (the Word of God) theologically, the reader/believer is encountering
the living God. Following R.D. Moore, I choose to understand ‘Word of
God’ as an event (‫)דבר‬. A theological reading is not merely a deduction
but rather a revelation (ἀποκάλυψσις). This revelatory idea may be comple-
mented with an understanding of another Hebrew word, ‫ידﬠ‬. Tradition-
ally translated ‘to know’, ‘the Hebrew term resists such a subject-object
dichotomy and points more to the actualization of a relationship between
knower and known’.37 Thus, a Pentecostal theological hermeneutic has
less to do with Greek philosophy than with theophany, a divine encoun-
ter, a revelation, an experience with the living God.38
36 B.S. Childs, ‘Interpretation in Faith’, Int 18 (1964), p. 260.

37 Moore, ‘Canon and Charisma’, pp. 90–91. See the discussion of ‫ ידע‬in J.D. Johns and
C. Bridges Johns, ‘Yielding to the Spirit: A Pentecostal Approach to Group Bible Study’,
JPT 1 (1993), pp. 109–34. See also the comments of C.H. Pinnock, ‘The Work of the Holy
Spirit in Hermeneutics’, JPT 2 (1995), p. 13. Pinnock writes, ‘Interpretation is about more
than retrieving information—it is also about the effects on readers that texts can set in
motion’.
38 Pentecostal readings, even of the Old Testament, will often exhibit a Christological
accent owing in part to the strong Christological emphasis in the fivefold gospel. F. Watson
addresses the issue of the Hebrew scriptures being read with a Christological twist. Watson
acknowledges that the New Testament and the Old Testament are ‘distinct’ but ‘insepa-
rable’, being mutually shaped by the other. He writes, ‘Either the Hebrew scriptures are
the sole property of the Jewish community, in which case the Christian church should
Working with the above definition of ‘theological’, the discussion may

now return to the delineation of a theological hermeneutic. Pentecostals
are far more interested in the narrative of their spiritual experience than
in the main concerns of modernity. Therefore, a theological reading will
have some defining characteristics which reveal its recalcitrance toward
not only the historical-critical method but modernity as well. The rela-
tionship between Pentecostalism and modernity is quite antithetical and
yet the ‘postmodern’ label does not quite fit either. S.B. Fowl has sug-
gested the use of the neologism, ‘non-modern’.39 Fowl lists four defining
characteristics of a non-modern interpretation:
First, it will be interested in premodern biblical interpretation. Second, it
will shape and be shaped by the concerns of Christian communities seek-
ing to live faithfully before the triune God rather than by the concerns of
a discipline whose primary allegiance is to the academy. Third, theological
interpretation of scripture will try to reject and resist the fragmentation of
theology into a set of discrete disciplines that was a result of the conceptual
aims of modernity and the practical result of professionalization. Finally,
theological interpretation of scripture will be pluralistic in its interpreta-
tive methods; it will even use the interpretative methods of modernity to
its own ends.40
Each of these characteristics of a non-modern approach finds substan-
tial parallels within the ethos of Pentecostalism. An examination of these
connections will provide the needed light to envision the contours of a
Pentecostal theological hermeneutic.
denounce all claim on them; or they can also be read as the Christian Old Testament’.
Watson is insightful to point out that tension with his conclusion is more often levied
from the historical-critical approach than from the Jewish community (F. Watson, Text
Church and World, p. 3).
Again Pinnock is helpful. He writes, ‘The Old Testament is being read in the light of the
new situation created by the coming of Jesus Christ and the Spirit is indicating meanings
that do not correspond to the grammatical-historical meaning of the text’. He continues,
the early theologians ‘employed spiritual reading which allowed them to move in the midst
of a kaleidoscope of biblical imagery . . . They knew that texts can cause dynamic things as
the Spirit actualizes their message in our consciousness’ (C.H. Pinnock, ‘The Work of the
Holy Spirit in Hermeneutics’, p. 13).
39 S.E. Fowl (ed.), The Theological Interpretation if Scripture, p. xvi. The term ‘non-
modern’ is preferred over the more popular ‘postmodern’. For the precarious relationship
between Pentecostalism and postmodernity see J.D. Johns, ‘Pentecostalism and the Post-
modern Worldview’, JPT 7 (1995), pp. 73–96. Johns may also be credited with the trope,
‘para-modern’, as an alternative to ‘postmodern’.
40 Fowl (ed.), The Theological Interpretation if Scripture, p. xvi.
186 robby waddell
The granting of a significant amount of credence to premodern inter-

pretations and methods is easily justifiable in a postmodern society.41
The decline of the theory that meaning is singular and the consequential
crescendo of the voices from the fringe has deconstructed the historical-
critical goal of discovering the meaning of a text.42 Biblical scholarship
by and large has treated premodern interpretations as a failure to obtain
the single meaning of the text; however, the acceptance of a plurality of
meaning rejects any such condemnation. Normally, Pentecostals read
with an eye open towards the plain meaning of scripture; however, they
are open to the multiple meanings in the texts which the Spirit can and
does afford them when they read, a common testimony being ‘every time
I read, the Lord shows me something new’. Discovering the testimony
of the early church will be a new experience for some Pentecostals. The
restorationist theme so prominent in the movement has allotted little
room for any acknowledgement of church history other than the New Tes-
tament stories. The lesson which may be learned from an acquaintance
with premodern interpretation is that others too have struggled with the
interpretation of scripture before God. The emphasis which Pentecostals
have placed on testimonies may provide the vehicle needed with which
our churches can learn to appreciate the premodern interpretations. In a
post-critical society, non-modern and reassessed premodern interpreta-
tions will detemine not only the future of the church but perhaps the
academy as well.
Historically, Pentecostalism has been suspicious of the academy. Anti-
educational sentiments within the movement have been fueled by the
rarity with which the concerns of the academy have paralleled the con-
cerns of the community of faith. In a modern age, a scholar could claim
to be pursuing objective truth so that concern (either academic or eccle-
siastical) played little or no role in the pursuit. No longer may claims of
objectivity hide the latent presuppositions which had already been shap-
ing the scholar’s vision of the truth, which lacked the intellectual honesty
of the contextual nature of his or her perceived truth. Reading the text
in the light of a present experience of the community may provide an
41 D.C. Steinmetz, ‘The Superiority of Pre-Critical Exegesis’, Theology Today, 37.1 (1980),
pp. 27–38.
42 See the comments of C.S. Lewis on his novel Till We Have Faces, where he says ‘an
author doesn’t necessarily understand the meaning of his own story better than anyone
else’ (W.H. Lewis (ed.), Letters of C.S. Lewis [New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1966],
p. 273).
opportunity for the modern critic to cast the ultimate (historical) judg-
ment against contextual reading (the charge of anachronism). However,
inasmuch as it is in continuity with the testimony of the early church, the
community continues to be a living organism and not merely an organiza-
tion, thereby muting the perceived criticism.43
As mentioned above Pentecostalism is at its very heart an apocalyp-
tic movement. The expectation of the return of Christ is paramount in
Pentecostal theology. This eschatological theme resonates with Fowl’s
statement that the community in which a non-modern theological read-
ing may take place must be living before the triune God.44 Throughout
history there have been segments of Christianity which have had a strong
eschatological emphasis. It is with these groups that Pentecostalism will
have the most continuity.
There are many contextual readings of scripture representing various
segments of different communities of faith that are vying for the attention
of the reader. The most popular readings which explicitly identify their
contextual location have been feminist readings and African American
readings.45 Similar to these readings which contain sounds reminiscent
of liberation theology,46 Pentecostal readings will also be from the bot-
tom or from the margins. Pentecostal readings are sympathetic to femi-
nist readings for the majority of Pentecostals are female and although the
political climate has digressed into a more chauvinistic model the original
43 M. Cartledge, ‘Empirical Theology: Towards an Evangelical-Charismatic Hermeneu-

tic’, JPT 9 (1996), pp. 115–26. Cartledge discusses the relationship of the current church
with the testimony of scripture as a dialectic between consistency and innovation which
allows room for both the idea that Spirit can speak fresh in today’s church but also that
the testimony from the past will not be violated.
44 S.J. Land, ‘The Triune Center: Wesleyans and Pentecostals Together in Mission’, WTJ
34.1 (1999), pp. 83–100. Land defines the Pentecostal-Holiness community with five pri-
mary characteristics, all of which are framed with the general idea of being trinitarian
eschatologically.
45 F.F. Segovia and M.A. Tolbert, Reading from This Place: Social Location and Biblical
Interpretation in the United States (Minneapolis: Fortress, 1994).
46 Liberation theology has many points of contact with Pentecostalism. See C. Bridges
Johns, Pentecostal Formation: A Pedagogy among the Oppressed (Sheffield: Sheffield Aca-
demic Press, 1993). For the relationship of biblical studies to liberation motifs see G. West,
Biblical Hermeneutics of Liberation (Pietermaritzburg: Cluster, 1991); idem, ‘Reading the
Bible and Doing Theology in the New South Africa’, in D. Carroll, D. Clines, and P. Davies
(eds.), The Bible and Human Society (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), pp. 445–58;
R.S. Sugirtharajah (ed.), Voices from the Margin: Interpreting the Bible in the Third World
(Maryknoll: Orbis, 1991); J. Levison and P. Pope-Levison, ‘Global Perspectives on New
Testament Interpretation’, in J.B. Green (ed.), Hearing the New Testament, pp. 329–48;
C. Rowland and M. Corner, Liberating Exegesis: The Challenge of Liberation Theology to
Biblical Studies (Louisville: John Knox Press, 1989).
188 robby waddell
Pentecostal movement was able to blur the gender lines in relation to

authority and leadership that mirrored the early church. Likewise the
majority of Pentecostals are non-white, which places a Pentecostal inter-
pretation in a sympathetic relationship to African American reading as
well. The extent to which African spirituality has influenced Pentecostal-
ism can hardly be overstated.47
Resisting the temptation to fragment theology into various subdisci-
plines has been a challenge for Pentecostalism owing to the overwhelm-
ing influence of the modern academy. One paramount exception is the
work S.J. Land has done on the integral relationship between spirituality
and theology. According to Land, spirituality is not separate from theology
as a sort of appendix, but is the essence of theology in theory and prac-
tice. Spirituality shapes an epistemology and permeates through theology
into an ethic that goes out into the world (missionary) because Christ
is returning (apocalyptic). In agreement with Land, I see a connection
not only between spirituality and the academic discipline of theology but
the academic discipline of biblical studies as well. Land fuses together
the responses of worship, prayer, and witness, responses that correlate
with the central affections of gratitude, compassion, and courage (respec-
tively). I also have found this fusion of affections and erasure of tradi-
tional lines between academic disciplines in the work of R.D. Moore and
C. Bridges Johns.
R.D. Moore explains that the caricature of the Pentecostal faith as
experienced-based is faulty. Pentecostal worship, albeit ardent, maintains
‘an inseparable interplay between knowledge and lived experience, where
knowing about God and directly experiencing God perpetually inform
and depend on one another’.48 Knowledge is here understood as point-
ing ‘beyond the conceptualization of an object to the actualization of a
relationship’.49 C. Bridges Johns has appropriated postmodern theorizing
and deconstruction to the ministries of homiletics and catechesis, emas-
culating Enlightenment constructs which formed the basis of evangelical
47 See Hollenweger, The Pentecostals, pp. 21–28; idem, Pentecostalism: Origins and Devel-
opments Worldwide (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1997), pp. 18–40; Land, Pentecostal Spirituality,
pp. 21–22; Cox, Fire From Heaven, pp. 139–60, 243–62.
48 R.D. Moore, ‘Pentecostal Approach to Scripture’, The Seminary Viewpoint 8.1 (1987),
p. 4.
49 Moore, ‘Pentecostal Approach to Scripture’, p. 4.
models of preaching and teaching, whose ‘whole paradigm has served to

domesticate the mystery of faith’.50
The future relationship between the postmodern world and Pentecostal-
ism is ambiguous. As C. Bridges Johns writes, ‘Contemporary Christianity
seems caught between a past life governed by institutional certitude and
a future seemingly without instruments of control’.51 She adopts an under-
standing of time as ‘carnival time’, a contribution from Mikhail Bakhtin,
who described life as a fusion of binary opposites such as sacred/profane,
lofty/low, great/insignificant, and wise/stupid. The deconstruction of
modern theology will not be replaced by another monolithic system, but
rather, a carnival sideshow, where various systems exist in tension.52
The ramifications for biblical studies of R.D. Moore’s and C. Bridges
Johns’ observations are multiple, but I would like to note three. First,
the difference between subject and object becomes blurred. In a time of
carnival, the subject/object becomes a clown constantly changing masks
but never surfacing unmasked. Deconstructing the modern notion of
presence, the festival of Pentecost offers a presence which comes ‘from
the wilderness, from “otherness” itself. It comes from the margin and
then marginalizes all who claim it, who are claimed by it.’53 Secondly,
C. Bridges Johns highlights the necessity of participation in the Spirit
within the teaching/learning process. According to C. Bridges Johns,
teaching ‘involves an understanding that while critical reflection and dia-
logue are involved in learning, what is primary is not the critical side but
the participatory side’.54
50 C. Bridges Johns, ‘Meeting God in the Margins, Ministry among Modernity’s Refu-
gees’, in M. Zyniewicz (ed.), The Papers of the Henry Luce III Fellows in Theology (Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1999), p. 20.
51 Bridges Johns, ‘Meeting God in the Margins, Ministry among Modernity’s Refugees’,
p. 7 (emphasis added).
52 Another helpful definition of the theological significance of deconstruction comes
from F. Watson, Text, Church, and World, p. 80. Watson writes that
from a deconstructive perspective, the assertion that a text has a meaning, or mean-
ings, tacitly assumes the transparency of language to that which lies behind it and
which generates it; that is, it assumes that one can transcend language, eventually
arriving at the reality to which the language is merely a helpful sign post . . . Once
it is written the meaning never fully exists . . . The overt logic of the text will always
already have been subverted by a covert logic or anti-logic, and the role of decon-
structive analysis is to bring this paradoxical situation to light.
53 Moore, ‘Deuteronomy and the Fire of God’, p. 33.
p. 23.
190 robby waddell
Finally, C. Bridges Johns questions the ontological status of the text.

Given the nature of text/textus, how are Pentecostals going to articu-
late their theology of scripture? She writes that ‘the biblical text must be
approached as an avenue for personal and corporate engagement with
God . . . The written text has an objective, historical reality which cannot
properly be understood outside of the bounds of reason. Yet, it is a per-
sonal subjective word that is carried along by the Spirit.’55
Pentecostals have traditionally maintained a very high view of scrip-
ture, albeit vaguely defined. In the August issue of the Evangel in 1910,
The Church of God published its earliest official statement about scrip-
ture: ‘The Church of God stands for the whole Bible rightly divided. The
New Testament is the only rule for government and discipline.’ Later, the
Church of God adopted a more evangelical terminology when writing its
Declaration of Faith: ‘We believe in the verbal inspiration of the Bible’.
In a postmodern world where the ontological status of the text has been
questioned, evangelical models are being deconstructed.56 However, the
Pentecostal understanding of the relationship between the Spirit and the
written text does not suffer the same fate as the fundamentalist doctrines.
S.J. Land has discussed the relationship between the Spirit and the text as
a dynamic interaction of ‘Spirit-Word’.
The Spirit who inspired and preserved the Scriptures illuminates, teaches,
guides, convicts and transforms through the Word today. The Word is alive,
quick and powerful, because of the Holy Spirit’s ministry. The relation of
the Spirit to Scripture is based on that of Spirit to Christ. Even as the Spirit
formed Christ in Mary, so the Spirit uses Scripture to form Christ in believ-
ers and vice-versa.57
Musing about the work of these Pentecostal scholars has demonstrated
Fowl’s final point that the method of a theological hermeneutic will be
pluralistic. Indeed there is not so much a single Pentecostal method but
rather multiple strategies which are faithful to the tradition without doing
p. 24.
56 Cf. the comments of S.A. Ellington: ‘The Bible is not simply a text about whose prop-
ositions we can debate, it is the authoritative word of God because the same Holy Spirit
who inspired its writers meets us today in its pages. For Pentecostals, biblical authority
does not rest in the text we can justify, but in the God that we know in and through the
text’ (Ellington, ‘Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scripture’, p. 24).
violence to the text.58 In Pentecostalism, the hermeneutics of suspicion

gives way to an open heart which is longing to be formed by God via the
Spirit into the image of Christ. Understanding the Word of God requires a
local hermeneutic that is sensitive to the spiritual context. Fowl’s conclud-
ing comments in his introduction to his reader are insightful. Proficiency
in performing theological interpretations of biblical texts ‘is not simply
reflected in increased intellectual capacities. Rather, for Christians pro-
ficiency in reading scripture theologically is ultimately reflected in a life
that is transformed to conform more nearly to the image of Christ.’59
It is possible to sum up a Pentecostal hermeneutic with the follow-
ing motto: ‘Unless we believe, we shall not understand’. These words are
adapted from the works of Anselm who writes, ‘For I do not seek to under-
stand so that I may believe; but I believe so that I may understand. For I
believe this also, that unless I believe, I shall not understand.’60 I modi-
fied the words to read with a more communal tone for I have become
increasingly convinced that only in the community will we hear the voice
of God,61 or in other words, ‘hear what the Spirit is saying to the churches’
(Rev. 2.7).
58 I owe this idea of multiple strategies as opposed to a singular method to K.J. Archer.
Cf. K.J. Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic for the Twenty-First Century: Spirit, Scripture
and Community (JPTSup, 28; London: T. & T. Clark, 2004). Now available as A Pentecostal
Hermeneutic: Spirit, Scripture and Community (Cleveland, TN: CPT Press, 2009).
59 Fowl (ed.), The Theological Interpretation of Scripture: Classic and Contemporary
Readings, p. xxvi.
60 Proslog. 1 (trans. M.J. Charlesworth, St. Anselm’s Proslogion, Oxford: Clarendon, 1965),
p. 115.
61 Jack Deere offers his powerful testimony about how he learned to tell the differ-
ence between reading the Bible and hearing from God, in his book, Surprised by the Power
of the Spirit. Deere writes: ‘In the process of getting theologically trained and becoming
a seminary professor, I developed an intense passion for studying God’s Word. I found
myself loving the Bible more than I loved the Author of the Bible. I was caught in this
trap for more years than I would like to remember . . . It took me too long to learn that
knowing the Bible is not the same thing as knowing God, loving the Bible is not the same
thing as loving God, and reading the Bible is not the same thing as hearing God’ (J. Deere,
Surprised by the Power of the Spirit [Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1993], p. 187, previously cited
in J.K.A. Smith, ‘The Closing of the Book: Pentecostals, Evangelicals, and the Sacred Writ-
ings’, JPT 11 [1997], pp. 49–71). Smith argues that Pentecostalism, like the early church, is
a ‘people of the Spirit’ rather than a ‘people of the Book’. Smith warns Pentecostals that a
certain understanding of the Bible can lead to a textualization that circumvents the pres-
ent involvement of the Spirit in interpretation of the Biblical texts.
192 robby waddell
4. Pentecostal Scholars and the Spirit of the Apocalypse
Now that the Pentecostal ethos has been defined along with a possible
hermeneutic, attention can be shifted toward two new questions. First,
what contributions have been offered by Pentecostal scholars concerning
the role of the Spirit in the Apocalypse? Second, do their interpretations
fit the preceding description of the tradition? Three pieces of scholarship
have been selected to represent Pentecostalism.62
4.1. S.M. Horton
Although Horton’s work is not solely on the role of the Spirit in the Apoc-
alypse, his thoughts are of importance to a history of interpretation of
Pentecostal scholars owing to the magnitude of his influence in the tradi-
tion. In reference to the image of the seven spirits, Horton can easily be
aligned with Victorinus of Pettau and the others after him who identified
the seven spirits as a reference to the seven-fold Spirit of Isaiah 11, which
was to rest on the Messiah.63 Horton places the majority of his discus-
sion of the Spirit in the Apocalypse in a chapter titled, ‘The Spirit in the
Ministry of the Church’, where he sees a close relationship first between
the Spirit and Jesus Christ and then between the Spirit and the church.
However, given that his primary emphasis in the aforementioned chapter
is on Paul’s letters, there is little else to glean from Horton’s work on this
topic.
4.2. R.H. Gause
Similar to most commentaries on Revelation, Gause’s work does not allot
special attention to the role of the Spirit. Thus, his position on the Spirit’s
role must be extracted by giving attention to the texts which refer to the
Spirit. Gause understands the symbol of the ‘seven spirits’ to be a refer-
ence to the Spirit of God. Likewise, he sees the phrase ἐν πνεύματι as a
description of John’s experience with the Holy Spirit. In regard to the
hearing formula, Gause writes, ‘The Lord’s relationship to the Holy Spirit
is fundamental to the Church. He forms His Church by the presence of
62 S.M. Horton, What the Bible Says about the Holy Spirit (Springfield: Gospel Publish-
ing House, 1976); R.H. Gause, Revelation: God’s Stamp of Sovereignty on History (Cleveland:
Pathway Press, 1983); F. Martin, ‘Book of the Apocalypse’, DPCM, pp. 11–13.
63 Horton, What the Bible Says About the Holy Spirit, p. 61.
the Holy Spirit in it.64 Furthermore, he states that the hearing formula is
directed to all churches of all times as the Spirit continues to speak the
words of Christ. Gause’s work is helpful but somewhat limited given the
popular nature of the commentary.
4.3. F. Martin
In the DPCM, Martin offers a succinct analysis of the Apocalypse focus-
ing on two points that are of special interest to Pentecostals, namely the
book’s pneumatology and the millennium.65 With regard to the pneuma-
tology Martin discusses three aspects: (1) the role of the Spirit in the Act of
Revelation; (2) the Spirit of Prophecy; and (3) the Spirit and the Church.
Under his first rubric, Martin addresses the phrase ἐν πνεύματι, argu-
ing that the Spirit is the agent of revelation. Martin correctly sees John’s
appeal to the Spirit as a claim of prophetic authority. He also notes the
close relationship between the Spirit in Christ evidenced by the hearing
formula in the seven messages which instructs those in the church to hear
what the Spirit is saying, despite the fact that Christ is identified as the
speaker of the messages. Martin cites Jn 16.15, ‘the Spirit will take from
what is mine and make it known to you’, as support that the Spirit and
Christ are especially close in the Johannine literature.
Commenting on Rev. 19.10, he writes:
Given the frequency with which the early rabbinic tradition designated the
Spirit of God as the ‘Spirit of Prophecy’, it is clear that Revelation is asserting
two things: (1) the role of the Holy Spirit is linked to the witness of Jesus, and
(2) this witness is prophecy.66
According to Martin, when John identifies his work as ‘prophecy’, he is
avowing dependence on the Spirit.
Finally, Martin addresses the Spirit and the Church. Focusing on the
direct discourse of the Spirit in Rev. 14.13; 22.17, he asserts that the Spirit is
closely related to the life of the church and is indeed the source of life in
the resurrection (Rev. 11.11). He concludes the section on the Spirit with a
brief discussion on the ‘seven spirits’, which he identifies as the Spirit, who
possesses both the power and the knowledge of the Lamb (cf. Rev. 5.6).
64 Gause, Revelation: God’s Stamp if Sovereignty on History (Cleveland, TN: Pathway

Press, 1983), p. 46.
65 Martin, ‘Apocalypse, Book of the’, DPCM, pp. 11–13.
66 Martin, ‘Apocalypse, Book of the’, DPCM, p. 12.
194 robby waddell
4.4. Summary
The contribution of these scholars may best be explained within the con-
text of the history of Pentecostal scholarship. Pentecostal scholarship has
been outlined in three distinct phases by the editors of the Journal of Pen-
tecostal Theology, in the editorial of the journal’s inaugural issue. The first
generation includes the earliest Pentecostal scholars who completed post-
graduate work despite ‘an environment which did not encourage nor even
perceive the viability of interaction between Pentecostal faith and critical
theological scholarship’.67 Within the theological subdisciplines of descrip-
tive historical study and social-scientific analysis, a second generation
of scholars experienced the ‘opportunity for the first time to bring their
Pentecostalism to bear upon their graduate research’.68 With the rise of a
third generation, Pentecostal scholars have been given the opportunity to
integrate the distinctives of Pentecostal faith with their critical theological
research. In the 1998 SPS presidential address, J.C. Thomas suggests that
perhaps the rise of a fourth generation of Pentecostal scholarship is being
experienced. This generation, according to Thomas, will benefit from the
increasing number of Pentecostals within academia and the attention
that accompanies any group with such extensive demographics, but more
importantly this generation will have the ‘opportunity to read, assess, and
critique academic works by Pentecostal scholars, an opportunity largely
impossible just a few short years ago’.69 If this assessment of the history of
Pentecostal scholarship is accurate, then I would most likely be identified
as a member of the fourth generation.
The previous work, while being consistent with the ethos of the move-
ment, has been the labor of earlier generations. Martin’s work is some-
what of an exception as it shows tremendous foresight, hindered only
by its brevity. The time has arrived for a new inquiry by a more recent
generation which has the opportunity to integrate more deliberately
the Pentecostal ethos and theology into an examination of the biblical
texts. At times, Pentecostal scholars have avoided this more difficult task
of developing a constructive theology, perhaps owing to an academic
inferiority complex.70 Although Pentecostalism has been historically
67 R.D. Moore, J.C. Thomas, and S.J. Land, ‘Editorial’, JPT 1 (1992), p. 3.
68 Moore, Thomas, and Land, ‘Editorial’, p. 3.
69 Thomas, ‘Pentecostal Theology in the Twenty-First Century’, p. 5.
70 C. Bridges Johns has suggested that ‘[t]here is inherent within the ranks of Pentecostal
believers an inferiority complex which assumes that non-Pentecostals know more than we
do and do things better than we can’ (C. Bridges Johns, Pentecostal Formation: A Pedagogy
dubbed as an anti-intellectual movement, W.J. Hollenweger suggests

that ‘anti-intellectual’ is a critique of Pentecostalism ‘which can no lon-
ger be accepted without qualification’.71 Hollenweger cites EPTA Bulletin,
Pneuma, the conference papers from SPS and the European Pentecostal
Research Conferences as proof of the scores of first-rate Pentecostal schol-
arship. The generations of Pentecostal scholars which have gone before
me are a rich heritage which I am happy to claim; however, a problem
persists, according to Hollenweger, because the scholarly Pentecostal pub-
lications ‘are not read by Pentecostal leaders (not to speak of the rank and
file) who in general have no idea what a mine of insight and dedicated
scholarship they are missing’.72 I regret that Hollenweger’s final assess-
ment concerning the minimal impact of Pentecostal scholarship on the
leaders and the laity of Pentecostal denominations continues to ring true;
however, as the creative and helpful work produced by Pentecostal schol-
ars continues to increase, there are signs that the scholarship is beginning
to have an effect. Nevertheless, the chasm between the scholar’s study and
the church pew is nowhere more evident than in the interpretation of the
book of Revelation.
5. A Pentecostal Hermeneutic for Revelation
When the word ‘revelation’ is used in the title of this section it has a dou-
ble meaning, for it refers not only to the Apocalypse but also to the event
of revelation. Pentecostals would claim that the ability to interpret a rev-
elation is prerequisite for a valid interpretation of the Revelation. Further,
the Apocalypse seems to be a good place to pursue the development of
a Pentecostal hermeneutic owing to the apocalyptic nature of the move-
ment’s ethos. Thus, attention is now turned toward the Revelation with
an expectation that not only will the text be unveiled but a hermeneutic
may be unveiled as well.
5.1. Apocalypse or Revelation?
The book of Revelation is the first piece of literature included in the apoc-
alyptic genre to use the word ‘apocalypse’. The Jewish apocalypses which
among the Oppressed [Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993], p. 7; idem, ‘The Adoles-
cence of Pentecostalism: In Search of a Legitimate Sectarian Identity’, pp. 3–17).
71 W.J. Hollenweger, ‘The Critical Tradition of Pentecostalism’, JPT 1 (1992), p. 7.
72 Hollenweger, ‘The Critical Tradition of Pentecostalism’, p. 7.
196 robby waddell
predate the book of Revelation do not even contain the word. It was not
until after the Apocalypse of John that writers of apocalyptic literature
began categorizing their works as apocalypses.73 Therefore, my reading of
Revelation takes its first pause after the initial phrase Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰησοῦ
Χριστοῦ (the revelation of Jesus Christ), which stands in stark contrast to
the title commonly given to the book, ΑΠΟΚΑΛΥΨΙΣ ΙΩΑΝΝΟΥ. Ironi-
cally, John is not using the word ἀποκάλυψις to identify his literary work
with a particular genre but rather as a description of his experience. The
extent to which experience should play a role in interpretation has been
a hotly debated topic. Traditionally, Pentecostals have adopted an episte-
mology that was heavily influenced by their experience in the Spirit; and
therefore, Pentecostals may easily identify with the experience of John
recorded in the text (i.e. the experience of receiving a revelation).
‘Apocalypse’, which is a transliteration of ἀποκάλυψις, means ‘unveiling
or revelation’, whence the popular title, the ‘Book of Revelation’. When
John wishes to identify the literary genre of his work, he refers to it as a
prophecy, an identification he makes at least five times (Rev. 1.3; 22.7, 10,
18–19), possibly six (Rev. 19.10).74 Furthermore, John refers to the prophets
as his brothers. Since the Apocalypse of John plays such a vital role in
defining the apocalyptic genre perhaps it should be included in the list of
apocalyptic literature.75 Nevertheless, the theological significance of the
73 See J.J. Collins (ed.), ‘Apocalypse: The Morphology of a Genre’, Semeia 14 (1979),
pp. 1–214; D.E. Aune, The New Testament in its Literary Environment (Philadelphia: West-
minster, 1987), p. 242. and idem, ‘The Apocalypse of John and the Problem of Genre’,
Semeia 36 (1986), pp. 65–96. The production of apocalyptic literature experienced a long
and prolific climax from the second century bce to the second century ce. The writers of
the apocalypses wrote with pseudonyms, chosen strategically in order to give the literature
more authority (e.g. Daniel, Baruch, Ezra, Isaiah, and Abraham). The genre is characterized
by its eschatological outlook, which is fixed from an otherworldly perspective. The genre
also contains an anti-establishment tone. Cf. L. Alexander (ed.), Images of Empire (Shef-
field: Sheffield Academic Press, 1991). The Jewish apocalypses claim to be in the tradition
of their prophets but include concepts of demonology and dualism. Apocalyptic sections
can be found in many NT texts (e.g. Mark 13; 1 Thess. 4.15–17; 2 Thess. 2.1–12; 1 Cor. 15.20–28;
2 Cor. 5.1–5; Heb. 12.22–25). Some of the Jewish apocalypses seem to have been edited with
a Christian flavor (e.g. 4 Esdras, Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs, Ascension of Isaiah,
the Christian Sibyllines) and some Christian apocalypses were written (e.g. Didache 16, the
Apocalypse of Peter, and the Shepherd of Hermas).
74 M.W. Wilson, ‘Revelation 19:10 and Contemporary Interpretation’, in M.W. Wilson
(ed.), Spirit and Renewal: Essays in Honor of J. Rodman Williams, (Sheffield: Sheffield Aca-
demic Press, 1994), pp. 191–202.
75 According to D.E. Aune, the form, content, and function of the Apocalypse of John
solidly places the book in the apocalyptic genre. Aune suggests that no ancient revelatory
literature was considered to be unequivocal. The intentional ambiguity necessitates an
interpretation, therefore perpetuating further revelations. According to Aune, ‘the hearers
opening phrase cannot be overstated. When reading the Apocalypse or

any other passage of scripture, the Pentecostal reader expects to experi-
ence a revelation of Jesus Christ as Jesus unveils the meaning of the text
for the reader. In a similar fashion, the Pentecostal reader also expects
to experience the presence of the Spirit. Therefore, the reader is not sur-
prised when the words of Christ are attributed to the Spirit in the closing
endorsement of each letter to the seven churches (i.e. ‘let anyone who has
an ear, hear what the Spirit is saying to the churches’).
Pentecostals accept the Bible by faith as the Word of God which will
speak directly to their lives. The Bible is not merely an object to be stud-
ied, but the Bible is used by Jesus to reveal to the believer personal insight
so that as a Pentecostal reader I am apt to find out as much about myself
as I am about the text. To put it in theoretical terms, the binary opposites
of subject and object are deconstructed in a Pentecostal reading so that,
at times, the interpreter of the text will be interpreted by the text.76
As for the genitive construction of Ἰησοῦ Χριστοῦ, the Pentecostal inter-
preter need not decide between objective and subjective genitive but
rather understand the construction to be both objective and subjective.
Jesus is certainly the subject as the revealer of the mysteries of God, yet
He is also the object in that He reveals himself to John and to those who
believe. The initial vision that John receives in Rev. 1.10–16 is a vision in
which Christ reveals himself to John. I am proposing that the only inter-
pretation of the biblical texts that a Pentecostal community will endorse
is an interpretation which is centered on Jesus Christ.77 Thus, I suggest
that ἀποκάλυψις should be translated instead of being transliterated so
that the experiential nature of the word might be emphasized and thereby
shared with the reader. Acknowledging the necessity of revelation within
must use their imaginations to understand [the visions] . . . [and] experience for them-
selves the revelatory experience narrated by John’ (D.E. Aune, The New Testament in its
Literary Environment, p. 231). Cf. C. Rowland, The Open Heaven: A Study of Apocalyptic
in Judaism and Early Christianity (New York: Crossland, 1982), pp. 403–41. Against this,
F.D. Mazzaferri argues that on the basis of generic definition Revelation fails to qualify as
classical apocalyptic literature (F.D. Mazzafern, The Genre of the Book of Revelation from a
Source-Critical Perspective [New York: de Gruyter, 1989], pp. 223–58).
76 Moore, ‘Pentecostal Approach to Scripture’, p. 4.
77 The Christocentric theology of Pentecostals baffles outsiders who would think that
the movement is obsessed with the Spirit only. Ironically, one of the major divisions of the
Pentecostal movement which is centered on the nature of the Godhead does not revolve
around the role of the Spirit but rather the identity of Jesus Christ: Oneness Pentecostals
(Jesus Only) baptize in the name of Jesus (the formula found in Acts), while Pentecostal
Trinitarians baptize in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost (the
formula found in Matthew).
198 robby waddell
the interpretative process of reading the Bible raises additional ques-

tions concerning the objective and subjective nature of the text and of
interpretation.78
5.2. The Status of Scripture

The status of scripture is addressed early in the first chapter of Revela-
tion, where John declares in the first beatitude, ‘Blessed is the one who
reads and those who hear the words of the prophecy and keep what is
written therein, for the time is near’ (Rev. 1.3). In Rev. 1.11, John records
Jesus’ instruction for him to ‘write in a book what you are seeing and
send it to the seven churches’. These two statements concerning John’s
own written work raise three questions concerning my understanding of
scripture. First, what is the relationship between the written dimension
of the text and the oral/aural dimension of the text? Second, what is the
relationship between properly interpreting the words of the prophecy and
the admonition to keep the words of the prophecy? Third, what role do
the seven churches play as the recipients of the prophecy in the task of
interpretation?
Although Pentecostals are a ‘people of the Book’, they are foremost a
‘people of the Spirit’,79 who expect the Spirit to speak an inspired message
to the congregation which is relevant for the time.80 S.J. Land describes
the Spirit as ‘the Spirit of Christ who speaks scripturally but also has more
pp. 24–25.
79 I am in agreement with J.K.A. Smith’s proposal that Pentecostals (who are an oral
community rather than a textual community) are primarily a ‘people of the Spirit’. This
understanding of Pentecostalism as an oral community does not preclude the use of scrip-
ture in the Pentecostal community, indeed it affirms the use of scripture; rather, it places
scripture in a subservient relationship to the Spirit. Furthermore, Smith’s emphasis on
orality does not sanction all spoken word but he acknowledges the authority of the Spirit
of Christ who ‘resides and abides within the community of the faithful’ (J.K.A. Smith, ‘The
Closing of the Book’, p. 68, n. 68).
80 Traditional doctrines of scripture include an understanding of inspiration which is
regulated to the writing of scripture; conversely, the act of reading is described as an illu-
mination, suggesting that there is a qualitative difference between the divine participation
in the act of writing scripture and the divine participation in the act of reading scripture.
I agree with Clark Pinnock that the word ‘inspiration’ serves well to describe both dynamic
experiences of writing and reading (cf. Pinnock, ‘The Work of the Holy Spirit in Hermeneu-
tics’, p. 3). See also the comment by J.C. Thomas, who writes, ‘Scripture cannot be properly
appreciated apart from divine inspiration’ (J.C. Thomas, Ministry & Theology: Studies for
the Church and Its Leaders [Cleveland: Pathway Press, 1996], p. 16). Cf. J. Goldingay, Models
for Scripture (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1994), pp. 257–60.
to say than scripture’.81 Pentecostals place in high regard the oral Word of
God spoken in the worship services which comes in the form of tongues,
interpretation of tongues, prophecies, preaching, and testimonies.82 The
community’s role in discerning the interpretation of the oral Word mir-
rors the community’s involvement in discerning the proper interpretation
of the written Word.83
The blessing of the beatitude is not only for reading and hearing but for
keeping the words of the prophecy. John seems to be proposing an integra-
tion of belief and practice (orthodoxy and orthopraxis). To this integra-
tion of belief and practice, Pentecostals would add passion (orthopathy).84
The ethic derived from the beatitude prepares the believer for the escha-
tological return of Christ. Keeping the Word of God also has implications
for catechesis. Pentecostal children (and students) learn not only to read
and hear scripture, but to keep the words as well.85
Jesus’ command to John to write (Rev. 1.11) was accompanied with the
instruction to send his writing to the seven churches. These churches
served as communities in which the words of the prophecy could be inter-
preted. The task of discerning the proper interpretation of the prophecy
resides in the community of believers.86 In Rev. 2.2b, the church at Ephesus
is commended for its previous acts of discernment; ‘you have tested those
who claim to be apostles but are not, and have found them to be false’.

82 The preference towards speech over writing is a characteristic which Pentecostals
share with the early church. Cf. L. Alexander, ‘The Living Voice: Scepticism towards the
Written Word in Early Christianity and in Graeco-Roman Texts’, in Clines et al. (eds.),
The Bible in Three Dimensions, pp. 221–47.
83 The Bible for Pentecostals is not a history book which is free of errors, but rather
a testimony of believers who have experienced the provision of God. There is also a
sacramental use of the Bible in Pentecostal services. Pentecostal preachers have used
their Bibles sacramentally as a sign of the power which is represented within the pages by
either raising the book over their heads as if they are wielding a literal sword or by placing
their Bibles on the chest or forehead of someone in the altar who has come forward for a
prayer of healing.
84 Land has proposed that Pentecostal spirituality is an integration of these three ele-
ments, belief, passion, and praxis (Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, p. 44).
85 The close connection between word and action is repeated in Rev. 12.17 where the
children are identified as keeping the commandments of God and holding the testimony
of Jesus. C. Bridges Johns has stressed the necessity of ethical praxis accompanying cat-
echesis (Bridges Johns, ‘Meeting God in the Margins, Ministry among Modernity’s Refu-
gees’, pp. 22–23).
86 Cf. J.C. Thomas’s emphasis on the current and future need for community and
accountability within Pentecostal theology (Thomas, ‘Pentecostal Theology in the Twenty-
First Century’, pp. 3–19). See also Fish, Is There a Text in This Class? The Authority of Inter-
pretative Communities, pp. 303–71.
200 robby waddell
It is at this point that the significance of my title comes into play, ‘hear-
ing what the Spirit says to the churches’. The title is an adaptation of a
repeated endorsement which is recorded in every letter to the individual
churches (Revelation 2–3). Although Christ is the speaker of the letters,
the churches are admonished to hear the words of the Spirit.
5.3. A Community in the Spirit

In a postmodern world, Pentecostals no longer need to acquiesce to the
evangelical doctrine sola scriptura, because the revelation of God is not
transmitted to new generations by scripture alone but by the work of the
Holy Spirit. The Protestant doctrine of sola scriptura in its original form
contained a connotation that scripture was accompanied by the Spirit.
However, American Evangelical theologians have often not maintained
such a prominent place for the Spirit. R.D. Moore has proposed that it
may be more beneficial for Pentecostals to adhere to solus spiritus (with
the Scripture) as opposed to sola scriptura (with the Spirit). According to
Moore, the former is far less susceptible to overstatement than the latter.87
In response to Moore, F.D. Macchia writes:
I would only want to qualify ‘Spirit alone’ with ‘Word and Spirit alone’ in
order to make this fully trinitarian. But I would hasten to add that ‘Word’
here is primarily the living Christ who was anointed and directed by the
Spirit and now bestows the same Spirit upon us to serve God in Christ-like
ways. In this light, ‘Word’ is not simply identifiable with ‘Scripture’, but Scrip-
ture is subordinate to Word and participates in Word only through the Spirit
(hence a place for (Moore’s) ‘Spirit alone’).88
Interpretation of the scriptures continues for Pentecostals as it always has
‘not by might nor by power’ nor by educational level, social status, or eco-
nomic success, but by the Spirit of the living God. This view will require
a new emphasis on the doctrine of the priesthood (1 Pet. 2.5, 9) and
prophethood89 of all believers (Num. 11.27–29; Joel 2.28–32; Acts 2.16–20).
87 R.D. Moore, ‘A Letter to Frank Macchia’, JPT 17 (2000), p. 13.

88 F.D. Macchia, ‘A Reply to Rickie Moore’, JPT 17 (2000), p. 18.
89 R. Stronstad, The Charismatic Theology of St. Luke (Peabody: Hendrickson, 1984),
p. 77; idem, The Prophethood of All Believers (Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999).
See also Eduard Schweizer’s proposal that according to Rev. 19.10 all members of the com-
munity (at least potentially) are prophets. E. Schweizer, ‘Πνεῦμα’, TDNT (1968), VI, p. 449.
R.J. Bauckham is willing to agree that prophecy in the Apocalypse is equivalent with the
testimony of Jesus and that the churches function prophetically in their witness to Jesus;
however (contra Stronstad and Schweizer), he disagrees that every believer can therefore
be identified as a prophet (R.J. Bauckham, ‘The Role of the Spirit’, p. 166).
John describes his own experience as being ‘in the Spirit’ (Rev. 1.10,
ἐν πνεύματι). It is the Spirit that enables John to receive the revelation of
Jesus Christ. Pentecostals easily identify with John’s testimony of being in
the Spirit.90 The communal dimension of the Spirit enables the churches
to share in John’s experience. Within Pentecostalism, the Spirit is not lim-
ited to the leaders, but all who believe experience the presence and the
power of the Spirit. In addition to enabling the revelation and inspiring
the reading of scripture, the Spirit also plays a vital role in inspiring the
testimonies of the believers. The central challenge placed before the seven
churches in Revelation is to be faithful witnesses to Jesus Christ in spite of
the power of the beast which would have them do otherwise.
In Rev. 1.5, Jesus is identified as the faithful witness, yet the followers
of Jesus who were being assaulted by the dragon were able to ‘conquer
him by the blood of the Lamb and by the word of their testimony, for
they loved not their lives even unto death’ (Rev. 12.11). F.F. Bruce argues
that ‘no doubt their Lord was bearing his testimony in theirs, and suffer-
ing in them, but it is through their own testimony that they conquer, and
their own testimony is that which they bear to Jesus and his redeeming
power’.91 The provision of God is paramount in the historical context of
the Asian churches, as they face the possibility of martyrdom for their
faithful witness of Jesus Christ. Pentecostal theology, which is often a the-
ology from the bottom, also shares the need for reliance on the provision
of God with the Asian churches in Revelation. Moreover, the definition of
μάρτυς took on new meaning with the death of Antipas from the church
in Pergamum. Although being a witness might not mean an immediate
physical death, a type of death does occur when a believer becomes a
faithful witness (μάρτυς). The faithful witness receives a new life in Christ,
and therefore, has no reason to fear the beast.
5.4. Fearing God in Worship and in Bible Reading

John experiences fear when he sees the vision of Christ and falls at his feet
as though dead. In this encounter with Christ, Jesus instructs John not to
be afraid and offers him comfort saying, ‘Do not fear, I am the First and
90 Cf. R.L. Jeske, ‘Spirit and Community in the Johannine Apocalypse’, NTS 31 (1985),
pp. 452–66.
91 F.F. Bruce, ‘The Spirit in the Apocalypse’, in B. Lindars and S.S. Smalley (eds.), Christ
and Spirit in the New Testament: In Honour of Charles Francis Digby Maule (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1973), p. 338.
202 robby waddell
the Last, the living One. I was dead, and behold I am alive forever and
ever. And I have the keys of death and Hades’ (Rev. 1.17–18). John’s act of
falling is not only a result of fear but it is also identified as an act of wor-
ship. On two occasions he fell down and attempted to worship an angel
(Rev. 19.10; 22.8).92 In both cases, John is instructed to worship God and
not the angel who is a fellow servant of God. The angel identifies John’s
fear as an act of worship. Jesus’ instruction for him to stop being afraid
is echoed in Rev. 2.10, where Jesus admonishes the church at Smyrna not
to fear what they are about to suffer at the hands of the devil. The close
relationship between fear and worship intensifies the necessity for the
churches to avoid fearing the devil or the beast, which would thereby
be an act of worship.
John’s fearful reaction to the vision of Christ is a common reaction to
theophanies found in scripture. Although Jesus subsequently tells John
not to be afraid, I suggest that Jesus is not prohibiting the fear of the Lord
but rather encouraging John not to fear his circumstances or ‘what is now
and what will take place later’ (Rev. 1.19b).93 The identification of Christ
at the end of the vision affirms Him as the figure worthy of worship and
fear. Furthermore, I want to propose that the fear of the Lord is at least an
initial requirement in the interpretation of scripture for the Pentecostal.
Pentecostals believe they will encounter God when they read the Bible,
and I have proposed that a revelation of Jesus is necessary in order to
interpret scripture properly. Therefore, a reading of the biblical text, not
unlike the christophany experienced by John, should involve a certain
amount of fear and worship.
92 Contra R.W. Wall, who argues that John was worshiping God in the presence of
the angel. Wall notes that John does not explicitly state an intention to worship the angel
and he argues that angel worship would be uncharacteristic of an apostolic figure such
as John. Wall suggests that John is using the angel as a mouthpiece to endorse worship
of God, the only one deserving of worship (R.W. Wall, Revelation [Peabody: Hendrickson,
1991], pp. 223, 264).
93 Contra Aune, who classifies Jesus’ exhortation to ‘fear not’ as ‘a comfort formula
meant to allay the reaction of fear at the experience of a divine epiphany’, rather than
an ‘oracle of assurance . . . spoken to allay the fears which motivated the recipient of the
revelation to address a lament to God (as in the case of the OT oracles of assurance)’ (D.E.
Aune, Prophecy in Early Christianity and the Ancient Mediterranean World [Grand Rapids:
Eerdmans, 1983], p. 281).
6. Conclusion: Intertextuality and Pentecostalism
In my reading of Revelation, I have juxtaposed the experiences of John as

a seer, a prophet, and a witness to Jesus with the experiences of contem-
porary Pentecostalism. I suggest that Pentecostals (and perhaps others as
well) should follow the example in the text and rely on Jesus to reveal, in
the Spirit, the meaning of the Word of God which is both oral and written.
Further, I have emphasized the necessity of a community in which dis-
cernment must take place. I am committed to the Pentecostal interpre-
tation of scripture which endorses the prophethood of all believers. The
entire world is called by the Spirit to engage in testimony to Jesus which is
a participation in the prophecy of Revelation. The scripture truly becomes
an intertext for the reader/believer. The text becomes the words which
the churches use to define themselves. Their experience intersects and is
integrated with the texts that they read as they continually testify to the
presence of God in their midst. As Christ is revealed, the church adopts an
identity that reflects the image of Christ that has been revealed.
In addition to being avowedly Pentecostal, I have also been heavily
influenced by the academic context in the University of Sheffield, where
biblical studies often partners with various other disciplines in the exami-
nation of literary texts. In this setting, I have been introduced to a particu-
lar literary theory which seems to fit quite nicely with Pentecostalism (i.e.
intertextuality). The integration of orthodoxy, orthopraxis, and orthopa-
thy within Pentecostalism finds resonance with the multiple intersections
of literary and cultural (con)texts within the theory of intertextuality.
The next chapter turns more directly toward the text of Revelation and
analyses Rev. 11.1–13, which I argue is the intertextual center of the book.
In keeping with the model of a non-modern hermeneutic which is mul-
tiple in method, the analysis will portray characteristics of a multilevel
hermeneutic.
Chapter Twelve
Hearing the Voice of God:

Pentecostal Hermeneutics and The Book of Judges*
Lee Roy Martin**
Introduction
Although the methodological section in Chapter 1 together with the con-

clusions of Chapter 2 should serve as sufficient prerequisites for the com-
mencement of my study proper, I have chosen to offer this chapter as
further description of the goals of a Pentecostal hermeneutic. I propose
in Chapter 1 an approach to Scripture that is theologically motivated,
canonically based, and narratively oriented.1 I conclude in Chapter 2 that
a Pentecostal approach might pursue a theological study of Judges that
appreciates the canonical authority, spiritual meaning, transformative
power, and particularity of the text.
Furthermore, I embrace the thoroughness of critical methods and the
appropriation of critical discoveries that include the historical (human)
dimensions of the text. My approach claims the freedom to wrestle with
difficult texts; to examine the narrative qualities of the text, and recognize
the divergent voices within the text, utilizing an integration of multiple
interpretive approaches. I take into account the three worlds of the text
(behind, in, and in front of ), but as a Pentecostal, I seek to enter the world
of the living, dynamic, charismatic word of God, a world that is mani-
fested through encounter with the God who is in, around, above, below,
and in front of every text. In this charismatic encounter, the text is no lon-
ger the object of my critical critique, but I become the object of critique
* Chapter 3 of Lee Roy Martin, The Unheard Voice of God: A Pentecostal Hearing of the
Book of Judges (JPTSup, 32; Blandford Forum: Deo Publishing, 2008), pp. 52–79.
** Lee Roy Martin (DTh, University of South Africa) is Professor of Old Testament and
Biblical Languages at the Pentecostal Theological Seminary in Cleveland, TN USA.
1 A combination of theological and narrative approaches is proposed and demon-
strated by John Goldingay, Old Testament Theology: Israel’s Gospel (Downers Grove, IL:
InterVarsity Press, 2003), pp. 15–41.
206 lee roy martin
to the voice of God that speaks from the midst of the fire (Deut. 5.24).2
Furthermore, this encounter itself must be submitted to the discernment
of the community of faith so that interpretation is not allowed to be an
individualistic mystical affirmation that is disconnected from the text and
the covenant people.3
In this chapter I explore further the goals of a Pentecostal approach to
Judges based upon the biblical concept of ‘hearing’ (Heb. ‫)שׁמע‬, which I
use in contrast to the commonly used term ‘reading’. In some ways the
terms ‘hearing’ and ‘reading’ are similar—they both refer to a synchronic,
holistic, contextual hermeneutic. The term ‘hearing’, however, more
closely approximates the goals of my Pentecostal hermeneutic because:
(1) it is a thoroughly biblical term; (2) it accords with the orality of the bib-
lical and Pentecostal contexts; (3) it is relational, implying the existence
of a ‘person’ who is speaking the Word;4 (4) it denotes a faithful adher-
ence to the Word, since in Scripture to hear often means to obey;5 (5) it
implies transformation, since the hearing of the Word produces change;
and (6) it demands humility because, unlike the process of ‘reading’ Scrip-
ture, ‘hearing’ entails submission to the authority of the word of God (as
per [4] above).6
2 Moore, ‘Canon and Charisma’, pp. 85–87. Moore’s piece is not the most complete
description of Pentecostal hermeneutics, but is the most pointed and powerful one.
3 Thomas, ‘Women, Pentecostalism and the Bible’, pp. 41–56. Thomas observes a
hermeneutical paradigm in Acts 15 that integrates the voices of the text, the Spirit, and the
believing community. See also Paul D. Hanson, ‘Scripture, Community and Spirit: Biblical
Theology’s Contribution to a Contextualized Christian Theology’, JPT 6 (1995), pp. 3–12.
4 Cf. Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics (5 vols.; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1936), I,
pp. 132–43.
5 Cf. Francis Brown et al., The New Brown, Driver, Briggs, Gesenius Hebrew and English
Lexicon: With an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic (trans. Edward Robinson; Pea-
body, MA: Hendrickson, 1979), p. 1034; and William L. Holladay, A Concise Hebrew and
Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, corrected 10th edn,
1988), p. 423.
6 It might be argued that the terminology is unimportant, but I would insist otherwise.
In many ways the use of language shapes the development of ideas within the community.
Feminists have helped us rethink gender relationships through the introduction of inclu-
sive language, and minorities have created more a more healthy understanding between
racial and ethnic groups through their resistance to bigoted language. Likewise, the lan-
guage of interpretation will help to shape the content of the interpretation.
hearing the voice of god 207
Opportunity for a Pentecostal Approach to Judges
The diversity of scholarly approaches to Judges suggests that the book is

capable of functioning in an assortment of legitimate modes, with each
mode affording unique opportunities for study. Gale Yee’s aforementioned
volume is an example of the current diversity within biblical studies, set-
ting forth six different types of criticism that have been applied recently to
Judges: narrative, social scientific, feminist, structuralist, deconstructive,
and ideological.7 Surely, if this multiplicity of scholarly methods can be
acknowledged, there should be room for a Pentecostal approach. Accord-
ing to Daniel Patte, the healthy practice of critical methods ‘must allow us
to affirm the legitimacy of a plurality of interpretations’.8
In the first issue of the Journal of Pentecostal Theology, Rickie D. Moore
lamented the lack of models for the integrating of Pentecostalism and criti-
cal biblical scholarship, and the way ahead for him was ‘far from clear’.9 In
that same issue, Jackie David Johns and Cheryl Bridges Johns added, ‘Pen-
tecostals are only now beginning to formulate a hermeneutic which takes
seriously the dynamics of the Pentecostal faith’.10 The situation is quite dif-
ferent today, and because of the creative and faithful work of Pentecostal
scholars, who have wrestled with the issues of hermeneutics over the last
few years, a newly constructed pathway leads forward.11 To state the situ-
ation differently, the pathway is newly constructed only in some of its
parts, while other parts of the path are actually ancient ways rediscov-
ered, uncovered, and restored. After all, according to Rickie D. Moore, a
charismatic hermeneutic was practiced as far back as the time of Moses
and the book of Deuteronomy.12 Furthermore, John Christopher Thomas
argues for the presence of a Pentecostal hermeneutic in Acts 15,13 and
Kenneth Archer finds the charismatic approach in early Pentecostalism.14
7 Gale A. Yee, Judges and Method: New Approaches in Biblical Studies (Minneapolis:
Fortress Press, 1995).
8 Daniel Patte, Ethics of Biblical Interpretation: A Reevaluation (Louisville, KY: West-
minster John Knox Press, 1995), p. 27.
9 Moore, ‘Canon and Charisma’, p. 76.
10 Johns and Johns, ‘Yielding to the Spirit’, p. 110.
11 Cf. the title of Kenneth J. Archer, ‘Forging a New Path: A Contemporary Pentecostal
Hermeneutical Strategy for the 21st Century’, (PhD thesis, St. Andrews University, 2001).
12 Moore, ‘Canon and Charisma’, p. 90. See also Randall J. Pannell, Those Alive Here
Today: The ‘Day of Horeb’ and Deuteronomy’s Hermeneutical Locus of Revelation (Long-
wood, FL: Xulon Press, 2004).
13 Thomas, ‘Women, Pentecostalism and the Bible’, pp. 41–56.
14 Kenneth J. Archer, ‘Early Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation’, JPT 18 (2001), pp. 79–117.
208 lee roy martin
It seems more accurate to say that some Pentecostal scholars have

escaped the byway of Enlightenment methodologies and have returned to
the main pathway of Pentecostal epistemology, where approaches to the
Bible embody more holistic, relational conceptions of truth.15 Therefore,
the recent advances in Pentecostal hermeneutics represent not so much a
new prescription for biblical interpretation, but a critical description of the
interpretive process that has been practiced in the past and is practiced
currently by many Pentecostals.16
In addition, recent Pentecostal approaches enjoy the openness of post-
critical methodologies as described by Patrick D. Miller:
Contemporary theology and biblical studies have opened wide the door to
a multivalent reading of Scripture. That is, in general, a good development.
We have broken out of a modern concern for the meaning of a text—a con-
cern that many of our interpretive forebears did not share—and have come
to recognize that any text is rich and open toward a breadth of interpretive
inferences as well as that readers and audiences have much to do with what
is heard from the text.17
Many Pentecostals would agree with Daniel Patte, who writes: ‘Different
readers, because of their specific interests, concerns, or backgrounds, per-
ceive different yet coherent meanings in a text (or better, produce these
meanings with the text) by selecting one of these dimensions of the text’.18
Allowing multiple interpretations, however, opens the door to improper,
misinformed, and even dangerous interpretations, which means that the
critical task is vital. All interpretations must be held accountable, and any
legitimate interpretation must derive from the text itself. The Pentecostal
approach is not tantamount to uncritical subjectivism, because, although
Scripture can mean many things, it cannot mean anything and everything.
In fact some interpretations are dangerous, even evil. Oppressors have
used the Bible as an excuse to enslave peoples, persecute the Jews, and
exterminate ethnic groups. Women and children have been subjugated
15 Cf., e.g., the discussions of the Pentecostal worldview in Johns, ‘Pentecostalism’,

pp. 73–96, and Ellington, ‘Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scripture’, pp. 16–38; and
the exploration of the relationship between Pentecostal theology and the interpretation
of Scripture in Land, Pentecostal Spirituality.
16 The most complete description of the Pentecostal approach, both its history and
current practice, is Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic; and the best short overview is Robby
Waddell, The Spirit of the Book of Revelation, pp. 97–131.
17 Patrick D. Miller, ‘Popularizing the Bible’, ThT 53 (1997), p. 437.
18 Daniel Patte, Daniel, Ethics of Biblical Interpretation: A Reevaluation (Louisville, KY:
Westminster John Knox Press, 1995), p. 28.
and abused because of erroneous interpretations of the Bible.19 Robert P.

Carroll pleads for the responsible and careful interpretation of the Bible
as he alerts us to the ‘desperate need for sustained critical readings of the
Bible and that never again should a group of theologians be allowed to
enslave a nation with their uncritical readings of the Bible’.20
During the time of first and second generation Pentecostal scholars, the
academy did not have a place nor a language for Pentecostal hermeneu-
tics, but since 1992 over forty articles and books on the topic have been
published.21 In light of the large number of recent works devoted to Pen-
tecostal hermeneutics, including helpful summaries from Matthew Clark,22
Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen,23 Kenneth Archer,24 Matthias Becker,25 and Robby
Waddell,26 an extensive discussion of the field is not necessary. Neverthe-
less, I should say that I find considerable agreement between Pentecostal
scholars that a postmodern hermeneutic ‘accords well with the original
Pentecostal ethos’,27 an ethos that regards the Scripture as the dynamic
and living ‘Spirit-Word’.28
Walter Brueggemann declares that ‘a hermeneutic is not only neces-
sary but inevitable. There are no uninterpreted events’,29 but one could
question the need for a distinctive Pentecostal hermeneutic. I believe,
19 For numerous examples of the immoral use of the Bible, see Jim Hill and Rand
Cheadle, The Bible Tells Me So: Uses and Abuses of Holy Scripture (New York: Anchor Books/
Doubleday, 1996).
20 Robert P. Carroll, ‘(South) Africa, Bible, Criticism: Rhetorics of a Visit’, in Gerald O.
West and Musa W. Dube Shomanah (eds.), The Bible in Africa: Transactions, Trajectories,
and Trends (Leiden: Brill, 2000), p. 197.
21 The terminology of ‘first generation’ and ‘second generation’ Pentecostal scholars
follows Rickie D. Moore, John Christopher Thomas, and Steven J. Land, ‘Editorial’, JPT 1
(1992), p. 3.
22 Matthew S. Clark, ‘An Investigation into the Nature of a Viable Pentecostal Herme-
neutic’, (DTh, University of South Africa, 1996), pp. 167–77.
23 Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, ‘Pentecostal Hermeneutics in the Making: On the Way From
Fundamentalism to Postmodernism’, JEPTA 18 (1998), 76–115.
24 Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic, pp. 127–55.
25 Matthias Becker, ‘A Tenet Under Examination: Reflections on the Pentecostal
Hermeneutical Approach’, JEPTA 24 (2004), pp. 31–34.
26 Waddell, The Spirit of the Book of Revelation, pp. 108–18.
27 Kärkkäinen, ‘Pentecostal Hermeneutics in the Making’, p. 89.
28 Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, p. 100. For arguments against the ‘uncritical adoption
of theological methods and forms which contain epistemological and theological perspec-
tives that undermine the Pentecostal spirituality which shaped its story’, see Kenneth J.
Archer, ‘A Pentecostal Way of Doing Theology: Method and Manner’, IJST (forthcoming).
29 Walter Brueggemann, ‘The Legitimacy of a Sectarian Hermeneutic: 2 Kings 18–19’,
Interpretation and Obedience: From Faithful Reading to Faithful Living (Minneapolis, MN:
Fortress Press, 1989), p. 62.
210 lee roy martin
however, that the inevitability of a hermeneutic requires Pentecostals to

be intentional about their approach, otherwise they will be subjugated by
the ‘dominant rationality’.30 Every faith community has a hermeneutic,
whether they recognize it or not; and Pentecostals will have a hermeneu-
tic, whether by default or by intention.31 We can choose either to adopt the
current dominant models without considering the subsequent effect upon
our tradition,32 or we can carefully and intentionally formulate contextual
models of interpretation that integrate available contemporary methods
with the ethos of our tradition. I propose that we follow the latter course,
and construct a Pentecostal hermeneutic that employs the hermeneuti-
cal methods that are more conducive to our ethos, theology and view of
Scripture.33 We cannot be precritical; we must not be anticritical; but we
should be postcritical, pursuing the path that Iain Provan calls ‘believing
criticism’, an approach that ‘marries probing, reflective interpretation of
the text to loyal biblical devotion and warm Christian affection’.34 Thus,
the central Pentecostal concern is to hear and obey the word of God, what
Dirkie J. Smit calls ‘a hermeneutics of consent, of engagement, of trust,
of transformation; in short, a theological hermeneutics’.35 Consequently,
the Pentecostal approach to Scripture prefers obedience over correctness,
openness over exactness, humility over certitude, and faithfulness over
objectivity. Scott Ellington writes:
Doctrines may be challenged and even overturned without striking at the very
heart of Pentecostal faith because the central emphasis of Pentecostalism is
30 Brueggemann, ‘Legitimacy of a Sectarian Hermeneutic’, p. 62.

31 Cf. Marius D. Herholdt, ‘Pentecostal and Charismatic Hermeneutics’, in Adrio König
and S.S. Maimela (eds.), Initiation into Theology: The Rich Variety of Theology and Herme-
neutics (Pretoria: Van Schaik, 1998), p. 417.
32 Note the lamentation of a critical scholar: ‘In my case, critical biblical studies
demanded that I disregard the transforming religious power of the biblical text upon
me, upon others and upon society!’ Daniel Patte, ‘The Guarded Personal Voice of a Male
European-American Biblical Scholar’, in Personal Voice in Biblical Interpretation (London:
Routledge, 1999), p. 14.
34 Iain W. Provan, 1 and 2 Kings (New International Biblical Commentary; Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson Publishers, 1995), p. x. Not all Pentecostals are enthusiastic about a postcriti-
cal approach. Cf. Robert P. Menzies, ‘Jumping Off the Postmodern Bandwagon’, PNEUMA
16 (1994), pp. 115–20; Hannah K. Harrington and Rebecca Patten, ‘Pentecostal Hermeneu-
tics and Postmodern Literary Theory’, PNEUMA 16 (1994), pp. 109–14; and John C. Poirier
and B. Scott Lewis, ‘Pentecostal and Postmodernist Hermeneutics: A Critique of Three
Conceits’, JPT 15, (2006), pp. 3–21.
35 Dirkie J. Smit, ‘Biblical Hermeneutics: The 20th Century’, in Adrio König and
S.S. Maimela (eds.), Initiation into Theology: The Rich Variety of Theology and Hermeneutics
(Pretoria: Van Schaik, 1998), p. 314.
not a teaching which must be believed or a proof which can be deduced

and defended against all challenges, but a God who must be reckoned with
in direct encounter.36
The integration of rigorous study and faith commitment is possible par-
tially because the heart of the Pentecostal pursuit of truth is different from
the rationalist pursuit of truth. While religious rationalists (Evangelical
fundamentalists) define truth in terms of their dogma that is undergirded
by the historicity and inerrancy of Scripture, Pentecostals define truth in
terms of the genuineness of their encounter and continuing relationship
with God through his Word and his Spirit.37
Biblical interpretation certainly involves guidelines, rules, and prin-
ciples but it is more than a step-by-step process. For a Pentecostal, every
part of the process of interpretation is performed in the presence of God,
who is Lord of past, present, and future. Prayer and worship fuse all the
elements together into one pursuit, the pursuit of God himself. The mys-
tery of this encounter is akin to what is described by Daniel Patte, who
comes to the matter from a context that is other than Pentecostal:
My personal voice is truly heard in interpretations of the Bible that are trans-
formative encounters with an Other who transcends me, that is, in pro me
(or pro nobis) biblical interpretations which reflect experiences of a mysteri-
ous Otherness that I cannot control and encompass in my interpretations.38
For the Pentecostal who sees God in all things, the study of history,
backgrounds, archaeology, linguistics, and other areas normally assigned
to the realm of science, become a spiritual pursuit when submitted to
the ultimate authority of God, who created, sustains, and fills all things.
36 Cf. Ellington, ‘Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scripture’, p. 17.

37 For this reason early Pentecostals displayed little interest in the Fundamentalist-
Modernist controversy. Cf. Althouse, ‘Toward a Theological Understanding of the Pente-
costal Appeal to Experience’, pp. 399–411. For other differences between early Pentecostals
and Fundamentalists, see Jacobsen, Thinking in the Spirit: Theologies of the Early Pentecos-
tal Movement, pp. 356–58; and Kimberly Ervin Alexander, Pentecostal Healing: Models in
Theology and Practice (JPTSup, 29; Blandford Forum, UK: Deo Publishing, 2006), pp. 65–66,
163–64, 218. Unfortunately, much of American Pentecostalism is now aligned with Funda-
mentalist concerns, and I am calling for a return to the distinctive heart of Pentecostalism.
Cf. Timothy B. Cargal, ‘Beyond the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy: Pentecostals
and Hermeneutics in a Postmodern Age’, PNEUMA 15 (1993), pp. 163–87. For the influence
of Fundamentalism on the Assemblies of God, especially in the area of eschatology, see
Vinson Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition: Charismatic Movements in the Twenti-
eth Century (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2nd edn, 1997), pp. 207–209; and William W.
Menzies and Robert P. Menzies, Spirit and Power: Foundation of Pentecostal Experience
(Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2000), pp. 19–22.
38 Patte, ‘The Guarded Personal Voice’, p. 13.
212 lee roy martin
History is God’s history; sociology is the sociology of the community of

faith, and the study of language is a means to hear the voice of God.
When I speak of a Pentecostal approach, I do not claim to speak for
everyone in the Pentecostal-Charismatic movement, a movement that is
worldwide and diverse. I do speak, however, as a practicing Pentecostal
who for many years has struggled to integrate the critical interpretation
of Scripture with the ongoing life of the Church.39 Furthermore, I am not
arguing that approaches other than mine are invalid, nor would I insist
that Pentecostals will use only one method. As Willie Wessels writes,
‘There is more than one correct method of interpretation and this is to the
benefit of the believing community who should realize that interpreta-
tion is a dynamic, open-ended and ongoing process’.40 I do not demand
that every Pentecostal scholar utilize a Pentecostal approach. For exam-
ple, a Pentecostal may be a historian who is using Judges as a resource
for places, names, and events of history. A Pentecostal may be a sociolo-
gist who studies the customs and social structures of the pre-monarchic
period. A Pentecostal may be an expert in literature who examines the
narratives of Judges in light of their setting, plot, characterizations, and
other rhetorical features. Different interpreters come to the text with
different aims, and as W. Randolph Tate explains, ‘Interpretive aims dic-
tate interpretive methods’.41 Although there is no distinctive Pentecostal
methodology for biblical studies, several methodologies seem to commend
themselves to the Pentecostal ethos. Rickie D. Moore, for example, claims
39 My description of Pentecostal hermeneutics is based upon thirty years of daily par-
ticipation in the Pentecostal church, education at a Pentecostal college and seminary,
and teaching at a Pentecostal college and seminary. I have enjoyed close association with
Pentecostals from many countries who came as students to the seminary, and I have
taught courses in Korea and Puerto Rico. Furthermore, my hermeneutical model has been
shaped by many years of pastoral praxis, where I have been forced to integrate scholar-
ship with spirituality, and where I have attempted to merge sound exegesis and prophetic
preaching.
40 Willie J. Wessels, ‘Biblical Hermeneutics’, in Adrio König and S.S. Maimela (eds.), Ini-
tiation into Theology: The Rich Variety of Theology and Hermeneutics (Pretoria: Van Schaik,
1998), p. 272.
41 W. Randolph Tate, Biblical Interpretation: An Integrated Approach (Peabody, MA:
Hendrickson Publishers, 1991), p. 195. For a deeper discussion of academic aims versus
religious aims, see Robert Morgan, and John Barton, Biblical Interpretation (Oxford Bible
Series; New York: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 8–26. Not only are different meth-
ods required depending upon the specific academic discipline, but different methods and
approaches are required for the different genres in the Bible. See John Goldingay, Models
for Interpretation of Scripture (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1995).
a literary-theological method,42 Kenneth Archer recommends a semiotic

approach,43 and Robby Waddell fuses the methods of intertextuality with
goals of theological inquiry.44
Recent scholarly discussions have called attention to the possibility
of different readings, and most biblical scholars have admitted that all
readings are subjective and biased from their beginning. Pentecostals, like
everyone else, have both conscious and unconscious presuppositions and
agendas that affect their biblical interpretation. Pentecostals read the text,
and they create readings of the text. The term ‘reading’, however, does not
describe precisely enough the intent and goals of a Pentecostal approach
to Scripture. In place of the word ‘reading’, I suggest that we utilize the
word ‘hearing’, a term that is more prevalent in the Bible itself, and more
consistent with Pentecostal practice. The use of the term ‘hearing’ is con-
sistent with the critical aim of biblical exegesis, which is, according to
Patrick D. Miller, ‘to hear as much as one can and to avoid mishearing’.45
The appropriateness of ‘hearing’ as a hermeneutical term is confirmed
further by its frequent use within the titles of books and articles devoted
to the subject of biblical interpretation.46
42 Moore, ‘Canon and Charisma’, pp. 75–92. See also Moore, ‘Deuteronomy and the Fire
of God’, pp. 11, 15, 16. Literary methods are approved also by Robert O. Baker, ‘Pentecostal
Bible Reading: Toward a Model of Reading for the Formation of the Affections’, JPT 7
(1995), pp. 41–42, and Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic, pp. 4, 5, 166. See Appendix D for a
more detailed description of literary method.
43 Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic.
44 Waddell, The Spirit of the Book of Revelation.
45 Patrick D. Miller, ‘Popularizing the Bible’, Theology Today 53 (1997), p. 437.
46 Cf. Richard Aczel, ‘Hearing Voices in Narrative Texts’, NLH 29, no. 3 (1998), pp. 467–
500; Richard Aczel, ‘Understanding as Over-hearing: Towards a Dialogics of Voice’, NLH 32,
no. 3 (2001), pp. 597–617; Frederick H. Borsch, ‘Ears that Hear and Do not Hear: Fundamen-
tal Hearing of the Bible’, Scripture Today (Wilton, CT: Morehouse-Barlow, 1980), pp. 23–49;
Robert A. Coughenour, ‘Hearing and Heeding: Tasks for Old Testament Interpretation’,
RefR 41 (1988), pp. 117–38; Joel B. Green, Hearing the New Testament: Strategies for Inter-
pretation (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1995); John Alexander Hutchison, ‘On Hearing
the Word of God’, JBR 19, no. 2 (1951), pp. 67–70; Jacqueline E. Lapsley, Whispering the
Word: Hearing Women’s Stories in the Old Testament (Louisville, KY: Westminster John
Knox Press, 2005); Arie C. Leder and David A. Vroege, ‘Reading and Hearing Leviticus’,
CTJ 34 (1999), pp. 431–42; Elizabeth Struthers Malbon, Hearing Mark: A Listener’s Guide
(Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 2002); James Muilenburg and Thomas F. Best,
Hearing and Speaking the Word: Selections From the Works of James Muilenburg (Chico,
CA: Scholars Press, 1984); James Nogalski and Marvin A. Sweeney, Reading and Hearing
the Book of the Twelve (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2000); Gerald T. Sheppard,
‘Canonization: Hearing the Voice of the Same God Through Historically Dissimilar Tra-
ditions’, ExA 1 (1985), pp. 106–14; Klyne Snodgrass, ‘Reading to Hear: A Hermeneutics of
Hearing’, HBT 24, no. 1 (2002), pp. 1–32; Clarence Vos and Sierd Woudstra, Hearing the
Word of the Lord: The Prophets (Revelation Series for Adults; 2 vols.; Grand Rapids, MI: CRC
214 lee roy martin
Judges as a Prophetic Text to be Heard
Several important factors make ‘hearing’ a fitting paradigm for a Pente-

costal approach to Judges. For most Pentecostals, Scripture is interpreted
within the context of the believing, worshiping community. Conse-
quently, Judges does not function as historiography to be examined or
as ideology to be evaluated; rather, it functions as a prophetic voice to be
heard. The function of Judges as a word of prophecy is in harmony with
the Jewish tradition, which places the book within the category ‘Former
Prophets’.47 Many Christian scholars also classify Judges within the cat-
egory of Former Prophets;48 this is true even of Christian writers whose
interests are primarily historical critical.49 Judges, therefore, is more than
history; it is ‘salvation history’,50 ‘counter-history’,51 or prophetic history,
whose purpose is not ‘primarily to offer an explanation of the past, but to
function as scripture for the new generation of Israel who are instructed
from the past for the sake of the future’.52 According to Walter Bruegge-
mann, the narrative that we call the Former Prophets ‘does not intend to
be historical reportage in any modern sense of the term . . . the material
is theological testimony, that is, a believing effort to give an account of
Publications, 1994). In most of these works, the concept of ‘hearing’ goes no further than
the title. I could add another list of works that use the word ‘listen/listening’.
47 What the Jews call the Former Prophets (Josh., Judg., Sam., and Kgs) scholars call
the Deuteronomic History, and while the allusion to Deuteronomy is a valid theological
equation, the use of ‘History’ distracts from the theological purposes of the corpus and
produces a multitude of misconceptions from the very inception of it use, since it misrep-
resents the genre of Josh.-Kgs.
48 E.g., Brevard S. Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture (Philadelphia:
Fortress Press, 1st American edn, 1979); James L. Crenshaw, Story and Faith: A Guide to
the Old Testament (New York: Macmillan, 1986); William Sanford La Sor et al., Old Testa-
ment Survey: The Message, Form, and Background of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids, MI:
Eerdmans, Rev. edn, 1996).
49 See Otto Eissfeldt, The Old Testament; an Introduction, Including the Apocrypha and
Pseudepigrapha, and Also the Works of Similar Type from Qumran: The History of the Forma-
tion of the Old Testament (New York: Harper and Row, 1965); Georg Fohrer and Ernst Sellin,
Introduction to the Old Testament (Nashville,: Abingdon Press, 1968); Pfeiffer, Introduction
to the Old Testament; Claus Westermann and Robert Henry Boyd, Handbook to the Old
Testament (Minneapolis: Augsburg Pub. House, 1967).
50 Gerhard von Rad, Old Testament Theology (2 vols.; New York: Harper, 1962), I,
p. 344.
51 Walter Brueggemann, Abiding Astonishment: Psalms, Modernity, and the Making of
History (Louisville, KY: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1991), p. 43.
52 Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture, pp. 236–38. Cf. Provan, 1 and
2 Kings, pp. 6–15.
faith, an account of God’.53 Terence Fretheim agrees, writing that the pri-
mary purpose of the Former Prophets is not historical, but ‘religious . . . the
biblical narrators used the materials at their disposal for theological (or
kerygmatic-didactic) purposes. Their goal is to tell the story of the inter-
action between God and Israel in order to elicit a response from their
audience’.54 Consequently, as a part of the canonical Former Prophets,
Judges is theologically intentional in its final, canonical form.55 It is appro-
priate, then, for the interpreter to utilize ‘the more confessional approach
to Scripture, which, one could argue, is the context out of which the Bible
arose and for which it was created’.56
As prophecy, Judges presents a theological message to its original
readers; but a Pentecostal would assume that Judges presents a message
for today’s reader as well. As a prophetic word, the book of Judges chal-
lenges and informs the hearer from outside himself/herself.57 My goal as
a Pentecostal reader is to seek for the theological message of the text,
to be confronted by it, and to then to be conformed to it. Thus, Judges
is an authoritative word for today; and as part of the canon a Pentecos-
tal would hear the canonical text in its final form.58 The term ‘hearing’,
therefore, is consistent with the nature of Judges as a prophetic word that
challenges and informs the hearer from outside himself/herself. Hearing
Judges as prophecy means: (1) The text is a divine word confronting the
53 Walter Brueggemann, An Introduction to the Old Testament: The Canon and Christian
Imagination (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2003), p. 103. The New Histori-
cism maintains that historiography itself is a fiction; cf. Joyce W. Warren and Margaret
Dickie, Challenging Boundaries: Gender and Periodization (Athens, GA: University of Geor-
gia Press, 2000), p. xii.
54 Terence E. Fretheim, Deuteronomic History (Interpreting Biblical Texts; Nashville:
Abingdon Press, 1983), p. 30.
55 It should be noted that the term ‘canon’ is not commonly used by Pentecostals out-
side the academy. In the Pentecostal church, the Scriptures are most often referred to as
the ‘Word of God’.
56 Miller, ‘Popularizing the Bible’, p. 436.
57 Regarding the implications of the Old Testament as prophetic literature, see John W.
McKay, ‘When the Veil is Taken Away: The Impact of Prophetic Experience on Biblical
Interpretation’, JPT 5 (1994), p. 30.
58 Childs, Introduction to the Old Testament as Scripture; Bruce D. Chilton, ‘Biblical
Authority, Canonical Criticism, and Generative Exegesis’, The Quest for Context and Mean-
ing (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1997). For a Pentecostal understanding of canonical criticism, see
Simon Chan, Pentecostal Theology, pp. 27–31. Other Pentecostals who call for hearing the
final form of the text include Moore, ‘Deuteronomy and the Fire of God’, pp. 19–20; Baker,
‘Pentecostal Bible Reading’, pp. 35–36; and Archer, Pentecostal Hermeneutic, pp. 163, 167.
216 lee roy martin
human community; (2) The text is authoritative (canonical) for the believ-
ing community; and (3) The text will criticize/transform its hearers.59
Not only is the text a prophetic word to the community of faith, but
the Pentecostal community is a prophetic community,60 and the Pente-
costal interpretation is a prophetic interpretation. As mentioned above,
prophetic interpretation begins in the canon as early as Deuteronomy,
which is a reenactment of earlier events, making them present for a new
generation.61 After Deuteronomy, the traditions of the Torah are continu-
ally being activated prophetically for each new generation.62 According
to John McKay, the charismatic experience of Pentecostals means that
they ‘are prophets, or at least prophetically sympathetic, and so read the
Bible with the eye and intellect of prophetical persons’.63 Pentecostal
interpretation is an attempt at Spirit empowered prophetic reappropria-
tion of the Scriptures that flows out of the transformative experience of
Pentecost. Regarding the prophetic nature of Pentecostal hermeneutics,
Roger Stronstad writes:
[C]harismatic experience in particular and spiritual experience in general
give the interpreter of relevant biblical texts and experiential presupposition
which transcends the rational and cognitive presuppositions of scientific
exegesis. Furthermore, this charismatic experience results in an understand-
ing, empathy, and sensitivity to the text, and priorities in relation to the text
which other interpreters do not and cannot have.64
In other words, as a Pentecostal listens to the text he or she is made aware
of textual features that are brought to the surface through the interaction
of the text and the prophetic experience of the hearer.65
59 For the transformative effect of Scripture, see Eugene H. Peterson, Eat this Book:
A Conversation in the Art of Spiritual Reading (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2005). Cf.
Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, who writes, ‘Even as the Spirit formed Christ in Mary, so the
Spirit uses Scripture to form Christ in believers’ (p. 100).
60 Roger Stronstad, The Prophethood of All Believers: A Study in Luke’s Charismatic
Theology (JPTSup, 16; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1999); and McQueen, Joel and
the Spirit.
61 Moore, ‘Canon and Charisma’, pp. 75–92.
62 Cf. Brueggemann, The Creative Word, pp. 40–66.
63 McKay, ‘When the Veil is Taken Away’, p. 24.
64 Roger Stronstad, ‘Pentecostal Experience and Hermeneutics’, Paraclete 26 (1992),
p. 17. The unique experiences of every interpreter act as a set of interpretive lenses through
which that interpreter sees the text, with the result that certain elements of the text that
are overlooked by one reader appear quite obvious to another.
65 I do not suggest, however, that Pentecostal scholars are free to ignore the work of
other critical scholars. Critical findings must be evaluated and applied to interpretation on
a case-by-case basis. Cf. my discussion in Chapter 2.
‘Hearing’, Orality and Literacy
‘Hearing’ and the Orality of Scripture

Not only does the term ‘hearing’ accord with the nature of Judges as a
prophetic book, but it also corresponds to the orality of biblical society,
and it fits into the tradition of Pentecostalism as an oral community. Until
modern times, the Bible was mostly encountered aurally, through teach-
ing and preaching, or through one person who read the text within the
hearing of the congregation (whether Jewish or Christian).66 Before the
time of Plato written texts were constructed based upon their aural effect
rather than their visual effect.67 Even in medieval times written texts were
normally read aloud, even when read privately, which is the reason for
Augustine’s amazement that Ambrose should read without uttering the
words.68 Conventions of oral culture continued to exercise significant
impact on literature until the Reformation period, and Marshall McLuhan
has demonstrated that it was the printing press that converted the West-
ern world from orality to literacy, producing what McLuhan calls ‘typo-
graphic man’.69
According to Walter J. Ong, the characteristics of communication
within an oral culture include: simple sentence structures, frequent use of
stock words and phrases, repetition of words, phrases, and ideas, impor-
tance of story over ideas, focus on situational particularity rather than
conceptual abstraction, and episodic narrative instead of linear logic.70
66 For biblical examples where one person acts as the reader, while others listen, cf.
Exod. 24.7; Deut. 31.11; Josh. 8.34f; 2 Kgs 22.10; 23.2; 2 Chron. 34.18, 24, 30; Ezra 4.18, 23;
Neh. 8.3, 8, 18; 9.3; 13.1; Est. 6.1; Jer. 29.29; 36.6, 10, 13, 21; Lk. 4.16; Acts 13.27; 15.21, 2 Cor. 3.14,
15; Col. 4.16; 1 Thess. 5.27; Rev. 1.3.
67 Richard A. Jensen, Thinking in Story: Preaching in a Post-literate Age (Lima, Ohio:
C.S.S. Pub., 1993), pp. 19–20.
68 Jensen, Thinking in Story, pp. 32–33. Confessions 6.3.3. For the Latin text, see James J.
O’Donnell, The Confessions of St. Augustine: An Electronic Edition; available from http://
www.stoa.org/hippo. The central text reads: ‘sed cum legebat, oculi ducebantur per pagi-
nas et cor intellectum rimabatur, vox autem et lingua quiescebant’.
69 Marshall McLuhan, The Gutenberg Galaxy: The Making of Typographic Man (Toronto:
University of Toronto Press, 1962).
70 Walter J. Ong, Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word (New York:
Routledge, 1988), pp. 31–49. For a limited but helpful approach to interpreting the Old
Testament from an oral perspective, see Susan Niditch, Oral World and Written Word:
Ancient Israelite Literature (Library of Ancient Israel; Louisville, KY: Westminster John
Knox Press, 1996), who lists three characteristics of oral style: repetition, formulas, and
epithets (pp. 13–24). Niditch includes a chapter in which she applies her methodology to
specific texts. See also Lou H. Silberman, Orality, Aurality and Biblical Narrative (Decatur,
GA: Scholars Press, 1987). Battle reports in Judges and Samuel are seen as oral patternings
218 lee roy martin
Oral communication, because it requires the face-to-face confrontation

between participants, suggests a relational model of knowledge, which is
manifested in the Hebrew word for knowing (‫)ידע‬.71 All of these char-
acteristics assume the existence of community, for without community
there is no oral discourse.72
The Bible, because of its historical location, must be understood first
as an oral performance text.73 Just as in other preliterate communities,
‘A strong tradition of oral transmission of stories existed in early Israel-
ite society’.74 John Goldingay proposes that the biblical narratives are
‘speech-acts’; they are ‘utterances’; and ‘they issue a promise, a challenge,
or an invitation that opens up a future or a possible world’;75 they are
oral discourse in written form. It is likely that the first biblical writings
were composed under the rules of orality,76 and only later did literate
discourse become the dominant model. Jaroslav Pelikan argues that ‘the
prophet writes the words in the book precisely for the purpose of their
being spoken words again at some future time’.77 Therefore, models of
interpretation based on linear, philosophical, and rational methods can-
not do justice to the oral dimensions of the biblical text.
Numbers of scholars have recognized the deep significance of the Bible
as a witness to God’s speech. James Barr, for example, argues that the
emphasis on God’s actions has overshadowed God’s speech;78 Karl Barth
asserts that the Bible is the speech of God, that it is spiritual in nature,
by David M. Gunn, ‘Battle Report: Oral or Scribal Convention?’ JBL 93 (1974), pp. 513–18;
but not by John Van Seters, ‘Oral Patterns or Literary Conventions in Biblical Narrative’,
Semeia (1976), pp. 139–54.
71 Cf. Johns and Johns, ‘Yielding to the Spirit’, pp. 109–34.
72 McLuhan, Gutenberg Galaxy, p. 193; and Walter J. Ong, The Presence of the Word:
Some Prolegomena for Cultural and Religious History (Terry Lectures, Yale University; New
Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1967), p. 54.
73 A possibility entertained by Niditch, Oral World and Written Word, pp. 2–5.
74 Wessels, ‘Biblical Hermeneutics’, p. 262. Cf. Hermann Gunkel, Die Israelitische Litera-
tur (Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellshaft, 1963), p. 3.
75 John Goldingay, Models for Scripture (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1994), p. 65.
76 Cf. David M. Gunn, ‘Narrative Patterns and Oral Tradition in Judges and Samuel’,
Vetus Testamentum 24 (1974), pp. 286–317.
77 Jaroslav Jan Pelikan, Whose Bible Is It?: A History of the Scriptures Through the Ages
(New York: Viking, 2005), p. 21. Pelikan includes a helpful discussion of orality and literacy
(pp. 13–25).
78 James Barr, ‘Revelation through History in the Old Testament and in Modern The-
ology’, Int 17 (1963), pp. 193–205; cited in Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament,
p. 46. See also Pelikan, Whose Bible Is It?: A History of the Scriptures Through the Ages, who
discusses the speech of God in his first chapter, which is entitled ‘The God Who Speaks’
(pp. 7–26).
and that it is personal speech;79 and Walter Brueggemann insists that the
speech of God ‘is a given of the text and thus the material for theological
interpretation’.80 What Brueggemann discovers in the book of Genesis, I
find also in the book of Judges:
[T]he God of the Bible is a God who speaks, one whose speaking is so sover-
eign and magisterial that it functions as decree, summons, invitation, order,
command, assurance, and promise . . . The speech of Yahweh, the God of the
Bible, is the source of the world that is called to be. The speech of Yahweh
is the source of Israel, through Abraham and Sarah, who are called to be.
Both the world and Israel are evoked by Yahweh’s sovereign word.81
The God whose speech in Genesis creates Israel, speaks again in Exodus
to join Israel to himself in covenant, and in Judges to challenge Israel to
be faithful to that covenant. By using the term ‘hearing’, I seek to restore
to my biblical interpretation a renewed awareness of and a reinvigorated
attention to the speech of God, which has a prominence in Judges, as
I intend to show, that has been scarcely noticed in modern scholarship.
‘Hearing’ and the Orality of Pentecostalism

Early Pentecostals were mostly uneducated and they functioned primar-
ily as an oral culture. Walter Hollenweger argues that Pentecostalism
emerged out of the African-American oral context and that Pentecostal
theology is primarily oral in nature.82 Like the early Christian community,
early Pentecostalism was a ‘charismatic community which placed empha-
sis on hearing, not reading’.83 ‘The major mode of Pentecostal theology
has been from the beginning orality, a mode which still dominates in the
Two Thirds World’.84 Preaching and teaching are still a vital element in
the Pentecostal experience, and Pentecostals tend to approach Scripture
79 Barth, Church Dogmatics, I, pp. 132–43.

80 Brueggemann, Theology of the Old Testament, p. 46.
81 Walter Brueggemann, ‘Genesis’, in Bernhard W. Anderson (ed.), The Books of the
Bible (2 vols.; New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1989), I, p. 22. See also Walter Brue-
ggemann, The Prophetic Imagination (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1978), p. 67, where he
writes, ‘the real world is the one that has its beginning and dynamic in the promising
speech of God’.
82 Walter Hollenweger, ‘The Critical Tradition of Pentecostalism’, JPT 1 (1992), pp. 7–17;
Cf. also Ellington, ‘Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scripture’, pp. 20–26; Archer, ‘Pen-
tecostal Hermeneutical Strategy’, pp. 106, 118, 119.
83 James K.A. Smith, ‘The Closing of the Book: Pentecostals, Evangelicals, and the
Sacred Writings’, JPT 11 (1997), p. 50 (emphasis Smith).
84 Kärkkäinen, ‘Pentecostal Hermeneutics in the Making’, p. 79.
220 lee roy martin
as if it were a spoken word from God himself.85 As an oral culture, argues

Gordon Anderson, Pentecostalism is in a position to contribute to the
understanding of Scripture as oral discourse, particularly when it comes
to narrative, non-propositional texts.86
The Pentecostal theology of Scripture insists that the Holy Spirit com-
municates through the written Word, and that an encounter with the
Scriptures is an encounter with the presence of God through the Holy
Spirit. The tension that Rickie D. Moore finds between Deuteronomy’s
‘law so righteous’ and ‘God so near’ may illustrate the tension between
the written word and the oral word. Although modernity tempts us to
eliminate the tension between Scripture and charisma, Moore claims that
we should not do so, since the tension is present within the canon itself.87
Many Pentecostal scholars who entered the academy were required to
abandon their oral culture and to adopt the modes of literacy, logic, rea-
son, and linear thought. Those who accepted the Western Enlightenment
model either (1) forsook their Pentecostal tradition entirely; (2) remained
in the Pentecostal church but aligned themselves with evangelical fun-
damentalism as a rationalistically framed reaction against ‘liberalism’;
(3) separated their scholarly life from their spiritual life; or (4) adopted
an elitist mentality of ‘enlightened’ Pentecostalism, attempting to retain a
connection to the Pentecostal church, but no longer embracing the ethos
of the movement.88
The tension between orality and literacy exists not only between con-
fessional interpreters (such as Pentecostals) and critical approaches, but
also between critical approaches and postmodern culture. Postmodern-
ism is entering a post-literate stage,89 an age that is literate, but because
of the prevalence of electronic media is secondarily oral.90 Because of this
85 For a discussion of the oral/aural element in Pentecostal hermeneutics see Michael B.

Dowd, ‘Contours of a Narrative Pentecostal Theology and Practice’, 15th Annual Meeting
of the SPS, Gaithersburg, MD (1985). The conflict between theological education and oral
community in Africa is explored in Draper, ‘“Less Literate are Safer”: The Politics of Orality
and Literacy in Biblical Interpretation’, pp. 303–18. The same challenge within the African-
American community is highlighted in Reid, ‘Endangered Reading’, pp. 476–88.
86 Gordon L. Anderson, ‘Pentecost, Scholarship, and Learning in a Postmodern World’,
PNEUMA 27 (2005), pp. 120–22.
87 Moore, ‘Canon and Charisma’, pp. 78–91.
88 This tension between literacy and orality and its bearing on the education of Pen-
tecostal ministers is explored by Jerry Camery-Hoggatt, ‘The Word of God from Living
Voices: Orality and Literacy in the Pentecostal Tradition’, PNEUMA 27 (2005), pp. 225–55.
89 Tony Schwarz, Media: The Second God (New York: Random House, 1981), p. 11.
90 Ong, Orality and Literacy, p. 11.
secondary orality, the post-literate age is more appreciative of narrative

discourse and relational modes of knowing. This contemporary openness
to non-Enlightenment models means that Pentecostals no longer are
forced to choose between the academy and their heritage. Instead, they
can adopt integrative models of biblical studies that engage the academy,
the Church, and the postmodern world. The approach that I call ‘hearing’
is a way to bring together in a holistic fashion, the Pentecostal tradition of
orality, the postmodern culture of post-literacy, and the oral dimensions
of biblical narrative.
‘Hearing’ in the Biblical Context
‘Hearing’ as a Biblical Term

Pentecostals hold the Bible in high esteem, and they prefer to utilize bibli-
cal terminology whenever possible. In the Bible, hearing is the most fre-
quent method of encounter with the word of God.91 The command to
‘hear’ (Qal imperative of ‫ )שׁמﬠ‬is found two hundred one times in the Old
Testament, and all forms of the verb together are found one thousand one
hundred fifty-nine times.92 Thirty-one times the prophet declares, ‘Hear
the word of the Lord’. Moses called the people together and said, ‘Hear
(‫)שׁמﬠ‬, O Israel, the statutes and the ordinances which I speak in your
hearing this day, and you shall learn them and be careful to do them’
(Deut. 5.1). Joshua used a similar formula when he gathered Israel and
said, ‘Come and hear (‫ )שׁמﬠ‬the words of Yahweh your God’ (Josh. 3.9).
This prophetic formula is used by Micaiah, who said to King Ahab, ‘There-
fore hear (‫ )שׁמﬠ‬the word of Yahweh’ (1 Kgs 22.19). Jeremiah cried out,
‘Hear the word of Yahweh, O house of Jacob’ (Jer. 2.4). Later, Isaiah proph-
esied to Hezekiah saying, ‘Hear (‫ )שׁמﬠ‬the word of Yahweh’ (2 Ki. 20.16).
Isaiah 55.3 expands the formula, saying, ‘hear, that your soul may live’.
This expansion of the formula shows that ‫ שׁמﬠ‬calls for more than the act
of listening, because the one who hears will have life. In biblical thought,
to hear is to act upon that which is heard.93 The root ‫ שׁמﬠ‬is the most
91 Parts of this chapter and most of this section are dependent upon Lee Roy Martin,
‘Purity, Power, and the Passion of God: A Pentecostal Hearing of the Book of Judges’, Ekkle-
siastikos Pharos 87 (2005), pp. 274–300.
92 Avraham Even-Shoshan, A New Concordance of the Old Testament (Jerusalem: Kiryat
Sefer, Baker/Ridgefield edn, 1983), pp. 1175–81.
93 For the meaning ‘obey’, cf. Brown et al., BDB, p. 1034; Holladay, Lexicon, p. 423;
R. Laird Harris, Gleason L. Archer, and Bruce K. Waltke, TWOT (2 vols.; Chicago: Moody
222 lee roy martin
common Hebrew term for ‘obey’, and when expanded to ‫תשמﬠם‬, it means
‘obedient band, body of subjects’.94
Conversely, a failure to hear is a failure to obey. Those who are unwill-
ing to obey the word of God are described in the following passages by
using the verb ‫ שׁמע‬with the negative particle: Moses said to Pharaoh,
‘behold, you have not yet obeyed (‫( ’)לא תשׁמﬠ‬Exod. 7.16). Moses warned
Israel, ‘if your heart turns away, and you will not hear (‫)לא תשׁמﬠ‬, but
are drawn away to worship other gods and serve them, I declare to you
this day, that you shall perish’ (Deut. 30.17–18). Jehoash the king of Israel
‘sent word to Amaziah king of Judah . . . But Amaziah would not hear
(‫( ’)לא תשׁמﬠ‬2 Ki. 14.11). Similarly, ‘Yahweh warned Israel and Judah by
every prophet . . . But they would not hear (‫)ולא תשׁמﬠ‬, but were stub-
born, as their fathers had been, who did not believe in Yahweh their God’
(2 Ki. 17.13–14).95 In the Old Testament, a failure to hear the word of the
Lord signifies the spiritual state of stubbornness or rebellion (Ezek. 12.2;
Neh. 9.17). Zechariah goes so far as to claim that the cause of the Exile is
Israel’s unwilling stubbornness and hardness of heart that is expressed in
their refusal to hear the voice of Yahweh as spoken through the ‘law’ and
the ‘former prophets’:
Thus says Yahweh of hosts, Dispense true justice, and practice kindness
and compassion each other; and do not oppress the widow or the orphan,
the stranger or the poor; and do not devise evil in your hearts against one
another. But they refused to pay attention, and turned a stubborn shoulder
and closed their ears from hearing. And they made their hearts like flint so
that they could not hear the law and the words which Yahweh of hosts had
sent by his Spirit through the former prophets; therefore great wrath came
from Yahweh of hosts. And it came about that just as he called and they
would not hear, so they called and I would not hear, says Yahweh of hosts;
Press, 1980), I, p. 938; Even-Shoshan, Concordance, p. 1175. There is no biblical Hebrew

word that is equivalent to the English ‘obey’. Some form of the word ‘obey’ is found 109
times in the RSV, and in 103 of those the Hebrew word is ‫שׂמע‬. The other six cases use the
words ‫שׁמר‬, ‫עשׂה‬, ‫ﬠבד‬, and ‫יקהה‬. Cf. the New Testament word ἀκούω, which means ‘hear’,
but also include ‘a clear inference of subsequent obedience’. The compound ὑπακούω even
more clearly means ‘to obey’. J. P. Louw and Eugene Albert Nida, Greek-English Lexicon of
the New Testament: Based on Semantic Domains (2 vols.; New York: United Bible Societies,
2nd edn, 1989), II, pp. 467–68.
94 Brown et al., BDB, p. 1036.
95 Other clear examples include Isa. 30.9 and 65.12. Cf. the New Testament word
παρακούω, which means ‘to refuse to listen to and hence to disobey,’ Louw and Nida, Lexi-
con, II, p. 469. There are many New Testament texts calling for the hearing of God’s Word
that could be added to the Old Testament examples found here.
but I scattered them with a storm wind among all the nations whom they
have not known (Zech. 7.8–14, emphasis showing the verb ‫)שׁמﬠ‬.96
‘Hearing’ as Obedience and Transformation

Since the Hebrew ‫ שׁמﬠ‬can signify hearing and obeying, it is well-suited
as a paradigmatic term for the Pentecostal community that embraces
a holiness tradition. We might say that the most crucial element in the
study of the Bible is not the need for better understanding of the text,
rather it is the need for willing obedience to the text. Gordon Fee remarks
that the problem with the biblical text ‘is not with understanding it, but
with obeying it’.97 Mary W. Patrick states the point another way when
she insists, ‘to understand a text you must first stand under the text’.98
Marius Herholdt adds that ‘interpretation only follows obedience’;99 and
Brueggemann writes, ‘Interpretation that seeks to let the old word be the
live, authoritative word, if it is faithful to the material interpreted, must
be an act of obedience’.100
The hearing/obedience that is called for in Scripture is more than a
legalistic response produced by a sense of duty or fear of punishment
(even though both of these motivations are present to a degree). The
hearing of the voice of God is the hearing of faith that produces a radi-
cal affective transformation of the hearer,101 just as Isaiah is transformed
by his encounter with the living God. Unlike Isaiah himself, however, his
audience will not hear; therefore, they will not be healed (transformed):
96 It seems unlikely that ‘former prophets’ is a description of Josh.-Kings, but rather the
term probably refers to the pre-exilic prophets such as Isaiah and Micah.
97 Gordon D. Fee and Douglas K. Stuart, How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth: A Guide
to Understanding the Bible (Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan, 2nd edn, 1993), p. 15.
98 Mary W. Patrick, ‘Understanding “The Understanding Distance” Today: The Love
command of Jesus’, in L. Dale Richesin and Larry D. Bouchard (eds.), Interpreting Disciples:
Practical Theology in the Disciples of Christ (Fort Worth, TX: Texas Christian Univ Pr, 1987),
p. 102; cf. Johnson Lim Teng Kok, Grace in the Midst of Judgment: Grappling with Genesis
1–11 (New York: Walter de Gruyter, 2002), p. 64.
100 Walter Brueggemann, Interpretation and Obedience: From Faithful Reading to Faith-
ful Living (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1991), p. 1. Brueggemann’s chapter entitled ‘The
Legitimacy of a Sectarian Hermeneutic: 2 Kings 18–19’ (pp. 41–69) should encourage Pente-
costals to develop their own approach to Scripture. While Brueggemann sees imagination
and obedience as necessarily inseparable, Paul Ricoeur argues that revelation appeals to
the imagination alone; it does not appeal to obedience. Paul Ricoeur and Lewis Seymour
Mudge, Essays on Biblical Interpretation (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1980), pp. 73–117.
101 Cf. Herholdt, ‘Pentecostal and Charismatic Hermeneutics’, pp. 422–23.
224 lee roy martin
And he said, go, and tell this people: keep on listening, but do not perceive;
keep on looking, but do not understand. Render the hearts of this people
insensitive, their ears dull, and their eyes dim, lest they see with their eyes,
hear with their ears, understand with their hearts, and return and be healed
(Isa 6.9–10).
The word of the Lord (‫ )דבר יהוה‬is more than sound waves in the atmo-
sphere or letters on a scroll, it is an apocalyptic event that produces trans-
formation.102 Moses, in his farewell sermon, admits that the hearing of
God’s voice is terrifying, but his juxtaposition of hearing with love sug-
gests it is also attractive. He challenges the Israelites to choose life, ‘by
loving the LORD your God, by hearing his voice, and by holding fast to
him’ (Deut. 30.20). The kind of devoted relationship expressed in this text
supports Robert O. Baker’s argument that the hearing of God’s Word is a
means of transforming and forming the affections.103 Affective transfor-
mation is explored fully by Steven J. Land, who deconstructs the often
cited oppositions of being vs. doing, and of head vs. heart, when he argues
that the center of Pentecostal spirituality is the integration of orthodoxy
and orthopraxy within orthopathy. Orthopathy refers to the affections
that constitute the motivations and character of the believer in their rela-
tion to God. Regarding the affections, Land writes,
Affections are neither episodic, feeling states nor individualistic senti-
ments . . . Unlike ‘feelings’, these affections are distinctively shaped and
determined by the biblical story and evidence the marks of particular com-
munal and historical location.104
A hearer of the word of God, therefore, not only will obey but will obey
joyfully. A hearer of the Word not only will attend to the Torah but will
‘rejoice’ in it (Ps. 119.62), ‘love’ it (Ps. 119.97), hide it in the heart (Isa. 51.7;
Ps. 119.1), and ‘delight’ in it day and night (Ps. 1.2). To those who love God,
his Word is treasured above their necessary food (Job 23.12) and is ‘more
to be desired’ than fine gold (Ps. 19.10).
‘Hearing’ and Covenant Community

Throughout the Old Testament, the challenge to hear the voice of God
occurs within the relational context of covenant. While hearing the voice
102 Moore, ‘Canon and Charisma’, p. 90.

103 Baker, ‘Pentecostal Bible Reading’, pp. 34–38.
104 Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, p. 44. See pp. 141–72 for a full explication of the affec-
tions and how they are formed by the Spirit, the Word, the community, and the experience
of Pentecost.
of God can and must be an individual act,105 this faithful hearing of the
word of God takes place within the community of faith.106 After the Lord
established his covenant with Israel at Mount Sinai, Moses said to them,
‘Hear, O, Israel, Yahweh our God is one Yahweh’ (Deut. 6.4). They were to
hear God’s Word in light of their covenant, a covenant that formed them
into a community. Biblical interpretation has functioned too often as an
enterprise of the individual scholar, and Daniel Patte argues that criti-
cal scholarship should be accountable not only to the academy but also
to ‘those who are affected by their interpretations’, that is, to the believ-
ing communities outside the academy.107 For Patte, interpretation in the
context of Christian community is a way of minimizing the ‘hierarchical
structure of oppression and marginalization’ that places the experts in a
position of superiority when deciding the legitimacy of interpretations.108
The Bible itself seems to suggest that hearing the voice of the text is best
accomplished when the community is involved. John Christopher Thomas
has discovered a model of hermeneutics that includes the faith community
as an integral part of the act of reading (or hearing) Scripture.109 Thomas
observes that in Acts 15 the community gathers together to consider the
relationship between Jewish law and the reception of Gentile converts.
The community offers testimony and hears testimony about their expe-
riences, which they attribute to the acts of God. Furthermore, although
James is clearly the leader of the meeting, the final decision is regarded
as ‘coming from the community under the leadership of the Holy Spirit’.110
Thomas concludes that the faith community ‘provides the forum for seri-
ous and sensitive discussions about the acts of God and the Scripture. The
community can offer balance, accountability and support. It can guard
against rampant individualism and uncontrolled subjectivism’.111 Acts 15
demonstrates that contradictory claims about what God has revealed can
105 The singular form of the imperative occurs 76 times in the Hebrew Bible, while the
plural is found 110 times; Even-Shoshan, Concordance, pp. 1179–80.
106 Cf. Herholdt, ‘Pentecostal and Charismatic Hermeneutics’, pp. 422–23.
107 Patte, Ethics of Biblical Interpretation, p. 30.
108 Daniel Patte, ‘Reading with Gratitude: The Mysteries of “Reading Communities
Reading Scripture”’, Reading Communities, Reading Scripture (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press
Intl, 2002), p. 378.
110 Thomas, ‘Women, Pentecostalism and the Bible’, p. 49.
111 Thomas, ‘Women, Pentecostalism and the Bible’, p. 55. Cf. Archer, Pentecostal
Hermeneutic, pp. 5, 99, 145, 152, 156–92, who agrees that interpretation must be performed
through the integration of text, community, and the Spirit. Recent theories of learning
emphasize the importance of community. Cf. Etienne Wenger, Communities of Practice:
Learning, Meaning, and Identity (Learning in Doing; Cambridge: Cambridge University
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and do arise within the faith community and that it is the role of the
community to mediate these claims by submitting to the guidance of the
Holy Spirit. It should be said, however, that unity does not require unifor-
mity. That is, while the Spirit-filled community must make every effort to
provide accountability and to reach a common witness, small remaining
differences must not be allowed to create divisions in fellowship.
This accountability and support serves not only as a guardian for proper
interpretation, but also as a witness to the aforementioned transforma-
tive effect of the hearing of Scripture. While a hearer may lay claim to
this transformation, such a subjective experience is difficult to verify; but
within the relationships of the community of faith these transformations
can be witnessed and confirmed by fellow believers.112
The role of the community in biblical interpretation is shaped partially
by its theology of mission, and since the Pentecostal community is very
much a missionary fellowship, obedience to the voice of God implies
faithfulness to the mission of God in the world. The missional emphasis
of the Pentecostal interpretation of Scripture prefers practical application
above philosophical speculation.113 Consequently, most Pentecostals seek
to understand Scripture not in order to refine abstract theological ideas
but in order to seize on the command of God, which in turn effectuates
God’s kingdom in the world.114 They read Scripture with the expectation
of a personal and corporate revelation that will then be communicated
to others through the oral/aural ministries of preaching and teaching.115
Biblical interpretation, therefore, goes hand in hand with evangelism and
Christian formation.116
Press, 1998), pp. 72–85, who concludes that ‘learning is fundamentally experiential and
fundamentally social’ (p. 227).
112 The question might be asked how it can be verified that the interpreter has truly
‘heard’ the Word of God and has not constructed simply a clever argument. In other words,
does the goal of ‘hearing’ really make any difference in the resultant interpretation? I
would argue that deception and self-deception are always an obstacle to faithful exegesis,
no matter what approach or method may be employed, but that a perceptive readership
and a discerning community can detect the genuineness of the interpreter’s ‘hearing’.
114 The Pentecostal church is an eschatological missionary fellowship according to
Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, pp. 122–81.
115 Although Pentecostals are writing more than ever before, the oral dimensions of
mission take priority over written communication.
116 Cf. Brueggemann, The Creative Word, Johns and Johns, ‘Yielding to the Spirit’,
pp. 109–34, and Cheryl Bridges Johns, Pentecostal Formation: A Pedagogy among the
Oppressed (JPTSup, 2; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993).
‘Hearing’ and the Holy Spirit

Pentecostal theology claims that the kind of hearing that produces trans-
formation of the affections, divine manifestation within the commu-
nity and mission to the world is the kind of hearing that is a gift of God
through his Spirit. In addition to utilizing historical data and linguistic
evidence in biblical interpretation, Pentecostals, in every stage of biblical
study, will seek for the guidance of the Holy Spirit in an attempt to hear
the word of the Lord.117 A Pentecostal hermeneutic, as Larry McQueen
observed, ‘embraces the critical claim of the Holy Spirit’.118 John Chris-
topher Thomas discovers in his aforementioned study of Acts 15 that it
is the Holy Spirit who brings into creative dialogue religious experience
(originating in the acts of God), the biblical text, and the discernment of
the faith community, in order to form meaning.119 Thomas writes:
Such explicit dependence upon the Spirit in the interpretive process clearly
goes far beyond the rather tame claims regarding ‘illumination’ which many
conservatives (and Pentecostals) have often made regarding the Spirit’s role
in interpretation.120
In the historical critical method, the interpreter (through human reason)
controls the interpretation,121 but a Pentecostal prophetic interpretation
cannot be controlled by the interpreter, because the God who reveals
himself will do so at his own will and choosing. Thus, when taking on the
attitude of a hearer, the interpreter is not passive, but neither is s/he in
complete control, because ‘the concentration of hermeneutical effort is
on God’s side, and not on human endeavor . . . It is God who speaks and
makes his message known’.122 According to Steven J. Land, just such an
approach characterizes the perspective of early Pentecostals: ‘Reason could
117 A recent and helpful discussion of the role of the Holy Spirit in interpretation is
Clark H. Pinnock, ‘The Work of the Holy Spirit in Hermeneutics’, JPT 2 (1993), pp. 3–23. See
also, Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, pp. 40, 41, 71–77, 98, 100, 106, 118; and G. C. Berkouwer,
Holy Scripture (trans. Jack B Rogers; Grand Rapids, MI: W. B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1975),
pp. 108–115.
118 McQueen, Joel and the Spirit, p. 112.
120 Thomas, ‘Women, Pentecostalism and the Bible’, p. 49.
121 Cf. Paul K. Feyerabend, Farewell to Reason (London: Verso, 1987), p. 301; who claims
that the scientific appeal to ‘reason’ is destructive because it discourages diversity and
claims unilateral superiority over other epistemologies.
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not produce revelation, and without revelation reason did not discover
what was truly important’.123
‘Hearing’ as a Theme in the Book of Judges
Not only does ‘hearing’ serve as a fitting term for describing the goal of
Pentecostal hermeneutics, it also emerges as a vital theme within the book
of Judges. The underlying cause of Israel’s problems in Judges is their lack
of attention to the voice of God. The Angel of Yahweh appears to Israel
with a stinging rebuke: ‘I said . . . “you shall not make a covenant with the
inhabitants of this land. You shall tear down their altars”. But you have
not heard (‫ )שׁמﬠ‬my voice’ (Judg. 2.2). The Israelites had renewed their
covenant with Yahweh in Joshua 24.23–25: ‘The people said to Joshua,
“Yahweh our God we will serve, and to his voice we will hearken (‫”)שׁמﬠ‬.
So Joshua made a covenant with the people that day’. According to the
Angel of Yahweh, the people have now abandoned their promise, and no
longer are they hearing the voice of Yahweh. The Israelites had vowed to
hear his voice, but now their vows are broken. In refusing to hear Yahweh,
they are refusing the covenant of their liberator, and they are rejecting the
care of their benefactor. The charge against Israel is repeated three more
times in Judges: ‘They would not hear/obey the judges’ (2.17a); ‘They have
not heard/obeyed my voice’ (2.20); ‘You have not heard/obeyed my voice’
(6.10). In addition to the four direct accusations, the question of Israel’s
obedience surfaces two other times. First, they are contrasted to their
faithful ancestors when Yahweh laments that Israel ‘turned aside from
the way walked by the ancestors, who had obeyed (‫ )שׁמﬠ‬the command-
ments of Yahweh’ (2.17b). Second, the narrator of Judges declares that the
remaining Canaanites ‘were for the testing of Israel, to know whether Israel
would obey (‫ )שׁמﬠ‬the commandments of Yahweh’ (3.4). Furthermore, the
theme of hearing is found twice in the concluding chapters of the book:
The Gibeonites would not listen to reason, but were intent on execut-
ing sexual molestation (19.25); and the Benjaminites would not ‘hear’ the
other tribes, but insisted on pursuing civil war (20.13). Throughout Judges,
the Israelites refuse to hear the voice of God, and they suffer because of
their stubbornness. The demand for hearing the word of God, therefore,

emerges from the biblical text as a theological concern that informs the
Pentecostal hermeneutical task.
In light of the Pentecostal interpreter’s aim, which is to hear the pro-
phetic voice of God speaking through the text, some critical methods
immediately become more appealing; for example, linguistic, literary, nar-
rative, theological, and canonical approaches.124 Approaching Judges as a
Pentecostal, but armed with these critical methods, the interpreter is able
to hear the voice that cries out from the prophetic text.125
As a result of applying my approach to the book of Judges, I perceive
that the role of God (and the speech of God) has received too little atten-
tion from critical scholars. According to John Goldingay, the role of God
throughout the Old Testament narratives is not appreciated by inter-
preters as much as it should be. He maintains that the ‘interpretation of
biblical stories should focus more upon God and less upon the human
participants’.126 Concerning the book of Judges in particular, I would offer
several reasons why there has been so little interest in the role that God
plays as a character in the narratives. First, the greater part of the book
of Judges is devoted to the lives of six major characters: Ehud, Deborah,
Gideon, Abimelech, Jephthah, and Samson. Therefore, many studies of
Judges focus on these characters and their electrifying exploits. Second,
other studies of Judges have focused on history rather than theology, and,
given the modern historiographical presuppositions in play, God is not a
verifiable participant in historical events. Thus, these studies have rou-
tinely depreciated and disregarded the role of God as a central character in
the book because of their governing perspectives on history and culture.127
124 On Pentecostals utilizing narrative methods, see Archer, ‘Pentecostal Hermeneuti-

cal Strategy’; and Dowd, ‘Narrative Pentecostal Theology’. For a description of narrative
methodology, see my summary in Chapter 1. Cf. also, Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative;
Bal, Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative; Shimeon Bar-Efrat, Narrative Art
in the Bible (JSOTSup, 70; Sheffield: Almond Press, Pbk. edn, 1989); Johannes C. de Klerk,
‘Situating Biblical Narrative Studies in Literary Theory and Literary Approaches’, RTh 4/3
(1997); Hans W. Frei, George Hunsinger, and William C. Placher, Theology and Narrative:
Selected Essays (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993); and Gunn and Fewell, Narrative
in the Hebrew Bible.
125 Cf. Patrick, ‘Understanding “The Understanding Distance” Today’, pp. 102–103, who
suggests that literary methods are more likely to produce interpretations that exhibit
‘humility’.
126 Goldingay, Models for Interpretation of Scripture, pp. 56–57.
127 Cf. Moore, ‘Deuteronomy and the Fire of God’, p. 33, who frames this point in terms
of the mutual exclusivity of the precritical and critical worldviews. Moore writes that the
speech of God is regarded by critical scholars as not particularly ‘noteworthy’ or ‘central’
because it belongs to the commonplace notions of the precritical worldview.
230 lee roy martin
Third, the book’s sheer quantity of violence, coupled with its concentrated
involvement of women characters, has attracted and dominated the atten-
tion of ideological critics from all persuasions,128 leaving few scholars who
choose to devote their energies to the study of an ancient deity.
To the Pentecostal scholar, however, Yahweh is not merely an ancient
deity; he is an ever present God whose words and actions are more impor-
tant than the ideologies of either ancient Israel or contemporary culture.129
Birch states aptly:
To read the Old Testament theologically is to recognize that when we read
as people of faith within a confessional community, we are interested in
more than conveying information about an ancient community. [The Old
Testament] is of interest because we read as a part of communities that still
seek to stand in the presence of that same God.130
As an apocalyptic movement, Pentecostalism sees God as the beginning
and the end of all things; and it views itself as a participant in the drama
of the last days.131 It is this God-centered worldview of the Pentecostal,132
therefore, that opens up a perspective on the primacy of God’s role in
the narrative and the theological implications of that role. I would sug-
gest further, that the Pentecostal goal of hearing the word of God brings
to the fore the three speeches of God in Judges (2.1–5; 6.7–10; 10.10–16),
and highlights, in a way that previous scholarship has not noticed, their
importance to the overall message of the book.
Conclusion
I have argued that the goal of my Pentecostal hermeneutic, which is to

hear the voice of Yahweh, is both justifiable and suitable as an approach
to the study of Judges. I propose that ‘hearing’ is an attempt to appropriate
128 In the last ten years, ideological approaches have dominated the study of Judges.
130 Bruce C. Birch et al., A Theological Introduction to the Old Testament (Nashville:
Abingdon Press, 1999), p. 2.
131 Cf. Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, pp. 58–121, who asks ‘How could one truly know
the significance of the past and present . . . without an understanding of the purpose and
goal of all existence?’ (p. 105); and William Faupel, The Everlasting Gospel: The Significance
of Eschatology in the Development of Pentecostal Thought (JPTSup, 10; Sheffield: Sheffield
Academic Press, 1996).
132 For an insightful introduction to the Pentecostal worldview as God-centered, see
again Johns, ‘Pentecostalism’, pp. 73–96. See also Anderson, ‘Pentecost, Scholarship, and
Learning in a Postmodern World’, pp. 116–17.
the theological message of the word of God through a careful and critical
(discerning) attendance to the canonical biblical text. The goal of ‘hear-
ing’, though parallel in some ways to ‘reading’, is more descriptive of Pen-
tecostal intentions toward biblical study. The location of Judges within
the Former Prophets combined with the Pentecostal view of Scripture
as divine word suggest that Judges functions not as historiography to be
examined or as ideology to be evaluated but as a prophetic voice that
demands to be heard. Pentecostals, by virtue of their own prophetic expe-
rience, are well equipped to hear the voice of the prophetic text. I contend
further that, by their recognition and use of the terms ‘hearing’ and ‘lis-
tening’, critical scholars have demonstrated their instinctual approval of
‘hearing’ as an attitude toward the text. Also, even though critical scholar-
ship has not explored fully the implications of an oral dimension to bibli-
cal study, the importance of ‘hearing’ the text is acknowledged tacitly by
the resurgence of emphasis on divine speech as a vital element of the Old
Testament concept of God.
I have shown that ‘hearing’ is an approach that coincides with the oral-
ity of Old Testament times, the orality of the Pentecostal church, and the
secondary orality of postmodernity. It is likely that the first biblical writ-
ings were composed under the rules of orality; therefore, models of inter-
pretation based on linear, philosophical, and rational methods cannot do
justice to the oral dimensions of the biblical text. Pentecostals, because of
their oral culture, are attuned to the text in ways that are foreign to mod-
ern literacy; and postmodernity, because of the new post-literacy, is more
appreciate of oral modes of discourse. The approach that I call ‘hearing’ is
a way to bring together in a holistic fashion, the Pentecostal tradition of
orality, the postmodern culture of post-literacy, and the oral dimensions
of biblical narrative.
The Pentecostal preference for biblical concepts over philosophical cat-
egories grants inherent authority to the goal of ‘hearing’, since ‘hearing’ is
the most fundamental and most common biblical mode of encountering
the word of God. The covenant community is commanded to ‘hear’ the
word of the Lord. Furthermore, the holiness stream of Pentecostal the-
ology is appreciative of the biblical conjunction of hearing, transforma-
tion and obedience. The ‘hearing’ of Judges, therefore, is a conversation
between the text and the hearer in a way that acknowledges the authority
of the word of God over the life of the hearer. In spite of the fact that the
hearer brings a worldview, a history and theological presuppositions to
the interpretive task, all of these elements may be challenged and trans-
formed through the hearing of the word of God.
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I argue further that the faithful hearing of the word of God is best
accomplished within the context of the believing community and under
the guidance of the Holy Spirit. The community offers accountability and
support that serves both as a guardian for proper interpretation and as a
witness to the transformative effect of the Scripture. The obedience and
transformation that result from the hearing of God’s Word are witnessed
and confirmed within the community of faith. Furthermore, the kind of
hearing that produces transformation of the affections, divine manifesta-
tion within the community and mission to the world is a gift of God. To
form meaning, the Holy Spirit brings into creative dialogue religious expe-
rience, the biblical text, and the discernment of the faith community.
Finally, my goal of hearing the word of God finds specific correspon-
dence in the three speeches of God in Judges (2.1–5; 6.7–10; 10.10–16), in
which the Israelites are reprimanded for failing to hear the voice of Yah-
weh. Like the Israelites, modern biblical scholarship has failed to hear
the voice of Yahweh in the book of Judges. The challenge to hear God’s
voice is not forced upon the text by my presuppositions and my experi-
ence; rather, it emerges from the text itself and serves as a provocation to
deepen my understanding and my experience. As a Pentecostal hearer of
the voice of Yahweh, I echo the cry of the Psalmist: ‘Let me hear what God
the LORD will speak’ (Psalm 85.8).133
133 I recently discovered that a journal article offering ‘hearing’ as a paradigm for
hermeneutics was published soon after I had presented the first draft of this chapter at
the annual meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Studies. Snodgrass, ‘Reading to Hear’,
pp. 1–32, makes several points that parallel my own: (1) ‘hearing’ is the primary mode of
communication in the Bible (pp. 11, 12, 23–27); (2) ‘hearing’ requires willing, humble atten-
tion; (pp. 28–29) and (3) ‘hearing’ demands obedience (p. 31). Unlike my proposal, however,
Snodgrass focuses his hearing upon the original intent of the author (p. 19). His hermeneu-
tic is rooted firmly in modernity and may be described as confessional rationalism.
Chapter Thirteen
The Work of the Spirit in the Interpretation of Holy

Scripture from the Perspective of a Charismatic
Biblical Theologian*
Clark H. Pinnock**
Introduction
One would expect that Pentecostals and charismatics, given their pas-
sion for all things pneumatological, would take a keen interest in Spirit-
hermeneutics. It would be only natural. More than most believers, they
would be familiar with the promise and perils of doing it. Keen to hear
a contemporary word of the Lord, they should approach the possibility
with great expectations, while (at the same time) being wary of another
possibility, the possibility of drowning in a sea of subjectivity. Apparently
(however) this did not dissuade the early Christians from entertaining
the idea in more than a rudimentary way. They were after all, accord-
ing to the apostle Paul, ‘not lacking in spiritual gifts but were enriched
in Christ with speech and knowledge of every kind’, including prophecy
(1 Cor. 1.4–7). It sounds as if they would be very interested in what I am
calling ‘Spirit-hermeneutics’. They would be keen to know, not just what
God said to people long ago in the scriptures, but what the Spirit is saying
to the churches now. It is important to remember that Pentecostal and
charismatic believers, ancient and/or modern, are people of the Spirit and
not yet people of the book only.1
* First published in the Journal of Pentecostal Theology 18.2 (2009), pp. 157–71.
** Before his death in 2010, Clark H. Pinnock (PhD, University of Manchester) was Pro-
fessor Emeritus of Theology at McMaster Divinity College, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
1 Clark H. Pinnock ‘The Work of the Holy Spirit in Hermeneutics’, Journal of Pentecos-
tal Theology 2 (1993), pp. 2–23. James K.A. Smith, ‘The Closing of the Book: Pentecostals,
Evangelicals, and the Sacred Writings’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 11 (1997), pp. 49–71.
234 clark h. pinnock
Part One: A Rational-propositional Model
Some believers, however, shy away from Spirit-hermeneutics. The very

idea of it makes them nervous because they see the text in ‘cut and dried’
terms and because they emphasize the Bible’s rational/propositional
character. This makes it awkward for them to show interest in any ‘fuller’
meaning of texts or in their acquisition. Any dynamism in hermeneutics
could prove to be irresponsible and lead the church into uncontrolled
subjectivity. Therefore, they keep Spirit-hermeneutics at arm’s length
despite the rich plurality of meaning that is conveyed by language.
Earlier in my own life, I did not think much about Spirit-hermeneutics
because I was myself committed to scholastic habits of thinking and did not
welcome exegetical liberties. I was committed to a rational-propositional
model of biblical authority and more than a little suspicious of human
subjectivity. I wanted no part in any possible diminishing of the objec-
tive authority of the Bible as I understood it. I was working with a model
which claimed that the meaning of texts is discovered by using reason and
the best scholarly tools, linguistic and otherwise. I thought that the Spirit
had fulfilled his obligations to his people millennia ago through inspira-
tion, when he delivered the Bible to the church. What else was there for
the Spirit to do now, I wondered.2
After a decade of struggling with rational-propositionalism, I came
across something more promising. Why not, instead of attempting to
derive a doctrine of biblical inspiration from the ‘proof texts’ which are
not (one has to admit) really up to the task, why not take a different tack?
Why not look to the hermeneutical practices of Jesus for insight into a doc-
trine of Scripture, evidence which has often glossed over and neglected for
so long? The fact is, that the proof texts of inspiration do not rise to the
challenge. There are four such proofs.3 The favorite text, 1 Tim. 3.15–16 (for
example) is content to say that Scripture is ‘inspired and profitable’ and
leave it at that. It says nothing about inerrancy but places the focus on the
practical benefits which the scriptures offer. 2 Peter 1.20–21 tells us that
the Spirit inspires prophecies. Well and good but it does not say anything
about what is the case when it comes to non-prophetic verses. Nor does
2 On my pilgrimage in this area, see Roy C.W. Roennfeldt, Clark H. Pinnock on Biblical
Authority: An Evolving Position (Berrien Springs, MI: Andrews University, 1993).
3 See B.B. Warfield, The Inspiration and Authority of the Bible (Philadelphia: Presbyte-
rian and Reformed, 1948), ch. 3.
the work of the spirit 235
it assure us that prophecies themselves are always error free. In Jn 10.35,

Jesus says that ‘scripture cannot be broken’, but what that entails is not
explained. It likely means that Scripture is never null and void and never
empty of meaning. Matthew 5.17 says that ‘not a jot or tittle will pass from
the law until all is fulfilled’. Yet Jesus abandoned segments of the law such
as food laws, circumcision, and holy days. Jesus himself did not seem to
be much bothered by ‘jots and tittles’. Such thinking does not take us
very far. There is another more promising way to learn about the nature
of Scripture.
Part Two: The Scripture Principle
There is something else in the biblical witness to help us. I refer to the
dynamic ways in which scriptures are employed by other scriptures. One
sees it in Jesus’ exegetical practices. No one can doubt that Jesus regarded
Scripture as inspired and authoritative. Less certain though would it be
that he regarded every text as equally binding and/or relevant. Consider
his appeal to Isa. 61.1–2: ‘The Spirit of the Lord is upon me because he has
anointed me to bring good news to the poor; he has sent me to heal the
brokenhearted, to preach deliverance to the captives, and recovering of
sight to the blind, to set at liberty them that are bruised, to preach the
acceptable year of the Lord’ (Lk 4.18–19). But he omits the portion of the
text that mentions any divine wrath (‘the day of vengeance of our God’,
Isa. 61.2b).
Jesus read the text on this occasion as good news even though he was
taking liberties with the scriptures. What right did he have to do that?
He did it because he knew the will of God in this matter and at this time.
Jesus blended the original word of Scripture with its current significance
for his hearers. It was his familiar practice. In Mt. 5.38, Jesus set aside the
‘tooth for a tooth’ maxim in order to say that his disciples are called by
God to a higher level of ethical behavior. He did not deny the text or dis-
miss it. It had been the word of God in times past and it has meaning for
today, a much more radical meaning. Jesus took liberties when it came to
Scripture. He would distinguish between the original meaning and what
texts mean now. At one time, the distinction between clean and unclean
foods stood, but no more. At one time, you could divorce but no more.
At one time, oaths were permissible, but no more. Jesus did not see all
texts as being on the same level or as having the same authority. He rec-
ognized a degree of historical relativity. He knew that texts can open up.
His critique does not diminish Scripture—it sets texts free to function as
the word of God in new ways.4
One could say that Jesus was a certain kind of ‘liberal’, who broke with
the approaches of his contemporaries and placed God’s word and promise
above mere law.5 He set the authority of his own Spirit baptism above Jew-
ish traditions and interpretations. Jesus worked in a climate where there
were different approaches to interpretation, as there are today. There
were ‘techniques’ in which one could expand upon a biblical narrative to
bring out a subtle insight. The Qumran community employed a midrash
pesher which concentrated on discerning the significance of some text for
the present time. Such practices lead one to meaning beyond the literal
in the direction of significance. Jesus does not want us merely to know
the text but also to know ‘what time it is’ (Lk. 12.54–56). For example, his
followers did not regard the laws of sacrifice as binding.
At the first church council, the delegates said, ‘It seemed good to the
Spirit and to us to impose on you no further burden than these essentials’
(Acts 15.28–29). In so doing, they put aside a good deal of the Old Testa-
ment. Peter could say that he had not eaten anything common or unclean,
but this was about to change. Paul taught that respect for holy days was
a question of freedom. As for circumcision, it is was mandated in the OT
but not required of gentile believers. Obviously, a sacred text which would
have been binding when first given may not be valid today. Jesus and
the disciples were alive to the dynamic of their texts. A word which was
good in its time could be rescinded later if when it did more harm than
good. He wants us to remember—‘that was then and this is now’. They
were alive to the dynamic nature of texts in the Bible. We today may give
the text too much respect when we exalt the letter above the Spirit. The
truth is that a word that was good for people in one situation may become
destructive for people at other times.
Certainly the scriptures are inspired but not in the sense of their being a
static deposit of revealed propositions that we can systematize and make
into an idol. Scripture is not something that we control. It has a dynamic
authority and is a living guide. Its proclamation is not primarily intellec-
tual in nature either but a life transforming interaction. The purpose of
the Bible (according to the Bible) is to be the power of transformation.
4 Very helpful was James D.G. Dunn, ‘The Authority of Scripture According to Scrip-
ture’, Churchman 96 (1982), pp. 104–125.
5 See ‘Was Jesus a Liberal?’, ch. 1 of Ernst Käsemann, Jesus Means Freedom (London: SCM
Press, 1979), pp. 16–41. Or was he a post-conservative evangelical in the new parlance?
It serves to enrich the community and keep it on track. Literalism is not

the goal either—what is essential is whether we are listening to the living
word and grasping what is most crucial for the church.6
Part Three: Spirit-hermeneutics
It seems to me that Jesus and his disciples practiced a Spirit-hermeneutic

in which God’s self-revelation is presented in a dynamic fashion. Great
themes are discussed over centuries and dialectically in a process of con-
versation and refinement which generated a rich process of interpreta-
tion and re-interpretation. The resulting truth is not ‘cut and dried’ but
balanced and nuanced. Beginning with the Hebrew scriptures, we find
a text orientated to God’s future salvation. The older testament is itself
an ongoing hermeneutic of the fulfillment of God’s promises to Abraham
and the New Testament reveals the same approach.7 We study the text
historically, not just to recover past events, but also to anticipate promises
contained in those events. The stories are told and re-told because the
history of God’s salvation is not finished but still open. We read it with
an eye on the extension of the story. We ask of Scripture, not only what
past it calls us to remember, but what promises it wants us to claim and
what future it wants us to work for. We should not pretend that the full
meaning of the Gospel has been completely actualized. We should not be
nostalgic for biblical times so much as to be sensitive to the direction in
which the Gospel is moving us.
In the synoptic gospels, Jesus experienced the Spirit and was conscious
of being the beloved Son of God. His intimate relationship with the Father
was revealed in his ‘Abba’ prayers which were unlike anything in Juda-
ism. The Father knew the Son and the Son knew the Father in unique
ways. Jesus was aware of the presence and power of the Spirit on him.
As we see in the exorcisms and healings Jesus had the strong sense that
he was the anointed of God and that the end-time prophecies were being
fulfilled in him. James Dunn writes, ‘Jesus thought of himself as God’s son
and as one anointed by the eschatological Spirit, because he experienced
God as Father and in ministry he experienced the power to heal which he
could only understand as the power of the end-time and an inspiration
6 Clark H. Pinnock, The Scripture Principle: Reclaiming the Full Authority of the Bible
(Grand Rapids: Baker Academic, 2nd edn, 2006).
7 See Pinnock, The Scripture Principle, ch. 8, entitled ‘Unfolding Revelation’.
to proclaim a message which he could only understand as the Gospel

of the end-time’.8
As a charismatic theologian, Jesus experienced manifestations of
the Spirit such as works of power, healing, and exorcisms. His Spirit-
hermeneutical practices would have grown up amidst these manifesta-
tions. Open to the Spirit and the living word, Jesus enjoyed a prophetic
awareness about God’s openness to the ever changing human situations
to the Spirit speaking here and now. Thus, ‘beginning with Moses and
all the prophets, he could interpret to them the things about himself in
all the scriptures’ (Lk 24.7). In this context their eyes were opened and
they recognized him. They said, ‘Were not our hearts burning within us
while he was talking to us on the road, while he was opening the scrip-
tures to us?’ (Lk 24.32).
Thinking about and reflecting upon Spirit-hermeneutics is evident in
John’s gospel. When it came time for Jesus to depart from this world, he
said that the Spirit would come and lead the disciples into all truth. The
Paraclete (he said) will teach them things which he had not been able to
teach them while on earth. I think this means that the Spirit will cause
everything that Jesus said and did to be seen in ‘a new light’. Not that
they were to expect new revelations and innovations. What the Spirit has
to reveal to the church was not new doctrine and new revelation which
go beyond and add to what Jesus had said. It is not said that he will lead
the church into ‘new’ truths but into ‘all’ truth. The Spirit will help us
see things in a new light, while bound to the definitive word of God in
Jesus. The Spirit leads the church forward in history. One sees it in the
apostolic declaration of Acts 15: ‘It seemed good to the Holy Spirit and
us’ (Acts 15.28). The Spirit leads the community along a pilgrim path and
guides the interactions. The Spirit leads the community to think and re-
think tradition in conversation with others in the unity of the church.
The experience of the presence of Christ in the community brings to their
mind things that were said beforehand, giving new insight. The anoint-
ing of the Spirit dwells in all of us, creating an enriched understanding
of God’s word (1 Jn 2.20). It is important to remember that the Spirit will
bind himself to the saving action of God in Jesus Christ.
8 James D.G. Dunn, Jesus and the Spirit (London: SCM, 1975), p. 27. Compare Richard N.
Longenecker, ‘Can We Reproduce the Exegesis of the New Testament?’ Tyndale Bulletin 21
(1970), pp. 3–38.
The apostle Paul also sheds light on Spirit hermeneutics. It arises out
of his teachings about the various gifts of the Spirit that are at work in all
believers and therefore in their interpretive labors. Paul offers this text:
‘God gives us a spirit of wisdom and revelation in the knowledge of him’
and ‘the Spirit enlightens the eyes of our hearts so that we may know what
is the hope to which he has called us’ (Eph 1.17). God also gives us guid-
ance and firm convictions regarding the word of God. It is not, however,
a liberty that is without ‘checks and balances. The gifted community itself
and its leadership does a lot to prevent the church going ‘off the rails’.
Spirit-hermeneutics, although it can be abused and misused, should be
practiced nevertheless, because of the rich possibilities which it holds out
for our mission.
Part Four: The Revelatory Text
Thus far, I have presented Spirit-hermeneutics as it may have been prac-

ticed in the beginnings of Christianity, as presented in the New Testa-
ment. Let us now consider how it can be practiced fruitfully today. The
key point to remember is to recognize the richness of language which
makes it such an excellent instrument for God to use when communicat-
ing with humans.9
Language has qualities which make it an ideal instrument at the Spirit’s
disposal. Texts have a way of opening up and they invite playful interac-
tion. Even more so in dialogue, there is much to mull over. The Spirit loves
to work with Scripture, which has qualities that make possible a ministry
of the Spirit. The Pilgrim preacher John Robinson remarked that there is
always ‘more light to break forth from’ God’s word.10 Classic texts in par-
ticular are well-nigh inexhaustible sources of insight. Texts create space
and make room for Scripture which in turn make room for God to speak
by the Spirit. Spirit-hermeneutics is a strategy of reading Scripture in such
a way that the Spirit has liberty to speak. As a result we are grasped by the
revelatory text which transforms.11
9 On human communication, see Mortimer Adler, The Difference of Man and the Dif-
ference it Makes (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1967).
10 Cited by Jack Bartlett Rogers, Presbyterian Creeds: A Guide to the Book of Confessions
(Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1st edn, 1985), p. 230.
11 Joel B. Green, Seized by Truth (Nashville: Abingdon, 2007).
Language can move us and grip us profoundly. If you read a book like
Elie Wiesel’s Night, you will be hopelessly drawn in because such books
deal with important issues.12 One gets involved in them and wants to
engage the material. One is not particularly interested in the historical
details or the literary techniques of the writer. Rather, we are gripped by
the big life issues. We may enjoy an existential encounter with the mate-
rial and experience transformation. We are engaged by the experience.
The text becomes an instrument of revelation. Texts change us through
personal engagement. Texts have the power to free the interpreter for new
life. The text can open up for all it was meant to be. Effective interpreta-
tion has an ‘event character’ that can shake us and move us. As Scripture
says, ‘The word of God is living and active, sharper than any two edged
sword, piercing until it divides soul and spirit, joints from marrow. It is
able to judge the thoughts and intentions of the heart’ (Heb. 4.12).
There is some similarity between the way science works and the way
theology works. Often the scientist begins with an intense engagement
with some puzzle which needs resolving. Sometimes it just does not want
to yield. So one puts it aside and goes to work on something else. Then
‘the penny drops’ and our eyes are opened. The solution resolves itself
spontaneously and unbidden. Is it a gift from the unconscious mind, a
God-given creative moment. The Spirit can ensure that interpretations are
effective. A ‘dead letter’ is not what is needed. We need a revelatory text
which can be a power in our lives. Exegesis is important, even indispens-
able, for working on the text-horizon but grasping the text’s significance
is another matter. We need to be seized by the text. We need to have
eyes to see and ears to hear and open hearts. God wants us to recognize
his word for today through the Spirit who searches the depths of God
(1 Cor. 2.10–16). God wants us to know the gifts that are freely given to us
by God. God wants us to have the mind of Christ in our work (1 Cor. 2.16).
The Spirit takes the things of Christ and make them known to us. He plays
the pivotal role in making the text God’s revelatory word. The Spirit makes
the knowledge of God a possibility in and through an ‘I-Thou’ encounter.
Just as the human spirit enables us to have self knowledge, so the divine
Spirit enables us to comprehend God’s truth.13
12 Elie Wiesel, Night (New York: Bantam, 1982).

13 Graham A. Cole, He Who Gives Life: The Doctrine of the Holy Spirit (Wheaton, IL:
Crossway Books, 2007), pp. 259–77.
In Spirit-hermeneutics, I believe that the breath of God which inspired

the prophets and apostles binds himself to their words and opens up the
significance. Anchored in the canon of Scripture, the Spirit opens up what
is written in a kind of ‘controlled liberty’. A liberty that honors both the
original meaning and the text which needs to be opened up. The Spirit
fuses the past and present horizons. One mark of the church is its apos-
tolicity. The church is established on the testimony of the apostles and
prophets and is bound to its unique testimony as valid for all time and not
rendered invalid by later testimony. This is the norm by which the church
ought to measure itself. When the Spirit opens up the text, one assumes
that it will be coherent with the apostolic witness. This is an important
check. One assumes that what Christ says today will not contradict what
his witnesses have said beforehand in Scripture. Some matters need to be
made more explicit and developed, and in this way go beyond the text.
True orthodoxy is not content to live in the past and ignore a fresh word
from God. When we invite the Spirit to help in the interpretive process,
we surrender some of our own autonomy as readers and acknowledge our
dependency on the Holy Spirit.
The scriptures lend themselves to dynamic interpretation because,
unlike the Koran, the Bible is a record of a developing historical revela-
tion. Thus it is very open to diverse readings and it creates a surplus of
meaning. Out of it come treasures old and new. There is a dynamic in the
text which promotes endless reflection.14 Texts of the Bible do have defi-
nite meanings in the historical situation and that meaning is the anchor
of our interpretation. But the ‘total’ meaning cannot be restricted to that.
Texts can carry implied meanings too, but they cannot mean just anything
we want. Some interpretations are more plausible than others. The field
is not without boundaries. Because we respect the text, we permit it to
establish the range of possible meanings, and we are open to richer and
deeper interpretations.
Because of their form and structure, scriptures lend themselves to
dynamic interpretation. They get caught up in a dynamic reading in
which the truth can develop and deepen over time. The Bible is more
like a wind tunnel than a pile of bricks and more like an orchestra than a
14 Sandra M. Schneiders, The Revelatory Text: Interpreting the New Testament as Sacred
Scripture (Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press, 2nd edn, 1999), pp. 157–79. The diversity of
Scripture creates space for a creative diversity of interpretation and fresh perspectives:
e.g. the reconsideration of Paul in relation to the Roman Empire or the never ending quest
for the historical Jesus.
solo instrument. Scripture is an inexhaustible resource for the community

because of its development of themes and the fecundity of interpreta-
tions. Scripture is at the disposal of the Spirit for new and subtle uses. It
creates room for the Spirit to open up the divine plan and place it in new
situations as they arise. With good reason we read the Bible with the posi-
tive hope of finding ‘treasures old and new’ in it.
Part Five: Opening up the Scriptures
Texts are very remarkable, especially classic texts. They can transcend
themselves and open up to richly textured and diverse interpretations.
As a result, they can come to ‘mean more’ than was originally intended.
They can achieve a fuller sense and a deeper meaning, intended by God,
but not clearly expressed by a human author. Often the existence of a
fuller sense is revealed when one studies a text in the light of other texts.
Matthew, for example, could see a deeper purpose in the words which
God spoke through Isa. 7.14 than the prophet realized himself. Similarly,
later teaching may reveal a more precise conception of a matter.15
Consider the gradual expansion of meaning of the affirmation over
centuries contained in the American Declaration of Independence that
‘all men are created equal’. Originally, the doctrine applied to adult, white,
property-owning males; whereas nowadays it is taken to include all peo-
ple. The interaction between the surplus of meaning and its effective his-
tory was such that the text ‘All men are created equal’ generated a larger
meaning. The historical experience of the new nation gradually ‘revealed’
to Americans the humanity of all people, including slaves and women. It
illustrates how texts are not imprisoned in the past but can have direc-
tion and power. They may not only call us to remember past events but
to anticipate future events. The Jesus story is not finished yet but is still
open. The power of the story is still at work, even though it may still be
incomplete now as to its full realization. The Spirit can help us be sensi-
tive to the direction in which things are moving and we can be free from a
nostalgia for ‘New Testament times’. It can even happen that a text can be
used as an instrument of oppression or instrument of liberation. Reading
the Bible historically is more than just remembering past events. We also
read it in order to anticipate the promises contain in the texts. No event
15 Cf. ‘The Fuller Sense’, ch. 14 in Peter S. Williamson, Catholic Principles for Interpreting
Scripture (Rome: Pontificio Instituto Biblico, 2004).
can be understood apart from the future which it may engender. Let us
learn to read the Bible with an eye on the extension of the story of salva-
tion into our time and beyond it. After all, truth was not was not fully
realized in New Testament times.
The place of women’s ministries in church, for example, had not yet
been resolved but it is surely being resolved. On one level, God’s people
are aware of Jesus’ openness to women and of Paul’s magna charter of
liberty in Jesus Christ (Gal. 3.28). On another level, we need to be sensitive
to the direction in which God is moving us forward. What can be hoped
for in this matter? Scriptures are not imprisoned in the past. We are not
antiquarians. We need to tune our ears to hear God speak a word to us.
As we keep our eyes open to the extension of the story of God’s liberating
activity, let us ask ourselves what past God is calling us to remember and
what future God is calling us to work toward. We must remember that
the total meaning of salvation in Jesus Christ was not fully actualized in
the early church. Let us be sensitive to the directions in which redemptive
history is moving. The meaning of texts is not limited to the meaning
intended by the authors.
Texts have a surplus of meaning that interacts with the historical
consciousness of contemporary persons. Most of us, partly because of our
Christian formation, can see now the moral unacceptability of patriarchal-
ism, slavery, anti-semitism, and such like. We create a dialogue between
the textual horizon and the contemporary horizon from which meaning
arises. The dialogue itself is never ending because of the text’s surplus
of meaning which enables it to generate an effective history in interac-
tion with the historical consciousness of the community. Such dialogues
should be pursued with relentless love by those who believe that this
Bible text, thoroughly human as it is can mediate an encounter between
God and humanity.
The Bible can be thought of as a series of love letters. Just think of it. A
person, lost in love, is transformed by them and cannot begin to grasp all
that is involved. Lovers need to get to know each other. Love unfolds over
time. Love cannot be grasped all at once. What we need from the Spirit is to
have light cast upon the journey. We all need the Spirit’s leading of his
people in their pilgrimage to help them to walk worthy of the Gospel. Their
history is going to be a dynamic process. God help us if we cannot get any
new light on the journey. It is not primarily an intellectual problem. We
are really asking the Lord what to do next. In a post-9/11 world, is the Spirit
sending us to war against global jihadism? Does he want us to honor the
gifts of believing women more? How about homosexuality? How should
we respond to that? I believe that insight is forthcoming on such issues, a

consensus forming insight, we hope, and a sensus fidelium.16
Part Six: Criteria of Valid Interpretation
How do we know when we have interpreted the Bible well? How do we

know that we have attained genuine meaning? I am not talking about
attaining ‘the’ right meaning, because there is no one and only possible
meaning. There are levels of meaning and not a single one. Multiple inter-
pretations are not only possible, but inevitable, owing to the fluid nature
of texts. There are many possible interpretations although not all of them
are equally valid. Some are better than others. Interpretation involves
testing and discerning.
The criterion of ‘fruitfulness’ helps with testing and discernment. Fruit-
ful interpretation is something that lets the text speak and lights up the
faith of the community. A good interpretation energizes disciples and
launches them into self-sacrificing behavior. They tell us that something
good is happening. They prove themselves. A reading should be able first
to account for the text as it stands and ought to be able second to put the
truth ‘into play’ in the form of transformed living. Good interpretation is
very often a matter of being moved by love to act.
Are there any safeguards with Spirit-hermeneutics? There are some.
The best safeguard is the authority of the charismatic community. We are
all members of a Spirit-community and not merely individualists. Every
one of us has responsibility for the common life. All are called to teach,
admonish, and judge. Thus, the community as a whole is ‘taught by God’
(1 Thess. 4.9). All enjoy a spontaneous understanding of the word of the
Lord. Some can discern and evaluate prophecies well and can interpret
glossolalic speech. The main point is this—believers are not left to them-
selves. God’s gifts include their own safeguards as when a teaching trumps
a prophecy. Even when few ‘lay’ people are theologically trained, the sen-
sus fidelium works rather well. Mature believers can often spot a false
apostle miles away. Then there is apostolic authority in the community
by which I mean people who may have founded the church and who can
speak with authority and protect the community when it comes under
16 Willard M. Swartley, Slavery, Sabbath, War and Women: Core Issues in Biblical Inter-
pretation (Scottdale, PA: Herald Press, 1983).
threat. There are prophets and apostles and teachers in the churches and
such leaders would have commanded respect. Leaders exercise godly con-
trol and can spare the congregation grief.17
In the year ad 1905 in Los Angeles, we experienced a huge interpre-
tive event that has shaken the faith from top to bottom. It has moved
across the world, ever growing in strength and maturity. In that year, a
‘new hermeneutic’ was born. Based upon the theology of St. Luke, it has
unleashed the power of Pentecost for mission. It would not be an exagger-
ation to say that the Pentecostal movement is the most important event
in church history until now, characterized by impulses of power, tongues
of fire, fearless witnessing, extraordinary praise, and boldness of witness.
What was it if it was not the witness of St. Luke igniting again? We read,
‘You shall receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you, and
you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem, in all Judea and Samaria, and to the
ends of the earth’ (Acts 1.8). More than a reformation, it was revolution
within Christianity and a time of God’s incredible visitation (Lk. 19.44).
Did the scriptures not come alive in new ways on that occasion?
Final Thoughts
(1) The central message of Christianity is the epic story of redemption.

This explains why much of our Scripture, if not the bulk of it, takes
the form of narrative. The Bible is not a book of concepts but a grand
meta-narrative. Narrative was needed if God is to be properly identi-
fied as a living and personal agent. God is the God of history not the
God of philosophy. On the Feast of Pentecost, Peter recalled what God
had promised his people by the prophet Joel and explained what was
going on in front of the listening crowd. He could give meaning to
the wonderful deeds which were happening among the people. Peter
was opening up Israel’s story and inviting everyone to make the story
their own.
(2) It belongs to the nature of stories that they engage and change us.
Stories, like life itself, have a beginning, a middle, and an end. We
identify with the characters and are drawn in. Stories are important.
They provide the meaning of our lives. Christians in particular have
17 Catholics enjoy a huge safeguard in the office of the magisterium and the papal office.
On the one hand, it meets the need to fend off error; on the other hand, it concentrates
enormous power in hands of a few. Some times though, I feel a tinge of jealousy.
a story—how we lived apart from Christ and how we were saved

and how we appropriated Israel’s grand narrative. We have a story
to tell to the nations, a story that sets sinners free. They need to hear
our story because there are few hopeful and redemptive narratives
out there in the world. Alas, there are many stories that confuse and
destroy. Without telling our story, re-lived in our time, the survival of
the churches will be placed in peril amidst the competing and cor-
rosive forces of the contemporary world. The resources of Scripture
help us recover and maintain our identity. Telling the story is not only
important—it is absolutely essential for the life of the community and
for the salvation of the world.18
(3) We cannot understand the bare words of scriptures unless we under-
stand the realities that are behind them. The Spirit bears unique
testimony to the living God as revealed in Jesus Christ. Readers get
caught up and get lost in the text and are changed. Scripture is less the
demand to submit to God than it is an invitation to indwell the nar-
rative of God’s grace. The task is not an attempt to adapt the words of
Scripture to our reality but an invitation to make sense of our reality
within its purview of new creation. The reader, by means of interpre-
tation, enters into and appropriates the world of meaning that the
text projects. The text creates a space into which the reader is being
invited for transformation.
(4) The best readers of the Bible are those who let themselves be shaped
by the text. As we grow in the Spirit, our capacity to understand deep
realities will grow too. Scripture is given to ‘form’ us as much as it is
to ‘inform’ us. It equips God’s people to carry God’s plans forward his
purposes, which it does by drawing us into the grand story. The scrip-
tures promote God’s new creation in the world. They are a means of
grace to that end. By means of them the community is challenged to
be God’s agents in the world. Scripture is primarily God’s instrument
of sanctification and discipleship. It is about following Jesus. The pur-
pose of interpretation is the edification of believers and the discovery
of God’s word for humanity. The Spirit is the agent of sanctification
using Scripture to that end and in the context of the community.
Scripture is about ‘performing’ the word of God and putting it into
18 Frank D. Macchia, Baptised in the Spirit: A Global Pentecostal Theology (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan, 2006), pp. 244–47.
practice. To become familiar with the story means living in the world
of the story and living it out in the world. We are becoming vessels of
the living word in the world around us. Reading the Bible as narrative
Scripture, we consent to be taken on a journey of Christian forma-
tion. We wish to be shaped and formed through the reading. On the
one hand, we discern God’s purposes better; and on the other hand,
we learn more of God’s character. Scripture is meant to shape us in
the midst of the church.
(5) The Scriptures are inspired but not in the sense of their being a static
deposit of revealed truth that we can systematize into idols of ink and
paper. The fundamentalist tendency is to encourage people to believe
that they have the final and last word on everything. In actual fact we
are to interact with others and learn to grow and to change in dialogue
and not to pontificate. Scripture is meant to be embraced as a living
witness to Jesus Christ, granting us ongoing wisdom and power to
serve one another and the world in Christ’s name. As breathed by the
Spirit, Scripture is a living guide and measure of our walk with God.
Within the charismatic structure of the church, the Spirit functions
through the scriptures as a living book of both freedom and order to
guide our gracious interactions with one another and our mission in
the world. Scriptures themselves are a universally relevant and bind-
ing gift of the Spirit to the church in order to direct the particular and
diverse charismata in its own going life and mission.
(6) The divine witness to us is not at our disposal, a deposit to be mas-
tered and placed at the behest of our systems. We do not control it.
The text is living and active and we do not control it. God’s wisdom
is ever at work in the community. Without it, preaching becomes an
intellectual exercise instead of a life transforming dialogue. The pur-
pose of biblical interpretation is to discover God’s purpose and will for
humanity and the edification of God’s people. Interpretation stands
in the service of obedience and worship. It calls us to walk humbly
with God and depends on the vision and power of the Spirit of God.
Though methods of interpretation are important, no precise set of
rules can be rigidly formulated or followed. This freedom arising from
the Spirit should not be taken however as an excuse for self-justifying
tendencies or laziness in study and exegesis. Biblical interpretation is
not a private enterprise. It is not the domain of either the individual
or scholar. It needs to be tested and validated by communities of faith
and tested by other communities. The interpreter should look to the
community of faith not to the society as a whole as we seek to carry

out the teachings and the ethical vision of the Bible.19
(7) Learning to interpret the Bible is like learning to paint or learning to
drive. There are procedures and steps to follow. But the principles
will need to become operative on a pre-conscious level and need to
become second nature to us. That comes from reading the Bible in the
community and from putting its truth into action.
19 Donald W. Dayton, ‘The Pietist Theological Critique of Biblical Inerrancy’, in Vincent

Bacote, Dennis L. Okholm, and Laura C. Miguélez (eds.), Evangelicals and Scripture: Tradi-
tion, Authority and Hermeneutics (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2004), pp. 76–89.
Chapter Fourteen
What Does It Mean to Read the Bible as a Pentecostal?*
Andrew Davies**
I. Introduction
I have friends who have a plaque on their wall which I, being of Cam-
brian descent, have long admired. It reads: ‘To be born Welsh is to be
born privileged; not with a silver spoon in your mouth but with music in
your heart and poetry in your soul’. Those inspirational words have for
me always reflected not only my Celtic ancestry but also my Pentecostal
heritage. Pentecostalism was born, if not quite in the gutter, then perhaps
not too far above it. Historically it has been a religion of the people, a faith
of the underclass, and to this day, certainly in the UK but also in many
other corners of the globe, the classic Pentecostal groupings share little of
the prestige and wealth of some of the historic denominations.1 Yet the
* First published in the Journal of Pentecostal Theology 18.2 (2009), pp. 216–29.
** Andrew Davies (PhD, University of Sheffield) is Senior Lecturer in Intercultural
Theology and Pentecostal Studies  and Director of Undergraduate Studies in Theology and
Religion at the University of Birmingham, UK.
1 I should emphasise at the outset that the following observations arise from my reflec-
tion on the handling of Scripture in the British Pentecostal churches, and that increasing
transatlantic experience is teaching me that, for all our similarities, there are significant
and substantial differences between the cultures of Assemblies of God in the UK and the
USA in this and many other regards. For instance, whilst I have heard American colleagues
bemoan the lack of commitment to education that they sometimes feel handicaps their
ministers, the US does now have an established and burgeoning academic tradition in the
sphere of Pentecostalism, as the meeting of the Society for Pentecostal Studies demon-
strates. Though the recent Research Assessment Exercise in the UK (published December
2008) highlighted Pentecostal and Charismatic Studies as an area of significant growth
and development within British theological research over the last five years, still academic
study of the Pentecostal movement in the UK is focussed essentially on the lifework of
a few major scholars working out of really just two or three major centres, with a little
support from the Bible and theological colleges. Standards of education and training in
the ministry of AoG UK have been, for many years and by objective measure, the lowest
required by any sizeable denomination or network in the British Isles (at least until a new
training system was introduced during the last calendar year). It is important to note,
therefore, that most of our ministers have had no professional training in exegetical meth-
ods and hermeneutics and essentially most frequently read the Bible without subjecting
either the text or their reading of it to critical analysis. Also it is important to note that
250 andrew davies
movement more than compensates for any lack in that area in its ‘music’
and its ‘poetry’, the fire and passion that are evident in the way Pente-
costals go about every aspect of their spiritual lives—be it mission and
evangelism, music and worship, preaching and proclamation, or prayer
and prophecy.
But Pentecostal fires never burn more fervently than when they
encounter the kindling of the biblical text. When Walter Hollenweger
famously dedicated his great study ‘The Pentecostals’ to the Pentecostals
who taught him to love the Bible, and the Presbyterians who taught him
to understand it, he was undoubtedly right to note the deep and passion-
ate commitment to the scriptures which Pentecostals have always had
(if perhaps a little unfair to us by insinuation in the second part of the
inscription).2 In fact I would suggest that we Pentecostals have always
considered ourselves to have something of a special relationship with the
sacred page, almost as if we have a unique affinity with the Bible and hold
a significant position among the guardians of its truth.3 Perhaps more
than any other Christian tradition, we have sought to identify our own
experiences with those of the earliest church, described in detail in what
we recognise as the historical narrative of the Acts of the Apostles, and
we have believed, prayed and worked in the Spirit’s power that we might
see our own worlds turned upside down just as first century Palestine was.
‘This is that which was spoken by the prophet’ has become our rallying
cry as we have sought to see the biblical text reworked and re-enacted in
our lives and churches today.4
there is no British tradition of academic use of the text from a distinctively Pentecostal
perspective at all. That alone results in a major difference of opinion and culture between
the UK and North America in the field of Pentecostal biblical interpretation.
2 Dedication to Walter J. Hollenweger, The Pentecostals (London: SCM, 1972), p. xvi.
Hollenweger’s little apothegm might be taken as something of a slight upon the Pentecos-
tal academic tradition. If that was his intention then perhaps it was always slightly unfair,
and nearly forty years on it seems completely unreasonable. North American Pentecostal
theologians in particular now carry considerable sway and influence in broader circles
(take the recent cooperation between the SPS and the SBL, for instance) and have taken
many helpful new insights to the bigger table, though the fact of our movement’s historic
aversion to the academy remains, and its effects are still felt in much of the world today.
Even in the UK, there is evidence of an embryonic academic tradition developing among
the Pentecostal colleges, which to my mind bodes well for our future as a movement.
3 Hollenweger argued, for instance, ‘The critics of the Pentecostal movement who
accuse it of neglecting the written word in favour of individual illuminations by the Spirit
are ignorant of the role which the Bible plays in the Pentecostal movement. Pentecostals
live with the Bible. They read it every day and know many passages by heart . . . Many of
them hardly read any books apart from the Bible’ (The Pentecostals, pp. 321–22).
4 An observation that is mirrored by that of Kenneth J. Archer, A Pentecostal Herme-
neutic for the Twenty-First Century: Spirit, Scripture & Community (Cleveland, TN: CPT
read the bible as a pentecostal 251
Reading the Bible, then, whether it be in public or private worship, is

and should be a priority for every Pentecostal believer. In the UK at least,
the tradition of reading as a Pentecostal is almost exclusively a devotional
one.5 We do not yet have a formal Pentecostal academic tradition (and it
might be argued that in Britain there are a number of sociocultural and
educational factors which combine to make it highly unlikely that such a
tradition could develop to anything like the same extent as it has done in
North America). So it is not Pentecostal approaches to the academic dis-
cipline of hermeneutics which I wish to address in this discussion, but our
everyday practice of reading Scripture—what Pentecostals feel, do, think
and say when we have the Bible in our hands.6 This is still a developing
field of study, as any literature search will highlight, but it is not difficult
for any Pentecostal to write in such a field out of experience, because I
am talking about something that we do routinely, day in and day out. Per-
haps, as Keith Warrington has highlighted,7 there has been a decreasing
emphasis on the function of the Bible in public worship for us in the UK,
and if the Bible Society’s research is to be trusted then it is clear that not
as many Christians in general spend as much time reading the Bible as we
like to think they would, but it is still true to say that both corporate and
private Bible reading and study remain fundamental to our spirituality
and are presented as priorities.8
Let me begin with some comments on how I believe we feel about the
Bible before turning to the more practical concerns.
II. Philosophical Issues
What are we Pentecostals seeking to do when we read the Bible? What

do we want or expect to happen? Fundamentally, I think, it is not about
knowledge, nor should it ever be. Ordinarily Pentecostals read the Bible not
to learn of the history of Israel, the development of the earliest Christian
Press, 2009), p. 87: ‘Pentecostalism’s lived experience was coloring their understanding
of Scripture and Scripture was shaping their lived experiences’ (in discussing the early
Pentecostals).
5 I include the use of the Bible in preaching as devotional here.
6 I hesitate to label the devotional usage of Scripture as hermeneutical, lest it be seen
to imply rather more coherency and strategy than really exists in the process.
7 Keith Warrington, Pentecostals and the Bible (European Pentecostal Charismatic
Research Conference, University of Uppsala [September 2007]), p. 29.
8 See for instance the society’s report ‘Taking the Pulse: Is the Bible alive and well
in the Church today?’ of February 2008, available at http://www.biblesociety.org.uk/
l3.php?id=209 [accessed January 2009].
252 andrew davies
theology or even of the life of Christ, but to meet God in the text, and to
provide an opportunity for the Holy Spirit to speak to our spirits. This is
generally true of our preaching too. Tim Cargal is right to observe that
‘most pastors of Pentecostal churches continue to employ a pre-critical,
and indeed in some senses a fundamentalist, hermeneutic within their
sermons and the Bible instruction of their Christian education programs’.9
I certainly observed this tendency when teaching homiletics to first year
students at Mattersey!10 Within our tradition, the reading, interpretation
and proclamation of Scripture have little to do with intellectual compre-
hension and all to do with divine self-revelation.
That means that we do not have to understand all we read for such
an encounter with the deity to take place. In fact, I am not at all sure
that Pentecostals should lay claim to anything that could be called a full
understanding of the Bible, or even particularly think it desirable. Explain
it, preach it, study it, sure. But hardly understand it, for that might mean
grasping it, containing it, knowing it, and that might imply an attempt at
grasping, containing and knowing the God it reveals, and thereby, in some
measure at least, seeking to control and restrict him and his actions in the
world and in our lives, to define him out of dangerousness. I do not think
we could ever endure such a boxed and prepackaged deity; Pentecostal-
ism requires a God on the loose, involving himself with the fine details of
our earthly existence and actively transforming lives. I think Pentecostal
theology, in both its systematic and more popular forms, requires a degree
of uncertainty.
That might be thought a strange claim to make. Our proclamation,
of course, can be incredibly confident and assured. Pentecostals are not
9 T. Cargal, ‘Beyond the Fundamentalist-Modernist Controversy: Pentecostals and

Hermeneutics in a Postmodern Age’, Pneuma 15.2 (Fall 1993), pp. 163–87 (170). Cargal
also notes, however, that many Pentecostal academics have ongoing involvement in local
church ministry—this is certainly true in the UK as well (cf. p. 171).
10 It is, however, somewhat disconcerting that such a disjunction between church and
academy in this area has been allowed to develop. Cf. Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, ‘Authority,
Revelation, and Interpretation in the Roman Catholic-Pentecostal Dialogue’ (Pneuma 21.1
[Spring 1999], pp. 89–114 [97–98]), who ascribes the ‘growing divergence in the practice of
biblical interpretation between Pentecostals in the parish and in the academy’ largely to
the adoption, for good or ill, of the historical-critical method by Pentecostal biblical schol-
ars. Though this was perhaps inevitable and probably necessary for the wider acceptance
of our community at the academic table, it was also of questionable desirability. Certainly
I would argue that whilst the methods of traditional biblical scholarship still serve a useful
purpose, it is time for the discipline to move away from questions of historical context and
authorial intent, and a new distinctively Pentecostal hermeneutic could well contribute
to this process.
known for being shrinking violets. Our fourfold gospel has never been that
Jesus might be able to save us, would like us to consider receiving the
baptism in the Spirit, will see what he can do to heal us and may consider
returning at some stage. It announces who Jesus is, what he does, and that
he does it every time (and that he will do it for you tonight before you
leave this meeting if you will only permit him). When Pentecostals bring
our shared experience to the text, we find the confidence we need support
our faith from Scripture, and we have no doubts as to what we see there.
If our experience has yet to match the model of biblical perfection, then
on the whole we smile sweetly, consider ourselves a work of grace still in
process, and believe to see that experience brought in line with the teach-
ing of the Bible in God’s good time.
But it is precisely our faith and certainty against all the odds which
causes us problems. Why ‘God’s good time’ is not now is in itself just one
of the puzzles that we encounter daily. Our experience of that God and
his indwelling Spirit has taught us something of the mystery of Godliness.
We are confronted with practical theological challenges that do not afflict
our sisters and brothers in other groups in quite the same way. We, argu-
ably more than any other Christian tradition, struggle with how those we
lay hands on are not always healed even though our Lord Jesus himself
promised us they would be (Mk 16.18). We appreciate that praying with
our understanding has its deficiencies and inadequacies and our most
heartfelt intercessions arise in the ‘sighs too deep for words’ (Rom. 8.26,
NRSV) of the Holy Spirit within us. The words we speak in other languages
under divine inspiration need to be interpreted before even the speaker
can understand them. And, most significantly, if sadly a little theoretically
in many contexts, we operate our gatherings for worship on the assump-
tion that God can, and will, do exactly what he wants exactly as he wants,
and reject formal liturgical structure to provide him that opportunity. A
meeting can never be truly Pentecostal unless he chooses to intervene; yet
he does so on his own terms and not simply in response to any invoca-
tion or summoning ritual on our part. For all our apparent dogmatism,
it seems to me that in reality, the unknowable and unfathomable are at
the very heart of our religious experience. Indeed it might be argued that,
in common with our heritage in the epic mystical traditions of Christi-
anity, Pentecostals are hesitant to claim to encounter the Godhead in
the comprehensible. It is almost as if we believe as a matter of course
that our God is so far above and beyond our grasp that anything we can
assimilate intellectually cannot be from him. As a result, we should and
do seek to approach and read the text with an unremitting humility
254 andrew davies
which confounds and yet inspires the profound certainty with which we
expound it corporately.
Our common heritage, then, has taught us the miracle and the mys-
tery of personal experience of God’s presence, experienced and mediated
through the biblical text among other ways, and, therefore, the value of
knowing by perception over knowing by proof. As a result we prefer to
interpret Scripture by encounter more than exegesis. So we read 1 Cor-
inthians not to learn of some of the challenges Paul faced through his
apostolic ministry and mission, or even particularly to better grasp the
workings of the Holy Spirit through his gifts; but so that we might be
inspired to fulfil our function in the Body of Christ; and, even more ele-
mentally, so that we might allow God the Spirit to say to us whatever he
might want out of the words on the page. If he should choose to rearrange
them into different concepts and reapply them into different contexts as
he impresses them on to our spirits, then that is perfectly fine by us, and
certainly not an infrequent occurrence in the experience of millions of
Spirit-filled believers throughout the world as well as in my own. Pente-
costals read the Bible as dialogue partners with it and with the inspiring
Spirit; we bring our own questions, circumstances and needs to the text,
and through it to the Lord, and allow him to bring his own agenda about
as he speaks to us. There is therefore little interest for us as spiritualising
readers in the surface meaning of the text, and scant attention paid to
the original intention of the author. Rather we seek to push behind the
plain sense of the text to experience what Aquinas would have labelled its
anagogic power, its capacity to edify and inspire. Are Pentecostals alone
in adopting such an approach as this? Probably not; but I do think that
to default instinctively to the method in such a way and prioritise it to
such an extent is typical of our tradition to the extent that it might be
considered a distinctive.
Clearly such a model is open to criticism. It will be considered subjec-
tivist, experiential, self centred even; but then is there really any other
kind of reading? Anthony Thiselton, hardly the doyen of radical liberal-
ism, critiques forcefully the mindset of those who ‘seek to silence their
own subjectivity, striving for the kind of objective neutrality which is . . . an
illusion’.11 Objections have been raised to this perspective from within the
Pentecostal academic community itself, though I have to say I find the
11 Anthony C. Thiselton, ‘The New Hermeneutic’, in I.H. Marshall (ed.), New Testament
Interpretation (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1977), p. 316.
work I have read from this perspective both unnecessarily defensive and
singularly unconvincing. We need to reassert our confidence in an ideologi-
cal approach to reading the biblical text, and acknowledge without shame
the plain fact that our distinctive preconceptions invite us to a distinctive
appropriation of the text—and that our readings are worth hearing by
others. Here, as well, we start to find ourselves in interesting territory, for
if we relate these concepts to the academic context it becomes apparent
that we have rather more in common methodologically with the liberal
progressive wing of biblical scholarship than the traditional evangelicals.12
To me this can only be a good thing, for I consider that far and away the
most interesting work being done in contemporary biblical scholarship
is in non-traditional fields. It seems to me Pentecostal biblical scholar-
ship should be at the forefront of innovation in the broader discipline.
I might even go so far as to suggest that now that progressive scholars
have embedded their many diverse methodological pebbles firmly and
squarely in the forehead of the giant of grammatico-historical criticism,
we should be the ones to lift the sword (of the Spirit?) to cut its head from
its shoulders and finally do to death this monstrous alien construct from a
generation gone by (though I would be doing so with my tongue at least
heading in the general direction of my cheek).
So, in terms of their interpretative philosophy, Pentecostals stand alone
in our suspicion of ever treating the Bible as a book just to learn from.
Instead we want engage with it and utilise it as a resource for divine
encounter. We read the Bible not, as I have emphasised, to grasp it; but
so that God might grasp us through it. And once his Word has taken hold
in our hearts by that means, it becomes fire in our bones. It seems to me
this is the very heart of the Pentecostal philosophy of Bible reading. Let
us then consider how that philosophy appears to be outworked among
individual believers.
III. Practical Issues
When we read the Bible, we are reading it out of precise and particular
contexts and for a specific and distinct purpose. And we do not read it
12 It is interesting to note an increasing tendency over the last 25 years or so for Pen-
tecostals to be less comfortable with associating ourselves with evangelicals methodologi-
cally; this issue has been addressed by Gordon Anderson, Kenneth Archer and Veli-Matti
Kärkkäinen among others.
256 andrew davies
purely for entertainment and leisure, but because of what encountering

the divine in the text does in, through, for and to us. Our philosophical
engagement with and commitment to the text is expressed practically for
most Pentecostals in what I might call ‘agendad reading’—reading with
an intended result and a goal in mind. That purpose is demonstrated and
outworked in the questions that we bring to the text as we read it. And
whilst what I will now seek to identify as the typical Pentecostal questions
may well be asked out of other groups and traditions as well, their com-
bination, prioritisation and emphasis all contribute to the designation of
a distinctively Pentecostal approach.
To call it a methodology would certainly be exaggeration and oversys-
tematisation. I am not that sure it is even always conscious. But I think
there is a Pentecostal culture of Bible reading. It is creative, positive,
but also in a sense adversarial, in that it approaches the text not as a
construct which might be understood and appreciated in its own right,
but as a resource to be mined for specific treasures. I remember being
taught at Bible college as a first year student that the best way of writing
notes on my daily devotional Scripture readings was to ask myself three
questions:
• What did this mean to its original readers?13

• What does this mean to me?
• What should I do about it?
With the benefit of hindsight, this was an extremely useful induction

into the Pentecostal way of reading. Though this was, I assume, entirely
unintentional, it is striking to note how similar the model these questions
suggest is to the analysis of hermeneutics that J. Severino Croatto offers.
Having initially considered the original context of a text, Croatto argues,
‘all interpreters condition their reading of a text by a kind of preunder-
standing arising from their own life context . . . [and then] the interpreter
enlarges the meaning of the text being interpreted’.14 I believe that Pen-
tecostals are infinitely less interested in the first of those three areas, that
13 Perhaps this question was something of a concession to the more academic context
in which we were reading, but even then, note that the emphasis was on the reception
of the text rather than its authorship. We were never asked to consider what Paul meant,
for instance, but what his readers heard him say (which could be quite different, as any
communicator will know).
14 J. Severino Croatto, Biblical Hermeneutics (New York: Orbis, 1987), p. 1.
of original context, but the contextual preunderstanding (what does this

mean to me?) and the enlarged meaning phases (what do I go and do
about it?) are both of fundamental importance to us. Let me expand on
them briefly.
A. What does this mean to me?

It seems to me that this straightforward query is indeed the starting
point of most private Bible study, particularly among Pentecostals. The
experiential (expressionist?) nature of our tradition certainly invites,
and to a large extent expects it. After all, if Pentecostalism is truly an
expression of ‘primal spirituality’, is not a measure of primal exegesis
appropriate?15 The truth is, of course, that the significance of a passage
to its readers is inherently of more interest to them than any meaning
it might have had for others. Allan Anderson has highlighted that in an
African Pentecostal context, ‘it is meaningless to discuss the interpreta-
tion of the text by itself ’.16 It only has value as it becomes personalised
and directly related to the specific location of the reader. That does not
mean that Pentecostal readers have adopted a neo-orthodox approach to
the nature of the text as the Word of God. It does, however, suggest a
more phenomenological approach. The Bible on the shelf is still God’s
word; it is just not God’s word to me at that time. I would like to suggest
this is a strength of our model. The Bible unread is the Bible powerless,
devoid of transformative influence. If we do not encounter God within
it then it is little more than a cultural artefact of principally antiquarian
significance—interesting but ultimately (and in every sense) meaningless.
(I also like the Kierkegaardian aspect of this principal, for what it is worth;
the need for passionate appropriation of the text’s meaning for myself if it
is to have any meaning at all.)
Clearly such a model can result in selective reading. If my primary con-
cern is with what a passage means to me, then quite naturally it will be the
passages that I find most meaningful with which I will want to spend most
of my time. The result, potentially, is increased dependence on a few key
texts for my spiritual growth and development and increasing isolation
15 The famous phrase of Harvey Cox in Fire from Heaven: The Rise of Pentecostal Spiri-
tuality and the Reshaping of Religion in the Twenty-First Century (Reading, MA: Addison-
Wesley, 1995).
16 Allan Anderson, ‘The Hermeneutical Processes of Pentecostal-type African Initiated
Churches in South Africa’, Missionalia 24.2 (1996), p. 1.
258 andrew davies
from the message of Scripture as a whole—and, in the worst case sce-

nario, the production of a customised, individually-specified canon within
the canon, of the texts that are most inspirational to me and thereby ‘most
inspired’ in my thinking. Systematic expository preaching which shows
the relevance of the whole body of Scripture might be a powerful vaccina-
tion against such thinking, and can also introduce listeners to new texts
which can evolve into favourite texts.17
Additionally it is important to note one further significant implication
of this individualised approach. If the focus of my interpretation is what
God wants to say to me through a passage, then I have to accept that he
might not be saying quite the same to you. There is no such thing as a
universal interpretation.18 This is the inevitable result of moving the locus
for the production of meaning out of the conceptualisation of authorial
intent and into the private sphere of the reader’s encounter with the
text. What makes the difference for individual readers? Our extratextual
experience and our context in life.19 The text has meaning to us in differ-
ent ways because we approach it from different perspectives. Yet that is
precisely what makes it worth reading, and rereading. Our growing and
diversifying experience means that even at a cultural level, without taking
the spiritual into account, there is more to be drawn from the text each
new time we encounter it.
In this regard we need to realise that we read both out of our context
in the world, and into our context as Pentecostals. This is essentially what
Archer is addressing when he talks of Pentecostals as ‘re-experiencing’ the
text.20 He argues that the early Pentecostals ‘believed Scripture inherently
possessed the ability to speak meaningfully in different social settings than
the one from which it originated’ and therefore removed it from its origi-
nal context in their thinking to read it in their own.21 In a new location,
many biblical texts find new significance and meaning. In this way, as Gail
O’Day has identified, we see that ‘Scripture is not a repository of authority
once fixed in the past, but authority and life are generated in the present
17 I am indebted to Lee Roy Martin for the observation that the Church of God for quite
a few years now has encouraged its adherents to read the Bible through each year as part
of a corporate Bible reading programme.
18 Mark E. Roberts, ‘A Hermeneutic of Charity: Response to Heather Landrus’, JPT 11.1
(2002), pp. 89–97 (96).
19 I offer a rather more detailed explanation of the significance and value of reader-
response approaches to the Bible in the introductory chapter of Andrew Davies, Double
Standards in Isaiah (Leiden: Brill, 2000).
as Scripture is proclaimed and heard’.22 For many years, the Statement

of Fundamental Truths of British Assemblies of God pointed to Isa. 28.11
(KJV ‘For with stammering lips and another tongue will he speak to this
people’) as scriptural support for the doctrine of speaking in tongues as
the initial evidence of the baptism in the Holy Spirit. Clearly it is nothing
of the sort in its context in Isaiah; it is not talking of glossolalia, let alone
of any evidence of the Spirit’s outpouring. However, for Pentecostals, this
is a perfectly legitimate recontexualisation of a divine promise. As Archer
highlights, ‘Pentecostals found biblical parallels with their life experiences
and would incorporate these into their testimonies’. He continues:
Early Pentecostals did not place a lot of emphasis on explaining the histori-
cal context of Scripture, nor were they concerned with the author’s origi-
nal intention. They used Scripture in such a way as to allow for slippage
between what it meant and what it means. They read the Bible as the Word
of God and attempted to understand it presently. The horizons of past and
present were fused, or from a critical perspective, confused.23
That is precisely what happened here. Admittedly with some support of the
reapplication of this text by Paul in 1 Corinthians 14, the formulators of
our fundamental truths read Isaiah’s words anew in their own context and
saw them as evidence of the key Pentecostal distinctive. Essentially they
knew a real-world situation for which they sought a biblical explanation.
That they found one confirms our assessment of the nature of Pentecostal
biblical interpretation; that they sought it in the first case re-emphasises
neatly for us just how dependent our tradition has sought to be on the
scriptures. O’Day highlights for us, however, that the capacity for such
recontextualising interpretations is actually a feature of the biblical text
itself and not exclusively a Pentecostal formulation. She talks of the ‘gen-
erativity’ of the Bible, its capability for producing new meaning in new
contexts, observing, ‘In the reading and rereading of Scripture, something
new is created. Scripture does not remain static while the contexts around
it change. Scripture generates new life and meanings for itself in a com-
munity’s appropriation of it.’24
So we read as individuals addressing specific individual circumstances
and contexts. But the isolationist nature of individual focussed readings
emphasises forthrightly their incompleteness and their dependence upon
22 Gail R. O’Day, ‘ “Today this word is fulfilled in your hearing”: A Scriptural Hermeneu-
tic of Biblical Authority’, Word and World 26.4 (2006), pp. 357–64 (357).
24 O’Day, ‘Today this Word is Fulfilled’, p. 359.
260 andrew davies
other readings of the tradition. The more we read from our own perspec-
tive, the more we realise how much we need the insights of others. Pente-
costalism is by no means an isolationist or solitary faith. We have a sense
of being in our great task together. The missionary task that began when
the believers were ‘all together in one place’ (Acts 2.1) continues today
in the expression of the abiding presence of Jesus whenever even two or
three are gathered in his name (Mt. 18.20). Pentecostals across the world
recognise their shared experience and commission. When Pentecostals
read the Bible, we do it with a sense of commonality, cohesion and togeth-
erness. Our reading and readings arise from and within a community, and
a community of faith, in every sense of the latter word, at that.
It is precisely this community of faith—which I consider has its simi-
larities with the Fishian and Clinesian ‘interpretative community’ models
but also some differences—which facilitates the uniting of a myriad of
contrasting individualised, contextualised applications of meaning in an
arena of mutual coherence and significance.25 Because we are in the task
of understanding and applying the Bible together, we can accept diversity
of interpretation and rejoice in the way the Spirit reapplies to transforma-
tive effect the words he initially inspired into the lives of our brothers and
sisters. Reading, for all I want to argue for its inherently individual nature,
must become reading together, and as it does so its community-forming
nature emerges, and we sense that we belong together because of our
shared reading experience. As Robby Waddell has highlighted, we have
learned that belief, but our belief, belief arising in and out of community,
is the key to comprehension.26
Acceptance of a reading by the community as valid does not on its own
mean that it has in any sense broader value or truth, however. The tradi-
tional Pentecostal explanation as to how we might discern the meaning
of the text is that it is the task of the Holy Spirit himself to ‘lead us into all
truth’. Archer highlights that, in our thinking, it is ‘The Holy Spirit [who]
enables the interpreter to bridge the historical and cultural gulf between
the ancient authors of the Scriptures and the present interpreter’.27 This is
25 Clines outlines his approach to this issue most clearly in D.J.A. Clines, ‘A World
Established on Water (Psalm 24): Reader-Response, Deconstruction and Bespoke Inter-
pretation’, republished in Clines, Interested Parties: The Ideology of Writers and Readers of
the Hebrew Bible (JSOT Sup, 205; Gender, Culture, Theory, 1; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1995), pp. 172–86.
26 Robby Waddell, The Spirit of the Book of Revelation (JPT Sup, 30; Blandford Forum:
Deo, 2006), p. 118.
true at both an individual and a communitarian level. When we see our-

selves in the text we credit the Spirit for placing the mirror in front of our
eyes; when we arrive at a consensus on a valid reading, or accept and are
inspired, blessed or encouraged by the experience of an individual who
shares their story with the congregation, we put that down to his working
among us. The Spirit is the ultimate arbiter of meaning and significance,
‘the self authenticating key in the hermeneutical process’.28 Whilst Pen-
tecostals in general subscribe to the Rabbinic ‘seamless robe’ model of
Scripture which allows any two texts to speak to each other with no real
understanding of the critical and contextual issues involved, we do not
accept the Bible on its own as entirely internally explicable.29 We need,
and actively invoke, the empowering and inspiration of the Spirit in mak-
ing those connections. When that truly happens, as Catholic charismatic
Andrew Minto notes,
The collaboration between the Holy Spirit and believer-interpreter results
in a living faith-knowledge of the very spiritual, paschal realities of which
the text speaks. As such, this collaboration makes the act of divine revela-
tion a completed act of communication. What God communicates through
Christ in the Holy Spirit is now obtained as knowledge on the part of the
believer.30
Here it seems to me that we need help from the work of systematicians.
Whilst Pentecostals almost universally assume the role of the Spirit in
guiding our interpretation, there is a notable weakness in the literature in
terms of how this process is understood and defined. How does the Spirit
truly guide us in interpretation? How do we listen? Truly critical engage-
ment with biblical scholarship from other perspectives by Pentecostal
interpreters, which is clearly increasing, will require us to define this pro-
cess and put our answers into the broader public sphere for scrutiny, so
I suggest there is much work to be done in describing the process of what
is sometimes labelled ‘pneumatic interpretation’ instead of merely advo-
cating it as a model.31
28 Anderson, ‘The Hermeneutical Processes’, p. 3.

29 Cf. Waddell, The Spirit of the Book of Revelation, p. 127: ‘In a postmodern world, Pen-
tecostals no longer need to acquiesce to the evangelical doctrine sola scriptura, because
the revelation of God is not transmitted to new generations by Scripture alone but by the
work of the Holy Spirit’.
30 Andrew L. Minto, ‘The Charismatic Renewal and the Spiritual Sense of Scripture’,
Pneuma 27.2 (2005), pp. 256–72 (262).
31 Cf. Howard M. Ervin, ‘Hermeneutics: A Pentecostal Option’, Pneuma (Fall 1981),
pp. 11–25 (17).
262 andrew davies
B. What should I do about it?

Finally, some brief comments on what Pentecostals would call the need
to be ‘doers as well as hearers’ of the Word (Jas 1.22). If meaning starts
with me, then it is only correct that the responsibility for implementing
that meaning as practical application should also end there. Truly Pente-
costal interpretation always requires reading with an end in mind. There
is no abstract exegesis; what ever treasures that, together, we uncover are
there to be shaped into agendas for action. From the Day of Pentecost
onward, our preaching has sought to draw a response from our listeners
and motivate action as much as it invites acceptance. For us, the applica-
tion is vital in that it connects the text to ‘real world’ issues and affords
us the opportunity to read and appropriate it for transformative ends. As
Gordon Anderson has observed, ‘Pentecost links rational discourse with
powerful demonstrations and emotional responses. It moves preaching
from the sterile pulpit and lecture hall of rationality and transforms it into
prophetic witness in the very untidy arena and marketplace of street level
experience’.32 Pentecostal biblical interpretation is at its best when for-
mulated ‘on the hoof ’ and most meaningful when it confronts real-world
situations with the Word of God. Generally, therefore, it offers a practical
rather than a theological response. And perhaps, in conclusion, this is why
our tradition has become one of action more than reflection. Confronted
with the power of the Word of God we love so dearly in such a way, no
one with any sort of Pentecostal blood in their veins could hold back from
offering the Lord our Spirit-inspired service. Ultimately, as Andrew Minto
has noted, ‘It is not method, nor scholarship, nor cutting-edge, creative
interpretation that will renew biblical studies, but God’s own work’.33
Pentecostal readers of the Bible learned this in terms of their personal
reading and study many generations back, and, still today, seek to take
what they have received from God in their interaction with his Word and
reinterpret it for, and reapply it into, the new contexts they encounter day
after day, living biblical truth out as it lives in them. And long may they
continue to do so.
32 Gordon Anderson, ‘Pentecost, Scholarship, and Learning in a Postmodern World’,

Pneuma 27.1 (Spring 2005), p. 122.
33 Minto, ‘Charismatic Renewal’, p. 272.
Chapter Fifteen
Psalm 63 and Pentecostal Spirituality:

An Exercise in Affective Hermeneutics*
Lee Roy Martin**
I. Introduction
In my first semester at Bible college, I began reading through the entire

Bible. As might be expected, a number of Scripture passages made a deep
impression upon me, and one of those was Psalm 63, particularly the first
two verses: ‘my soul is thirsty for you; my flesh longs for you . . . thus I have
seen you in the sanctuary, beholding your power and your glory’. I heard
in Psalm 63 a passionate prayer, an articulation of deep spiritual inclina
tions. I heard an expression of the psalmist’s intense desire to encounter
God and to experience God’s presence. I also recognized the psalmist’s
commitment to seek after God and to respond to God’s gracious acts with
praise and with constant loyalty. Because of the content of the psalm and
its passionate tone of expression, I memorized the psalm and began to
recite it regularly as a part of my own prayers.
The longing for God expressed in Psalm 63 gave voice to the passion for
God that was generated by my own Pentecostal spirituality, a spirituality
that Steven Jack Land has characterized as ‘a passion for the kingdom’,
which is ‘ultimately a passion for God’.1 I suggest in this study that Psalm 63
can function as an individual and/or communal prayer that voices the
passionate aspects of Pentecostal spirituality. Furthermore, in its function
as Holy Scripture, this psalm can guide Pentecostals in their pursuit of an
encounter with God and in their longing for God’s presence.
* First published as ‘Longing for God: Psalm 63 and Pentecostal Spirituality’, Journal

of Pentecostal Theology 22.1 (2013), pp. 54–76.
** Lee Roy Martin (DTh, University of South Africa) is Professor of Old Testament and
Biblical Languages at the Pentecostal Theological Seminary in Cleveland, TN, USA.
1 Steven Jack Land, Pentecostal Spirituality: A Passion for the Kingdom (Cleveland, TN:
CPT Press, 2010), pp. 2, 97, 120, 73–80, 212, 219. Cf. Mark J. Cartledge, ‘Affective Theologi
cal Praxis: Understanding the Direct Object of Practical Theology’, International Journal of
Practical Theology 8.1 (2004), pp. 34–52 (36).
264 lee roy martin
In this constructive and integrative study, I examine Psalm 63 through

the lens of Pentecostal spirituality; however, before examining Psalm 63,
I will describe what I am calling an ‘affective approach’ to the biblical
text. The affective approach calls for the hearer to attend to the affective
tones that are present in the text and to allow the affections of the hearer
to be shaped by the text. Once I have described the affective approach,
I will present an affective Pentecostal hearing of Psalm 63 that emerges
from my location within the Pentecostal community.2 Then I will suggest
ways in which Psalm 63 can contribute to the affective formation of the
Pentecostal church of today. On the one hand, therefore, my hearing of
Psalm 63 is informed by and shaped by my own Pentecostal experience.
On the other hand, my Pentecostal spirituality and experience is influ
enced by my engagement with Psalm 63.
Before proceeding to the study, I would offer four explanatory com
ments: 1) Although my work is generated by my Pentecostal spiritual
ity and is aimed at the Pentecostal tradition, I recognize that affective
engagement is common to all humans.3 Therefore, all readers of Scripture
are invited to ‘listen in’ to the conversation in hope that they too may find
this study beneficial. 2) The Pentecostal movement is a global, diverse,
and multifaceted tradition; therefore, I do not claim to speak for all Pen
tecostals. 3) Biblical exegesis and hermeneutics demand the utilization of
a variety of methods and approaches. Therefore, within a holistic bibli
cal hermeneutic, the affective dimension of Scripture is only one of the
many dimensions of the text that should be investigated as a part of sound
exegesis. I would argue, however, that the affective dimension has been
overlooked and underutilized in the academic study of Scripture. 4) This
article is a provisional proposal that I submit to the community of schol
ars for a discerning response. I hope that it will generate further conversa
tion about creative engagement with the biblical text.
2 Instead of the commonly used term ‘reading’, I prefer the term ‘hearing’ because (1) it
is a biblical term; (2) it reflects the orality of biblical and Pentecostal contexts; (3) it is rela
tional, presupposing an external voice who is speaking; (4) it suggests faithful obedience
since ‘hearing’ often means ‘obeying’; (5) it implies transformation, since faithful hearing
transforms; (6) unlike the process of ‘reading’ Scripture, ‘hearing’ implies submission to the
authority of the text. See Lee Roy Martin, The Unheard Voice of God: A Pentecostal Hearing
of the Book of Judges (JPTSup, 32; Blandford Forum, UK: Deo Publishing, 2008), p. 53.
3 James K.A. Smith, Desiring the Kingdom: Worship, Worldview, and Cultural Formation
(Cultural Liturgies, 1; Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2009), argues convincingly that
human life is shaped largely by the affections.
psalm 63 and pentecostal spirituality 265
II. An Affective Approach to Interpretation
The development of my affective approach to the Psalter takes into

consideration Walter Brueggemann’s insightful critique of both the pre
critical and critical approaches to the study of the Psalms. He argues on
the one hand that the ‘devotional tradition of piety is surely weakened by
disregarding the perspectives and insights of scholarship’ and on the other
hand that the critical tradition ‘is frequently arid, because it lingers exces
sively on formal questions, with inability or reluctance to bring its insights
and methods to substantive matters of exposition’.4 Brueggemann’s pro
posal for a postcritical ‘functional’ approach,5 in which the critical and
pietistic traditions inform and correct each other, places the psalms within
the journey of faith and recognizes their value as prayers for the ancient
Hebrews and for subsequent faith communities.6
Brueggemann’s functional approach in its broad parameters makes room
for scholarly consideration of the emotive quality of the Psalms. It might
be argued that the affective dimension is too ‘subjective’ to be included in
academic study. Expecting objections to the affective approach, Daniel C.
Mcguire remarks, ‘It is not for nothing that the rationalist is upset by the
inclusion of affectivity . . . Affectivity imports mystery and depth. We can
feel more than we can see or say.’7 For this reason, biblical scholarship has
given little attention to this affective dimension of biblical poetry in gen
eral and of the Psalms in particular. Yet I would argue that the function of
poetry is to evoke (and provoke) the passions and to form the affections.
The study of the Psalms, therefore, can benefit from a hermeneutic that
appreciates the affective dimensions of the text and that takes full advan
tage of the passions that are brought to the text by the interpreter.
4 Walter Brueggemann, The Message of the Psalms: A Theological Commentary (Augs

burg Old Testament Studies; Minneapolis: Augsburg Pub. House, 1984), p. 16.
5 Walter Brueggemann, The Psalms and the Life of Faith (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress
Press, 1995), pp. 3–32.
6 Brueggemann, The Psalms and the Life of Faith, pp. 33–66. My approach should not
be confused with the resurgent mystical, spiritual, or allegorical approach presented by
David C. Steinmetz, ‘The Superiority of Pre-Critical Exegesis’, Theology Today 37 (1980),
pp. 27–38, or Celia Kourie, ‘Reading Scripture through a Mystical Lens’, Acta Theologica 15/
Suppl. (2011), pp. 132–53. I have argued that returning to allegory or the medieval mystics
is not an option. See Lee Roy Martin, ‘Pre-Critical Exegesis of the Book of Judges and the
Construction of a Post-Critical Hermeneutic’, Ekklesiastikos Pharos 88 (2006), pp. 338–53.
7 Daniel C. Maguire, ‘Ratio Practica and the Intellectualistic Fallacy’, Journal of Religious
Ethics 10.1 (1982), pp. 22–39 (23).
266 lee roy martin
It is well known that the affections played a significant role in the

spirituality of Jonathan Edwards8 and John Wesley.9 Deep affective cur
rents have been observed also in the Eastern Orthodox tradition,10 a tradi
tion that influenced both Edwards and Wesley.11 Recently, B.I. McGroarty
has argued that it was the view of the 14th-Century English mystic Hilton
that human wholeness (‘health’) cannot be attained outside of an affective
engagement with God.12 Dale Coulter has expounded upon the affective
dimension in Catherine of Siena,13 Bernard of Clairvaux, Richard of
8 See, for example, Jonathan Edwards, Religious Affections (Works of Jonathan Edwards;
New Haven: Yale Univ Pr, 1959); Timothy Hessel-Robinson, ‘Jonathan Edwards (1703–1758):
A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections’, in Christian Spirituality (London: Routledge,
2010), pp. 269–80; John E. Smith, ‘Testing the Spirits: Jonathan Edwards and the Religious
Affections’, Union Seminary Quarterly Review 37.1–2 (1982), pp. 27–37; Roger Ward, ‘The
Philosophical Structure of Jonathan Edward’s Religious Affections’, Christian Scholar’s
Review 29.4 (2000), pp. 745–68; Wayne L. Proudfoot, ‘From Theology to a Science of Reli
gions: Jonathan Edwards and William James on Religious Affections’, Harvard Theological
Review 82.2 (1989), pp. 149–68, and Iain D. Campbell, ‘Jonathan Edwards’ Religious Affec
tions as a Paradigm for Evangelical Spirituality’, Scottish Bulletin of Evangelical Theology
21.2 (2003), pp. 166–86.
9 See Gregory S. Clapper, ‘John Wesley’s Abridgement of Isaac Watts’ the Doctrine
of the Passions Explained and Improved’, Wesleyan Theological Journal 43.2 (2008),
pp. 28–32; idem, John Wesley on Religious Affections: His Views on Experience and Emotion
and Their Role in the Christian Life and Theology (Pietist and Wesleyan Studies; Metuchen,
NJ: Scarecrow Pr, 1989); Kenneth J. Collins, ‘John Wesley’s Topography of the Heart: Dis
positions, Tempers, and Affections’, Methodist History 36.3 (1998), pp. 162–75; and Randy
L. Maddox, ‘A Change of Affections: The Development, Dynamics, and Dethronement of
John Wesley’s Heart Religion’, in ‘Heart Religion’ in the Methodist Tradition and Related
Movements (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, 2001), pp. 3–31.
10 Cf. Edmund J. Rybarczyk, ‘Spiritualities Old and New: Similarities between Eastern
Orthodoxy & Classical Pentecostalism’, Pneuma 24.1 (2002), pp. 7–25, who argues that
the Orthodox, like Pentecostals, insist firmly that ‘knowledge of God is not limited to the
intellectual domain of human existence, but that the believer can sense and hear God
in visceral and profound ways’ (p. 10). See also Edmund J. Rybarczyk, Beyond Salvation:
Eastern Orthodoxy and Classical Pentecostalism on Becoming Like Christ (Paternoster Theo
logical Monographs; Carlisle, UK: Paternoster Press, 2004). In the Orthodox writers, the
affective dimension of spirituality is usually couched in the language of encountering
the presence and mystery of God. See Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew, Encountering
the Mystery: Understanding Orthodox Christianity Today (New York: Doubleday, 1st edn,
2008); Vladimir Lossky, The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church (London: J. Clarke,
1st edn, 1957), and Alexander Schmemann, The Historical Road of Eastern Orthodoxy (Chi
cago: H. Regnery, 1966).
11 See, for example, Michael James McClymond and Gerald R. McDermott, The Theology
of Jonathan Edwards (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012), and S.T. Kimbrough, Ortho-
dox and Wesleyan Spirituality (Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 2002).
12 Brendan Ignatius McGroarty, ‘Humility, Contemplation and Affect Theory’, Journal of
Religion and Health 45.1 (2006), pp. 57–72.
13 Catherine of Siena, The Dialogue 13 (trans. and intro. Suzanne Noffke, OP; New
York, NY: Paulist Press, 1980), p. 48; cited in Dale Coulter, ‘Pentecostals and Monasticism:
A Common Spirituality?’, Assemblies of God Heritage 30 (2010), pp. 43–49 (45).
St. Victor, Catherine of Genoa, and Martin Luther, concluding that their
common theology of ‘encounter centers upon affectivity as the point of
contact between the divine and human.’14 And Jeffrey Gros points out
the importance of the Franciscan movement’s ‘concern for direct human
experience of Christ’.15 These studies, among many others, have shown
that the concern for the formation of the affections is present in a wide
variety of traditions.
Steven Land observes that while Pentecostals accept the necessity
of orthodoxy (right doctrine) and orthopraxy (right practice), they see
orthopathy (right affections) as the integrating center for both orthodoxy
and orthopraxy.16 Consequently, a Pentecostal approach would recognize
the Psalms not only as a witness to right theology and practice, but also
as an aide in the formation of the affections. The affections, not to be con
fused with transitory feelings or emotions, are the abiding dispositions and
passions of the heart that characterize a person’s deepest desires.17 The
psalms, therefore, teach us not only what to think (orthodoxy) and what to
do (orthopraxy) but also what to desire (orthopathy). To say it another way,
the psalms contribute to both intellectual and affective learning: ‘Intellec
tual learning aims at learning facts and their relation and at rational analy
sis . . . In affective learning, on the other hand, feelings and emotions are
predominant. With affective learning one aims to develop emotional and
moral sensitivities and to achieve a deep commitment to certain values.’18
Mark Cartledge adds, ‘Indeed, one could argue that the affections inform
not only believing and action but also the imagination as well, without
which significant advances in understanding would be impossible’.19
The process of affective interpretation requires at least four coop
erative moves on the part of the hearer. First, the hearer of the psalm
must identify and acknowledge the affective dimensions of the text, an
14 Dale M. Coulter, ‘The Spirit and the Bride Revisited: Pentecostalism, Renewal, and
the Sense of History’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 21.2 (2012), pp. 298–319 (318).
15 Jeffrey Gros, ‘Ecumenical Connections across Time: Medieval Franciscans as a
Proto-Pentecostal Movement?’, Pneuma 34.1 (2012), pp. 75–93 (75). Gros calls for ‘a robust
appreciation of spiritual experience’ (p. 91).
16 Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, pp. 21, 34, 127–59. See also Cartledge, ‘Affective Theo
logical Praxis’, pp. 34–52 (36).
17 Land, Pentecostal Spirituality, p. 34. Cf. Thomas Ryan, ‘Revisiting Affective Knowledge
and Connaturality in Aquinas’, Theological Studies 66.1 (2005), pp. 49–68 (55–58, 63). The
affections, of course, play a key role in the creation of feelings and emotions.
18 Richard Ognibene and Richard Penaskovic, ‘Teaching Theology: Some Affective
Strategies’, Horizons 8.1 (1981), pp. 97–108 (98).
19 Cartledge, ‘Affective Theological Praxis’, p. 38. Cf. Smith, Desiring the Kingdom,
pp. 135, 52.
268 lee roy martin
acknowledgement that is by no means automatic or common for scholars,

who tend to concentrate their attention upon historical critical concerns.
Every psalm includes an affective dimension, which may involve hope or
despair, love or hate, trust or fear, admiration or scorn, pride or shame,
joy or despondency, to mention but a few examples. The poetic genre
demands that the hearer give attention to its emotive content.
Second, the hearer of the psalm must acknowledge his or her own
passions that are brought to the interpretive process. It is important
that the hearer of the text recognize when his or her affections corre
spond to the affections of the psalmist and when they do not correspond,
because the passions of the hearer can dramatically impact the resulting
interpretation.
Third, the hearer of the psalm must be open to the emotive impact of
the text. Before the hearer can experience the affective dimension of the
text, he or she may be required to enter the world of the psalmist and to
enter the emotive flow of the textual stream. Robert O. Baker argues that
the reading of the biblical text involves both the mind and the affections
of the reader. He insists that ‘reading the Bible is not just a cognitive expe
rience, but an affective one as well’.20 He argues further that seeking
to understand the ideational/rational content of a text without also seek
ing to experience and reflect upon its emotive effect is to skew the text’s
message . . . By committing to read the text objectively from a critical dis
tance, the professional reader subverts the text’s evocative power or is at
least unable to express the feeling that the text evokes in him or her.21
Fourth, the hearer must allow himself or herself to be transformed by the
affective experiencing of the psalm. As the hearer engages the biblical text,
his or her affections are shaped by that engagement. ‘The affective capac
ity of the person can be modified and hence grow in sensitivity, intensity,
and scope.’22 In its canonical role as Scripture, the book of Psalms makes
a significant contribution toward a theology of worship, and part of the
20 Robert O. Baker, ‘Pentecostal Bible Reading: Toward a Model of Reading for the
Formation of the Affections’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 7 (1995), pp. 34–48 (46). Cf.
Martin, The Unheard Voice of God, pp. 70–71. See also W. Dow Edgerton, The Passion of
Interpretation (Literary Currents in Biblical Interpretation; Louisville, KY: Westminster/
John Knox Press, 1992), who agrees that every interpretation involves the passions of the
interpreter. See also Cartledge, ‘Affective Theological Praxis’, pp. 42, 51, and Kenneth J.
Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic: Spirit, Scripture and Community (Cleveland, TN: CPT
Press, 2009), p. 234.
21 Baker, ‘Pentecostal Bible Reading’, pp. 34–35.
22 Ryan, ‘Revisiting Affective Knowledge’, p. 57.
message of the Psalms is that right worship begins with rightly oriented
affections. Thus, through the hearing of the Psalms the desires of the heart
are transformed and redirected toward God so that the affections of grati
tude, trust, and love (affections that foster worship) are generated and
nourished.
Although I would insist that the third and fourth moves are essential
to an affective engagement with the text, I would admit that they are dif
ficult (if not impossible) to accomplish within a written document. They
are experiences that may be validated by testimony and description (as in
my own testimony that began this article), but the transformative experi
ence itself is outside the bounds of written discourse. Consequently, the
bulk of my study will give attention to the first two movements of the
affective hermeneutical process.
In what follows, I will offer an affective hearing of Psalm 63. My
interpretive location within the Pentecostal community has caused me
to appreciate the affective dimension of the Psalms,23 and I find Psalm 63
to be particularly suited to an affective Pentecostal interpretation. The
Psalmist’s yearning to encounter God’s power and glory is consistent
with Pentecostal aspirations, and the passionate prayers and exuberant
praises that we find in Psalm 63 are consistent with the ethos of Pente
costal worship.
As stated above, appreciation for the affective dimension of the text is
only one aspect of a holistic hermeneutic. The affective elements become
clearer and more precise when they emerge from sound exegesis. There
fore, as a foundation for the study, we will overview the text of Psalm 63
and examine its structure and genre.
III. A Translation of Psalm 63
‫הּודה‬
ָ ְ‫מזְ מֹור ְל ָדוִ ד ִּב ְהיֹותֹו ְּב ִמ ְד ַּבר י‬1
ִ A psalm of David when he was in the wilder
ness of Judah
ָ‫ֹלהים ֵא ִלי ַא ָּתה ֲא ַׁש ֲח ֶרּך‬
ִ ‫א‬2
ֱ 1 God, you are my God; I will seek you
earnestly;
‫ָצ ְמ ָאה ְלָך נַ ְפ ִׁשי‬ My soul is thirsty for you
‫שרי‬ ִ ָׂ ‫ָּכ ַמּה ְלָך ְב‬ My flesh longs for you
‫י־מיִ ם‬
ָ ‫ץ־ציָּ ה וְ ָעיֵ ף ְּב ִל‬
ִ ‫ְּב ֶא ֶר‬ In a dry and weary land without water.
23 Lee Roy Martin, ‘Delight in the Torah: The Affective Dimension of Psalm 1’, Old Testa-
ment Essays 23.3 (2010), pp. 708–27 (18).
270 lee roy martin
‫יתי‬
ִ ִ‫כּן בַּ קּ ֶֹדשׁ ֲחז‬3
ֵ 2 Thus in the sanctuary I have seen you,
‫בד‬
ֶ ‫וּכ‬ְ ְ‫ִל ְראֹות ֻעזּ‬ Beholding your power and your glory.
‫כי־טֹוב ַח ְס ְּדָך ֵמ ַחיִּ ים‬4 ִּ 3 Because your kindness is better than life,
‫ְׂש ָפ ַתי יְ ַׁש ְּבחּונְ ָך‬ My lips will praise you.
‫כן ֲא ָב ֶר ְכָך ְבחַּיָ י‬5 ֵּ 4 Thus I shall bless you during my life;
‫ְּב ִׁש ְמָך ֶא ָּׂשא ַכ ָּפי‬ In your name I shall lift up my hands.
‫ִּׂש ַּבע נַ ְפ ִׁשי‬
ְ ‫כמֹו ֵח ֶלב וָ ֶד ֶׁשן ת‬6 ְּ 5 Like marrow and fatness my soul will be
satisfied,
‫ל־פי‬
ִּ ‫וְ ִׂש ְפ ֵתי ְרנָ נֹות יְ ַה ֶּל‬ And my mouth will offer praise with joy
ful lips.
‫צוּעי‬
ָ ְ‫אם־זְ ַכ ְר ִתּי ַעל־י‬7ִ 6 Whenever I remembered you on my bed,
‫ה־בּ‬
ָ ֶ‫ַשׁ ֻמרת ֶא ְהגּ‬ ְ ‫ְבּא‬ In the night watches I would meditate on
you,
‫ית ֶעזְ ָר ָתה ִּלי‬ ָ ִ‫י־הי‬
ָ ‫כ‬8ִּ 7 Because you were my help,
‫ּוב ֵצל ְּכנָ ֶפיָך ֲא ַרנֵּ ן‬ְ In the shadow of your wings I would shout
for joy.
‫ד ְב ָקה נַ ְפ ִׁשי ַא ֲח ֶריָך‬9ָּ 8 My soul has stuck close behind you;
‫ִבּי ָתּ ְמ ָכה יְ ִמינֶ ָך‬ Your right hand has upheld me.
‫ׁשֹואה יְ ַב ְקׁשּו נַ ְפ ִׁשי‬
ָ ‫וְ ֵה ָּמה ְל‬10 9 As for them who will seek to ruin my life,
‫יָ בֹאּו ְּב ַת ְחתִּּיֹות ָה ָא ֶרץ‬ They will go into the depths of the earth.
‫י־ח ֶרב‬ ָ ‫יַגִּ ֻירהּו ַעל־יְ ֵד‬11 10 They will be delivered over to the power
of the sword;
‫ְמנָ ת ֻׁש ָע ִלים יִ ְהיּו‬ They will be a prey for foxes.
‫אֹלהים‬
ִ ‫וְ ַה ֶּמ ֶלְך יִ ְׂש ַמח ֵּב‬12 11 But as for the king, he will rejoice in God;
‫ל־הנִּ ְׁש ָּבע ּבֹו‬
ַ ‫יִ ְת ַה ֵּלל ָּכ‬ Everyone who swears by him will glory,
‫י־ש ֶקר‬
ָׁ ‫דֹוב ֵר‬
ְ ‫ִּכי יִ ָּס ֵכר ִּפי‬ Because the mouth of those speaking
deception will be stopped.
IV. Structure and Genre of Psalm 63
The structure of Psalm 63 is unclear,24 and scholars have divided the

psalm in a variety of ways.25 I suggest a four part structure, beginning
after the superscription (v. 1):26
24 Cf. Michael Wilcock, The Message of Psalms 1–72: Songs for the People of God (Bible
Speaks Today; Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 2001), I, p. 222, and Marvin E. Tate,
Psalms 51–100 (Word Biblical Commentary, 20; Dallas, TX: Word Books, 1990), p. 125.
25 James Limburg, Psalms (Westminster Bible Companion; Louisville, KY: Westminister
John Knox Press, 1st edn, 2000), pp. 208–10, divides the psalm into three parts: vv. 1–4,
body and soul; vv. 5–8, remembering; and vv. 9–11, rejoicing. J.P. Fokkelman, The Psalms
in Form: The Hebrew Psalter in Its Poetic Shape (Tools for Biblical Study, 4; Leiden: Deo
Publishing, 2002), p. 71, finds six divisions made up of the following verses: 2–3, 4–5, 6–7,
8–9, 10–11, 12.
26 I will follow the Hebrew versification. Each of the four sections consists of three
bicola except for the final verse, which concludes emphatically with a tricola. Cf. Samuel L.
1. Longing for God’s Presence (vv. 2–3)

Verses 2–3 hold together as an introduction that establishes the overall
topic of the psalm as the psalmist’s intention to passionately and habitu
ally pursue the presence of God.
2. Praise for God’s Kindness (vv. 4–6)

The second section, like the first, includes an affirmation that is expressed
syntactically with a verbless clause (‘you are my God’ and ‘your kindness is
better than life’). The verbless clauses are followed by statements of future
intent (‘I will seek you’ and ‘my lips will praise you’). The first two sections
each include verses held together by the conjunction ‘thus’ (‫)כן‬. ֵּ The first
section begins with seeking God and ends with seeing God. The second
section both begins and ends with the mention of praise, and each of its
verses (4–6) mentions praise either literally or figuratively. Each verb in
this section is a yiqtol and should be translated as future tense.
3. Remembrance of God’s Faithfulness (vv. 7–9)

The third section (7–9) his held together by a focus upon remembrance
of God’s actions in the past.27 Verses 7–8 consist of two compound sen
tences, each of which begins with a qatal verb and is followed by a habit
ual yiqtol.28 Verse 9 is made up of two sentences that utilize qatal verbs.
4. Rejoicing in God’s Covenant Protection (vv. 10–12)29

The fourth section turns to the eventual downfall of the psalmist’s enemies,
and all of the verbs are yiqtols that should be translated as future tense.
Terrien, The Psalms: Strophic Structure and Theological Commentary (Eerdmans Critical
Commentary; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2003), pp. 460–61, and Hans-Joachim Kraus,
Psalms 60–150: A Commentary (trans. Hilton C. Oswald; Minneapolis, MN: Augsburg, 1989),
p. 18. See also J.W. Rogerson and John W. McKay, Psalms (3 vols.; Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1977), II, pp. 64–65, who find the same structure, except that they sepa
rate the final verse as a separate section.
27 Cf. Susanne Gillmayr-Bucher, ‘David, Ich Und Der König: Fortschreibung Und Relec
ture in Psalm 63’, in Josef M. Oesch, Andreas Vonach, and Georg Fischer (eds.), Horizonte
Biblischer Texte: Festschrift Für Josef M. Oesch Zum 60. Geburtstag (Göttingen: Vanden
hoeck & Ruprecht, 2003), pp. 71–89 (76), and Charles Augustus Briggs and Emilie Grace
Briggs, A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Book of Psalms (International Critical
Commentary; 2 vols.; Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1969), II, p. 74, and in ref. to v. 8 as past
tense, see Kraus, Psalms 60–150, p. 17.
28 Cf. Gillmayr-Bucher, ‘David, Ich Und Der König’, p. 74.
29 Gillmayr-Bucher, ‘David, Ich Und Der König’, p. 76, agrees that verses 10–12 hold
together as a unit.
272 lee roy martin
The four sections of Psalm 63 are held together by two parallel threads
that span the entire psalm. The first thread is the psalmist’s affirmations
about God that are either stated directly or are implied by the passive
voice: God is his God (v. 2); God’s covenant kindness is greater than life
(v. 3); God will satisfy the psalmist’s desires (v. 5); God has been the psalm
ist’s help (v. 7) and support (v. 8); God will destroy the psalmist’s enemies
(vv. 9, 10, 11). The second thread consists of statements that describe the
psalmist’s response to God. These responses can be summarized in two
categories: seeking God (v. 2) and praising God (vv. 3, 4, 5, 7, 11). We may
also infer that the psalmist’s past actions are appropriate for the present
and future. These past responses are remembering God (v. 6), meditating
upon God (v. 6), and sticking close to God (v. 8).
Like the laments, Psalm 63 begins with a direct address to God (v. 2),
and it includes other elements that are common to the laments: a men
tion of enemies (v. 9), a promise to praise God (v. 11), and a statement of
trust (v. 7). Consequently, a number of scholars have classified Psalm 63
as an individual lament.30 However, the direct address to God, though
common to the laments, is not confined to them (e.g. Pss. 8.1; 9.1; 18.1; 21.1;
30.1; 65.1; 84.1; 101.1; 104.1; 115.1; 138.1; 145.1), and therefore is not a defin
ing feature of the lament. Moreover, the laments function as a voice of
protest and complaint to God, and Psalm 63 does not contain a protest
or complaint,31 neither does it contain any of the usual indicators of com
plaint, such as the questions ‘Why . . .?’ and ‘How long . . .?’. Enemies are
mentioned, but they are not presented as a direct and immediate threat.
Instead, they exist as a constant political reality, an everyday obstacle to
the king. Furthermore, the lament psalms function as petitions to God for
his immediate intervention, but Psalm 63 contains no such plea. Some
commentators would translate the verbs in verses 10–11 as petitions, but
I suspect that they do so because they are predisposed to classifying the
psalm as a lament.32
30 Nancy L. DeClaissé-Walford, Introduction to the Psalms: A Song from Ancient Israel

(St. Louis, MO: Chalice Press, 2004), p. 147; C. Hassell Bullock, Encountering the Book of
Psalms: A Literary and Theological Introduction (Encountering Biblical Studies; Grand Rap
ids, MI: Baker Academic, 2001), p. 144.
31 Bullock classifies the psalm as a lament even though he admits that it contains no
complaint or petition (p. 44).
32 On the difficulties involved in interpreting Hebrew verb tense in poetry, see Alviero
Niccacci, ‘Analysing Biblical Hebrew Poetry’, Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 74
(1997), pp. 77–93, especially p. 91.
The laments normally emerge from the perception that God is absent,
distant, and unresponsive. The absence of God is perceived through the
presence of troubles, such as enemies or sickness, that plague the psalm
ist. In the lament psalm, the plea for God’s return and for God’s presence
is associated with a petition for deliverance. When God returns to the
psalmist, he will intervene to answer the psalmist’s petitions. Psalm 63,
however, is different from the lament in that it expresses a plea for God’s
presence quite apart from a specific petition for deliverance. The plea for
God’s presence is not associated with any other petition. The presence
of God is an end in itself. Enemies may be present and will soon be van
quished, but still the petition is focused more directly upon a yearning
for God himself.
In light of the above considerations, John Goldingay, along with other
scholars, has identified Psalm 63 as a song of trust.33 The songs of trust or
‘songs of confidence’, as Brueggemann describes them, may have devel
oped as an expansion of the statement of trust that is commonly found
in the laments. Within Brueggemann’s typology, these songs function to
express a ‘new orientation’ similar to the perspective conveyed by the
songs of thanksgiving. The songs of confidence, however, are more ‘gener
alized’ and ‘more distanced from the crisis and more reflective’ than the
songs of thanksgiving.34 Offering a new orientation to living in covenant
with God, Psalm 63 reflects upon God’s past faithfulness, expresses the
psalmist’s deep longing for God’s presence, and affirms the psalmist’s life
long commitment to seek God and to praise God.
V. A Pentecostal Hearing of Psalm 63
Our overview of the text, structure, and genre of Psalm 63 reveals a num
ber of affective components that intersect with Pentecostal spirituality.
In the first section of the psalm (vv. 2–3), the suppliant expresses an
unquenchable longing for God’s presence. A mood of joy and thankful
ness permeates the second section (vv. 4–6). The third section (vv. 7–9)
33 John Goldingay, Psalms (Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and
Psalms; 3 vols.; Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2006), II, p. 255. Claus Westermann,
The Living Psalms (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1989), classifies it as a song of trust (p. 57),
but for him the song of trust is a subcategory of the lament (p. 58). Tate, Psalms 51–100,
p. 125, insists that ‘the affirmative, testimony-like statements in vv 4–5, 6–8, 9 indicate
clearly that this is a psalm of confidence’.
34 Brueggemann, Message of the Psalms, p. 152.
274 lee roy martin
expresses thankfulness, but it is a thankfulness that leads to expressions

of deep trust and commitment to God. The final section (vv. 10–12) of the
psalm registers a mood of confident hope for the future.
A. Longing for God’s Presence (vv. 2–3)

A passion for God is evident in the first words of the psalmist: ‘God, you
are my God’.35 The entire psalm, therefore, is grounded upon the certainty
of the divine human relationship;36 ‘the emphatic “my God” expresses the
covenantal bond with all its assurances’.37 God had said to Israel, ‘I will
be your God and you will be my people’ (Lev. 26.12). The relationship is
one of covenant.
Because God is his God, the psalmist determines that he will seek God
‘earnestly’ (‫)ׁשחר‬. Rather than use the more formal ‫ּבקׁש‬38 the psalmist
chooses a denominative verb from the word that means ‘dawn’ and that
‘connotes to seek with one’s whole heart’,39 to ‘seek longingly, wholeheart
edly, desperately’.40 Thus, the psalmist ‘expresses a powerful, longing
desire for the near presence of God.’41
The longing for God is made more concrete through the metaphorical,
yearning cry, ‘My soul is thirsty for you, my flesh longs for you’.42 The
language of hunger and thirst ‘voices the intensity of emotional intimacy
between the psalmist and God’.43 Combination of ‘soul’ and ‘flesh’ signifies
35 Kraus, Psalms 60–150, p. 17, argues that ָ‫ ֱאל ִהֹים ֵא ִלי ַא ָּתה ֲא ַׁש ֲח ֶרּך‬should be rendered,
‘God, my God, you—I seek you’, so that ‫ַּתה‬ ָ ‫ א‬functions to add emphasis (Cf. Gen. 49.8).
However, it is clear that in its four other occurrences (Pss. 22.11; 118.28; 140.7; cf. also
Ps. 31.15), the phrase ‫ ֵא ִלי ַא ָּתה‬should be translated ‘you are my God’, and I would argue
that it carries the same meaning here. Cf. Franz Delitzsch, Biblical Commentary on the
Psalms (trans. Francis Bolton; 3 vols.; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1867). In any case, the
personal claim (‘my God’) is clear and striking.
36 Briggs and Briggs, The Book of Psalms, II, p. 72.
37 John Eaton, The Psalms: A Historical and Spiritual Commentary with an Introduction
and New Translation (London: T & T Clark International, 2003), p. 235.
38 A.A. Anderson, The Book of Psalms: Based on the Revised Standard Version (New Cen
tury Bible Commentary; 2 vols.; Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1981), I, p. 456.
39 Mitchell J. Dahood, Psalms (Anchor Bible; 3 vols.; Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1966),
p. 96.
40 David J.A. Clines (ed.), The Concise Dictionary of Classical Hebrew (Sheffield, UK:
Sheffield Phoenix Press, 2009), p. 456.
41 Tate, Psalms 51–100, p. 127.
42 The verb ‫ ּכמּה‬is a hapax legomenon whose meaning, ‘long, yearn for’, is deduced
from Semitic cognates and from the context. See Clines (ed.), The Concise Dictionary of
Classical Hebrew, p. 178.
43 James L. Crenshaw, The Psalms: An Introduction (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001),
p. 15. It is likely that ‫ צמא‬in the perfect signifies a state of thirst that began in the past and
continues into the present (cf. Judg. 4.19).
that the whole person is involved in the longing.44 The longing of body
and soul speaks of ‘a religion that is satisfied with nothing less than God
himself and is prepared to wait and wait for him.’45
The psalmist’s level of yearning is equal to that of ‘a dry and weary land
without water’. Although the reference to the ‘dry and weary land’ is prob
ably metaphorical,46 it nevertheless provides a vivid image that would
be readily identifiable to the original Palestinian hearers of the psalm. It
recalls a similar statement found earlier in the Psalter: ‘As the deer pants
for the water brooks, so my soul pants for you, O God. My soul thirsts for
God, for the living God’ (Ps. 42.1–2).
The psalmist longs, body and soul, for his God. He longs deeply and
passionately for God’s presence, a presence that he has experienced in
the past. The absence of God is even more painful given the memory of
previous joyful times in the ‘sanctuary’, among the people of God.47 In
God’s holy place, recounts the psalmist, ‘I have seen you, beholding your
power and your glory’. ‘Thus’ (‫)כן‬,
ֵּ ‘as his soul thus thirsted for God and
longed for him, he was allowed to behold him’.48 The psalmist’s longing to
encounter God in the sanctuary finds echoes in other psalmic texts: ‘My
soul longed and even yearned for the courts of the Lord’ (Ps. 84.2); ‘I will
dwell in the house of the Lord forever’ (Ps. 23.6); and ‘that I may dwell in
the house of the Lord all the days of my life, to behold the beauty of the
Lord (Ps. 27.4).

45 John W. McKay, ‘The Experiences of Dereliction and of God’s Presence in the Psalms:
An Exercise in Old Testament Exegesis in the Light of Renewal Theology’, in Paul Elbert
(ed.) Faces of Renewal: Studies in Honor of Stanley M. Horton Presented on His 70th Birthday
(Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 1988), pp. 3–19 (10). In his study of the Psalms,
McKay proposes to ‘look for a moment beneath the skin of (reconstructed) rituals in an
attempt to tap the heartbeat of religious experience in many psalms of lamentation that
speak of dereliction and longing for the presence of God.’
46 Artur Weiser, The Psalms: A Commentary (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1962), p. 454.
Cf. Tate, Psalms 51–100, p. 127, and Crenshaw, Psalms, p. 16.
47 Weiser, The Psalms: A Commentary, p. 454, claims that the setting for the whole
psalm is the sanctuary. Cf. E.W. Hengstenberg, Commentary on the Psalms (3 vols.; Cherry
Hill, NJ: Mack Publishing, 4th edn, 1972), II, p. 303. I would argue, however, that noth
ing in the psalm suggests that the psalmist is in the sanctuary. Instead, he is away from
the sanctuary, and he ‘describes his former times of worship in the sanctuary’ (Stephen J.
Lennox, Psalms: A Bible Commentary in the Wesleyan Tradition [Indianapolis, IN: Wesleyan
Pub. House, 1999], p. 197).
48 Weiser, The Psalms: A Commentary, pp. 454–55.
276 lee roy martin
The psalmist testifies to having ‘seen’ (‫ )חזה‬God.49 Kraus suggests

that the verb probably refers to a theophany,50 but Anderson counters
that although ‫ חזה‬is ‘used as a technical term for receiving prophetic
visions . . . the allusion in verse 2 need not be to a theophany or vision’.51
Attempting to describe the Psalmist’s encounter, Tate writes, ‘The vision
ary experience of the verb ‫“( חזה‬to see/have a vision”) is not described in
detail, and doubtless differed in form and degree among worshipers.’ The
psalmists vision of God may have involved physical rituals and it may
included the ‘verbal and mental, combined with the rich symbolism of
the temple’.52
Whatever form the vision took, it is described here as a manifestation
of God’s ‘power and glory’. The two lines of v. 3 stand in parallel to each
other with the second line refining the first. The phrase, ‘I have seen you’,
is restated as ‘beholding your power and your glory’.53 God’s ‘power’ is his
sovereign capacity to choose, to act, and to intervene in the world (for
both judgment and salvation). His ‘glory’ is the display of his weightiness,
his awesomeness, his majesty, and his holiness. The seeing of God and the
beholding of God’s power and glory refer to an encounter with God, an
experience of God’s presence which he had enjoyed on earlier occasions
and ‘for which the psalmist’s heart thirsts’.54 Kraus concludes, ‘This pro
found high esteem of the communion with God forms the actual center
of the profound psalm’.55
B. Gratitude (vv. 4–6)

Following upon the moving articulation of his unquenchable longing for
God’s presence, the psalmist breaks forth in joyous praise. ‘I will praise
you’, he declares to God, ‘because your kindness (‫ )חסד‬is better than
life’. Before Psalm 63, human life in its fulness, enjoyed in covenant with
49 Clines (ed.), The Concise Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, p. 111, indicates that the word
means ‘see, perceive’.
50 Kraus, Psalms 60–150, p. 19.
51 Anderson, The Book of Psalms, I, p. 456.
52 Tate, Psalms 51–100, p. 127.
53 The infinitive construct here is epexegetical or circumstantial. See Wilhelm Gese
nius, E. Kautzsch, and A.E. Cowley, Gesenius’ Hebrew Grammar (Oxford: The Clarendon
Press, 2d English edn, 1910), §114o; Bruce K. Waltke and Michael Patrick O’Connor, An
Introduction to Biblical Hebrew Syntax (Winona Lake, IN: Eisenbrauns, 1990), §36.2.3e; Paul
Joüon and T. Muraoka, A Grammar of Biblical Hebrew (Subsidia Biblica, 14; Rome: Pontifi
cal Biblical Institute, 1991), §124o. Cf. the RSV.
54 Rogerson and McKay, Psalms, II, p. 65.
55 Kraus, Psalms 60–150, p. 21.
God, was understood as the ultimate benefit of God’s ‫חסד‬, his covenant
loyalty.56 Now, however, the psalmist suggests that God’s kindness and
human life might be envisioned as two separate spheres. Kraus insists
that this ‘discrimination between lovingkindness and life was something
wholly new’.57 Eaton surmises that the psalmist is striving ‘to express the
inexpressible wonder of one who experiences’ God’s covenant love.58 In
agreement with Eaton, Terrien asserts, ‘No other psalmist expresses with
such ambiguous and yet convincing overtones his apprehension of the
divine embrace’.59
In celebration of God’s faithful love, the psalmist pledges to ‘praise’
God, to ‘bless’ God, and to ‘lift up’ his hands to God in worship. Lifting up
the hands is the ‘customary attitude of the worshipper in prayer . . . a sign
of an expectant trust that one’s empty hands will be “filled” with divine
blessings.’60 This elaborate praise will not be offered briefly or intermit
tently; it will continue throughout the psalmist’s ‘life’. He promises to
bless the Lord ‘in perpetual worship’.61
The mood of exuberant jubilation is reinforced with the statement,
‘Like marrow and fatness my soul will be satisfied’. ‘Marrow and fatness’
may ‘form a hendiadys meaning “very rich food” ’,62 or the expression
may refer to ‘the sacrificial feasts which characterised seasons of rejoic
ing before God in the worship of the temple’.63 Either way, the psalmist
anticipates a great feast, but not literally; he is instead contemplating a
kind of satisfaction that will be ‘like’ the satisfaction of a great feast. Thus,
the psalmist again imagines the blessings of God to be distinct from the
material world. The lovingkindness of God is like a sumptuous feast that
quenches the thirst and satisfies the hunger. Because of God’s kindness,
the psalmist can look forward to a full and joyous life; and because he is
blessed, his ‘mouth will offer praise with joyful lips’.
56 Clines (ed.), The Concise Dictionary of Classical Hebrew, p. 126, defines ‫ חסד‬as ‘loyalty,
faithfulness, kindness, love, mercy’, a quite broad definition.
57 Kraus, Psalms 60–150, p. 20.
58 Eaton, The Psalms, p. 235.
59 Terrien, The Psalms, p. 462.
62 Tate, Psalms 51–100, p. 124. Cf. Anderson, The Book of Psalms, I, p. 458.
278 lee roy martin
C. Trust and Commitment (vv. 7–9)

The third section of Psalm 63 continues to express thankfulness, but the
tone transitions to a mood of deep trust and commitment to God. While
vv. 4–6 declare the present and future value of God’s immeasurable kind
ness, vv. 7–9 recall the past benefit’s of the psalmist’s relationship to God.
The psalmist asserts that just as God has been faithful to him, he has been
faithful to God by remembering (‫ )זכר‬God and meditating (‫ )הגה‬upon
God, two activities that signal deep devotion and commitment.
The psalmist remembers that, with God as his ‘help’, he shouted for
joy underneath the covering of God’s ‘wings’, which represent God’s
‘protection’.64 He remembers further that he ‘stuck close’ to God and
that God supported him. The phrase ‘stuck close’ is difficult to translate
into English. The verb ‫ ּדבק‬means ‘to cling, cleave, stick to’ (cf. Gen. 2.24),
but in combination with ‫אחרי‬, it apparently means to ‘pursue or follow
very closely behind’.65 Metaphorically, it signifies ‘loyalty, affection, etc.’.66
Israel is commanded to ‘cling’ to Yahweh (Deut. 10.20; 13.5; Josh. 23.8;
Ps. 119.31). While the psalmist ‘stuck close’ to God, God ‘upheld’ him with
his powerful ‘right hand’. ‘With all the strength of his will he clings to
God, to whom he owes his outward and inward support’.67 This reciprocal
relationship ‘is almost a definition in personalized language of the hesed
relationship between God and his people in the covenant’.68 Calvin com
ments that the psalmist would ‘follow with unwearied constancy, long as
the way might be, and full of hardships, and beset with obstacles.’69
D. Confident Hope (vv. 10–12)

This final section of the psalm registers a mood of confident hope for the
future. The section unfolds through a contrast between the psalmist’s ene

65 Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner, The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the
Old Testament (2 vols.; Leiden: Brill, Study edn, 2001), I, p. 209.
66 Francis Brown et al., The New Brown, Driver, Briggs, Gesenius Hebrew and English
Lexicon: With an Appendix Containing the Biblical Aramaic (trans. Edward Robinson; Pea
body, MA: Hendrickson, 1979), p. 179. Cf. Tate, Psalms 51–100, p. 128.
67 Weiser, The Psalms: A Commentary, p. 455.
68 Rogerson and McKay, Psalms, p. 67. Cf. Stephen J. Lennox, Psalms: A Bible Commen-
tary in the Wesleyan Tradition (Indianapolis, IN: Wesleyan Pub. House, 1999), p. 198.
69 John Calvin, Commentary on the Book of Psalms (trans. James Anderson; Grand Rap
ids, MI: Eerdmans, 1949), p. 383.
mies and ‘the king’. The enemies, who seek ‘to ruin’70 the psalmist, will
‘go into the depths of the earth’, and they will become the ‘prey of foxes’.71
The king, however, will rejoice in God, along with all those who swear
allegiance to God, because the mouths of the deceivers ‘will be stopped’.
The psalmist is confident that justice will prevail, that evil will be pun
ished, and that God’s people ‘will glory’ in their covenant relationship with
God. Wicked enemies, struck down by ‘the sword’, ‘will most certainly
receive their due punishment . . . their dead bodies will be desecrated’ by
wild animals.72 Deprived of a proper burial,73 they will cast down to the
‘underworld’ of the dead.74 In the end, those who seek to ruin God’s peo
ple will themselves be ruined.
The king,75 however, will ‘rejoice in God’, and those who swear alle
giance to ‘him’ will glory. In the phrase ‘swear by him’, the antecedent of
the pronoun ‘him’ is God.76 All who swear by him is the psalmist’s way of
connecting the psalm to the community of faith.77 It ‘is a poetic descrip
tion of the Israelites’,78 and the combined reference to the king and all
who ‘swear’ by God’s name is ‘probably a comprehensive phrase denoting
the whole community of the faithful with the king as its head’.79 Thus, the
king is ‘representative or exemplary of the person who seeks God’.80
The last section of Psalm 63 is a fitting conclusion to this psalm of reori
entation. The psalmist has admitted his sense of separation from God’s
presence (v. 2) and his need to be satisfied by God’s kindness (v. 6). He has
remembered (v. 7) times when he needed God’s help (v. 8) and God came
to his aid. In this final strophe, he acknowledges the ongoing presence of
70 The Hebrew for ‘ruin’ is actually a noun, prefixed with a preposition that suggests
purpose: ‘They seek my life for the purpose of ruin’. See Clines (ed.), The Concise Dictionary
of Classical Hebrew, p. 450, and Koehler and Baumgartner, HALOT, II, p. 1427.
71 Koehler and Baumgartner, HALOT, II, 1445, define ‫ ׁשוּעׁל‬as ‘fox’. So do Brown et al.,
BDB, but they add, ‘perhaps also jackal’ (p. 1048).
73 Lennox, Psalms: A Bible Commentary in the Wesleyan Tradition, p. 198.
74 Kraus, Psalms 60–150, p. 20.
75 Anderson, The Book of Psalms, I, p. 459. Contra Eaton, The Psalms, p. 235, and
Hengstenberg, Commentary on the Psalms, II, p. 301, who argues that the reference to the
king does not necessarily mean that the psalmist must be the king or that this is a royal
psalm.
76 Tate, Psalms 51–100, p. 128; cf. Terrien, The Psalms, p. 464; contra Anderson, The Book
of Psalms, I, p. 459.
77 Tate, Psalms 51–100, p. 128.
78 Weiser, The Psalms: A Commentary, p. 456.
79 Rogerson and McKay, Psalms, p. 67.
80 J. Clinton McCann, Jr., ‘Psalms’, in The New Interpreter’s Bible (Nashville, TN: Abing
don Press, 1996), IV, pp. 639–1280 (928).
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dangerous enemies who threaten his safety. Nevertheless, his past experi
ences of God’s presence (v. 3), God’s covenant loyalty (v. 4), and God’s ten
der care (v. 9) have generated a renewed confidence in God’s faithfulness.
The Psalmist is convinced that God’s people will prevail in the end.
VI. Acknowledging Pentecostal Passions
Psalm 63 is a passionate expression of the psalmist’s spiritual longings

after God. These longings are suggestive of the affective component of
Pentecostal spirituality. I find that the Psalmist’s ‘hunger’ and ‘thirst’
for God is consistent with Pentecostal spirituality and that the desire to
encounter God in the sanctuary is consistent with the goals of Pentecos
tal worship. Chris Green insists that ‘Pentecostal spirituality is nothing
if not a personal engagement’ with God.81 Although I am most familiar
with North American Pentecostalism and do not claim to speak for all
Pentecostals, my associations with Pentecostals in Latin America, Africa,
Australia, Asia, Europe, and the UK lead me to conclude that a passionate
affective spirituality is common to all Pentecostals.82 Like the Psalmist,
the Pentecostal community is hungry and thirsty for God and seeks to
behold God’s power and glory, to lift up their hands in adoration, to testify
of past blessings, to praise God with joyful lips, to shout for joy, to stick
close to God, to rejoice in God, and to live in hope of the coming reign
of God.
The psalmist’s longing for the manifestation of God’s ‘power and glory’
can be compared to Pentecostalism’s ‘holy desire for God Himself ’.83
This longing for God is described repeatedly in early Pentecostal litera
ture. For example, Alice Flower writes, ‘All I seemed to sense was a deep
craving for the overflowing of His love in my heart. At that moment it
81 Chris E.W. Green, Toward a Pentecostal Theology of the Lord’s Supper: Foretasting the
Kingdom (Cleveland, TN: CPT Press, 2012), p. 289 (emphasis in the original).
82 Regarding Korean spirituality, see Julie C. Ma, ‘Korean Pentecostal Spirituality: A
Case Study of Jashil Choi’, Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 5.2 (2002), pp. 235–54, and
Myung Soo Park, ‘Korean Pentecostal Spirituality as Manifested in the Testimonies of
Believers of the Yoido Full Gospel Church’, Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 7.1 (2004),
pp. 35–56 (40–41, 44–48, 55). For African spirituality, see David J. Maxwell, ‘The Durawall
of Faith: Pentecostal Spirituality in Neo-Liberal Zimbabwe’, Journal of Religion in Africa 35.1
(2005), pp. 4–32 (5–6, 21).
83 Daniel Castelo, ‘Tarrying on the Lord: Affections, Virtues and Theological Ethics in
Pentecostal Perspective’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 13.1 (2004), pp. 31–56 (53).
seemed I wanted Jesus more than anything in all the world.’84 Reflecting
on her passion for God, Zelma E. Argue recalls, ‘my whole heart seemed to
just one big vacuum craving and crying for God’.85 Echoing the words of
Ps. 63.6, Alice E. Luce affirms, ‘the Lord is our portion. We have had a real
taste of the Lord and found out that he is a satisfying portion.’86
The Pentecostal longing for God can be described partly as the desire
for a personal encounter with God. Albrecht argues that for ‘Pentecostals,
the entire ritual field and the drama that emerges within the ritual matrix
is aimed toward an encounter’.87 Jaichandran and Madhav agree:
It cannot be denied that the most important value that governs Pentecos
tal spirituality is the locus of individual experience. Viewed positively, this
means that the Pentecostal is not satisfied until he or she has had an experi
ence with God . . . A person is not satisfied by hearing about someone else’s
experience with God; they must experience God themselves.88
Of course, as with any revivalist movement, Pentecostalism has generated
unwelcomed excesses and unbiblical experiences.89 The psalmist’s long
ing for God, however, is not a longing for an experience for experience’s
sake, but it is a longing for God in relation, in covenant; and it is a longing
that Pentecostals seek to imitate.90
The psalmist’s experience of ‘seeing’ God and ‘beholding’ the power
and glory of God are signs to the Pentecostal that God is open to human
encounter. Keith Warrington writes, ‘Two pertinent words when referring
to Pentecostal spirituality are “expectancy” and “encounter”. Pentecos
tals expect to encounter God. It undergirds much of their worship and
84 Alice Reynolds Flower, ‘My Pentecost’, Assemblies of God Heritage 20 (Winter 1997–
98), pp. 17–20 (18); excerpted from her Grace for Grace: Some Highlights of God’s Grace in
the Daily Life of the Flower Family (Springfield, MO: privately published, 1961).
85 Cited by Edith Waldvogel Blumhofer, ‘Pentecost in My Soul’: Explorations in the
Meaning of Pentecostal Experience in the Assemblies of God (Springfield, MO: Gospel Pub.
House, 1989), p. 159.
86 Cited by Blumhofer, Pentecost in My Soul, p. 136.
87 Daniel E. Albrecht, ‘Pentecostal Spirituality: Looking through the Lens of Ritual’,
Pneuma 14.2 (1992), pp. 107–25 (110) (emphasis in the original).
88 Rebecca Jaichandran and B.D. Madhav, ‘Pentecostal Spirituality in a Postmodern
World’, Asian Journal of Pentecostal Studies 6.1 (2003), pp. 39–61 (55).
89 Jaichandran and Madhav, ‘Pentecostal Spirituality in a Postmodern World’, pp. 57, 59.
90 Cf. Cecil M. Robeck, Jr., ‘The Nature of Pentecostal Spirituality’, Pneuma 14.2 (1992),
pp. 103–106 (105), and Veli-Matti Kärkkäinen, ‘ “Encountering Christ in the Full Gospel
Way”: An Incarnational Pentecostal Spirituality’, Journal of the European Pentecostal Theo-
logical Association 27.1 (2007), pp. 9–23 (11–12). Kärkkäinen explicates Pentecostal worship
as the ‘longing for meeting with the Lord’ (pp. 17–20).
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theology and may even be identified as another way of defining worship.’91

From Azusa Street until now, Pentecostals everywhere have insisted upon
the present reality of God’s presence to save, sanctify, fill with the Holy
Spirit, heal, and reign as coming king.92
VII. Conclusions and Implications for Pentecostal Spirituality
In his article on ‘Community and Worship’, Jerome Boone argues that

the ‘single most important goal of any Pentecostal worship service is a
personal encounter with the Spirit of God’.93 This encounter will often
include the manifestation of spiritual gifts and the worshipers will experi
ence ‘the Spirit as transformational power’.94 He points to the importance
of prayer as a ‘divine-human encounter in which burdens are relinquished’
to God, who cares and who has the power to eliminate those burdens.95
Furthermore, Boone observes the value of personal testimony as a means
of honoring God and of forming the faith of the listeners. Boone warns,
however, that the Pentecostal movement is in danger of losing its distinc
tive Pentecostal spirituality. Perhaps we should ask, ‘Has Pentecostalism
left its “first love” (Rev. 2.4)?’
If the Pentecostal movement is to maintain its vitality from generation
to generation, it must periodically reclaim the spiritual passion that we
find demonstrated in Psalm 63. The biblical text functions as a vehicle of
spiritual formation that can inform Pentecostal spirituality and practice.
I would suggest the following ways in which Psalm 63 can help to shape
the spirituality of the Pentecostal movement both now and in the future.
These implications are only suggestive, and they (along with the article
in its entirety) are meant to promote dialogue and creative engagement
with the biblical text.
91 Keith Warrington, Pentecostal Theology: A Theology of Encounter (New York:

T & T Clark, 2008), p. 219. Cf. Daniel E. Albrecht, Rites in the Spirit: A Ritual Approach to
Pentecostal/Charismatic Spirituality (JPTSup, 17; Sheffield, UK: Sheffield Academic Press,
1999), pp. 226, 38–39.
92 The Apostolic Faith 1.1 (Sept. 1906), p. 1 and passim. Writing in the first issue of
Pneuma, William MacDonald, ‘Temple Theology’, Pneuma 1.1 (Spring 1979), insists, ‘Unless
we dare claim that Christianity was fossilized in the first century, we must contend that
the Spirit is still speaking to the churches’ (p. 48). Cf. Cecil M. Robeck, The Azusa Street
Mission and Revival: The Birth of the Global Pentecostal Movement (Nashville, TN: Nelson
Reference & Electronic, 2006), p. 132.
93 R. Jerome Boone, ‘Community and Worship: The Key Components of Pentecostal
Christian Formation’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 8 (1996), pp. 129–42 (137).
94 Boone, ‘Community and Worship’, p. 138.
95 Boone, ‘Community and Worship’, p. 130.
1. The Pentecostal approach to spiritual formation should include the nur

ture and development of the affect. Opportunities for affective engagement
and expression should be offered. These opportunities include affective
expressions through worship, prayer, testimony, and waiting upon God.
In a recent article, Johnathan Alvarado elaborates on the distinc
tive characteristics of Pentecostal worship. He writes, ‘Spirit-filled wor
ship is marked and characterized by a vivid awareness of the presence
of God and the activity of the Holy Spirit within the lives of the saints
and within the context of the worship experience’.96 Alvarado argues that
Spirit-filled leadership in worship requires three things: 1) the ‘skillful han
dling of the biblical text’ as the Word of God, 2) ‘an understanding of the
Spirit’s presence’ and influence, and 3) ‘the intentional involvement of
the congregation’.97 After looking at Psalm 63, I would suggest a fourth
requirement (perhaps as an expansion of number 2): the worship leader
must possess a deep longing to encounter God through the Holy Spirit
and to lead others into that encounter. Worship leaders must conceive of
their ministry as formative, for ‘in worshipping God we come to behold
the object that orients and disposes us properly. One learns to love God
by beholding Him and communing with Him.’98
2. The Pentecostal church must provide frequent and open-ended
opportunities for prayer. Psalm 63.2–9 is a sustained direct address to God,
in which the psalmist uses the second person address, ‘you’, 18 times. The
spiritual life cannot be nurtured without times of deep communion with
God in prayer. Pentecostal spirituality is formed and expressed through
regular and intensive times of prayer and fasting.99 Christian formation
can not be accomplished quickly and without struggle. Discipleship con
sists of more than just right thinking, right teaching, and right doctrine; it
must include right ‘feeling’, that is, rightly oriented affections.
When we read Psalm 63, we are overhearing the prayers of the psalm
ist, and in so doing we are being shaped to follow the psalmist’s example.
Similarly, our prayers should be overheard by others,100 who will learn
from us that honest expressions of pain and struggle are acceptable to
God and that a passion for God’s presence is commendable.
96 Johnathan E. Alvarado, ‘Worship in the Spirit: Pentecostal Perspectives on Liturgical

Theology and Praxis’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 21.1 (2012), pp. 135–51 (143).
97 Alvarado, ‘Worship in the Spirit’, pp. 146–47.
98 Castelo, ‘Tarrying on the Lord’, p. 38.
99 Ma, ‘Korean Pentecostal Spirituality’, p. 238 and passim.
100 Gerald T. Sheppard, ‘Theology and the Book of Psalms’, Interpretation 46 (1992),
pp. 143–55 (143).
284 lee roy martin
3. In our practice of the Pentecostal life and ministry, we must become

hungry and thirsty for God, desperate for God’s presence. The psalmist
expresses dependence upon God as a ‘help’ and as a ‘support’. The psalm
ist feels that he will die of hunger and thirst unless God appears with his
refreshing presence. In many cases, however, our desperation for God’s
presence and help has been supplanted by structures of our own inven
tion, substitutes for the power and glory of God. We can do ‘church’ with
out God. Consequently, prayers of desperation are rarely heard because
we have back up plans, safety nets, and formal structures that can exist
without God’s help.
4. Pentecostalism must reaffirm its eschatological hope. I observe that
verses 10–12 point to the future and could even be considered eschatologi-
cal in focus: The wicked will be punished; those who are faithful to God
will rejoice in God’s protection; and the kingdom of God will manifest
itself as a kingdom of justice and righteousness.
5. Pentecostals face the danger of seeking out experiences rather than
seeking God for God’s sake. In the past, Pentecostals called this kind of
shallow emotionalism ‘wild fire’. On the one hand, it is all to easy for wor
ship to become no more than entertainment or self-gratification. On the
other hand, genuine encounter with God results in a dramatic experience.
It is an experience that cannot be manipulated by ministers and worship
leaders who prompt and prod the congregation until they are worked up
into a frenzy. The disciples’ encounter with God through the Holy Spirit
in Acts 2 was powerful and moving, but it did not occur as a result of their
own artificial efforts. In response to their prayer, their worship, and their
waiting, the Holy Spirit came upon them as an external force sent from
heaven. Similarly, the focus of Psalm 63 is upon the relational quality of
the encounter between the psalmist and God.
6. Pentecostalism must recover the practice of testimony. Psalm 63 is
directed to God, but it is a song that is meant to be heard by the congrega
tion, and as such, it functions as testimony. The psalmist testifies to the
experience of seeing God’s glory in the sanctuary, and to the many times
when God has been a help and a support. This testimony includes aspects
of the psalmist’s spiritual journey, such as times of praise, meditation, and
sticking close to God. The recounting of the psalmist’s own longing for
God is an implicit challenge to the hearer to pursue God with the same
fervent intensity and with the same unreserved yearning.
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—— ‘Hermeneutics and the Historical Precedent: A Major Problem in Pentecostal Herme-
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Graham, Stephen R., ‘ “Thus Saith the Lord”: Biblical Hermeneutics in the Early Pentecostal
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—— Toward a Pentecostal Theology of the Lord’s Supper: Foretasting the Kingdom (Cleve-
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Grey, Jacqueline, Them, Us and Me: How the Old Testament Speaks to People Today (APSS;
Macquarie Centre, NSW: APSS & SCD Press, 2008).
—— Three’s a Crowd: Pentecostalism, Hermeneutics, and the Old Testament (Eugene, OR:
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Harrington, Hannah K., and Rebecca Patten, ‘Pentecostal Hermeneutics and Postmodern
Literary Theory’, PNEUMA: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 16 (1994),
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Herholdt, Marius D., ‘Pentecostal and Charismatic Hermeneutics’, in Adrio König and
S.S. Maimela (eds.), Initiation into Theology: The Rich Variety of Theology and Hermeneu-
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Holmes, Pamela M.S., ‘Acts 29 and Authority: Towards a Pentecostal Feminist Hermeneu-
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Israel, Richard D., Daniel E. Albrecht, and Randal G. McNally, ‘Pentecostals and Herme-
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Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1993).
—— ‘The Adolescence of Pentecostalism: In Search of a Legitimate Sectarian Identity’,
Pneuma 17.1 (Spring 1995), pp. 3–17.
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Journal 34.1 (1999), pp. 7–23.
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(ed.), The Papers of the Henry Luce III Fellows in Theology (3 vols.; Atlanta: Scholars
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Johns, Jackie David, ‘Pentecostalism and the Postmodern Worldview’, Journal of Pentecos-
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—— The Unheard Voice of God: A Pentecostal Hearing of the Book of Judges (JPTSup, 32;
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—— ‘Hearing the Book of Judges: A Dialogue with Reviewers’; Journal of Pentecostal Theol-
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(2010), pp. 708–27.
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—— ‘Longing for God: Psalm 63 and Pentecostal Spirituality’, Journal of Pentecostal Theol-
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Menzies, Robert P., ‘Jumping Off the Postmodern Bandwagon’, PNEUMA: The Journal of the
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pp. 4–5, 11.
—— ‘Approaching God’s Word Biblically: A Pentecostal Perspective’ (Paper presented to
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—— ‘Canon and Charisma in the Book of Deuteronomy’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 1
(1992), pp. 75–92.
—— ‘Deuteronomy and the Fire of God: A Critical Charismatic Interpretation’, Journal of
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—— ‘ “And Also Much Cattle”: Prophetic Passions and the End of Jonah’, Journal of Pente-
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—— ‘Raw Prayer and Refined Theology: “You Have Not Spoken Straight to Me, as My
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pp. 35–48.
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Years Later’, PNEUMA: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 26.1 (2004),
pp. 60–80.
—— Pentecostal and Postmodern Hermeneutics: Comparisons and Contemporary Impact
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Pinnock, Clark H., ‘The Work of the Holy Spirit in Hermeneutics’, Journal of Pentecostal
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—— ‘The Work of the Spirit in the Interpretation of Holy Scripture from the Perspec-
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pp. 157–71.
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to Stated Belief and Back Again’, Pneuma 15.2 (1983), pp. 189–201.
—— ‘The Saviour, Healer and Coming King I Know, but Who in the World Is Jesus? Pen-
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Theology 16.2 (2008), pp. 69–85.
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Sheppard, Gerald T., ‘Biblical Interpretation after Gadamer’, PNEUMA: The Journal of the
Society for Pentecostal Studies 16 (1984), pp. 121–41.
—— ‘Pentecostals and the Hermeneutics of Dispensationalism: The Anatomy of an
Uneasy Relationship’, PNEUMA: The Journal of the Society for Pentecostal Studies 6.2
(1984), pp. 5–33.
—— ‘Word and Spirit: Scripture in the Pentecostal Tradition—Part One’, Agora 1.4 (Spring
1978), pp. 4–5, 17–22.
—— ‘Word and Spirit: Scripture in the Pentecostal Tradition—Part Two’, Agora 2.1 (Sum-
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Writings’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 11 (1997), pp. 49–71.
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(JPTSup, 14; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998).
Spawn, Kevin L., and Archie T. Wright, Spirit and Scripture: Exploring a Pneumatic Herme-
neutic (New York: T & T Clark, 2012).
Spittler, Russell P., ‘Are Pentecostals and Charismatics Fundamentalists? A Review of
American Uses of These Categories’, in Karla Poewe (ed.) Charismatic Christianity as a
Global Culture (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1994), pp. 103–16.
—— ‘Scripture and the Theological Enterprise: View from a Big Canoe’, in Robert K.
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—— ‘Pentecostal Experience and Hermeneutics’, Paraclete 26.1 (1992), pp. 14–30.
—— ‘Pentecostal Hermeneutics: A Review of Gordon D. Fee’, PNEUMA: The Journal of the
Society for Pentecostal Studies 15.2 (1993), pp. 215–22.
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Pentecostal Hermeneutics’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 5 (1994), pp. 41–56.
—— ‘Pentecostal Theology in the Twenty-First Century’, PNEUMA: The Journal of the Soci-
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—— ‘Reading the Bible from within Our Traditions: A Pentecostal Hermeneutic as
Test Case’, in Joel Green and Max Turner (eds.), Between Two Horizons: Spanning
New Testament Studies and Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2000),
pp. 108–122.
—— ‘Pentecostal Explorations of the New Testament: Teaching New Testament Introduc-
tion in a Pentecostal Seminary’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 11.1 (2002), pp. 120–29.
—— ‘Healing in the Atonement: A Johannine Perspective’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology
14.1 (2005), pp. 23–39.
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and Interpretation (London: Routledge, 2007), pp. 165–66.
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Beliefs & Values: Studies in Religion & Education 30.3 (2009), pp. 289–302.
—— ‘ “What the Spirit Is Saying to the Church”—The Testimony of a Pentecostal in New
Testament Studies’, in Kevin L. Spawn and Archie T. Wright (eds.), Spirit and Scripture:
Exploring a Pneumatic Hermeneutic (New York: T & T Clark, 2012), pp. 115–29.
—— ‘Pentecostal Biblical Interpretation’, in Oxford Encyclopedia of Biblical Interpretation
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, forthcoming).
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Mark 16.9–20—A Journey into Pentecostal Hermeneutics’, Journal of Pentecostal Theol-
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Review 77 (1984), pp. 353–75.
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Interpretation’, Journal of Pentecostal Theology 22.1 (2013), pp. 37–53.
Wessels, Willie J., ‘Biblical Hermeneutics’, in Adrio König and S.S. Maimela (eds.), Initia-
tion into Theology: The Rich Variety of Theology and Hermeneutics (Pretoria: Van Schaik,
1998), pp. 261–73.
Wyckoff, John W., ‘The Relationship of the Holy Spirit to Biblical Hermeneutics’ (PhD,
Baylor University, 1990).
Yong, Amos, Spirit-Word-Community: Theological Hermeneutics in Trinitarian Perspective
(Aldershot, England: Ashgate, 2002).
—— ‘Reading Scripture and Nature: Pentecostal Hermeneutics and Their Implications for
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Index of Biblical References
Genesis 4.12 22, 24, 25, 25n

1 68 4.13 22, 23, 27n
2.24 278 4.15 30
4.1 12 4.15–16 24, 126
49.8 274n35 4.15–24 24
4.17–19 26
Exodus 4.21–22 123
7.16 222 4.23–24 24
19.5 86 4.24 25, 126
24.7 217n66 4.24–27 123
4.25 25, 123
Leviticus 4.25–31 25
26.12 274 4.26–27 25
4.29–30 25
Numbers 4.31 25
11.25 20 4.32–40 25
11.27–29 12, 200 4.33 25
11.29 20 4.34–35 26n24
4.35 26, 29
Deuteronomy 4.36 25, 26n23, 24
1 119 4.38 26n24, 26
1–4 123 4.39 26, 27
1.1 122, 123 4.40 27
1.2–3 126 4.44 122, 123, 125
1.6 114, 126, 129 5 16, 21, 22, 24, 27, 28,
1.19–2.25 123 29, 123, 127
1.28–35 118 5.1 24n20, 221
1.29–33 126 5.1–3 27
1.30 126 5.1–5 27
1.33 126 5.2–4 115, 127
1.37 123 5.2–33 114
2.3 126 5.4–5 125
2.16 126 5.5 28
3.22–23 123 5.15 118
4 16, 21, 22, 23, 24, 28, 5.22 27
29 5.22–29 125
4–5 28 5.22–33 27
4.1 24n20 5.23–26 27
4.5–8 22 5.24 206
4.7 22, 22n, 23, 25, 5.24–27 126
127n41 5.24–31 127
4.7–8 23, 26, 29, 127n41 5.25 27
4.8 22, 127n41 5.26 128
4.9–40 23 5.27 23, 27
4.10 119 5.29 28, 119, 125
4.10a 22 5.30 129n46
4.10–12 126 5.31 27, 127, 127n40
4.10–15 114 6–28 123, 124, 127
4.11 22 6.1 122, 123
292 index of biblical references
6.4 225 31.18 129

6.4–5 122 31.21 129n46
7.6 86 31.23 129
7.17–18 118 31.29 125, 129n46
8.2–16 118 32 122, 124, 129
8.3 26n24, 118 32.26–43 125
8.16 118 33 123, 125
9.7 118 33–34 123, 125, 129
9.8–10.11 124, 128 33.1 123
9.13 118 33.2 129
9.19 128 33.8 19n10
9.25 118, 128 34 123, 128
10.20 278 34.10 18, 114, 128, 129
12–28 122, 124, 127n40, 128 34.10–11 26n24
12.1 122, 127n40
13.5 278 Joshua
14.2 86 3.9 221
15.15 118 8.34f 217n66
17.18–19 18 23.8 278
17.19 19 24.23–25 228
18 23n18
18.9–22 17 Judges
18.15 19, 124 2.1–5 230, 232
18.15–18 27 2.2 228
18.15–22 124 2.16 19
18.16 124 2.17a 228
18.16–17 23 2.17b 228
18.16–18 21, 127 2.18 19
18.16–20 114 2.20 228
18.18 124, 127, 129 3.4 228
18.19 19 3.9 19
18.22 19, 19n10 3.15 1923n18
26.18–19 86 4.19 274n43
29–30 122, 124, 129 6.7–8 23n18
29–32 122, 123, 124, 128 6.7–10 230, 232
29.1 122, 123, 128 6.10 228
29.16–30.7 125 10.10–16 230, 232
30.11 22n 19.25 228
30.11–14 22n, 30n32 20.13 228
30.17–18 222
30.20 224 1 Samuel
31 18, 122, 125, 129 10.10–13 20
31.2 125 19.20–24 20
31.9–11 18
31.10 19 1 Kings
31.10–13 122 13 69
31.11 217n66 18.3–4 20
31.11–13 18 22 69
31.13 19 22.19 221
31.14 125, 128
31.14–23 128 2 Kings
31.16 125 2.3 21n15
31.16–18 129n46 4.1 21n15
31.17 129 5.22 21n15
index of biblical references 293
6.1 21n15 63.1–2 263

9.1 21n15 63.1–4 270n25
10 30, 174n11 63.2 272, 276, 279
14.11 222 63.2–3 270n25, 271, 273,
17.13–14 222 274–76
20.16 221 63.2–9 283
22–23 21 63.2–11 270
22.10 217n66 63.3 272, 276, 280
22.14–20 21 63.4 272, 280
22.15–17 30n32 63.4–5 270n25, 273n33
23.2 217n66 63.4–6 271, 273, 276–77,
278
2 Chronicles 63.5 272
34.18 217n66 63.5–8 270n25
34.24 217n66 63.6 272, 279, 281
34.30 217n66 63.6–7 270n25
63.6–8 273n33
Ezra 63.7 272, 279
4.18 217n66 63.7–8 271
4.23 217n66 63.7–9 271, 273, 278
63.8 271n27, 272, 279
Nehemiah 63.8–9 270n25
8.3 217n66 63.9 271, 272, 273n33,
8.8 217n66 280
8.18 217n66 63.9–11 270n25
9.3 217n66 63.10 272
9.17 222 63.10–11 270n25
13.1 217n66 63.10–12 271, 271n29, 274,
278–80, 284
Esther 63.11 272
6.1 217n66 63.12 270n25
65.1 272
Job 84.1 272
23.12 224 84.2 275
42.5 66 85.8 232
101.1 272
Psalms 104.1 272
1.2 224 115.1 272
8.1 272 118.28 274n35
9.1 272 119.1 224
18.1 272 119.31 278
19.10 224 119.62 224
21.1 272 119.97 224
22.11 274n35 138.1 272
23.6 275 140.7 274n35
27.4 275 145.1 272
30.1 272
31.15 274n35 Isaiah
42.1–2 275 6.9–10 224
63 263, 264, 269, 270, 7.14 22n, 242
272, 273, 276, 278, 11 192
279, 280, 282, 283, 28.11 259
284 30.9 222n95
63.1 269, 270 51.7 224
55.3 221 Luke

61.1–2 235 1.27 87
61.2b 235 1.32–33 87
65.12 222n95 1.69 87
2.4 87
Jeremiah 2.11 87
1.5 12 3–7 71
2.4 221 3.31 87
20.8 24n21 4.1–30 71
20.9 128n42 4.16 217n66
22.16 12 4.18–19 235
23.23 22n 6.3 87
23.29 24n21, 128n42 6.12 71
29.29 217n66 10.17 71
31.31–34 52 10.21 71
31.34 12 11.1–13 71
36.6 217n66 12.54–56 236
36.10 217n66 13.27 217n66
36.13 217n66 14–16 71
36.21 217n66 15.21 217n66
18.38–39 87
Ezekiel 19.44 245
12.2 222 20.41–44 87
24.7 238
Hosea 24.32 238
11.9 22n 24.49 71
Joel John
2.23 5 1–5 105
2.28–29 71–72 1.1–14 104
2.28–32 12, 200 1.29 73
1.33 73
Amos 2.4 105
5.14 22n 2.19–21 105
5.25–27 87 3.3–10 105
9.11–12 84, 85, 86 4.10–15 105
4.31–33 105
Zechariah 4.48 105
7.8–14 222–23 5.1–10.42 105
14.6–7 8 6.50–51 106
9.4 8
Matthew 9.38 101, 104
5.14 12 10.11–18 106
5.17 235 10.17–18 105
5.38 235 10.35 235
7.22 69 12.14 7
11.4 77 12.23 105
18.20 13, 260 13–17 48, 105
13.31–14.4 48
Mark 13.34 39
12.28–31 122n30 13.35 39
13 196n73 14 97
16 133 14.1–2 97
16.18 253 14.4 48
14.5 48 2.29–36 87
14.6 79 2.33 77
14.7 38 2.38–39 66
14.15 39, 107 2.42–47 13
14.16–17 37 3 17
14.20 38 3.22 17
14.21 39, 107 4.20 77
14.23 39, 107 4.25 87
14.25 51 5.9 85
14.25–26 37, 38 7.42–44 87
14.25–27 51 7.45 87
14.26 51 13 87
14.27 39n21, 48 13.22–23 87
14.28 104 13.34 87
14.31 39 13.36 87
15.9 39, 107 15 7, 13, 51, 85, 87, 88,
15.10 39 89, 90, 91, 93, 145,
15.11 39n21 146, 206n3, 207,
15.12 48 225, 227, 238
15.12–13 101 15.1–29 84
15.13 39, 107 15.17 86
15.17 39, 48 15.24 88
15.18–25 48 15.28 85, 238
15.18–27 48 15.28–29 236
15.26–27 37, 54 18.26 93
16.4–11 54 21.9 93
16.7–11 37, 48
16.12–15 37, 38, 54 Romans
16.14–15 56 4.17 167
16.15 193 8.1–27 11
16.20–22 39n21 8.26 253
16.22 39n21 12 13
16.27 39, 107 12.1 56n54
16.33 39n21, 101 12.6–8 66n
17.3 56 16.1 93
17.4–5 56 16.3 93
17.6–18 48 16.7 93
17.21 38
18–19 105 1 Corinthians
19.30 104 1.4–7 233
20.28 101, 104 2.1–10 76
2.9–10a 145
Acts 2.10–16 240
1.6 1 2.12–13 62
1.8 12, 74, 77, 138, 245 2.13 65
1.16 87 2.14–15 65
2 24n21, 115 2.16 240
2.1 260 8.1–13 88
2.1–4 13 10.11 7
2.4 33 11.3–16 93
2.16–20 12, 200 11.5 92
2.17 2, 12 12 13
2.25 87 12.7–11 66n
12.14 11 Hebrews
13.9 69 1.1–2 70
14 13, 67, 259 4.12 240
14.32 69 7–10 64
14.33b–35 92, 92n 10.25 13
15.20–28 196n73 12.22–25 196n73
16.19 93
James
2 Corinthians 1.22 262
3.14 217n66
3.14–18 60 1 Peter
3.15 217n66 1–2 56n54
3.16–17 58 2.5 12, 200
5.1–5 196n73 2.9 12, 200
10 77 2.21 7
3.20–21 64
Galatians
1.6–9 139 2 Peter
3.2 139 1.20–21 234
3.5 139 1.21 6
4.21–31 64
3.28 243 1 John
5.2–12 139 1.3 26n27
1.7 12
Ephesians 2.3 37
1.17 239 2.3–5 37
4 13 2.20 238
4.1–16 56n54 2.27 12, 26n27
4.7–17 12 4.1 69
4.1–3 67
Philippians 4.3 37
2.1–13 56n54 4.8 12
4.3 93 4.13–17 12
4.16 37
Colossians 4.20 37
4.15 93 5.1–5 37
4.16 217n66 5.6–12 37
1 Thessalonians Jude
4.9 244 19 65
4.15–17 196n73
5.19 13 Revelation
5.19–21 67 1.3 71, 196, 198, 217n66
5.27 217n66 1.5 201
1.10 71, 201
2 Thessalonians 1.10–16 197
2.1–12 196 1.11 198, 199
1.17–18 202
1 Timothy 1.19b 202
2.11–12 92 2–3 200
3.15–16 234 2.2b 199
5.9–10 93n14 2.4 282
2.7 191
Titus 5.6 193
2.4 92 11.1–13 203
11.11 193 22.10 71, 196, 202

12.11 201 22.17 193
14.13 193 22.18 71
19.10 193, 196, 202 22.18–19 196
22.7 71, 196 22.20 73
22.8 202
Index of Authors
Abbott, N.A. 179 Borsch, Frederick H. 213

Aczel, Richard 213 Botterweck, G.J. 36
Adler, Mortimer 239 Bowring, J. 106
Albom, M. 113 Boyd, Robert Henry 214
Albrecht, Daniel E. 34, 176, 281, 282 Branick, V. 93
Alexander, Kimberly Ervin 211 Brathwaite, Renea 4, 7
Alexander, L. 196, 199 Brett, M.G. 183
Alter, R. 227 Braun, M.A. 86
Althouse, Peter 211 Briggs, Charles Augustus 271, 274, 275,
Alverado, Johnathan E. 283 277
Anderson, A.A. 274, 276, 277, 278, 279 Briggs, Emilie Grace 271, 274, 275, 277
Anderson, Allen 257, 261 Brown, Francis 206, 221, 222, 278, 279
Anderson, Gordon L. 220, 230, 262 Brown, R.E. 37, 38, 51, 54
Anderson, R.M. 176, 177 Bruce, F.F. 201
Anselm 191 Brueggemann, W. 23, 29, 109, 114, 120,
Archer, Gleason L. 221 166, 167, 181, 209, 210, 214, 215, 216, 218,
Archer, Kenneth J. 3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 83, 182, 219, 223, 226, 265, 273
191, 207, 208, 209, 213, 215, 219, 225, 229, Bruner, F.D. 138, 139
250, 258, 259, 260, 268 Buber, Martin 120
Arrington, French L. 6, 15, 83, 84, 132, 133, Bullock, C. Hassell 272
134, 135, 140, 143, 144, 145, 146, 182 Bultmann, R. 36, 37
Aune, D.E. 196, 197, 202 Byrd, Joseph 34, 134, 143, 176
Autry, Arden C. 83
Calvin, John 278
Baker, Robert O. 83, 182, 213, 224, 268 Camery-Hoggatt, Jerry 220
Bar-Efrat, S. 229 Campbell, Iain D. 266
Barr, David 173 Cargal, Timothy B. 3, 6, 7, 83, 135, 142,
Barr, James 35, 218 147, 176, 211, 252
Barrett, C.K. 54 Carroll, Robert P. 209
Barrett, D.B. 177 Carson, D.A. 54
Barth, Karl 206, 219 Cartledge, Mark J. 187, 263, 267, 268
Barthes, R. 98, 99, 100 Castelo, Daniel 280, 283
Bartholomew 266 Chan, Simon 215
Barton, J. 175, 212 Catherine of Siena 266
Bauckham, R.J. 86, 173, 200 Cheadle, Rand 209
Baumgartner, Walter 278, 279 Childs, Brevard S. 184, 214, 215
Becker, Matthias 209 Chilton, Bruce D. 215
Beckwith, I.T. 172 Cimpean, F. 172
Berkouwer, G.C. 227 Clapper, Gregory S. 100, 101, 104, 266
Best, Thomas F. 213 Clark, Mathew S. 182, 209
Birch, Bruce C. 230 Clements, R.E. 111
Birkey, D. 93 Clines, David J.A. 163, 173, 260, 274, 276,
Blair, E. 114 277, 279
Blenkinsopp, Joseph 115 Cole, Graham 240
Bloesch, D.G. 40, 139 Collins, J.J. 196
Blumhofer, Edith Waldvogel 281 Collins, Kenneth J. 266
Boadt, L. 22 Conn, Charles 151
Boff, C. 46 Corner, M. 187
Boone, Jerome R. 282 Coughenour, Robert A. 213
index of authors 299
Coulter, Dale 266, 267 Genette, G. 173

Cowley, A.E. 276 Gerkin, C.V. 113
Cox, H. 176, 188, 257 Gesenius, Wilhelm 276
Crenshaw, James L. 214, 274, 275 Gillmayr-Bucher, Susanne 271
Crite, S. 112 Goldingay, John 155, 198, 205, 212, 218,
Croatto, J. Severino 256 229, 273
Culler, J. 96 Graham, Stephen R. 3, 5, 7
Culpepper, R.A. 104 Green, Chris E.W. 5, 8, 9, 280
Green, Joel B. 213, 239
Dahood, Mitchell J. 274 Groome, T. 36, 43, 44, 47, 157
Davies, Andrew 258 Gros, Jeffrey 267
Davies, P. 183 Gunkel, Hermann 140, 218
Dayton, Donald W. 132, 138, 139, 176, 180, Gunn, David M. 218, 229
248
DeClaissé-Walford, Nancy L. 272 Handelman, S. 157
Deere, Jack 191 Hanson, Paul D. 181, 206
Delitzsch, Franz 274 Harrelson, W. 28
Dempster, Murray W. 132, 176 Harrington, Hannah K. 210
Derrida, J. 174 Harris, R. Laird 221
Dickie, Margaret 215 Haverwas, Stanley 161
Dowd, Michael B. 24, 34, 112, 220, 229 Haya-Prats, G. 140
Draper 220 Hays, R.B. 83
Dunn, James D.G. 138, 140, 141, 236, 238 Hengstenberg, E.W. 275
Dupont, J. 87 Herholdt, Marius D. 4, 5, 7, 8, 210, 223,
Dykstra, Craig 56 225, 226, 227, 230
Hessel-Robinson, Timothy 266
Eaton, John 274, 277, 279 Hill, D. 140
Edge, F.B. 41 Hill Jim 209
Edgerton, W. Dow 268 Hocken, P.D. 178
Edwards, Johnathan 266 Holladay, William L. 206, 221
Eissfeldt, Otto 214 Hollenweger, W.J. 34, 137, 141, 175, 176,
Ellington, Scott A. 9, 171, 190, 208, 211, 219 188, 195, 219, 250
Ellis, E.E. 83 Holub, R.C. 103
d’Epinay, Christian Lalive 136 Horton, S.M. 192
Ervin, Howard M. 5, 6, 7, 83, 140, 145, 261 Hubbard, D.A. 86
Evans, C.A. 83 Hunter, H.D. 140
Even-Shoshan, Avraham 221, 222, 225 Huntsinger, George 229
Hutchison, John Alexander 213
Faupel, D.W. 176, 180, 230
Fee, Gordon 93, 143, 223 Irenaeus 65
Fewell, Danna N. 26, 229 Iser, W. 102, 103, 104
Feyerabend, Paul K. 227 Irvin, D.T. 181
Fiorenza, E. Schüssler 172 Israel, Richard D. 34, 176
Fish, S. 172, 199
Flower, Alice Reynolds 281 Jaichandran, Rebecca 281
Fohrer, Georg 214 Jefferson, A. 176
Fokkelman, J.P. 270 Jensen, Richard A. 217
Fowl, S.E. 172, 175, 185, 191 Jeske, R.L. 201
Franck, E. 37, 54 Johns, Cheryl Bridges 26, 29, 44, 45, 83,
Frei, H.W. 175, 229 157, 158, 181, 184, 187, 189, 190, 194, 198,
Freire, P. 44 199, 207, 218, 226
Fretheim, Terence 215 Johns, Jackie David 4, 26, 29, 38, 83, 133,
164, 184, 185, 207, 218, 226
Gadamer, Hans-Georg 158 Johnson, L.T. 85
Gause, R. Hollis 192, 193 Johnston, R. 142
300 index of authors
Jones, L.G. 172 Martin, Francis 34, 50, 51, 52, 192

Joüon, Paul 276 Martin, J.P. 147
Joy, Donald 47 Martin, Lee Roy 264, 265, 268, 269
Martin, R. 179
Kaiser, W.C. 86 Maxwell, David J. 280
Kärkkäinen, Veli-Matti 209, 219, 252, 281 Mazzaferri, F.D. 197
Käsemann, Ernst 236 McCann Jr., J. Clinton 279
Kaufman, S. 122 McClymond, Michael James 266
Kautzsch, E. 276 McConville, J.G. 115, 119, 121
Keil, C.F. 86 McDermott, Gerald R. 266
Kelsey, David 165 McDonnell, K. 179
Kermode, F. 108 McGroarty, Brendan Ignatius 266
Kimbrough, S.T. 266 McKay, John W. 2, 5, 16, 70, 83, 144, 170,
Kitchen, K.A. 112 182, 215, 216, 271, 275, 276, 278, 279
Kleinart, P. 121 McKnight, E.V. 147
de Klerk, Johannes C. 229 McLean, Mark D. 83, 136, 142, 144
Kline, M.G. 18, 112 McLuhan, Marshall 217, 218
Koehler, Ludwig 278, 279 McNally, Randal G. 34, 83, 176
Kok, Johnson Lim Teng 223 McQueen, Larry R. 2, 182, 216, 227
Kourie, Celia 265 Millar, J.G. 115
Kraft, Charles 166 Miller, Patrick D. 18, 22, 109, 129, 208,
Kraus, Hans Joachim 271, 274, 276, 277, 279 213, 215
Minto, Andrew L. 261, 262
Land, Steven J. 3, 4, 9, 96, 100, 101, 132, Menzies, Robert P. 83, 140, 141, 142, 176,
136, 137, 138, 156, 172, 176, 180, 181, 187, 210, 211
188, 190, 194, 199, 208, 209, 216, 224, 226, Menzies, William W. 136, 142, 143, 211
227, 228, 230, 263, 267 Moody, D. 51
Lake, K. 88 Moore, Rickie D. 2, 9, 52, 83, 84, 126, 174,
Lapsley, Jacqueline E. 213 182, 184, 188, 189, 194, 197, 200, 206, 207,
LaSor, William Sanford 214 209, 213, 215, 216, 220, 224, 229
LeBar, Lois E. 47 Moore, S.D. 96, 173, 174
Leder, Arie, C. 213 Morgan, R. 175, 212
Lederle, H. 139 Mowinckel, S. 20
Lennox, Stephan J. 275, 278, 279 Mudge, Lewis Seymour 223
Levison, J. 187 Muilenburg, James 213
Lewis, B. Scott 210 Muraoka, T. 276
Lewis, J.P. 35
Lewis, W.H. 186 Nave 3
Limburg, James 270 Nel, M. 4, 7, 8
Loder, James 42 Niccacci, Alviero 272
Longenecker, Richard N. 238 Nida, Eugene Albert 222
Lossky, Vladimir 266 Niditch, Susan 217, 218
Louw, J.P. 222 Nogalski, James 213
Ma, Julie C. 280, 283 O’Conner, Michael Patrick 276

Macchia, F.D. 179, 200, 246 O’Connor, E.D. 179
MacDonald, W.G. 34, 143, 282 O’Day, Gail R. 259
Maddox, Randy L. 266 O’Donnell, James J. 217
Madhav, B.D. 281 Ognibene, Richard 267
Maguire, Daniel C. 265 Olson, Dennis T. 109, 114, 121, 122, 123, 124,
Malbon, Elizabeth Struthers 213 127, 128, 129
March, W.E. 20 Ong, Walter J. 217, 218, 220
Marshall, I. Howard 141 Osborne, Grant R. 173
index of authors 301
Palmer, P. 39, 53, 165, 166 Segovia, F.F. 187

Pannell, Randall J. 207 Sellin, Ernst 214
Park, Myung Soo 280 Seymour, William J. 178
Patrick, Mary W. 223, 229 Shelton, J.B. 140
Patte, Daniel 207, 208, 210, 211, 225 Sheppard, Gerald T. 1, 2, 3, 6, 83, 133, 135,
Patten, Rebecca 210 138, 147, 213, 283
Paul, I. 183 Silberman, Lou H. 217
Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan 218 Smit, Dirkie J. 210
Penaskovic, Richard 267 Smith, James K.A. 191, 198, 219, 233, 264
Peterson, Eugene H. 216 Smith, John E. 266
Peterson, N.R. 176 Snodgrass, Klyne 213, 232
Peulo, P.-A. 87 Sobrino, J. 46
Pietersen, L. 179 Spittler, Russell P. 3, 7, 135, 136
Pinnock, Clark H. 82, 148, 156, 160, 184, Stanton, G. 148
185, 198, 227, 233, 237 Steinmetz, David C. 186, 265
Piper, A. 36, 37 Stephanou, B.A. 179
Placher, William C. 229 Stibbe, M. 105
Plüss, Jean-Daniel 3, 113, 176 Stronstad, Roger 2, 6, 30, 83, 115, 140, 143,
Proudfoot, Wayne L. 266 144, 182, 200, 216
Poirier, John C. 210 Stroup, G.W. 112
Poloma, Margaret M. 117, 133, 179 Stuart, Douglas K. 223
Polzin, Robert 109 Sugirtharajah, R.S. 187
Pope, L. 177 Sullivan, F.A. 116, 179
Pope-Levison, P. 187 Swartley, Willard M. 244
Porter, J.R. 21 Sweeney, Marvin A. 213
Powell, M.A. 173 Synan, V. 136, 176, 211
Provan, Iain W. 210
Talmon, S. 16, 21
Quebedeaux, R. 178 Tate, Marvin E. 270, 273, 274, 275, 276,
277, 278, 279
von Rad, Gerhard 214 Tate, W.R. 173, 212
Ranaghan, D. 179 Terrien, Samuel 24, 270–71, 277, 279
Ranaghan, K. 179 Tertullian 65, 182
Reid 220 Thiselton, Anthony C. 175, 254
Richards, Larry 47 Thomas, John Christopher 6, 7, 9, 143,
Ricoeur, Paul 223 145, 146, 147, 151, 171, 175, 182, 194, 198,
Robeck Jr., Charles M. 151, 281, 282 199, 206, 207, 209, 225, 227
Roberts, Mark, E. 258 Todorov, T. 173
Rogerson, J.W. 271, 276, 278, 279 Tolbert, M.A. 187
Roennfeldt, C.W. 234 Tompkins, J.P. 174
Rofé, A. 17 van der Tourn, K. 20
Rogers, Jack Bartlett 239 Turner, B. 147
Rowland, C. 187, 197 Turner, M. 88, 140
Runyon, Theodore 45
Ryan, Thomas 267, 268 Valdes, M.J. 103
Rybarczyk, Edmund J. 266 Van Seters, John 218
Vos, Clarence 213
Sanders, J.A. 83 Vroege, David A. 213
Schipani, Daniel 42, 46
Schmemann, Alexander 266 Wacker, Grant 3, 6, 132, 133, 134, 176
Schneiders, Sandra M. 241 Waddell, Robby 209, 213, 260, 261
Schwarz, Tony 220 Wagner, C.P. 179
Schweizer, E. 140, 200 Walker, G. 135
302 index of authors
Wall, Robert W. 202 Wessels, Willie J. 212, 218

Walsh, M.E. 95 West, G. 187
Waltke, Bruce K. 221, 276 Westermann, Claus 20, 273
Ward, Roger 266 Wiesel, Elie 240
Warfield, B.B. 234 Wilcock, Michael 270
Warren, Joyce W. 215 Williamson, Peter S. 242
Warrington, Keith 251 Wilson, M.W. 196
Watson, F. 148, 175, 183, 184, 185, 189 Wink, Walter 164
Watts, I. 107 Woudstra, Sierd 213
Weber, Max 115 Wyckoff, John W. 82, 182
Weiser, Artur 275, 278, 279
Wenger, Etienne 225 Yee, Gale A. 207
Wesley, John 41

Pentecostal Hermeneutics

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What is the book about?

What is the book about?

What topics are discussed in the book?

What topics are discussed in the book?

Pentecostal Hermeneutics

Lee Roy Martin

Pentecostal hermeneutics : a reader / edited by Lee Roy Martin.

ISBN 978-90-04-25729-0 (paperback)

Copyright 2013 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1. Introduction to Pentecostal Hermeneutics ....................................... 1

2. A Pentecostal Approach to Scripture .................................................. 11

3. Canon and Charisma in the Book of Deuteronomy ....................... 15

4. Yielding to the Spirit: A Pentecostal Approach to Group

5. When the Veil is Taken Away: The Impact of Prophetic

6. Women, Pentecostalism, and the Bible: An Experiment in

7. Pentecostal Bible Reading: Toward a Model of Reading for

8. Deuteronomy and the Fire of God: A Critical Charismatic

9. Pentecostal Hermeneutics: Retrospect and Prospect ....................... 131

10. Pentecostalism and the Authority of Scripture ............................... 149

11. Hearing What the Spirit Says to the Churches: Profile of a

12. Hearing the Voice of God: Pentecostal Hermeneutics and

13. The Work of the Spirit in the Interpretation of Holy Scripture

14. What Does It Mean to Read the Bible as a Pentecostal? ............. 249

15. Psalm 63 and Pentecostal Spirituality: An Exercise in Affective

Bibliography of Works on Pentecostal Hermeneutics ......................... 285

or Evangelical approaches, both of which are founded upon the modernist

Lee Roy Martin

Introduction to Pentecostal Biblical Hermeneutics

Lee Roy Martin*

Only recently have Pentecostal scholars begun to reflect critically upon

The hermeneutics of the apostles changed on the Day of Pentecost.2

2 Cf. Sheppard, ‘Biblical Interpretation after Gadamer’, p. 132.

nineteenth century. The Pentecostal movement emerged from a religious

7 Kenneth J. Archer, A Pentecostal Hermeneutic: Spirit, Scripture and Community (Cleve-

Pentecostal worldview is affective experience of God which generates an

20 Herholdt, ‘Pentecostal and Charismatic Hermeneutics’, p. 425.

modern scholarship (both liberal and conservative) excluded consider-

human reason.30 ‘The truthfulness of Scripture’, writes Kenneth Archer,

30 Spittler, ‘Are Pentecostals and Charismatics Fundamentalists? A Review of American

Christ is the import of OT Scripture, the OT can and should be allowed to

39 Green, ‘ “Treasures Old and New” ’, pp. 12–13.

1. The work of the Spirit in making faithful interpretation possible, inspir-

As Green acknowledges, most of the contemporary discussions regarding

44 Scott A. Ellington, ‘Locating Pentecostals at the Hermeneutical Round Table’, JPT

A Pentecostal Approach to Scripture*

How should Scripture be approached? On this question we believe Pente-

1. The Holy Spirit addresses us in ways which transcend human reason

* This chapter was first published as ‘A Pentecostal Approach to Scripture’, Seminary

2. Experience is vital to knowing the truth

Pentecostal faith is not, as some have caricatured, an experience based

3. The Spirit calls every individual believer to be a witness of the truth

4. Knowledge of the truth is inseparable from active membership in the

Canon and Charisma in the Book of Deuteronomy*

As everyone knows, biblical study is experiencing a revolution. Interpreta-

* First published in the Journal of Pentecostal Theology 1 (1992), pp. 75–92.

over, discernment of these possibilities has been equally impeded among

itself sets up by its closing acknowledgement that ‘a prophet like Moses’

presentations of the prophetic tradition in other parts of the Old Testa-

12 Indeed, a consensus of modern scholarship on Old Testament prophecy is that most

1. The work of the Spirit in making faithful interpretation possible, inspir-