Understanding Neutron Radiography Reading III Rev

Understanding
Neutron Radiography
Reading III Rev.1
My ASNT Level III,
Pre-Exam Preparatory
Self Study Notes
3 July 2015
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang

Nuclear Source- Plasma Fusion
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://homework55.com/apphysicsb/ap5-28-08/

Nuclear Source- Plasma Fusion

Nuclear Source- Plasma Fusion 中国合肥核聚反应堆
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://iterchina.cn/

Nuclear Source- Plasma Fusion 中国合肥核聚反应堆

Nuclear Source-Reactors


Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://homework55.com/apphysicsb/ap5-28-08/

The Magical Book of Neutron Radiography

ASNT Certification Guide
NDT Level III / PdM Level III
NR - Neutron Radiographic Testing
Length: 4 hours Questions: 135
1. Principles/Theory
• Nature of penetrating radiation
• Interaction between penetrating radiation and matter
• Neutron radiography imaging
• Radiometry
2. Equipment/Materials
• Sources of neutrons
• Radiation detectors
• Non-imaging devices

3. Techniques/Calibrations • Electron emission radiography
• Blocking and filtering • Micro-radiography
• Multifilm technique • Laminography (tomography)
• Enlargement and projection • Control of diffraction effects
• Stereoradiography • Panoramic exposures
• Triangulation methods • Gaging
• Autoradiography • Real time imaging
• Flash Radiography • Image analysis techniques
• In-motion radiography
• Fluoroscopy

4. Interpretation/Evaluation
• Image-object relationships
• Material considerations
• Codes, standards, and specifications
5. Procedures
• Imaging considerations
• Film processing
• Viewing of radiographs
• Judging radiographic quality
6. Safety and Health

• Exposure hazards
• Methods of controlling radiation exposure
• Operation and emergency procedures
Reference Catalog Number

NDT Handbook, Third Edition: Volume 4,
Radiographic Testing 144
ASM Handbook Vol. 17, NDE and QC 105
Fion Zhang at Shanghai
3th July 2015
http://meilishouxihu.blog.163.com/

Greek
Alphabet

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://greekhouseoffonts.com/
Why Neutron Radiography?
"finding lead in a paraffin block (or a needle in a haystack) would work for x
rays while looking for paraffin in a lead block or a straw in a needle-stack
would work for neutrons."



■ http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/
Neutron Cross Section of the elements
■ http://periodictable.com/Properties/A/NeutronCrossSection.html

Screen Types-1
1. Transfer screen-indium or dysprosium, In, Dy, Gold, Silver, Rhodium,
Europium, Samarium.
2. Thermal neutron filter using Cadmium for epithermal neutron radiography,
Cd. Lithium resonance direct screen.
3. Converter screen uses gadolinium which emit beta particles, γ, conversion
electron.
4. the beta particles are caught by a fluorescing zinc sulfide material
5. Scintillator screen: Zinc sulfide, Lithium carbonate, plastid scintillator,
Gadolinium oxysulfide.
6. Accelerator (H+, 2H+)Target material: Beryllium, Be or lithium Li.
7. Boron used for neutron shields.

Screen Types-2
1. Beam filter, Beryllium thermalized thermal neutron further and pass only
cold neutron.
2. Cadmium remove thermal & cold neutrons and pass epithermal neutrons.
3. Fast neutron direct radiography used Tantalum or transfer radiography
with Holmium.
4. Gadolinium Gd, conversion screens emit- (1) gamma rays and (2)
conversion electronn
5. Dysprosium (165m66Dy) conversion screens emit: (1) high-energy betas β,
(2) low-energy gamma γ, and (3) internal-conversion electrons e-.

TABLE 6. Properties of Some Thermal Neutron Radiography Conversion Materials
Material Useful Reactions Cross Section for Life
Thermal Neutrons (barns)
Lithium 6Li(n,α) 3H 910 prompt
Boron 10B(n,α) 7Li 3,830 prompt
Rhodium 103Rh(n)104mRh 11 45 min
103Rh(n)104Rh 139 42 s
Silver 107Ag(n)108Ag 35 2.3 min
109Ag (n)110 Ag 91 24 s
Cadmium 113Cd((n,γ)114Cd 20,000 prompt
Indium 115 In(n)116n 157 54 min
115 In(n)116mln 42 14 s
Samarium 149Sm(n,γ) 150Sm 41,000 prompt
I52 Sm(n)153Sm 210 47 h
Europium 151 Eu(n)152Eu 3,000 9.2 h
Gadolinium 155 Gd(n,γ) I56Gd 61,000 prompt
157 Gd(n,γ)158Gd 254,000 prompt
Dyprosium 164 Dy(n)165mDy 2,200 1.25 min
164 Dy(n)165Dy 800 140 min
Gold 197 Au(n)198Au 99 2.7 days

The letter m is sometimes appended after the mass number to indicate a
nuclear isomer, a metastable or energetically-excited nuclear state (as
opposed to the lowest-energy ground state), for example 165mDy
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotope
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://crete.homeip.net/show_nuclide/660465/

TABLE 6. Properties of Some Thermal Neutron Radiography Conversion
Materials

IVONA TTS Capable.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.naturalreaders.com/

Reading III
Content
 Reading One: ASNTHBVol4Chapter16
 Reading Two: Assorted
 Reading Three: Neutron Radiography State of Art Report
- NTIAC-SR-98-01
 Reading Four:

Reading-1
ASNTHBVol4Chapter16

PART 1. Applications of Neutron Radiography
Neutron radiation is similar to X-radiation. The radiation can originate from an
effective point source or can be collimated to shine through an object in a
coherent beam. The pattern of penetrating radiation can then be studied to
reveal clues about the internals of the object. The information conveyed can
be very different from that obtainable with X-rays. Whereas X-rays are
attenuated by dense metals more than by hydrocarbons, neutrons are
attenuated more by hydrocarbons than by most metals.
The difference can mean much more than the reversal of a positive image to
a negative image. Neutrons, for example, can reveal details within high
density surroundings that cannot be revealed by other means. A typical
application for neutron radiography is shown in the images of a pyrotechnic
device (Fig. 1), where the small explosive charge is encased in metal. Other
applications include inspection of explosive cords used in pilot ejector
mechanisms; inspection of gaskets, seals and O-rings inside metallic valves;
confirmation that coolant channels in jet engine turbine blades are free of
blockage; studies of coking in jet engine fuel nozzles; and screening of
aircraft panels to detect low level moisture or early stage corrosion in
aluminum honeycomb (Fig. 2).
FIGURE 1. Electric bridge wire squid: (a) drawing and (b) neutron radiograph
of part as aid to interpretation; (c) helium-3 gaseous penetrant applied to
serviceable unit; (d) penetrant applied to dysfunctional unit.

(b)

(c)

(d)

FIGURE 2. Comparison of neutron radiographs of moisture globules in
aluminum honeycomb panel, later dried: (a) before processing; (b) after
processing.
(a)

FIGURE 2. Comparison of neutron radiographs of moisture globules in
aluminum honeycomb panel, later dried: (a) before processing; (b) after
processing.
(b)

User’s Guide
Unlike many other forms of nondestructive testing, neutron radiography is not
a do-it-yourself technique. There have been neutron radiography service
centers in the United States since 1968. To try out neutron radiography on an
object of interest, it is simply necessary to locate the services currently
available and, if agreed, mail your item to them. Typically, the neutron
radiograph and your item will be mailed back within a day or two. The cost
could be less than 1 or 2 h of an engineer’s time. If assistance is required to
interpret the findings, this too may be requested on a service basis, as may
referrals to more specialized neutron radiographic techniques. The providers
of neutron radiography services use equipment and expertise that is highly
specialized. Even though one or more neutron radiography service centers
have been operating successfully for over 30 years, there has been no in-
house neutron radiography available at any general service, commercial
nondestructive testing center.

The interested user is therefore advised to seek a supplier of neutron
radiographic services using leads such as society directories or the published
literature. Because neutrons are fundamentally different from X-rays, any
object that is a candidate for inspection by X- adiography could also be a
candidate for neutron radiography. If X-rays cannot give sufficient information,
then trials with neutron techniques may be prudent. The most frequently
successful complement to X-radiography is static radiography with thermal
neutrons. This approach is reviewed next.
Then more specialized neutron radiology techniques are reviewed, such as
neutron (1) computed tomography, (2) dynamic neutron imaging, (3) high
frame rate neutron imaging, (4) neutron induced autoradiography and (5)
neutron gaging.
For each of the neutron radiology techniques different neutron energies may
be selected. The user should be aware that many of the specialized services
are only available at one or two centers worldwide. It is therefore important to
shop in the global market and to take advantage of the excellent
communications existing between neutron radiography centers in various
countries.

PART 2. Static Radiography with Thermal Neutrons
2.1 Neutron Energy
Thermal energy neutrons are those that have collided repeatedly with a
moderator material, typically graphite or water (plastid, paraffin, graphite) ,
such that they reach an equilibrium energy with the thermal energy of the
moderator nuclei.
The attenuation coefficients for thermal neutrons differ from material to

material in a way that is different from X-rays as shown in Table 1. As a
consequence, a high degree of contrast between the elements in an object is
possible. In addition, thermal neutrons are relatively easy to obtain and easy
to detect.
Keywords:
Thermal Neutron: they reach an equilibrium energy with the thermal energy of
the moderator nuclei.

TABLE 1. Comparison of X-ray and thermal neutron attenuation.
a. Other materials relatively transparent to thermal neutrons include gold,

silver, platinum, titanium, silicon, tin and zinc.
b. Other materials relatively opaque to thermal neutrons include hydrogenous
oils, plastics, rubbers, explosives and light elements boron and lithium.

TABLE 6. Properties of Some Thermal Neutron Radiography Conversion Materials
Material Useful Reactions Cross Section for Life
Thermal Neutrons (barns)
Lithium 6Li(n,α) 3H 910 prompt
Boron 10B(n,α) 7Li 3,830 prompt
Rhodium 103Rh(n)104mRh 11 45 min
103Rh(n)104Rh 139 42 s
Silver 107Ag(n)108Ag 35 2.3 min
109Ag (n)110 Ag 91 24 s
Cadmium 113Cd((n,γ)114Cd 20,000 prompt
Indium 115 In(n)116n 157 54 min
115 In(n)116mln 42 14 s
Samarium 149Sm(n,γ) 150Sm 41,000 prompt
I52 Sm(n)153Sm 210 47 h
Europium 151 Eu(n)152Eu 3,000 9.2 h
Gadolinium 155 Gd(n,γ) I56Gd 61,000 prompt
157 Gd(n,γ)158Gd 254,000 prompt
Dyprosium 164 Dy(n)165mDy 2,200 1.25 min
164 Dy(n)165Dy 800 140 min
Gold 197 Au(n)198Au 99 2.7 days

2.2 Neutron Collimation
Because the source of thermal neutrons is a dispersed moderator volume,
rather than a point source, it is necessary to use a collimator between the
source and the object.
In preference to a (1) single tube parallel sided collimator or a (2) multiple slit
(channels) collimator, the most frequently used design uses (3) divergent
beam geometry.
The collimator may be used to extract a beam in any one of a variety of

different geometries including horizontal or vertical, radial or tangential to the
source.
A collimator that is tangential to the source can provide a thermal neutron
beam relatively free of fast neutron and gamma ray contamination.
An incidental consequence of the divergent collimator principal is that even
very large objects can be radiographed using an array of side-by-side films
(Fig. 3).

FIGURE 3. Radiographs of full size motorcycle: (a) neutron radiograph; (b) x-
radiograph.

The source of thermal neutrons is a dispersed moderator volume, rather
than a point source
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang ASMV17 Neutron Radiography

Parallel & Divergent Collimator -
Fig. 2 Thermalization and collimation of beam in neutron radiography. Neutron collimators can be of the
parallel-wall (a) or divergent (b) type. The transformation of fast neutrons to slow neutrons is achieved by
moderator materials such as paraffin, water, graphite, heavy water, or beryllium. Boron is a typically used
neutron-absorbing layer. The L/D ratio, where L is the total length from the inlet aperture to the detector
(conversion screen) and D is the effective dimension of the inlet of the collimator, is a significant geometric
factor that determines the angular divergence of the beam and the neutron intensity at the inspection plane
Ug =D∙ t/L
I = Ф/16∙(L/D)2
I = Ioe –μnt
μn = N’σ
N’ = nuclei/cm2
N’ = ρN/A
N = Avogadro's number
μn = N’σ = [ρN/A]∙σ

For photons:
I = Ioe –μx t Eq.1

For Neutron
I = Ioe –Nσt = Ioe –μn t Eq.2

Where:
 I is the transmitted beam;
 Io is the incident beam;
 μx is the linear attenuation coefficient for photons;
 t is the thickness of specimen in the beam path;
 N is the number of atoms per cubic centimeter;
 σ is the neutron cross section of the particular material or isotope
(a probability or effective area); and,
 μn is the linear attenuation coefficient for neutrons (μn = Nσ).

5.1 Neutron cross sections
Neutron cross sections are defined in Part 1 of this Section. Values for thermal neutrons for many materials (elements) are given
in Table 9 (see Bibliography item 8 for a more extensive compilation). Generally, neutron cross sections decrease with increasing
neutron energy; exceptions include resonances, as mentioned earlier. Cross section values can be used to calculate the
attenuation coefficients and the neutron transmission as shown in eqs. 1 and 2. For compound inspection materials, the method
for calculating the linear attenuation coeffici ent is shown following Table 9.
If the material under inspection contains only one element, then the linear attenuation coefficient is:
μ = ρ∙Nσ/ A Eq.7 (where ρ∙N/A is the number of nuclei/cm2)

Where:
μ -is the linear attenuation coefficient of specific neutron (cm-1 ) ;
ρ is the material density (g/cm3);
N is Avogadro's number (6.023 X 1023 atoms/gram-molecular weight) ;
σ is the total cross section in barns (cm2 ) ; and
A is the gram atomic weight of material.

2.3 Neutron Imaging
■ Collimation Ratio
The collimation ratio is the ratio L·D-1 of the collimator length L to aperture
diameter D. This ratio helps to predict image sharpness.
■ Imaging Processes
For static thermal neutron radiography of nonradioactive objects, two
important imaging processes are (1) the gadolinium converter with single
emulsion X-ray film and (2) the neutron sensitive storage phosphor (neutron
imaging plate).
For static neutron radiography of radioactive objects, additional imaging
processes are (1) dysprosium foil activation transfer to film, (2) indium foil
activation transfer to film and (3) track etch imaging using a boron converter
and cellulose nitrate film.

The established direct imaging technique uses thin gadolinium layer vapor
deposited on a solid converter screen, which is held flat against a single
emulsion film inside a vacuum cassette of thin aluminum construction. An
exposure of 109 neutrons per square centimeter (109 n/cm2) can give a high
resolution, high contrast radiograph if careful dust free film darkroom
procedures are used.
Neutron sensitive imaging plates consist of a thin phosphor layer containing a
mixture of storage phosphor, neutron converter and organic binder. Following
the neutron exposure stage is the information readout phase, in which the
plate is scanned by a thin laser beam stimulating the emission of a pattern of
light.
Merits of this neutron imaging technique include five decades of linearity (?) ,
wide dynamic range, direct availability of digital data for processing converter
efficiencies of 30 to 40 percent, and spatial resolution acceptable for some
applications.

For neutron radiography of highly radioactive objects, dysprosium and indium
foil activation transfer to film and track etch imaging each offer complete
discrimination against gamma ray fogging. Examples of nuclear fuel neutron
radiography are shown in Fig. 4. Dysprosium transfer can be combined with a
cadmium indium foil sandwich for dual energy radiography. Alternative track
etch techniques have been developed to yield more precise dimensional
measurements.

FIGURE 4. Neutron radiographs of nuclear fuel: (a) longitudinal cracks in
pellets; (b) missing chips in compacted fuels; (c) inclusions of plutonium in
pellets; (d) accumulation of plutonium in central void; (e) deformed cladding; (f)
hydrides in cladding.
(a)
(b)

(c)
(d)

(e)
(f)

■ Image Quality Indicators
For any nondestructive system, the best measure of quality is to compare the
image of the test object with an image of a similar object that contains a
known artificial discontinuity, a defect standard, or reference standard.
However, neutron radiography has the same problems as other
nondestructive testing methods: the quantity of reference standards required
is too large to obtain and maintain. In lieu of a reference standard, neutron
radiographers have chosen to fabricate a resolution indicator that emulates
the worst case scenario with gaps placed between and holes placed beneath
different plastic thicknesses.
For defining the neutron beam characteristics a beam purity indicator has
been devised to accompany the sensitivity indicator. The image quality
indicator system of ASTM International has become the primary or alternate
system for most manufacturing specifications on an international basis. The
no umbra device, a device to measure resolution, is described in ASTM E
803-91 and can be used to determine the collimation ratio L·D–1 of the
neutron radiography facility.

ASTM E803 - 91(2013)
Standard Test Method for Determining the L/D Ratio of Neutron Radiography
Beams

2.4 Nuclear Reactor Systems
A nuclear reactor system operated for over 30 years solely to provide a
commercial neutron radiographic service is illustrated in Fig. 5. The reactor
core, positioned underground in a tank of water, is only about 0.38 m (15 in.)
in diameter and operates at 250 kW power. The tangential beam tube is
orientated vertically with air displaced by helium. Parts for neutron
radiography can therefore be supported on horizontal trays. Usually the
neutron imaging uses a gadolinium converter with fine grain radiographic film
and the exposure time at a selected collimation is typically about 2 min.

FIGURE 5. Representative neutron radiographic service center for
nonnuclear applications.

Tangential Beam Tube
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www-llb.cea.fr/spectros/spectro/2t1.html

Another reactor that has provided neutron radiography services since 1968 is
illustrated in Fig. 6. It is above ground and the fuel of the 100 kW core is
arranged in an annulus with a moderator region in the center.
Two horizontal beams are extracted from the central moderator, one for direct
film neutron radiography of nonradioactive objects, the other for dysprosium
activation transfer neutron radiography of radioactive nuclear fuel.
Another service for static neutron radiography of radioactive nuclear fuel has
been provided by a 250 kW nuclear reactor installed in a hot cell complex (Fig.
7). Also several university reactors in the United States have been equipped
for neutron radiography. Worldwide, over fifty nuclear reactors have
contributed to development of this field.

FIGURE 6. Representative neutron radiographic service center for nuclear
and nonnuclear applications.

FIGURE 7. Hot cell fuel inspection system.

Hot cell
Shielded nuclear radiation containment chambers are commonly referred to
as hot cells. The word "hot" refers to radioactivity. Hot cells are used in both
the nuclear-energy and the nuclear-medicines industries. They are required
to protect individuals from radioactive isotopes by providing a safe
containment box in which they can control and manipulate the equipment
required.

Hot cell
Shielded nuclear radiation containment chambers are commonly referred to
as hot cells. The word "hot" refers to radioactivity. Hot cells are used in both
the nuclear-energy and the nuclear-medicines industries. They are required
to protect individuals from radioactive isotopes by providing a safe
containment box in which they can control and manipulate the equipment
required.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot_cell

Hot cells at the Argonne National Laboratory. Each cell is equipped with a
viewing window and two remote manipulators.

Applications:
Hot cells are used to inspect spent nuclear fuel rods and to work with other items which are high-energy
gamma ray emitters. For instance, the processing of medical isotopes, having been irradiated in a nuclear
reactor or particle accelerator, would be carried out in a hot cell. Hot cells are of nuclear proliferation concern,
as they can be used to carry out the chemical steps used to extract plutonium from reactor fuel. The cutting of
the used fuel, the dissolving of the fuel and the first extraction cycle of a nuclear reprocessing PUREX process
(highly active cycle) would need to be done in a hot cell. The second cycle of the PUREX process (medium
active cycle) could be done in gloveboxes.
Hot cells are commonly used in the nuclear medicines industry: - for the production of radiopharmaceuticals,
according to GMP guidelines (industry) - for the manipulation and dispense of radiopharmaceuticals (hospitals)
The user must never be subject to shine paths that are emitted from the radioactive isotopes and therefore
there generally is heavy shielding around the containment boxes, which can be made out of stainless steel 316
or other materials such as PVC or Corian. This shielding can be ensured by the use of lead (common) or
materials such as concrete (very large walls are therefore required) or even tungsten. The amount of
radioactivity present in the hot cell, the energy of the gamma photons emitted by the radioisotopes, and the
number of neutrons that are formed by the material will prescribe how thick the shielding must be. For instance
a 1 kilocurie (37 TBq) source of cobalt-60 will require thicker shielding than a 1 kilocurie (37 TBq) source of
iridium-192 to give the same dose rate at the outer surface of the hot cell.
Also if some actinide materials such as californium or spent nuclear fuel are used within the hot cell then a layer
of water or polyethylene may be needed to lower the neutron dose rate.

Viewing windows:
In order to view what is in the hot cell, cameras can be used (but these require replacing on a regular basis) or
most commonly, lead glass is used. There are several densities for lead glass, but the most common is 5.2
g/cm3. A rough calculation for lead equivalence would be to multiply the Pb thickness by 2.5 (e.g. 10 mm Pb
would require a 25 mm thick lead glass window). Older hot cells used ZnBr2 solution in a glass tank to shield
against high-energy gamma rays. This shielded the radiation without darkening the glass (as happens to
leaded glass with exposure). This solution also "self-repairs" any damage caused by radiation interaction, but
leads to optical distortion due to the difference in optical indices of the solution and glass.
Manipulators:
Telemanipulators or tongs are used for the remote handling of equipment inside hot cells. These are incredibly
valuable as they do not require the user to place his/her arms inside the containment box and be subject to
heavy finger/hand doses. These need to be used in conjunction with a shielded sphere which can be made by
most lead engineering companies.
Gloves:
Lead loaded gloves are often used in conjunction with tongs as they offer better dexterity and can be used in
low radiation environments (such as hot cells used in hospital nuclear medicine labs). Some companies have
developed tungsten loaded gloves which offer greater dexterity than lead loaded gloves, with better shielding
than their counterparts. Gloves must be regularly replaced as the chemicals used for the cleaning/ sterilisation
process of the containments cause considerable wear and tear.
Clean rooms:
Hot cells are generally placed in clean rooms with an air classification ranging from D to B (C is the most
common). It is extremely rare to find a hot cell which is placed in a class A or unclassified clean room.

Hot Cell
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://wwojnar.com/2012/10/research-nuclear-reactor-maria/

Hot Cell
Hot Cell

Hot Cell
Hot Cell

Hot Cell
Hot Cell
Hot Cell

2.5 Accelerator Based Systems
An initial user of neutron radiography need not, in general, be concerned with
accelerator source options unless there is an established need either for an
in-house system or for a transportable system. Almost all neutron radiography
service providers use a nuclear reactor source. One exception has been the
powerful spallation type accelerator in Switzerland; the accelerator is a
multipurpose facility comparable in complexity and cost to a research reactor.
An in-house system that was operated successfully for over 15 years at the
United States Department of Energy’s Pantex Plant used a van de graaff
accelerator. The operation of this machine, which accelerates over 200 μA of
deuterons at 3 MeV into a beryllium target, is illustrated in Fig. 8.

FIGURE 8. Cross section showing van de graaff principle.

The system provided a peak thermal neutron flux of about 109 neutrons per
square centimeter second (109 n∙cm-1∙s-1), two orders of magnitude less than
the reactor systems described above but sufficient for low throughput work
using 2 h exposure times and a relatively low beam collimation ratio.
Cyclotrons and radio frequency quadrupole accelerators are other candidates
for a potential custom designed in-house neutron radiographic system.
Neutron radiographic performance data have been reported for designs with a
variety of sizes, neutron yields and costs. For transportable systems much of
the development work has used sealed tube acceleration of deuterium tritium
mixtures. This can consist of a source head that is maneuverable with long
high tension cable linking it to the high voltage power supply and control unit
as illustrated (Fig. 9). The particular type shown yields a peak thermal neutron
flux of about 108 neutrons per square centimeter second with a tube operation
half life of about 200 h.

FIGURE 9. Components of mobile deuterium tritium neutron radiographic
system: (a) deuterium tritium source head, typically on 6 m (20 ft) cables; (b)
cooling unit (left) and power supply; (c) control unit.

2.6 High Intensity Californium-252 Systems
Of the many radioactive neutron sources, such as polonium-210, beryllium
and americium-244 beryllium, one has dominated interest for neutron
radiography: californium-252. This transplutonic isotope is produced as a
byproduct of basic research programs. In the United States, some
government centers have been able to obtain the source on a low cost loan
basis from the Department of Energy. The isotope yields neutrons by
spontaneous fission at a rate of 2 × 109 neutrons per second per milligram
and has a half life of 2.5 years. A high yield source of up to 50 mg can be
smaller than a tube of lipstick (Fig. 10). An in-house stationary system has
operated at the United States Department of Energy’s installation at Pantex
with a total source strength of 150 mg californium-252. It provided sets of nine
films, each 350 × 425 mm (14 × 17 in.), approaching reactor quality by
using gadolinium with a very fine grain X-ray film; a collimator ratio of 65; and
exposure time of under 24 h.

FIGURE 10. Californium-252 sources compared in size to postage stamp.

A maneuverable source system has operated at McClellan Air Force Base
with a total source strength of 50 mg californium- 52. It provided single
neutron radiographs using a fast scintillator screen; high speed, light sensitive
film; a collimator ratio of 30; and an exposure time of 12 min. This system was
designed for the specific application of scanning intact aircraft to detect
hidden problems at an early stage, such as moisture or corrosion in aluminum
honeycomb.26 Another example of a high yield californium-252 system
design uses a subcritical multiplier to amplify the central neutron flux. This
design (Fig. 11) produces a peak central flux of 7 × 108 neutrons per square
centimeter second when loaded with 40 mg californium-252.

FIGURE 11. Elevation of subcritical multiplier system.

■ Low Cost In-House System
There is evidence that an extremely low intensity californium-252 neutron
source could provide a convenient, low cost in-house system. A source size
of only 100 μg can provide useful quality neutron radiographs by using highly
efficient imaging systems that need only 105 neutrons per square centimeter
exposure. This is 10 000 times less than the exposure used typically with
gadolinium and single emulsion film. The small source size would mean an
inexpensive source and also inexpensive shielding, handling and interlock
requirements. Therefore, a nondestructive testing center with a variety of X-
ray, ultrasonic and other inspection capabilities could easily incorporate a
small californium-252 based neutron radiographic capability using an
underground storage geometry in an existing radiographic bay. Because
neutron radiography yields unique information, such an inexpensive in-house
capability could be an important complement to an otherwise full service
nondestructive testing center.

Californium-252 Neutron Source
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.orau.org/ptp/collection/Sources/cf-252.htm

Californium-252 Neutron
Source
Neutron Fluence
Particle fluence is defined as the number of particles
traversing a unit area in a certain point in space in a
unit period of time. Most frequently, it is measured in
n∙cm-2.
In particular, neutron fluence in high-energy physics
applications is of interest in the context of the
radiation environment around the interaction regions
of colliders; it serves as a measure for potential
radiation damage for the detector systems to be used
there. It is common practice to express charged and
neutral particle contributions to radiation in terms of
dose ( Radiation Measures and Units) and 1 MeV
neutron equivalent fluence ( also NIEL Scaling),
respectively.
The 1 MeV equivalent MeV equivalent neutron

fluence is the fluence of 1 MeV neutrons producing
the same damage in a detector material as induced
by an arbitrary particle fluence with a specific energy
distribution. The choice of this particular normalization
is partly due to historical reasons, as the standard
energy to scale to was considered first in damage
studies in the MeV range, in neutron physics;
however, there is also a physical background: the
neutron spectra expected in detectors at future
hadron colliders typically have a probability density
peaking in this energy region.
See also ASTM E261 - 10
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://ikpe1101.ikp.kfa-juelich.de/briefbook_part_detectors/node123.html

PART 3. Special Techniques of Neutron
Radiography
3.1 Dynamic Neutron Radioscopy
Services that provide different types of dynamic neutron radioscopy have
been developed at numerous nuclear reactor centers worldwide. They cover
frame rates that range from 30 frames per second (real time motion display
similar to television) to 1000 frames per second range (a high frame rate) or
to 10 000 frames per second (a very high frame rate). An example of a real
time dynamic neutron radioscopic application is illustrated in Figure 12. A
beam from a 28 MW reactor was used to study the flow characteristics of
lubricant inside an operating jet engine. Other applications have included
studies of absorption and compression refrigerator designs, studies of
automotive parts in motion and a large range of two-phase flow studies. For
high throughput dynamic neutron imaging one reactor center has been
equipped with three separate beams, each with its neutron imaging system
and digital image interpretation system.

FIGURE 12. Frames from real time studies of operating aircraft engine: (a)
first view; (b) second view.

Other reactor centers have developed techniques for simultaneous neutron
and gamma ray dynamic imaging using a pair of scintillator screens in
conjunction with a low light level television camera and video processing. The
development of dynamic neutron radioscopic services with a high frame rate
of 1000 frames per second has capitalized on the availability of very high
intensity steady state neutron beams (with a flux of 108 neutrons per square
centimeter second) and very high frame rate video cameras used with rapid
response neutron sensitive scintillator screens. A very high frame rate
capability, up to 10 000 frames per second, uses the ability of certain reactors
to be pulsed, giving a high neutron yield for a time duration of a few
milliseconds. The event to be studied, such as the burn cycle of a pyrotechnic
event 爆破效果, is synchronized to the neutron pulse time.

3.2 Subthermal Neutron Radiology (Cold)
The neutron attenuation coefficient of a particular material can change
significantly as the neutron energy is changed. The pattern of this variation
also changes abruptly from one element to another. Therefore, selection of
different energy neutrons provides possibilities for quite different neutron
radiology penetration and contrast. Neutron radiology service reactors have
developed neutron beams of selected subthermal or cold neutrons using
three techniques:
(1) beam filtration by polycrystal beryllium, which passes only long

wavelength, low energy neutrons below 0.005 eV,
(2) a refrigerated moderator volume and
(3) selection of longer wavelength, low energy neutrons by multiple internal
reflection in a gently curved guide tube.
Keypoints:
Beam filter, Beryllium pass only cold neutron.
Cadmium remove thermal & cold neutrons and pass epithermal neutrons.
Polycrystal beryllium pass only low energy neutrons.

The effect of this energy selection is typically to increase the transparency of
certain materials while simultaneously increasing the contrast or detectability
of hydrogenous materials (see Table 2 and Fig. 13). Just as thermal neutron
radiography gives different information to X-radiography, so subthermal or
cold neutron radiography gives information different from that of regular
thermal neutron techniques. An example is given in Fig. 14. It is possible,
using a guide tube, to select only very cold neutrons (that is, energies below
0.001 eV) and this can provide high sensitivity for very thin hydrogenous
specimens.

TABLE 2. Relative neutron attenuation coefficients.

FIGURE 13. Attenuation of materials for thermal and cold neutrons.

FIGURE 14. Neutron radiographs of explosive bridge wire igniter: (a) thermal
neutron image; (b) cold neutron image.
Explosive charge

3.3 Epithermal and Fast Neutron Radiology
A reactor beam, although consisting primarily of thermal neutrons, will contain
a proportion of both subthermal and epithermal (high energy) neutrons. With
a filter such as cadmium, the thermal and subthermal neutrons can be
removed and only the epithermal part of the neutron energy spectrum will be
transmitted. For the inspection of enriched nuclear fuel the higher penetration
of epithermal neutrons provides a valuable difference from thermal or
subthermal neutron radiography. Indium has a high resonance capture cross
section at about 1.4 eV epithermal energy. Cadmium wrapped indium foil
activation transfer imaging techniques have been used for this application.
Another epithermal neutron technique uses an indium foil filter in the incident
beam to remove neutrons close to the specific resonance energy. This beam
is passed through the object and an indium detector is used on the far side.
Keypoints:

The technique can provide high sensitivity to small quantities of hydrogen in
the object because hydrogen can change the energy of an incident neutron
more than heavier elements. The term fast neutron radiography refers
normally to those neutron energies yielded by an unmoderated accelerator
source or radioactive source. Fast neutron radiography provides high
penetration but little contrast between elements. The accelerator can provide
a point source. Tantalum is one of several detector materials for direct
exposure and scintillator screens can be used. Alternatively, foil activation
transfer with holmium has been demonstrated.
Keypoints:
Fast neutron direct radiography: Tantalum
Fast neutron transfer radiography; Holmium

3.4 Neutron Computed Tomography
Computed axial tomography has been developed for neutron radiography and
can provide detailed cross sectional slices of the object to be analyzed.
Although the principle is similar to that of X-ray computed tomography, the
information conveyed by neutrons can be unique. In a typical facility the
object is rotated in the neutron beam and data are stored for upward of 200
angles. Detectors used have included a scintillator screen 6LiF-ZnS (Ag),
viewed by a cooled charge coupled device camera and alternatively a storage
phosphor image plate loaded with Gd2O3 combined with an automatic laser
beam scanner. Using a high intensity neutron radiography beam of over 108
neutrons per square centimeter second, computed tomography of two-phase
flow volumes has been processed as a time averaged three-dimensional
analysis.

3.5 Neutron Gaging and Neutron Probe Techniques
Neutron gaging is the measurement of attenuation of a collimated small
diameter beam of radiation as it is transmitted by a specimen. A neutron
radiology service center equipped with a nuclear reactor has demonstrated
that the imaging techniques can be complemented by the more quantitative
techniques of gaging. The gaging technique can inspect items of greater
thickness than can be inspected with neutron radiography. It has been used
for static gaging of discrete assemblies and for continuous scanning of long
objects for acceptable uniformity. There are also a variety of neutron probe
techniques in which radiation, typically gamma, is observed as a result of
neutron radiation incident on the object. For example the associated particle
sealed tube neutron generator enables the flight time of the incident neutron
to be used in conjunction with gamma ray spectroscopy to indicate the
chemical composition within an object. This technique has been developed
for identification of hidden explosives, drugs or nuclear materials. Another
example of a neutron probe is neutron interferometry to detect phase shifts of
the neutron wave properties. This neutron phase topography has been
proposed for very high sensitivity material testing.

■ Neutron Induced Autoradiography
By exposing a painting to thermal or cold neutrons and later imaging the
radioactivity induced in the various paint components, a technique has been
developed sensitive to many elements including manganese, potassium,
copper, sodium, arsenic, phosphorus, gold, iron, mercury, antimony and
cobalt. The neutron exposures were originally performed in a moderator block
(thermal column), close to a reactor core. However, beams similar to those
used for transmission neutron radiography have been used for this neutron
induced autoradiography of paintings. Typically, a series of autoradiographs
is taken using a range of neutron exposure times and different decay times
before imaging. This, combined with a range of scintillator screen and film
sensitivities, can provide extensive information about successive layers of
each painting.

3.6 Closing
Industry standards have been published on neutron radiographic testing.

End Of Reading 1

Reading-2
Assorted Readings

Electron Capture
Electron capture is one process that unstable atoms can use to become more
stable. During electron capture, an electron in an atom's inner shell is drawn
into the nucleus where it combines with a proton, forming a neutron and a
neutrino. The neutrino is ejected from the atom's nucleus.
Since an atom loses a proton during electron capture, it changes from one
element to another. For example, after undergoing electron capture, an atom
of carbon (with 6 protons) becomes an atom of boron (with 5 protons).
Although the numbers of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus change
during electron capture, the total number of particles (protons + neutrons)
remains the same.
Electron capture is also called K-capture since the captured electron usually
comes from the atom's K-shell.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://education.jlab.org/itselemental/iso066.html

Beta Decay
Beta decay results in the emission of an electron and antineutrino, or a
positron and neutrino.
Beta decay is one process that unstable atoms can use to become more
stable. There are two types of beta decay, beta-minus and beta-plus.
During beta-minus decay, a neutron in an atom's nucleus turns into a proton,
an electron and an antineutrino.
The electron and antineutrino fly away from the nucleus, which now has one
more proton than it started with. Since an atom gains a proton during beta-
minus decay, it changes from one element to another. For example, after
undergoing beta-minus decay, an atom of carbon (with 6 protons) becomes
an atom of nitrogen (with 7 protons).
During beta-plus decay, a proton in an atom's nucleus turns into a neutron, a

positron and a neutrino.

The positron and neutrino fly away from the nucleus, which now has one less
proton than it started with. Since an atom loses a proton during beta-plus
decay, it changes from one element to another. For example, after
undergoing beta-plus decay, an atom of carbon (with 6 protons) becomes an
atom of boron (with 5 protons).
Although the numbers of protons and neutrons in an atom's nucleus change
during beta decay, the total number of particles (protons + neutrons) remains
the same.

Proton Emission
After proton emission, an atom contains one less proton.
Proton emission is one process that unstable atoms can use to become more
stable. During proton emission, a proton is ejected from an atom's nucleus.
Since an atom loses a proton during proton emission, it changes from one
element to another. For example, after undergoing proton emission, an atom
of nitrogen (with 7 protons) becomes an atom of carbon (with 6 protons).

Alpha Decay
Alpha decay is one process that unstable atoms can use to become more
stable. During alpha decay, an atom's nucleus sheds two protons and two
neutrons in a packet that scientists call an alpha particle.
Since an atom loses two protons during alpha decay, it changes from one
element to another. For example, after undergoing alpha decay, an atom of
uranium (with 92 protons) becomes an atom of thorium (with 90 protons).

Neutron Radiography
Neutron Radiography is a non-destructive imaging technique utilizing thermal
neutrons. Classically, it has been used for quality control purposes in
industries which require precision machining such as aircraft engines. Today,
the most important application of neutron radiography is in testing the
performance of fuel cells by imaging water flow in the cells in situ. Neutron
radiography has also been used in the art world and in archeology to
authenticate paintings and examine artifacts made of metal or stone.
Neutrons have many advantages for imaging over visible light, x-rays or
electrons. The advantages include greater penetration depth into most
materials, considerable variations in contrast between chemical elements and
isotopes, and weaker radiation damage than other penetrating radiation.
MIT Reactor has two facilities suitable for neutron imaging projects for both
scientific and industrial applications. One facility provides a thermal neutron
beam with L/D ratio of up to 1000 when the beam is of 2” diameter. Another
facility provides a vertical beam of 10” diameter, with smaller L/D.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://web.mit.edu/nrl/www/research/radiography.htm

An image of ASTM standard
samples, plastic screw (thread
period of 1 mm) and Gd plate with 1
mm pin-hole aperture. The ASTM
standard in the center left is made of
Teflon with 2 boron-nitride disks, 2
cadmium wires and two lead disks
(invisible). The standard sample on
the center right is made of plastic of
various thickness separated by
aluminum blades of different width.
Spatial resolution is better than 500
micron in this low L/D setup.
Contamination with gamma-
radiation is very low.
In addition to research possibilities

in advanced materials, the neutron
imaging facility is an excellent
teaching tool for MIT students and
faculty in imaging.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://web.mit.edu/nrl/www/research/radiography.htm

Neutron tomography movie of a pocket watch, using a NOVA neutron-
sensitive MCP, with the raw data obtained by Anton Tremsin and the UCal-
Berkeley high resolution MCP detector group. Data were taken on the FRM-
II/ANTARES beamline at the Technical University in Munich, Germany,
January 2009. Anders Kaestner carried out the image reconstruction, and
Martin Muehlbauer greatly helped with measurements and did the 3D
visualization.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://www.novascientific.com/neutron.html

■ http://www.novascientific.com/images/watchthis.wmv
Huge contrast range: Loudspeaker with steel casing on cardboard box, plant
seeds and grass, tape

Computer hard disk (cutout of big image)

A remote sensing thermometer..Well visible: cable ties, insulation, plastic
cogwheels.

Huge contrast range: A gas pressure reducer with sealants and o-rings

But on this oil-filled pump, thermal neutrons must fail….

The epithermal picture, using the filter wheel with the Cd filter, shows better
penetration….

If we use the reactor as a gamma source, with the the fast neutron shutter
closed and a gamma scintillation screen, we can still find a lot of information!
(We cleaned off the finger prints afterwards.)

Comparison and combination of X-ray and neutron images
Photo of a printed circuit board.Note many parts with plastic or ceramic cases
and lots of pins.

X-ray image.
Most contrast is given by the metal pins.

Neutron image.
Most contrast is given by plastic parts, the metal pins are nearly transparent.

Combination of both images.
The X-ray image was subtracted from the neutron image.

A toy plane combustion engine with a plastic propeller is
another good example for the different properties of X-rays and neutrons.

The X-rays easily penetrate
the plastic propeller, still
penetrate the Aluminium
well, but are heavily
attenuated by steel parts.

Aluminium is very transparent
for neutrons, steel is better
penetrated
than by X-rays, but plastic is
very opaque..

Bragg's law
In physics, Bragg's law (or "Wulff -Bragg's condition" in postsoviet countries, a
special case of Laue diffraction) gives the angles for coherent and incoherent
scattering from a crystal lattice. When X-rays are incident on an atom, they
make the electronic cloud move as does any electromagnetic wave. The
movement of these charges re-radiates waves with the same frequency,
blurred slightly due to a variety of effects; this phenomenon is known as
Rayleigh scattering (or elastic scattering). The scattered waves can
themselves be scattered but this secondary scattering is assumed to be
negligible.
A similar process occurs upon scattering neutron waves from the nuclei or by
a coherent spin interaction with an unpaired electron. These re-emitted wave
fields interfere with each other either constructively or destructively
(overlapping waves either add up together to produce stronger peaks or are
subtracted from each other to some degree), producing a diffraction pattern
on a detector or film. The resulting wave interference pattern is the basis of
diffraction analysis. This analysis is called Bragg diffraction.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bragg%27s_law

Cold Neutrons
“Materials possess high cross-sections at these energies. which decrease the
transparency of most materials but also increase the efficiency of detection. A
particular advantage is the reduced scatter in materials at energies below the
Bragg cutoff. (Less than 0.01 eV)”
Very low energy neutrons can offer advantages for some specialized
inspections; the penetrating ability of neutrons can be greatly enhanced for
some radiographic specimens by taking advantage of the reduced scatter at
neutron energies below the Bragg cutoff (the point where an energy's
wavelength, compared to the specimen's atomic spacing, becomes
sufficiently long to prohibit diffraction). Specifically, iron becomes more
transparent at a neutron energy of about 0.005 eV because of reduced
scatter. In fact, the use of cold neutrons allows radiographic inspection of iron
specimens in the thickness range of 10 to 15 cm. Another application for cold
neutrons involves taking advantage of the high absorption cross sections in
many materials. This may allow the imaging of small concentrations of
materials, too small to be imaged well with thermal neutrons. The efficiency of
detectors also increases in the cold energy region.

Bragg diffraction (also referred to as the Bragg formulation of X-ray diffraction) was first proposed
by William Lawrence Bragg and William Henry Bragg in 1913[1] in response to their discovery
that crystalline solids produced surprising patterns of reflected X-rays (in contrast to that of, say,
a liquid). They found that these crystals, at certain specific wavelengths and incident angles,
produced intense peaks of reflected radiation. The concept of Bragg diffraction applies equally to
neutron diffraction and electron diffraction processes.[2] Both neutron and X-ray wavelengths are
comparable with inter-atomic distances (~150 pm) and thus are an excellent probe for this length
scale.
According to the 2θ deviation, the phase shift causes constructive (left figure) or destructive (right
figure) interferences.
William Lawrence Bragg explained this result by modeling the crystal as a set of discrete parallel
planes separated by a constant parameter d. It was proposed that the incident X-ray radiation
would produce a Bragg peak if their reflections off the various planes interfered constructively.
The interference is constructive when the phase shift is a multiple of 2π; this condition can be
expressed by Bragg's law (see Bragg condition section below) and was first presented by Sir
William Lawrence Bragg on 11 November 1912 to the Cambridge Philosophical Society. [3][4]
Although simple, Bragg's law confirmed the existence of real particles at the atomic scale, as well
as providing a powerful new tool for studying crystals in the form of X-ray and neutron diffraction.
William Lawrence Bragg and his father, Sir William Henry Bragg, were awarded the Nobel Prize
in physics in 1915 for their work in determining crystal structures beginning with NaCl, ZnS, and
diamond. They are the only father-son team to jointly win. William Lawrence Bragg was 25 years
old, making him then, the youngest physics Nobel laureate.

Bragg diffraction. Neutron or X-rays interact with the atoms in a crystal.

Bragg diffraction. According to the 2θ deviation, the phase shift causes
constructive (left figure) or destructive (right figure) interferences.

Bragg diffraction. Two beams with identical wavelength and phase
approach a crystalline solid and are scattered off two different atoms within it.
The lower beam traverses an extra length of 2dsinθ. Constructive
interference occurs when this length is equal to an integer multiple of the
wavelength of the radiation.

X Ray & Neutron Interactions with Matters

End Of Reading 2

Reading-3
Neutron Radiography State of Art
Report - NTIAC-SR-98-01

1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Objective
Neutron radiography is becoming a well established nondestructive testing
(NDT) method. The American Society for Nondestructive Testing (ASNT) has
recognized the method through its recommended practice SNT-TC 1A which
outlines training, knowledge, and experience necessary to obtain levels of
competency in the method (1, 2). Certification of nondestructive testing
personnel is also covered in a military standard (3). Technical publications in
the field of NDT and nuclear technology carry articles on neutron radiography
and technical meetings includepapers or even entire sessions on neutron
radiograph))~ There is an on-going series of international conferences on
neutron radiography ( 4-11 ). Many books are available to provide
introductory and advanced material on neutron radiographic techniques and
applications (12-20).Neutron radiography as a service for hire is available,
similar to that offered for other NDTservices. The method is being adopted to
solve NDT problems in specialty areas.

The objective of this report is to provide a brief survey of the current state of
the art in the use of neutron radiography. The survey will include information
on the technique including principles of the method, sources of neutrons,
detection methodology, standards and image quality indicators, and
representative applications. An extensive reference list provides additional
information for those who wish to investigate further and a Glossary is
included which provides definitions for terms used in Neutron Radiography.

1.2 Scope
This report is based on a review of pertinent open technical literature as well
as a review of recent progress in the field. The literature search was
accomplished by the Nondestructive Testing Information Analysis Center
through its computerized documentation data bases. The scope of this report
includes introductory material with advantages and limitations of the method
being presented along with a brief historical background. The theoretical
section contains topics on neutron production, neutron energies, neutron
interactions, neutron detection, geometric considerations, and neutron
shielding. Neutron sources as well as moderators and collimators are
discussed. Neutron imaging techniques, standards, and recommended
practices are presented. Applications of neutron radiography to several
important industrial and military areas are included. It is assumed that the
reader is already familiar with conventional X-ray and/or gamma radiography.
Many publications are available that can provide that background information
if it is needed (22-25).

1.3 Definitions
Neutron radiography is a specialized type of radiography. The definition of the
term given in American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) (26) is as
follows: "neutron radiographythe process of producing a radiograph using
neutrons as the penetrating radiation." The neutron is defined as, "a neutral
elementary particle having an atomic mass close to 1.
In the free state outside of the nucleus, the neutron is unstable having a half-
life of approximately 10 minutes.“ Additional definitions related to neutron
radiography are given in ASTM document E 1316 (26) and in MIL-STD-1948
(27). The radiation terminology now accepted is to use the term radiology to
include any radiation technique that involves ionizing radiation, e.g. x-rays,
gamma rays, neutrons, etc.

Neutron radiography specifically refers to the film technique. Neutron
radioscopy refers to the electronic production of a neutroh image that follows
very closely the changes with time of the object being imaged.
Radioscopy is the term for what has been called real-time radiography. Other
neutron radiological techniques include neutron gauging (typically using
tightly collimated beams) and neutron activation analysis (analysis of
radiation emitted by materials made artificially radioactive by absorption of a
neutron by the nucleus of the atom).
In this report, the more familiar term neutron radiography will continue to be
used except when reference is made specifically to neutron radioscopy (or
real-time imaging).

Most neutron inspection has been done with thermal neutrons, neutrons in
the energy range from 0.005 to 0.5 eV (0.01ev ~ 0.3ev). These thermal
neutrons show large differences in attenuation compared to those for x-rays,
as discussed in Section 1.4. It is these large attenuation differences that
make neutron radiography useful, usually providing almost a reversal of
typical x-ray attenuation. In many cases radiographs taken with both x-rays
and neutrons provide complementary information about the object.
Neutron radiography has also been done with cold neutrons (<0.01ev) .
These very slow neutrons have energies below 0.005 eV. Greater
radiographic contrast can often be obtained with these special neutrons.
Sometimes the term slow neutrons is used to designate the cold and thermal
neutron region and beyond, up to energies of several keV.

In addition, use has been made of epithermal neutrons (energy range slightly
higher than thermal, typically above 0.5 eV, up to about 10,000 eV) and fast
neutrons, which include energies above 10,000 eV, up to the MeV energy
range. Neutrons with energies above 10 MeV are often termed relativistic
because of the high velocities of these neutrons. Radiography has been done
in all these energy ranges but thermal neutrons are most widely used. Table
1.1 contains a brief description of the energy ranges for neutrons and the
properties.
The neutrons may be produced by an isotopic source, an accelerator, or a

nuclear reactor and may be imaged by a variety of methods. Unlike other
forms of penetrating radiation, the neutrons must be converted into other
forms of radiation (light, alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, etc.)
before being detected by a photographic emulsion or other devices.

Table 1.1. Neutrons Classified According to Energy

Table 1.1. Neutrons Classified According to Energy

1.4 Advantages
Neutron radiography complements X- and gamma radiography in many cases.
While X- and gamma radiation are typically used to image high atomic
number materials such as lead or steel by themselves or in low atomic
number matrices such as plastic or rubber, neutron radiography best images
low atomic number materials such as paper, plastic or rubber in a matrix of a
high atomic number material such as lead or steel. As such, neutron
radiography finds application to the detection of low atomic number materials
such as "0"-rings, gaskets, adhesives or sealants, hydrogenous liquids like
water or petroleum products and corrosion.
A major neutron radiographic application has been the detection and

characterization of explosives inside metal containers destined for critical
aerospace and military service. Examples include verification of the explosive
in explosive bolts, lines or detonating cord used to separate components in
flight or space.

Figure 1.1. A comparison of mass attenuation coefficients (μ/ρ) for the elements for both
medium energy x-rays (about 125 kV, solid line) and thermal neutrons (dots). This curve
reproduced from Ref. 12, is based on an earlier version, by Thewlis (33).

In addition to the applications that follow the sensitivity for the low atomic
number materials, neutron radiography can be used to distinguish between
certain materials with similar atomic numbers or even between different
isotopes of an element. The property of importance is the ability to either
scatter or absorb neutrons (e.g. to remove neutrons from the imaging beam).
Scattering of neutrons from a beam is best accomplished by low atomic

number materials; i.e., hydrogen and carbon, as examples. Absorption of the
neutrons is a property related to the structure of the nucleus of the atom and
is not a function of atomic number as is the absorption of X- and gamma rays
(see Figure 1.1). This property provides for radiographic distinction between
metals such as cadmium and iron or silver, rare earth metals such as
gadolinium, samarium, europium, or dysprosium versus other rare earth
metals, and iron, cobalt, and nickel versus lead, tungsten or bismuth.

An additional advantage is the ability to perform isotopic separation; i.e., that
is the ability to image one isotope of an element in the presence of other
isotopes of the same element. An example of this application that has proved
useful is the radiography of nuclear fuels to image the fissionable U-235
content rather than the U-238 that is most prevalent in natural uranium. In
addition, other isotopes such as Cd-113, a material sometimes used in
reactor control rods, can be imaged in the presence of other, less neutron
absorbing cadmium isotopes.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://butane.chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/Environmental/L6/2.html

Radioactive isotopes
■ http://butane.chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/Environmental/L6/2.html
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://butane.chem.uiuc.edu/pshapley/Environmental/L6/2.html

Indirect Technique
Radiography of nuclear fuel is an example of another advantage of neutron
radiography, the ability to radiograph intensely radioactive materials. The
radiation released by irradiated nuclear fuel would quickly overexpose
radiographic film used for X- or gamma radiography. Neutron radiography of
radioactive objects is commonly done by neutrons which have passed
through a specimen to produce a radioactive image on metal converter foils
such as indium, dysprosium, silver or gold. The exposed, radioactive
converter screen is removed from the intense radiation area of the fuel rod
after neutron exposure and placed in a film loaded cassette where the
radioactivity induced in the screen by the neutrons exposes the film. The
latent image on the film produced by this "indirect" technique comes from the
beta particles or gamma rays released by decay of the radioactive atoms
produced by neutron absorption. The film is an autoradiograph of the
converter screen and a neutron image of the inspection object without the
fogging that might have been caused by the intense radioactive emissions.

1.5 Limitations
Radiation safety precautions must be used with neutron inspection
techniques as is necessary with other forms of radiation testing; i.e., there is a
potential radiation hazard that requires practitioners be well informed,
properly equipped and organized to handle radiation and radioactive
materials. The neutron radiographer needs formal training and experience
that is not satisfied by training and experience with X- or gamma radiography
(although training for X- and gamma radiography is an excellent start). A
similar, or more extensive, radiation safety program is required as compared
to X- and gamma radiography. The dosimetry used, such as survey meters,
area monitors and personnel dosimeters must be sensitive to neutrons.

In addition, care must be taken with all components that have been exposed
in the neutron beam, including the beam stop, cassettes and the inspection
object, all of which may exhibit some level of radioactivity caused by neutron
activation. The radiation level is usually small because the neutron intensity
used for radiography is relatively low as compared to that deliberately used to
make objects radioactive (for activation analysis, for example) and the
exposure time is usually short, meaning that long-lived activities are usually
not a significant problem. The radiographer should be aware that neutron
techniques create some radiation safety problems beyond those encountered
with gamma or x-ray techniques.
There are other differences. For example, film cassettes made from paper or
plastic are not satisfactory because those materials attenuate neutrons.
Aluminum is often used for neutron cassettes. Different intensifier or
converter screens are needed. The typical lead screens are usually replaced
by a screen of gadolinium or other materials as discussed in Section 4.

The neutron sources are discussed in Section 3. Typical sources for neutron
radiography include isotopes, accelerators and reactors. These tend to be
more expensive than those used for X- or gamma radiography. This is
particularly true if large, high output sources are desired to permit rapid, good
resolution neutron radiographs to be made. Properly collimated and shielded
isotopic sources may easily cost $100,000, while large accelerators and
reactors will cost from about $500,000 to well over $1,000,000, plus the cost
of a building or specially shielded laboratory. The availability of neutron
radiography to those wishing to purchase the service rather than set up their
own laboratory may not be as convenient as that for X-radiography. A neutron
radiography customer must often ship specimens to a distant facility with the
attendant extra costs and time lost.

There are portable, or more correctly, transportable neutron sources available.
Some are low flux (neutron intensity) devices. As such, producing neutron
radiographs can be a slow process, often providing only moderate resolution
images. Some progress is being made with transportable isotopic and
accelerator sources used with electronic imaging systems that improve the
situation (28, 29, 30). However, the process is still often slower as compared
to the equivalent portable Xand gamma radiographic techniques.
Just as facilities for performing neutron radiography are still few in number,
the lack of experienced personnel contributes to the problem. The American
Society for Nondestructive Testing has recognized neutron radiography as a
technique of major importance by setting up a recommended practice for
neutron radiography which includes suggested training and experience for
individuals who want to perform in the field. Only a small number of people
have been certified as Level III in neutron radiography as compared with the
other recognized NDT fields.

1.6 Historical Development
The earliest research on neutrons for radiography was the work of Kallmann
and Kuhn in Germany, in 1935. This pioneering work resulted in numerous
patents and one publication which was held up until after World War II (31).
Kallmann used an accelerator source with a neutron yield of about 4 x 107
neutrons per second. This low output source necessitated the use of long
exposures, about 4 hours per radiograph. Peter's early neutron radiographic
work in Germany made use of a more intense accelerator source that
permitted a neutron radiograph to be made in a few minutes (32).
The first reactor neutron radiographic work published was by Thewlis in 1956
(33). Thewlis and his co-worker Derbyshire used the BEPO reactor at Harwell
in England. The reactor neutron radiographs, made with the better collimated
and more intense neutron source, produced very good quality images as
compared to the earlier accelerator neutron source radiographs. Thewlis also
pointed the way for practical applications of neutron radiography.

As neutron sources became more available in the 1960's more neutron
radiographic work was reported with emphasis on both techniques and
applications. Extensive developments of techniques and applications were
reported by many investigators during the 1960's. Some of that work was
stimulated by the 1965 publication of a book on neutron radiography (12).
Early work on neutron radiography in the United States was summarized in a
1991 review article (34). By the beginning of the 1970's there were
approximately 40 installations at which neutron radiography was being
performed. Developments in the 1970's are summarized in several reviews of
that period (13, 14, 15). World-wide facilities for neutron radiographic work
numbered over 100, as reported at a 1995 international conference (35).

2.0 THEORY
2.1 Neutron Production Principles
Neutron production for neutron radiography may be accomplished using
radioisotope sources, accelerators, or nuclear reactors. Generally speaking,
the intensity of thermal neutron beams for radiography is greatest for reactor
systems, followed by lower intensity beams from accelerator and radioisotope
sources. There are exceptions to that generalization. The cost of neutron
sources tends to follow the same order, with reactor sources being priced
higher, typically at well over a million dollars.

Sources of neutrons usually provide fast neutrons. These fast neutrons must
be slowed down, a process called moderation or thermalization, if the
neutrons are to be used for thermal neutron radiography and take advantage
of the attenuation differences previously shown in Figure 1.1. Moderators,
materials that usually surround a fast neutron source to create a source of
thermal neutrons, are typically made of low atomic number material such as
hydrogen or carbon. Water and hydrocarbon materials such polyethylene are
often used, in sizes approaching a cubic meter.
The fast neutrons lose energy by collisions with the moderator material,
eventually coming into "thermal equilibrium" with the moderator, hence the
term thermal neutrons. The higher the neutron energy, the more difficult the
moderation process becomes, because more scattering reactions must be
used. As a rule of thumb, the fast neutron yield in neutrons/second (n/s) is
reduced by a factor of 100 to 1 ,000 for the peak thermal neutron flux within
the moderator (1/100, 1/1000 or 1/100000?) . Collimation, that is bringing a
useful beam out of the large moderator, will further reduce the neutrons
available in a beam for radiography. The total reduction from the neutron yield
in terms of n/s to a thermal neutron radiographic beam in terms of n/cm2∆s
can be a million times or more (36).
2.2 Neutron Energies
As noted in the preceding sections, neutrons normally possess large kinetic
energies when they are produced. However, for neutron radiography and
many other applications, neutrons with very low or thermal energies are most
useful. Thermal neutrons are neutrons that possess a kinetic energy related
to the temperature of their surroundings; i.e., at 20°C the (thermal) neutron
would have a kinetic energy of 0.025 eV. These low kinetic energy neutrons
are also called 'slow' neutrons although they are traveling at a velocity of
2200 meters/s. To thermalize or slow down a neutron, the neutron is allowed
to move through a low atomic number substance such a water, graphite, or
beryllium. Collisions of the neutrons with the low atomic number materials,
especially hydrogen, reduce the neutron's kinetic energy by transfer of their
kinetic energy to the nuclei of the atoms. Hydrogen is most effective because
it has a nucleus with essentially the same mass as the neutron. Hydrogen is
also effective because it has a low probability of thermal neutron absorption.

Neutrons with sufficient energy to be transmitted through thin cadmium foil
are call epicadmium or epithermal neutrons and have kinetic energies greater
than 0.5 eV. Neutrons with energies above the cadmium cutoff energy of 0.5
eV and below approximately 10 keV are called epithermal neutrons (although
other energies are sometimes used as separation points). Neutrons with
kinetic energies above 10 keV are referred to as fast neutrons. Neutrons with
energies below about 0.005 eV are designated as cold neutrons and require
moderators cooled to liquid nitrogen or lower temperatures. Refer to Table 1.1
for additional information.

As the kinetic energy of the neutron decreases, the probability of it's
absorption in a nucleus increases. This probability is called the microscopic
cross section of the nucleus and is given in units of area such as square
centimeters (37).
Cross section is not a real area but rather an effective area represented by
the probability of the neutron interaction. An example is the cross section of
Boron-10 for thermal neutrons of 3,838 barns (a barn is equivalent to 10-24
square centimeters) while the cross section of Boron-11 is only 5 millibarns.
Obviously there is not six orders of magnitude difference in the areas of the
two nuclei but there is six orders of magnitude difference in the probability of
neutron interaction by the two nuclei. Cross section varies widely with
structure of the nucleus, energy of the neutron, and reaction between the
neutron and nucleus.

2.3. Neutron Interactions, Scattering, Nuclear Absorption, Fission
A brief discussion· of neutron interactions is important to understanding how
neutrons may be used for radiography. Concepts, which include shielding,
detection, thermalization or moderation, and collimation, depend upon how
neutrons interact with materials. Neutron interactions of most importance are
scattering, nuclear absorption, and fission. Each of these is discussed briefly
below. Additional background information can be found in textbooks on
nuclear physics or nuclear engineering (38-42).
■ Scattering
Scatter is an important way for neutrons to be removed from a beam and to
lose kinetic energy (become thermalized or moderated). Neutron scattering
occurs when neutrons collide with the nuclei of atoms. Note that neutrons
pass through the electron clouds surrounding atoms without detectable
interaction. Interactions are with the nuclei of the atoms. Neutrons may
scatter from interaction with a nucleus in either an elastic or inelastic fashion.

When a neutron undergoes elastic scattering it is as if the neutron and the
nucleus were "billiard balls." The initial energy of the neutron (assuming the
nucleus is at rest) is distributed between the neutron and nucleus according
to the laws of conservation of kinetic energy and momentum. This distribution
will depend on the mass of the nucleus and the angle of scatter. The recoil
energy of the nucleus results in heating of the moderator. This mode of
interaction is particularly important for lower energy neutrons and interactions
with low atomic number nuclei, where a neutron can lose a significant fraction
of its energy in a single collision.
Inelastic scatter occurs when the initial energy of the neutron is sufficient to
"excite" the nucleus to an allowed quantum energy level above the ground
state. The difference in energy between the ground state and the excited
state is no longer available to the scattered neutron and recoil nucleus. The
kinematics (energy, momentum and scattering angles) of the collision are
then determined with this reduced energy. The excited nucleus returns to the
ground state via emission of one or more gamma photons. Inelastic scatter
becomes more important as neutron energies increase or the atomic number
of the target nuclei increase.

■ Nuclear Absorption
Neutrons may enter the nucleus of an atom quite easily, as compared to
charged particles since there is no coulomb or charge repulsion to overcome.
If the neutron remains in the nucleus, excess energy (binding energy) or
particles must be released from the nucleus. For a thermal neutron, this
energy release most likely occurs in the emission of a photon from the
nucleus. Such reactions are designated as (n,γ), capture, or activation
reactions. The product of an (n, γ) (pronounced n-gamma) reaction is most
often, but not always, unstable or radioactive. As neutron energy increases
above thermal energies, the probability of an (n, γ) reaction decreases. At
higher kinetic energies, absorption of the neutron by a nucleus is followed by
the release of a proton, an alpha particle, or two or more neutrons. These
reactions are often designated: (n,p), (n, α), and (n,2n). Probabilities for
these reactions vary widely with the structure of the target nucleus but
generally increase with increasing kinetic energy of the neutron. Products of
these reactions are often radioactive.

Fission
Fission occurs when a neutron with the proper energy enters a nucleus
causing it to split into two smaller nuclei.
Uranium-235, Plutonium-239, and Thorium-233 fission upon absorption of a

thermal neutron. Uranium-238 will fission after the absorption of a fast or high
energy neutron. Califomium-252 is already unstable and will spontaneously
fission; i.e., will fission without the necessity of a neutron being absorbed to
initiate fission (SF) . The products of each fission are two smaller (radioactive)
nuclei and 2 to 3 free neutrons, on average.
The neutrons are released with an average energy of over 2 MeV (fast
neutron) and generally must be slowed down; i.e., thermalized, to be used for
either additional fission reactions or for neutron radiography.

■ Mathematical Relationships
(1) The following equation can be used to determine the approximate
intensity of a parallel neutron beam traversing a material of thickness x.
I= Io e-Nσx Eqn. 2.1
This equation assumes a point detector, monoenergetic neutrons and

interaction (absorption or scatter) that removes the neutron from the beam.
The quantities are defined below:
I is neutron intensity with absorber thickness x

Io is neutron intensity with no absorber
N is atoms per cubic centimeter (cm3) in absorber
σ is the total microscopic cross section of atoms in this absorber ( cm2)
x is thickness of absorber (cm)

For thick absorbers, a build-up factor of (B) is used to account for neutrons
scattered into the point of neutron detection.
I= B∙Io e-Nσx Eqn. 2.2
B is approximately 5 for thick absorbers containing hydrogen.
The macroscopic cross section (:E) is defined as:
Σ(μ) = Nσ Eqn. 2.3
Σ(μ) = σ(ρNavocados)/A
N = is the total number of target atoms of the isotope involved in the neutron
reaction
Navocados = 6.02 x 10-23
A= gram atomic (molecular) weight

and carries units of reciprocal length. The macroscopic cross section is the
probability of interaction per unit length and may be substituted in the above
equations to give:
I= Io e-Σx , I= B∙Io e -Σx , I= B∙Io e –μx , Eqn. 2.4
(2) Materials irradiated with neutrons can become radioactive. The following
equation can be used to estimate the level of activity:
A = NσΦ(1- e-0.693t/T) Eqn. 2.5
where the quantities are defined below:

• A= is the activity in disintegrating atoms per second at the end of neutron
irradiation
• N= is the total number of target atoms of the isotope involved in the
neutron reaction
• σ= is the absorption microscopic cross section for the isotope and neutron
reaction under consideration ( cm2)
• Φ= is the neutron flux in n∙cm2·sec-1
• t= is the time of neutron irradiation
• T= is the half life of the radioisotope produced.

This takes into account that the radioactive nuclei decay while they are being
produced and assumes that the neutron flux is not appreciably reduced in
travel through the material. For thick absorbers this correction must be made.
After the material is removed from the neutron environment there is no further
production and the activity will decay according to the half-life.
N = Noe-0.693t/T
d N = -λNdt
d N/N = -λdt
ln N = -λt + C
N = e-λt eC
When t = 0
No = eC
N = Noe-λt
When t= T½ , N/No = e -λT½
ln 0.5 = - -λt, λ = 0.693/T½

2.4 Radioisotope Sources, Accelerator Sources, Nuclear Reactors
Various sources for neutron radiography are briefly described. Major
categories of sources are radioistopes, accelerators and nuclear reactors,
(subcritical assembly) . Radioisotope Sources There are two types of
radioisotope sources, those that depend on fission and those that require a
radiation such as alpha particles or gamma rays incident on an appropriate
target nucleus. An example of the first type is Cf-252 which spontaneously
splits apart in a fission reaction. The other type involves combinations of
alpha (or gamma) emitting radioisotopes with an element such as beryllium.
The alpha emitting types are important for the latter category.

Cf-252, which spontaneously undergoes a fission reaction that releases
neutrons, has become one of the major radioisotope neutron sources
because it offers a reasonably long half life (2.6 years), produces a moderate
energy neutron (fission spectrum with a neutron average energy of about 2.3
MeV), and a relatively high yield, typically 100 times as many neutrons
emitted per gram, as compared to other radioisotope sources. Californium is
a man-made element.
The Cf-252 isotope has been available at a moderate cost ($10 to $20 per
microgram.) However, the cost of these sources is high because
encapsulation, moderation, collimation and shipping far outweigh the cost of
the source material. It has been used where cost was less important than
portability and neutron output. For example, the robotic neutron system at
McClellan Air Force Base, used for on-aircraft inspection, made use of Cf- 52
as the neutron source (29).

An advantage of the Cf-252 source is the ease of moderating the fast
neutrons to produce a beam of thermal neutrons. Moderation is somewhat
easier because the small source size means that the moderator material can
closely surround the source and because the energy of the emitted neutrons
is reasonably low (fission spectrum with an average energy of about 2.3 MeV).
The high neutron yield, coupled with a thermalization factor of 100 or less (the
ratio of the fast neutron yield to the peak thermal neutrons per square cm-
second in the moderator, see Ref. 35) means that a 1 milligram source (fast
neutron yield of 3 x 109n/s) could produce a peak thermal neutron flux in a
well designed moderator of about 3 x 107n/cm2∙s and, with collimation losses,
perhaps a crudely moderated radiographic beam of 103 to 104n/cm2∙s.
Comments:
thermalization factor - the inverse ratio of the thermal neutron flux obtained
in a moderator, per source neutron.

Thermalization Factor: When reactors is used as a source for thermal
neutron radiography, the moderating body that hosts the source is applied in
order to supply the largest possible flux of thermal neutrons in a region from
which the beam may be extracted by the collimator. Then, an important
parameter is the thermalization factor (TF), which is determined by (3):
TF = Fast neutron yield

Past thermal flux
The best moderator to use with a reactor neutron source is commonly the one
in which a small value for TF can be accepted [6]. The first step of analysis,
calculations were carried out to evaluate the efficiency of the thermal
moderation of some selected materials. The chosen geometric configuration
was a cylindrical system with 208 cm length and 6.7 cm inlet diameter of
primary collimator. A reactor source is placed in distance of 86.29 cm of inlet
aperture of the collimator.
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang http://idosi.org/mejsr/mejsr11(5)12/17.pdf

Alpha emitting radioisotope sources mixed with beryllium have been used as
neutron sources since the 1930's. They offer a great variety of source
materials and therefore a variety of costs, half lives and outputs. Short lived
alpha emitters such as Po-210 (138 days) or Cm-242 (163 days) offer a
neutron yield per gram of about 1/100 that of Cf-252 while longer lived
sources such as Pu-238 (89 years), Am-241 (458 years), and Ra-226 (1620
years) are another factor of 100 lower in neutron output (less than 1 X 108
neutrons per second per gram.) Where such low output can be utilized, these
sources have been used for neutron radiography but a source yield of at least
109 fast neutrons per second is usually considered to be necessary for
reasonable thermal beam intensities. Such large radioisotope sources are
usually difficult to handle and expensive.
Photoneutron or photo disintegration sources, such as gamma emitting

radioisotopes mixed with or designed to irradiate beryllium or deuterium oxide
(heavy water) have been used but have been largely abandoned because
they produce a high gamma radiation background. Examples of photoneutron
sources include mixtures of Sb-124 with Be or Na-24 with Be or heavy water.
See Table 2.1 for examples of isotopic sources.

*Gamma dose is rads/hr at 1m, normalized to neutron yield of 5 x 1010n/s.
100 rads is equivalent to 1 gray.

Accelerator Sources
Accelerator sources of neutrons usually offer the advantages of higher output
over isotope sources together with the ability to turn the radiation on and off.
Neutron yields begin at about 107n/s and may be as high as 1012n/s.
One of the less expensive neutron accelerators is the Cockcroft-Walton

accelerator (43) which can produce neutrons through either the (d,D) or (d,T)
reactions at moderate accelerating potentials (from 100 to 400 KeV). In both
reactions deuterium is ionized and the deuterons are accelerated toward
targets of deuterium for the (d,D) reaction and targets containing tritium for
the (d,T) reaction. The (d,D) reaction produces neutrons with an energy of
about 2.5 MeV while the (d,T) reaction produces neutrons with an energy of
about 14 MeV. The 14 MeV neutrons are more difficult to slow down to
thermal energies (moderate) but the reaction yield at 150 keV is 60 times
better. The (d,T) source has been a widely used source for thermal neutron
radiography because of the high neutron yield.

Typically the neutron generators have been used with a sealed neutron tube
to avoid tritium radiation safety problems. Neutron yields decrease with time
because of tube gassing problems and depletion of the tritium as it is
bombarded by the deuteron beam. Some machines use a mixture of
deuterium and tritium to ionize and accelerate into the target to help reduce
target depletion. Modern versions of these accelerators can easily be used in
a laboratory or fixed radiographic facility and are also designed to be
transportable for mobile or field inspection applications ( 44, 45).

New types of accelerators have been developed as sources for neutron
radiography. These include modern radio frequency quadrupole accelerators
(28,30,35,46) and cyclotrons (47). Both types of accelerators make use of
neutron reactions such as protons on beryllium targets.
These relatively expensive machines can produce very high intensity beams
for neutron radiography, typically 106n/cm2∙s, in well collimated beams. ( A
new accelerator source based on the spallation process, is now being used
for neutron radiography. This fixed installation source designed for research
applications is capable of producing extremely well collimated thermal
neutron radiographic beams of high intensity. Beam characteristics have
been described to produce a useful thermal neutron flux of 5 x 106n/cm2·s at
the unusually large L/D of over 500 (48).
Be(p,n)B?, TF=300

Van de Graaff accelerators have been used for neutron production. Again, the
(d,D) and (d,T) reactions may be used with the ( d,D) reaction being favored
because neutron yield increases with increasing acceleration voltage while
the yield of the ( d, T) reaction decreases above about 400 keV.
Be(p,n) source
A well used reaction for Van de Graaff generation of neutrons is the
acceleration of deuterons into beryllium targets. Large Van de Graaff
machines can produce useful beams of thermal neutrons for radiography;
beam intensities of more than 106n/cm2∙s have been obtained (49).
(x,n) source
Machines designed for production of high energy x-ray photons may also
produce neutrons by allowing the photons to interact with either beryllium or
uranium-238 metal. Relatively high yield and long target life are characteristic
of this type of production but the Linac type of accelerators also produce an
intense x-ray background which can make it difficult to perform neutron
radiography.

■ Nuclear Reactors
Small research reactors which fission uranium-235 to produce neutron flux in
the range of 1011 to 1013 (n/cm2∙s) neutrons per square centimeter per second
have been used very successfully for neutron radiography. While the source
cost is high, the cost per neutron is less than for isotope or accelerator
sources. The high neutron fluxes, 100 to 1000 times that of isotope or
accelerator sources, permit very high quality neutron radiographic imaging
with the short exposure times. Reactors do not offer the advantage of
portability and are subject to regulation (50).
Sub-critical Assemblies
Uranium neutron multipliers called sub-critical assemblies have been used for
neutron radiography. The sub-critcal assembly resembles a reactor in that
uranium fission produces most of the neutrons. However, the sub-critical
assemblies cannot reach the condition of producing a self-sustaining fission
reaction. The assemblies produce multiplications of the neutrons from other
neutron sources such as Cf-252. A multiplication of about 30, a significant
increase in the number of neutrons available for radiography, can be obtained.
A source of this type was used for many years to inspect critical weapon
components (51, 52).
2.5 Neutron Detection, Converter Screens
Neutron detection, for the purpose of radiography, is complicated by the need
to convert the neutron to other types of radiation.· The neutron is very difficult
to detect by 'direct' interaction of the neutron with matter. However, the
secondary radiation (photons, protons, and alpha particles) and decay of the
radioactive nuclei produced by neutron absorption offer adequate and
sometimes advantageous means for neutron detection. Converter screens
are more important for neutron radiography than for X-ray or gamma
radiography.
Film is more sensitive to the photon radiation than to the neutrons. Film is
very sensitive to the secondary radiation produced by the neutrons. The
neutron radiography converter screens utilize the secondary radiation from
neutron absorption or the decay radiation from radioactive products of
neutron absorption.
The prompt emission types of converter screens are used for direct neutron
radiography. Screens that tend to become radioactive are used for transfer or
indirect neutron imaging.

Typical thermal neutron converter screen materials are summarized in
Table 2.2.
1. # NA in those cases in which emission used for film exposure is "prompt"

or emitted immediately after neutron interaction
2. * D (Direct) - screen and film together during neutron exposure
3. I (Indirect or Transfer) - screen exposed without film in the neutron beam
and then transferred to the film after exposure
4. R (Real time)- screen used with an image intensifier to produce real time
or CRT images

TABLE 2.2 Examples and Characteristics of Neutron Converter Screen
Materials

Converter Screens for Direct Neutron Radiography
Direct neutron radiography places the specimen, converter screen and film
(or other imaging system) in the neutron beam at the same time as illustrated
in the upper part of Figure 2.1. The converter screen changes the neutrons
that have been transmitted through the specimen into radiation that can be
detected by the film. Converter screens for this type of neutron radiography
are selected from materials that undergo prompt reactions upon neutron
absorption, materials such as gadolinium or cadmium, for example.
Materials that exhibit radioactive reactions with short half-lives can also be
considered for direct neutron radiography; materials such as silver or rhodium
converter screens are good examples of short lived radioactive converter
materials.

Direct converter screens also make use of the conversion of the neutron to
alpha particles by either Boron-10 or Lithium-6. The alpha particles have a
very short range so few would escape a converter screen having a thickness
adequate for normal handling. Instead, the alpha particles are usually
combined with a phosphor so the screen emits light upon neutron absorption.
A popular high sensitivity screen has been made by mixing lithium fluoride
enriched in Lithium-6 with scintillation grade zinc sulfide. The scintillation
screens are used with film sensitive to the light emitted from the screen. The
scintillation screen and alpha emitter combinations produce much faster
results, exposures 100 times or more shorter exposures as compared to the
typically used screens of gadolinium. Since the scintillation screen images are
produced with fewer neutrons, (?) the images are often grainy or mottled as
compared to metal converter screen images.

Some special plastic materials such as nitrocellulose and polycarbonates can
produce images from exposure to the alpha particles. The alpha particles
produce damage in the plastic that can be attacked by chemical agents. Such
materials are identified as track-etch films.
Track-Etch Technique
 An advantage of the track-etch method is insensitivity to gamma radiation
(one major application of track-etch is radiography of irradiated,
radioactive nuclear fuel).
 It is also convenient to work with these materials in the light without the
need for a darkroom.
 The alpha particle track-etch method also offers images with good spatial
resolution because of the short range of the charged alpha particle.

Figure 2.1 Diagrams illustrating the direct film exposure method (upper view)
and the indirect, or transfer method (lower view), in which the film is not
directly exposed to the neutron imaging beam (Ref. 12)
direct film exposure method

Converter Screen for Indirect Neutron Radiography
Indirect or transfer neutron radiographic screens use the decay of radioactive
products formed in the converter screen. The indirect technique places only
the specimen and converter screen together in the neutron beam. After
exposure to the neutrons, the screen is removed from the neutron beam and
placed in contact with film to produce the radiograph, as shown in the lower
part of Figure 2.1. The film will be exposed to the radiation that results from
the decay of the radioactive isotope(s) produced in the screen during neutron
exposure. Indirect neutron radiography offers a method to radiograph highly
radioactive specimens that would produce exposure of the film if it were
present during the radiographic exposure. The indirect technique is usually
slower than the direct film method, since two exposures are required, one in
the beam to produce the radioactive image and one on the film to produce the
autoradiograph.

Figure 2.1 Diagrams illustrating the direct film exposure method (upper view)
and the indirect, or transfer method (lower view), in which the film is not
directly exposed to the neutron imaging beam (Ref. 12)
transfer method

Converter Screens for Neutron Radioscopy (Real-Time Imaging)
Thermal neutron image intensifiers have been used to convert an incoming
thermal neutron image into a bright light image that can be detected by a
sensitive TV camera, a technique similar to that used for x-radioscopy. To
best utilize the image intensifier, the converter screens involve scintillation
which is excited by the alpha emission from lithium or boron, often combined
with an efficient phosphor, such as ZnS.
The phosphor gadolinium oxysulfide offers high sensitivity to thermal

neutrons because of the very high neutron cross section of gadolinium.
With the availability of modern, sensitive charged coupled device (CCD)

cameras, many neutron radioscopic systems now use a sensitive scintillator
or fluorescent screen observed by a CCD camera through a turning mirror (to
place the camera out of the direct radiation beam). A typical radioscopic
camera system is shown in Figure 2.2.

Optics between the screen and optional image intensifier and camera are not
shown. Many of these scintillator-CCD camera systems use the neutron
scintillator LiF-ZnS(Ag), enriched in Li-6. The alpha emission excited by
neutron absorption in the Li-6 nucleus, and the companion triton (31H+?) both
contribute to light emission from the ZnS phosphor. These digital systems can
offer large area coverage, wide dynamic range and good spatial resolution
(28, 29, 30, 47, 48).

Figure 2.2 Diagram of typical radioscopic imaging system. The turning mirror
removes the camera from the direct radiation beam. The image intensifier is
optional; optics are not shown. The CCD camera is often used in neutron
radioscopic systems.

2.6 Neutron Shielding
As with any other application of penetrating radiation, precautions must be
taken to prevent overexposure of personnel to the radiation. The same
concepts of radiation safety as with X-ray and gamma radiography are useful
for neutron radiography: (1) time, (2) distance, and (3) shielding (53, 54).
An important difference for neutron radiography is the shielding. While lead is

an excellent shield for the photon radiation, it is poor for neutron radiation.
Neutron shields are constructed of concrete, tanks of water or hydrocarbons,
and plastics.
Boron and cadmium are often incorporated into the above materials or used
as an additional thin layer on such materials. Boron, as boric acid, is popular
as an additive to shields that use water or plastic because it is inexpensive,
effective at low concentrations, and produces fasily absorbed secondary
radiation.

Secondary radiation, especially the conversion of neutrons to high energy
gamma photons, must be recognized in the planning of the shielding for
personnel. Much of the personnel exposure at neutron radiographic facilities
comes from the secondary radiation rather than from the neutrons. Secondary
radiation shielding uses the concrete and lead common for the more common
radiographic facilities. Attention should be paid to the high energies of the
secondary radiation such as capture gamma rays. Attention should also be
paid to the handling of the converter screens which can become rather
radioactive in the high neutron fluxes available at nuclear reactors. The beta
and other soft radiation emitted by the converter screens can easily be
overlooked and can produce appreciable exposure to the hands. Finger ring
dosimeters should be considered for handling radioactive screens.
Appropriate dosimeters and survey instrumentation for the neutrons, the
secondary radiation and the decay radiation are important and different from
that used in either X-ray or gamma ray radiography.

3.0 NEUTRON SOURCES, MODERATION AND
COLLIMATION
Neutrons are created in neutron sources as high energy neutrons. From the
previous discussions, thermal or low energy neutrons are preferred for most
neutron radiography applications. Therefore this section starts with a
discussion of methods for moderation or thermalization of neutrons.

3.1 Moderation
As noted in the previous sections, neutrons are generally produced having
considerable kinetic energy but are most useful for radiography as thermal or
low energy neutrons. To reduce the energy of (moderate or thermalize) the
neutrons, they are allowed to collide with the nuclei of atoms having low mass.
In such collisions, the neutrons lose some of their kinetic energy to the nuclei.
The closer the mass of the nucleus of the atom is to the mass of the neutron,
the greater is the loss of kinetic energy of the neutron per collision. For
example, it is possible for a high energy neutron to transfer all of its excess
energy (above thermal energy) to the nucleus of a hydrogen atom (proton) in
one collision. Most often more than one collision between the neutron and the
nuclei in the moderator will be required even if the moderator is rich in
hydrogen. Collisions of the neutron with nuclei larger than that of hydrogen
transfer less energy from the neutron per collision so that multiple collisions
are required to reduce the energy of the neutron to thermal equilibrium. For
that reason, the best moderators for fast neutrons are the light elements.
Table 3.1 lists some important properties of some common moderator
materials.

Absorption of the neutron by the moderator is another important consideration
in the choice of the moderator material. A light element that has a high
probability for neutron absorption, such as boron, would be a poor choice as a
moderator.
For that reason, heavy water rather than light water is sometimes used as a
moderator. See Table 3.1 for comparison of neutron cross sections of
hydrogen versus deuterium (heavy hydrogen). Heavy water is far more
expensive than light water. Water is a useful moderator because of its high
hydrogen content, fairly low neutron absorption and ease of use in a tank
surrounding the fast neutron source (36). Other high hydrogen content, solid
materials include hydrocarbons like wax, polyethylene, and other plastics.
High density polyethylene is widely used in practical fixed or transportable
systems. Concrete is not used as a simple moderator, but as a radiation
shield.
Beryllium (metal) and graphite (a solid form of carbon) are also popular
moderators for neutrons where cost is not a factor. They offer considerable
dimensional stability and durability but are much more inconvenient and
expensive.

The moderating material generally surrounds the neutron source as well as
possible. A void channel in the moderator allows a beam of thermal neutrons
to leave the assembly. The void alignment is such that a direct line-of-sight to
the neutron source is not permitted; this reduces the number of fast neutrons
that emerge in the neutron beam. Neutron absorbers are often placed in and
around the assembly to reduce both thermal and fast neutrons from leaving
the assembly and reaching the neutron radiographic location. A typical
moderator-collimator arrangement with a diverging beam is shown in Figure
3.1 (55). The fast neutron source (isotope, accelerator target, etc.) is
surrounded by the moderator. A filter is shown between the fast neutron
source and the beam exit to help remove gamma rays. An exit channel
permits neutrons that have scattered in that direction to emerge in the beam.
The beam is shown as divergent, similar to a typical x-ray beam used for
radiography.

Figure 3.1. Moderator-collimator arrangement surrounding a fast neutron
source. The thermal neutron beam can be characterized by the L/D ratio (55).

3.2 Collimation
When thermal neutrons exit from a moderator, they are in random motion.
Radiography requires that the paths of the radiation particles be as parallel to
one another as is possible. Collimation is used to remove neutrons from the
beam that are not traveling in nearly parallel paths. If fast neutrons are being
used for radiography, no collimation may be needed, assuming the source
size is small, i.e., the target of an accelerator, approximating a point source.
The methods that have been used for producing useful thermal neutron
beams are (1) the straight wall collimator, (2) the Soller slit method (a series
of small tubes to help make the beam parallel) and (3) the divergent
collimator. Most neutron radiography is done with divergent collimators, as
shown in Figure 3.1.

Also shown in the diagram are the exit aperture for the beam, D, and the
distance of the aperture to the detection plane, L. The ratio of these two
dimensions, L/D, is used to define the degree of collimation in the neutron
beam. The higher that ratio, the better the beam will be for producing
radiographs with good definition or sharpness. One can think of D somewhat
as the focal spot of an x-ray tube. For example, it is not unusual to use an x-
ray machine with a focal spot of 2mm to take radiographs at a source-to-film
distance of 1m. This would be equivalent to a neutron beam L/D of 100 cm/
0.2cm, or 500.
Reactor based neutron radiography facilities typically may use a beam L/D of
about 100. An isotope or accelerator source may use a beam L/D of 30. The
L/D ratio is further discussed in an ASTM standard (56). The standard also
describes a method to determine the value of L/D by observing the shadow of
test object removed from the detection plane.

Equations that are used to calculate the effectiveness of the collimators are
given below (36):
Geometric unsharpness (Ug) for relatively thin specimens close to the image
plane:
Ug = DT/L Eqn. 3.1
Where:
T is specimen thickness
D is collimator aperture diameter (circular)
L is length of collimator or distance from aperture to the image plane

A useful approximation (36) for the beam intensity at the image plane (I) is as
follows:
I= Io/16(L/D)2 Eqn. 3.2
Where Io is the beam intensity at the aperture.
Recognize that collimation reduces the peak thermal neutron flux in the
moderator by a factor of 110000X in a beam LID ratio of 25. (?)

3.3 Nuclear Reactors
As mentioned previously, nuclear reactors are the most expensive sources of
neutrons. They also produce the largest neutron fluxes. The neutron flux at
the film plane may be 100 to 1000 times the neutron flux available from
typical isotope or accelerator sources. This high flux, 107 to 1 08ncm-2s-1,
translates into improved resolution and shorter exposure times. Reactors may
also yield neutron beams with a high ratio of thermal neutrons to higher
energy neutrons than most other sources as well as a high ratio of thermal
neutrons to gamma radiation. High thermal neutron and low gamma radiation
content in the neutron beam tend to improve the quality of the neutron
radiograph in most circumstances. The higher neutron flux of the reactor
allows improvement in the collimation of the neutrons without excessive
exposure time penalties.
Because of the high cost of the nuclear reactor, few reactor facilities are
devoted to neutron radiography alone. Most neutron radiographic facilities
using nuclear reactors are research reactors established for other purposes.
The arrangements made at a research reactor to provide high quality thermal
neutron beams for research in scattering, nuclear absorption, diffraction, etc.
make the reactors useful as neutron radiography facilities.

Addition of the neutron radiographic capability to the reactor rarely interferes
with the original missions of the reactor facility and consumes an insignificant
fraction of the neutrons available. Most research reactors include a means for
bringing a thermal neutron beam from in or around the reactor core to a point
outside the reactor's biological shield. The core is the arrangement of
fissionable fuel such as U-235, control rods (devices that absorb thermal
neutrons which may be moved in and out of the core volume), and a
moderator. The moderator is a material such as water, heavy water, or
graphite that slows fast neutrons produced by fission of the fuel into thermal
neutrons that may initiate another fission. The core may be surrounded by a
"reflector“ that returns many of the high energy neutrons to the core. The
neutron beam may be extracted from a point inside the core, outside the core,
or in the reflector region. As the point of extraction for the beam is moved
away from the inside of the core, the neutron flux available decreases but the
ratio of thermal to higher energy neutrons increases. (as it is cooler)

Shutters to stop the neutron beam as well as gamma radiation filters (a
material that has high absorption for gamma rays but low absorption for
thermal neutrons such as a bismuth plug) are generally provided in or at the
end of the biological shield. Neutron collimators may be placed in the
biological shield or in the neutron beam after it emerges from the biological
shield. Figure 3.2 illustrates an example of a research reactor neutron
radiographic facility (57).

Figure 3.2 Diagram of a neutron radiographic beam at the University of
Virginia reactor, showing the reactor core and reflector (lower left) and
beamfilters, about 1/3 the length up the beam tube (57).

3.4 Accelerator Sources
In Section 2.4, accelerator sources were described as having lower neutron
outputs than reactors but having the advantages of transportability and the
ability to be turned off and on with little or no radiation present when turned off.
The more transportable machines offer somewhat lower neutron yields than
the larger built-in-place machines. The smaller machines also make use of
high yield reactions such as (d,T) which produce high energy neutrons. The
high energy neutrons are more difficult to thermalize and may result in
neutron beams having poor thermal to high energy neutron ratios. Such
mixed neutron beams generally are not desirable for the best neutron
radiographic imaging but occasionally offer some advantages.

One of the more common accelerators used for neutron production is the
Cockcroft-Walton accelerator (43, 44, 45). The Cockcroft-Walton design uses
a circuit in which a set of capacitors are charged in parallel during one half of
an alternating current cycle. During the second half of the alternating current
cycle, the set of capacitors are switched from parallel to a series connection
to achieve an accelerating voltage that is a multiple of the alternating current
charging voltage. Accelerating voltages of 100 to 400 ke V are often produced
in this fashion and are sufficient to produce neutrons by either the (d,D) or
(d,T) reactions. Figure 3.3 is a photograph of a transportable Cockcroft-
Walton type of accelerator, shown in the process of a field inspection ( 44, 58).

Figure 3.3 Photograph of a transportable (d,T) neutron source shown set up
to radioscopic inspection of a helicopter blade. The round object below the
blade houses the accelerator target, moderator and collimator (44).

Cockcroft-Walton Accelerator
Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang https://share.sandia.gov/news/resources/news_releases/sandia-adopts-new-agreement-forms-to-allow-universitiesindustry-to-use-facilities/

The (d,D) reaction produces neutrons with an energy of about 2.5 MeV at low
accelerating voltages. At high accelerating voltages, some of the additional
accelerating energy increases the resultant neutron energy. Neutron yield
also increases for the ( d,D) reaction as the accelerating voltage is increased.
The (d,T) reaction produces 14.3 MeV neutrons at the threshold accelerating
voltage of about 120 keV. Increases in the accelerating voltage only increase
the neutron yield slightly (mostly a function of the tritium target thickness and
material) and the neutron yield decreases with increases in accelerating
voltage above about 500 keV. While the neutron yield from the (d,T) reaction
is 60 times that of the (d,D) reaction, thermal neutron flux fails to increase by
the same factor because the 14 MeV neutrons are so much more difficult to
thermalize. Another disadvantage to the ( d, T) reaction is that the neutron
yield decreases with target use time because the tritium is being depleted
both by the nuclear reaction and by heating of the target.

The heating of the target releases quantities of the tritium (radioactive
hydrogen) into the vacuum system and finally into the atmosphere in pumped,
non-sealed systems. Most modern (d,T) neutron sources make use of sealed
tubes, which eliminate many of the tritium handling problems. Life-times of
sealed (d,T) neutron tubes approach 4,000 hours before the neutron yield is
reduced to half that at maximum neutron yield (58, 59).

Small Van de Graaff accelerators have been used for neutron radiography
(24, 49, 60, 61). The accelerating potential in a Van de Graaff accelerator is
produced by placing an electrical charge on a moving, non-conductor belt,
removing the charge\.from the belt at a distance from the charging point, and
storing the charge on a smooth, almost spherical metal surface. Extremely
high voltages can be created in this fashion which permits a variety of other
nuclear reactions to be used to produce neutrons. A diagram of a Van de
Graaff accelerator is shown in Figure 3.4. Some examples of neutron
producing nuclear reactions used in Van de Graaff accelerators are the
acceleration of 1H+ protons or 2H+ deuterons into beryllium 4Be, protons into
lithium-7, deuterons into carbon-12, and deuterons into either deuterium or
tritium targets. Most of the Van de Graaff accelerators used for neutron
radiography are large systems set up for other purposes such as research in
nuclear physics.

Van de Graaff Accelerators

Van de Graaff Accelerators

Figure 3.4. Diagram of a Van de Graaff accelerator, showing how the
charges are moved along the belt to build up a high voltage charge (19).

Linear accelerators are also useful sources for neutron radiography. Some
early work was done with a LINAC x-ray source, the high energy x-rays being
used to produce neutrons from an (x,n) reaction in a beryllium target (62). An
x-ray intensity of 650 R/minute at 1 meter resulted in a thermal neutron beam
of 5 x 104 n∙cm-2s-1 , with fair collimation. The x-ray method for producing
neutrons may be important for inspection facilities that have a high energy x-
ray source and need neutron radiographic capability only rarely. Nevertheless,
the intense x-ray background makes neutron radiography difficult.
New accelerators, using radio frequency quadrupole techniques are now

available (28, 30, 63), offering a range of neutron outputs, up to neutron
radiographic beam intensities in the order of 106 n∙cm-2s-1 with excellent
collimation (L/D values of 100). These accelerators typically use a neutron
reaction of protons or deuterons on a beryllium target to produce fast
neutrons of a few MeV in energy. Recent work has shown that these long,
high output accelerators might be adapted as transportable neutron
radiography sources, as shown in Figure 3.5 (63).

Figure 3.5 Drawing of a design for a transportable RFQ accelerator neutron
source. Note the accelerator length on the bottom scale, 9 m (63).

Cyclotrons also have been used for neutron radiography. Compact units can
produce high neutron yields into moderator-collimator assemblies, for intense
thermal neutron radiography beams (47, 64, 65). A cryogenically cooled
cyclotron, accelerating 12 MeV protons on a beryllium target, has been used
for thermal neutron radiography, with beam intensities of 7.3 x 105n cm-2 s-1 at
an L/D of 100 (28, 47). A conceptual drawing of such a cyclotron neutron
radiography source as a transportable system is shown in Figure 3.6 (65).
New high voltage machines sources accelerating high energy protons can
produce intense neutron yields by the spallation process. A large, expensive
machine (590 MeV) designed for nuclear research is now being used for
neutron radiography, as indicated earlier in Section 2.4 ( 48).

Figure 3.6 Artist drawing of a transportable cyclotron neutron radiography
source (65).

3.5 Radioisotope Neutron Sources
No radioisotope of the 92 elements occurring in nature emits neutrons.
Neutron emission is produced by combining radioisotope sources with target
materials or by making a transuranic radioisotope like Californium-252 which
decays by spontaneous fission. The more common radioisotope neutron
sources are combinations of alpha emitting radioisotopes such as Polonium-
210, Americium-241, or Plutonium-239 with beryllium. The alpha particle
interacts with the beryllium to release a neutron while forming an atom of
carbon-12. The combination of the radioisotope and beryllium must be very
well mixed very fine powders of each material because of the short range of
the alpha particle. Preparation of mixtures of such fine powders of two toxic
substances must be carried out with great care. The mixture is placed in
stainless steel capsules that are welded closed. In some cases, the
radioactive mixture is double encapsulated. The resultant source is typically a
right circular cylinder about 1 inch in diameter and 1 inch tall. Each of the
alpha emitting radioisotopes listed above will produce about 2 X 106 n/sec per
curie of activity when mixed with beryllium.

The Californium-252 neutron source spontaneously fissions and therefore
does not have to be mixed with a target material, such as beryllium. A
stainless steel encapsulated Cf-252 source emitting 109 n/sec would only
contain 1 milligram of the radioisotope and would be about 1.27 cm in
diameter and 3.81 cm long (0.5 X 1.5 in.) Size of the capsule is convenient for
fabrication, durability, and handling and changes little for much larger
quantities of the radioactive material. The Cf-252 is made by multiple
successive neutron captures in Uranium-238 in very high neutron flux nuclear
reactors. The Cf-252 is removed by chemical separation from the mixtures of
materials formed. Even with such an expensive production technique, cost of
the Cf-252 has been in the range of $10 to $20 per microgram (2.3 X 106
n/sec per microgram.) However, encapsulation and transportation charges
can vastly overshadow the isotope cost. Radioisotope neutron sources would
be far too bulky and expensive for use as sources for quality neutron
radiography which normally requires approximately 1010 fast n/sec for
reasonable thermal beam intensities. The radioisotope sources can produce
neutron radiographs in circumstances where portability and lack of external
power are important and radiographic quality need not be the best.

3.6 Sub-critical Assemblies
Sub-critical assemblies combine the production of neutrons by a fast source
such as Cf-252 with some neutron multiplication by U-235 fission such as
exists in a nuclear reactor. The multiplication is kept below what is necessary
for a self-sustaining fission reaction. These assemblies Increase the neutron
yield from a given source by factors as high as 30 but lose the portability of
the radioisotope source and become fixed in place sources. The sub-critical
assemblies do not require the safety features and additional licensing and
personnel required by a reactor but they also do not provide the high neutron
output available from a reactor. As indicated in Section 2.4, a fixed sub-critical
neutron source was used extensively for radiography at the Mound
Laboratory in Ohio, until closed down in the early 1990's (51,52).
Development that placed fissionable materials within the moderator assembly
of an accelerator source has also been reported (67), the end result being an
increase in the available neutrons by a factor of 1.5.

4.0 NEUTRON IMAGING TECHNIQUES
4.1 Indirect or Transfer Imaging Techniques
In Section 2.5, the process of indirect or transfer neutron radiography was
very briefly described. This technique provides some of the more unusual
advantages of neutron radiography such as radiography of highly radioactive
specimens. The technique also permits discrimination of the type of radiation
being imaged; i.e., neutrons versus gamma radiation or one energy range of
neutrons versus other energy ranges of neutrons (?).

Transfer Method Direct Gadolinium Scintillators Method Track-Etched
Method
spatial resolution spatial resolution spatial resolution spatial resolution

value of 50μm value of 10μm value of 50-100μm value of 25μm
The contrast The contrast The contrast The contrast

sensitivity for 25 sensitivity for 25 sensitivity for 25 mm sensitivity for 25 mm
mm steel or mm steel or steel or uranium steel or uranium
uranium objects uranium objects is objects is 4~6%. objects is 1%.
is 1%. 2%.
Typical screen Typical screen Typical screen Typical screen

In, Dy Gd, Li LiF-ZnS and Li or B
gadolinium oxysulfide
104 n∙cm-2 minimum 109 n∙cm-2 105 n∙cm-2 (film) 109 n∙cm-2
3 x 106 n∙cm-2s-1
(30 frames/s)
?μm thick 25μm thick

Indirect or transfer neutron radiography is performed by exposing an imaging
screen to the neutrons transmitted through the specimen without film being
present. These imaging screens become radioactive by interaction with the
neutrons; a radioactive "image" is formed on the screen by the neutrons
transmitted through the specimen. When sufficient radioactivity has been
induced in the screen, exposure to the neutrons is ended and the screen is
transferred to a cassette containing film (done in a non-radiation area). See
Figure 2.1.
The radioactivity in the screen is allowed to decay for a period of time

sufficient to expose the film (usually not more than 3 half life, 3 x T½ ) . Good
contact between the screen and the film is essential for good quality image
production. Major exposure to the film is by beta particles from the decaying
radioisotope in the screen. In a few instances, the radiation emitted may be
weak gamma radiation from isomeric transitions or x-rays which follow
electron capture. Table 2.2 includes a listing of screens used for the indirect
or transfer technique.
Film activating agents: Beta, gammas, x-ray, (conversion electron?)

Production of the radioactive species in the screen (sometimes referred to as
'foil' since they are usually very thin metal sheets) can be described by the
equation:
A = NσΦ(1 - e -0.683t/T) (Eqn. 4.1)
A is the activity produced in disintegrating atoms/second
N is the number of target atoms per cm3 in the specimen
σ is the cross section of the target atom in cm2
Φ is the neutron flux in n∙cm-2 sec-1
t is the neutron exposure time
T is the half life of the isotope produced.
At the moment that neutron exposure is discontinued, the radioactive isotopes

in the screen decay according to:
A’ = Aoe -0.683t/T (Eqn. 4.2)
A’ is the activity remaining after decay time t or the time from end of activation
to measurement.
Ao is the activity at the end of neutron exposure.

Notice should be taken that the quality of the image on the screen will be a
function of the usual radiographic parameters such as:
1. source size,
2. source-to-film distance,
3. thickness of the specimen,
4. closeness of the specimen to the detector as well as
5. other geometric factors,
6. scatter of the radiation in the specimen and around the screen plus
7. neutron absorption characteristics of the specimen versus its flaws and
8. the statistics of radiation decay and detection.
Section 2 contains ( information on the factors affecting neutron absorption, in

the specimen (especially cross section). Information on the details of
radioactive decay and detection statistics can be found in nuclear science or
nuclear engineering books (39, 40, 67). It is sufficient here, to note that the
quality of the image obtained from the screen will be dependent upon the
amount of the radioisotope produced in the screen. Better images are obtained
by producing more radioactivity in the screen.

Equation 4.1 then predicts that exposure or activation time improves the
quality of the image only initially. After several half lives in exposure or
activation time, the radioactivity in the screen reaches saturation (no longer
increases) and longer neutron exposure does not improve image quality. For
example, a period of 3 half-lives produces 87.5% of the possible activation or
autoradiographic exposure that can be obtained. Improvements in the image
quality must then come from larger neutron fluxes or use of screens having
target atoms with a greater cross section for neutron reaction. Typical screen
materials used for the transfer method include indium (54.1 minute half-life)
and dysprosium (140 minute half-life).

Note that in the same fashion, exposures of the screens to film longer than a
few half lives do not materially improve the image quality because there is
little radioactive decay of the desired radioisotope remaining.
Also note that using thicker screens to increase the number of target atoms
reduces image quality from geometric and scatter factors and may result in
some absorption of the radioactive emission within the screen. Screen
thicknesses of about 0.010 inch for indium and 0.005 inch for dysprosium are
close to the saturation limit in terms of film density (12). If high neutron flux is
not available, the choice is then usually to change from indirect imaging to
direct imaging or to another technique such as track-etch imaging.

Track-etch techniques produce insulating material films with damage tracks
that can be chemically etched to disclose an image ( 68). Typical materials for
thermal neutron radiography include an alpha emitter, such as lithium or
boron, used with a cellulose nitrate film. The alpha particles produced upon
neutron absorption damage the plastic. A chemical etch, typically 30 minutes
in a potassium or sodium hydroxide solution, reveals the pattern of small etch
holes (69). The image can be observed or photographed by a side-light
method.
There are many advantages of track-etch: ( 1) easy handling of films in the
light, (2) response to thermal neutrons and not to gamma rays, (3) linear
response over several orders of magnitude of exposure, (4) excellent
resolution because of the short range of the alpha particle and (5) exposure
as long as needed for a useful image.
For the application to neutron radiography of radioactive materials (69),
tracketch methods eliminate exposure problems that might result from low
neutron flux, as is true for the transfer film method. Exposures can be as long
as necessary. Exposures in the order of 109n/cm2 are usually used for track-
etch thermal neutron images.

4.2 Direct Neutron Imaging
Direct neutron imaging describes the simultaneous use of a neutron converter
screen and film in the neutron beam (see Figure 2.1.) The screen is
necessary to convert the neutrons into a more detectable radiation to expose
the film. In this case, longer exposure times should materially improve the
radiographic image on the film. The radiation detected by the film is most
usually prompt radiation or radiation that is released by the target atom
immediately after neutron interaction ·rather than being released by the decay
of a radioactive species. In fact, the neutron interaction need not produce a
radioactive product so long as the neutron reaction involves release of some
radiation detectable by the film.
Keywords:
Prompt radiation: radiation that is released by the target atom immediately
after neutron interaction ·rather than being released by the decay of a
radioactive species.

Since decay of a radioactive species is not usually a strong contribution to the
image production, the radiation contributing to the image is represented by:
A = NσΦt (Eqn. 4.3)
A is the activity produced in disintegrating atoms/second

N is the number of target atoms per cm3 in the specimen
σ is the cross section of the target atom in cm2
Φ is the neutron flux in n∙cm-2 sec-1
t is the neutron exposure time
T is the half life of the isotope produced.

The conversion screen most used for direct thermal neutron radiography is
gadolinium, a very high cross section material (see Table 2.2). Since thermal
neutron absorption is so high in this material, it is feasible to use a very thin
screen, 0.001 inch (25.4μm) or less. For optimum results a single conversion
screen is used in back of the film.
The neutron reaction with this material produces an internal conversion

electron, of energy about 70 keV, radiation that is easily detected by an x-ray
film. The high detection efficiency and the short range of the emitted electron
result in neutron radiographs of excellent quality. Spatial resolution values of
10 microns have been reported (70). Fine grain, single emulsion films are
often used with a gadolinium screen to produce high quality thermal neutron
radiographs; exposure needed is in the order of 109 n∙cm-2. Faster film results
can be obtained by using faster films with a single or multiple gadolinium
screens or by light-emitting screens with a fast light- sensitive film. A Li6F-
ZnS scintillator with a fast film can provide useful results with much faster
exposures, in the range of 105 n∙cm-2s-1 (105 n∙cm-2 ?) .

Gadolinium Direct method: exposure needed is in the order of 109 n∙cm-2.
Scintillator Li6F-ZnS scintillator Direct method: exposure need 105 n∙cm-2s-1.
Real Time Imaging-Scintillator method

For good image quality, one seeks to have a neutron exposure per image of
about 105 ncm-2. For a typical television system showing images at the rate of
30 frames/s, this means that a neutron source that supplies a beam intensity
of 3 x 106n cm-2s-1 will provide good quality, real-time images.

A summary of the characteristics of film exposures, both direct and transfer
types may be useful. The transfer films have the advantage of having no
response to gamma radiation, an advantage that often results in improved
contrast (contrast sensitivity) . Exposures tend to be longer than direct
exposures because two exposures are needed. Spatial resolution is good, in
the range of 50 microns, but not quite as good as can be achieved with the
direct method using a gadolinium screen.
Direct film methods can be obtained with only one exposure, so an image can
usually be viewed in less time. Also, as noted, direct exposures with a single
gadolinium screen can yield neutron radiographs that display detail as small
as 10 microns (spatial resolution) .
Track-etch methods offer insensitivity to gamma radiation, good resolution,

wide dynamic range and exposures as long as needed for a useful image.

Examples of the three types of images are shown in Figures 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.
■ Figure 4.1 is a direct thermal neutron radiograph of a cracked aluminum,
acid- reated double cantilever beam sample. The radiograph shows evidence
of hydrogen along the vertical crack just above the location where the screws
meet. Also shown is the vertical image of a cadmium test piece with sets of
holes. The smallest hole is 0.25mm diameter. The sets of holes at the upper
part of the test piece are 0.25mm holes separated by 0.25mm, a true
representation of 0.25mm resolution (71).
■ Figure 4.2 is a transfer neutron radiograph taken with dysprosium and a

medium speed x-ray film. The image shows a portion of an irradiated, highly
radioactive nuclear fuel sample; cladding rupture and voids in some fuel
specimens is indicated, along with deposits of fuel material in the bottom of
the tantalum cup (72).
■ Figure 4.3 is a track-etch image of radioactive, irradiated nuclear fuel,

taken at the French nuclear center at Saclay (69), where tracketch neutron
radiography is routinely done. The positive image shows severe cracking in
the fuel pellets.

Figure 4.1 Direct thermal neutron radiograph taken with a gadolinium screen
showing a cracked double cantilever beam aluminum sample. Hydrogen
deposits along the vertical crack above the location where the screws meet is
evident. The cadmium test bar at the left shows images of many small holes,
including the sequence at the top, 0.25mm holes spaced 0.25mm apart (71).

Figure 4.2. A transfer thermal neutron radiograph of irradiated nuclear fuel
shows cladding rupture and fuel deposits in the bottom. Image taken with an
indium transfer screen (72).

Figure 4.3 A track-etch neutron radiograph of nuclear fuel, showing extensive
cracking (69).

4.3 Radioscopy (Real Time Imaging)
Figure 4.3 A track-etch neutron radiograph of nuclear fuel, showing extensive
cracking (69). Neutron radioscopic systems can provide real-time images
while the neutron exposure is occurring. The systems may incorporate a
neutron conversion screen in an image intensifier tube. Screens of LiF–ZnS
and gadolinium oxysulfide have been used in neutron image intensifier tubes.
In addition, as discussed briefly in Section 2.5, these light-emitting screens
may be used with a mirror-lens-camera system (28, 29, 30, 47, 48, 57, 73), as
shown in Figure 2.2. Boron nitride scintillators have also been investigated for
both film and camera imaging but thus far have seen little application (74, 75).
Other solid state camera systems, GaAs arrays, for example, have also been
investigated for neutron radioscopic imaging (76). These systems may
provide very fast imaging with high neutron flux sources so that motion of the
specimen can be observed.
Keywords:
LiF-ZnS, Gadolinium-oxysulfide
Boron Nitride, GaAs

For good image quality, one seeks to have a neutron exposure per image of
about 105 n cm-2. For a typical television system showing images at the rate of
30 frames/s, this means that a neutron source that supplies a beam intensity
of 3 x 106 n∙cm-2s-1 will provide good quality, real-time images.
Useful neutron radioscopic images can be obtained with lower neutron beam
intensities, but one may have to use a slow scan technique, say 5 or 10
frames/s, or make use of images with more noise. Recognize that an
exposure of 105 n∙cm-2s-1 will result in images with some quantum noise, that
is noise due to fluctuations in the neutron beam itself (28, 70).

A diagram of a typical screen-CCD camera system was shown in Figure 2.2.
Neutron image intensifier tubes are commercially available, with a 9-inch
diameter input screen. Neutron radioscopic methods have been used in high
through- ut inspection of aircraft to detect corrosion (28, 29) and to image
dynamic events to investigate object movements during a process. For
example, a reactor pulse has been used to perform fast neutron imaging of
explosive firing and to observe two-phase flow, at frame rates up to 10,000
frames/s (77). At more conventional, 30 frames/s rates, dynamic neutron
imaging has been used to follow movement of fluids in engines and
transmissions (78, 79), to observe coking in engine nozzles (80, 81) and to
observe movement of moisture (82).

An example of a dynamic thermal neutron image sequence is shown in
Figure 4.4 (total time from image 1 to the end is 0.66 seconds). Image 1
shows the start of a pour of Wood's metal into an aluminum mold. It can be
seen in frames 6 and 7 that the vertical riser of the mold begins to fill before
the vertical leg of the casting below. This poor casting design will lead to
porosity in the casting (34).
The applications cited provide evidence for the usefulness of neutron

radioscopic methods.

Figure 4.4. A dynamic thermal neutron sequence showing the pouring of
Wood's metal into an aluminum mold. The time for the entire sequence was
0.66 seconds (34).

4.4 Neutron Computed Tomography
Just as X-ray and gamma ray radiography have found use in computed
tomography (CT) applications (83 ), neutron tomography has been used to
provide important information. The ASTM standard cited (83) is a CT tutorial
document that includes a glossary of terms and an extended list of references.
The image produced in a conventional radiograph is a shadow image of the
specimen's density and thickness, whereas a tomographic image is a cross
sectional image (a slice) of the specimen parallel to the radiation beam. In
addition, this slice is essentially free from features in other object slices or
planes, unlike a conventional radiograph which shows a superposition of all
planes in the image.

CT can be accomplished by passing a thin, wide beam (often called a "fan"
beam because of its shape) of radiatipn through the slice of the specimen to
be imaged, or in more recent developments, using conventional cone beam
techniques. The radiation is detected by a line or row of detectors, or by an
area imager, on the opposite side of the specimen. For the fan beam
approach, the specimen, or the source-detector assembly, is rotated so that
the specimen is examined with the radiation beam passing through all
segments of the specimen (usually 180 degrees of rotation.) In some cases,
the specimen may be moved laterally through the beam between rotations. In
the case of the cone beam method, the object can be rotated in the beam to
collect the required number of views. A computer then reconstructs a cross
sectional image of the specimen from the thousands of individual absorption
measurements made through the specimen. Neutron CT imaging has been
applied to a wide range of applications including nuclear fuel (84), aircraft
components, material testing and archeology applications (85, 86, 87).

4.5 Other Neutron Imaging Techniques
Image detection methods for neutrons other than thermal are available. Cold
neutrons and near epithermal neutrons can be detected by methods similar to
those described for thermal neutrons. In addition, there are materials which
exhibit resonances at selected neutron energies that can be used to detect
neutrons in the near epithermal energy range. For example, indium exhibits a
large activation resonance at an energy of 1.46 e V. This transfer image
method has been used for neutron radiography of nuclear fuel to obtain
improved transmission of these higher-than-thermal energy neutrons. An
example is shown in Figure 4.5. The transfer neutron radiographs of
irradiated fuel were taken with thermal neutrons for the view on the left. The
high neutron absorption of the enriched fuel results in sharp edges which are
useful for dimensional measurements. The resonance neutron radiograph on
the right, taken by filtering the beam through cadmium to remove thermal
neutrons before the neutrons strike the indium screen, shows much improved
transmission through the fuel so internal details can be seen (70).
Keywords:
Cold neutron, near epithermal neutron, large activation resonance

Figure 4.5. Transfer neutron radiographs of irradiated, enriched nuclear fuel.
The view at the left was taken with thermal neutrons for dimensional
measurements. The view at the right, taken with a cadmium-filtered indium
screen technique, shows improved penetration of the fuel to observe internal
cracking and deposits (70).

Radiography with fast neutrons has also been investigated (88, 89, 90, 91).
Image detection usually depends on knock-on protons from a hydrogenous
material stimulating adjacent phosphor grains. The hydrogenous binder
combined in a typical phosphor screen used for x-ray imaging will provide fast
neutron radiographs with film. Once a scintillator is available to emit light
when irradiated with fast neutrons, then a radioscopic image method can also
be used (90, 91). Fast neutron imaging can also be done using the indirect
methods of activation transfer and track-etch (70). There are other methods
for imaging of neutrons that should be mentioned (70). Thermoluminescent
phosphors, such as LiF can be used for neutron imaging by irradiating the
phosphor and then capturing the emitted light as the phosphor is heated. A
spark counter technique has been used to image neutrons, using an array of
wires and a boron screen. Neutron capture in the boron causes release of an
alpha particle, which ionizes the gas in the spark counter enclosure, causing
a spark. A collection of spark images will produce an overall image of the
incident neutron beam. Ionography, a method of making an electrostatic
image on an insulating surface by ionization caused by the radiation, has
been investigated for x-ray (92) and neutron imaging (93). These alternate
neutron imaging methods have not been widely used.

However, a new radiation imaging method, making use of a photostimulable
luminescent (PSL) phosphor is likely to become important for both x-ray and
neutron imaging. The PSL phosphor, typically a europium activated barium
fluorohalide, can be coated on a rigid or flexible substrate (94, 95, 96).
Storage phosphors have been studied extensively for x-ray imaging. The
phosphors emit light that has been trapped upon radiation exposure when the
phosphor image plate is irradiated with a long wavelength light, such as that
from a red laser. The emitted light is collected by a photomultiplier tube,
whose output is correlated with the position of the laser spot to form an image.
After the image is read out and displayed, the remaining signal on the image
plate is erased by exposure to white light and/or infrared. The storage
phosphor process is illustrated in Figure 4.6. Storage phosphors offer
sensitive, wide dynamic range, digital imaging with re-usable image plates. In
addition, no image processing chemicals are required, an advantage in terms
of environmental problems.

Figure 4.6. Diagram showing the sequence for a storage phosphor radiation
imaging system.

Thermal neutron imaging has been done with these new image plates by
adding conversion screens as is done with film. Work is reported with
gadolinium, lithium-6 or gadolinium oxysulfide converters (97, 98, 99).
Storage phosphor techniques offer similar advantages for neutron imaging as
has been found for x-ray imaging.

4.6 Contrast Agents
If the specimen does not possess components that respond to neutron
imaging, some components such as cracks, channels, or voids may be filled
with substances that possess large neutron attenuation cross sections. As an
example, water containing boron compounds such as boric acid or borax may
be allowed to infiltrate the features of interest. Contrast agents may be added
to the components to be imaged; i.e., boron, lithium, helium or rare earth
compounds may be added to the inspection system or in the manufacture of
materials such as bonding agents, "0" rings, insulators, or metallic parts so
that they can be more readily imaged. The contrast agent may be needed to
utilize a lower neutron flux or to reduce exposure times, as well as to increase
sensitivity of detection. Some references describing studies with neutron
contrast materials are cited (1 00, 101, 1 02). The neutron radiographic
examination of turbine blades, using gadolinium material contrast agents is a
widely used example for enhanced imaging by contrast agents (103, 104), as
shown in Figure 4.7 (34).

Figure 4.7. Thermal neutron radiograph of investment turbine blades showing
evidence of residual ceramic core after leaching. Gadolinia is added to the
ceramic core material or a gadolinia wash is used after leaching to increase
detection sensitivity (see references 103 and 1 04).

In a few circumstances, the energy of the neutrons may be changed to
increase the relative absorption by components of a specimen.
Many elements exhibit very large resonance absorption cross sections for
neutrons in the epithermal range.
By using neutron fluxes that are high in epithermal neutrons, elements and
the components that contain them may be better imaged than by thermal
neutron fluxes alone. Resonance absorption elements then become contrast
agents for the components in which they are found, if neutron energy of the
beams can be modified. In addition, as discussed earlier, epithermal neutrons
may show increased penetration of materials or isotopes that strongly absorb
thermal neutrons; see Figure 4.5 for an example.
Comments: How the resonance absorption is rationalizes here?

5.0 STANDARDS/RECOMMENDED PRACTICES
5.1 SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Important parameters of a neutron imaging system include the neutron
energy spectra, the relative intensity and energy of other radiation (mainly
gamma radiation and scattered radiation in the imaging beam), and the
geometric properties of the system. There are standards which address these
variables.
Four standards for neutron radiography are available from the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Standard E 748 (55) is a tutorial
document that describes the general method and provides guidance.
Methods for measurement ot dimensions of objects in a neutron radiograph
are described in Standard E 1496 (105). Image quality measurements for
thermal neutron radiographs are described in Standard E 545 (106). This
approach makes use of test pieces whose images on a neutron radiograph
can be analyzed to determine a measure of image quality. Standard E 803
(56) describes a test piece and method for measurement of the L/D ratio in
neutron radiographic beams (see Figure 3.1). The L/D ratio is a determining
factor in the sharpness of an image in a neutron radiograph.

Figure 5.1 is a diagram of an image quality measurement test object, called a
beam purity indicator (BPI) in ASTM E 545 (106). The main frame of the test
piece is made of polytetrafluoroethylene, a material reasonably transparent to
thermal neutrons. There are four holes in the comers; these contain filters of
boron nitride (BN), to attenuate thermal neutrons,and lead, to attenuate
gamma or X-rays. Film density measurements are taken in several places
within the BPI image on the resultant thermal neutron radiograph. Ratios of
these film densities provide a means to calculate several important
parameters, including:
■ effective thermal neutron content,
■ effective scattered neutron content,
■ effective gamma content and
■ effective pair production content.

For example, the effective thermal neutron content involves the total film
density, taken in the region of the large central hole, less the film density
under the BN filter, plus the difference in film density under the two lead filters,
divided by the total film density.
Normally the effective thermal neutron content as determined in this way is in

the 45%-65% range.
Similarly, there are formulas for calculating the other variables as imaged on
the thermal neutron radiograph by the BPI. These measurements provide a
method for comparing radiographs taken at different times or under different
conditions. The measurements are influenced by the characteristics of the
neutron radiographic facility as determined by the object and set-up for the
particular radiograph being measured. The measurements, therefore, relate
to the neutron radiograph.

Figure 5-1. Beam purity indicator (BPI) test piece as described in ASTM E
545, 1998. (From ASTM E 545, reference 106.) Reprinted with permission.

DB Film densities measured through the images of the boron nitride disks.
DL Film densities measured through the images of the lead disks.
DH Film density measured at the center of the hole in the BPI.
DT Film density measured through the image of the polytetrafluoroethylene.
∆DL Difference between the DL values.
∆DB Difference between the two DB values.

A second image quality indicator described in ASTM E 545 (106) is shown in
Figure 5.2. This sensitivity gage provides an important measure of spatial
resolution by means of gaps formed by varying the thickness of aluminum
spacers between plastic supports. This relates closely to neutron radiographic
applications in which measurements involve gaps, as in some small explosive
devices, for example.
Images of the holes in plastic shims A, B, and C give a measure of

radiographic contrast and resolution by means of images of small holes as
differing percentages of material thickness penetrated. Shim D, under a lead
filter, provides a visual measure of the relative neutron-to- gamma properties
of the beam for the radiograph since an image of the lead shim indicates
some detectable X-ray or gamma ray component in the beam.

Figure 5.2. Sensitivity Gage as described in ASTM E 545, 1991. (From ASTM
E 545, reference 106.) Reprinted with permission.

Sensitivity Indicator

All measurements relating to ASTM E 545 (106) were developed for direct
exposure neutron radiographs with single emulsion film and a single
gadolinium conversion screen. It is recognized in the standard that
measurements for other neutron radiographic detection systems may not
relate well. There are efforts in ASTM to rewrite E 545 in order to produce one
document that describes how to perform the measurements (as presently in E
545) and another document to describe how to fabricate the image quality
indicators. These changes, should they take place, are not expected to result
in any significant changes in the present concept of the standard.
Keywords:
ASTM E545
Direct exposure
Single emulsion film
Single gadolinium conversion screen

The geometry of the imaging beam, particularly in terms of the unsharpness
related to the image of an object somewhat removed from the detector, is
discussed in a third ASTM standard, E 803 (56). Geometric unsharpness for
X-radiography relates to the radiation source focal spot and the distances for
the object and detector. Similar measurements are involved in neutron
radiography; a ratio of LID is used to describe the geometry of the neutron
beam. The effective diameter, or long dimension of the thermal neutron
source, is noted as D; this may be smaller than the physical hole in a neutron-
ttenuating collimator at the source aperture in the moderator since the
neutron attenuation tends to narrow the effective source size. The value L is
the source to detector distance. The geometric unsharpness, UG. for a
particular inspected object will depend on the quantities L and D and the
distance the object of interest is spaced away from the detector (t), as shown
in Figure 5.3.

The distances L and D are indicated on the figure. The geometric
unsharpness (U0 ) of an object spaced a distance t from the detection plane
is calculated as follows:
Ug = Dt/(L-t) (Eqn. 5.1)
For the common situation in which t is small compared to L, Equation 5.1

reduces to the following approximation:
Ug = t∙D/L (Eqn. 5.2)
The measurement of L/D as described in ASTM E 803 (56) involves a test

piece with absorbing materials (rods) spaced at various distances (t) from the
detection plane. A diagram of the test piece is shown in Figure 5.4. The
image of this test piece can be used for a visual measure of unsharpness
(and thereby L/D) by observing where the absorbing rod images degrade.
The test piece also lends itself to scanning microdensitometer measurements
for more quantitative values.

Figure 5.3. Geometry of a neutron radiographic system.

Figure 5.4. Test piece used for measurement of LID. This support piece is mounted at a 45- degree angle
over the detector to space absorbing rods (cadmium, nylon) at various distances from the detector. (From
ASTM E803, reference 56.) Reprinted with permission.

The standard describing methods for obtaining object dimensional
measurements from neutron radiographs (105) outlines a procedure for
examining the film density change at the edge of an object, making use of a
scanning microdensitometer. Analysis of the film density vs. Distance edge
trace can be used to establish the object edge location to repeatability values
of 25 microns and reproducibility values of 100 microns or less. These values
are predicated on stringent conditions for the neutron radiographic beam, the
imaging geometry and the measurement system.
These ASTM standards provide a recognized (and standardized) approach to

measurements related to neutron radiography. Other documents are also
available. Glossaries of neutron radiographic terms have been published by
ASTM (26) and also in a military standard (MIL-STD-1948, Ref. 27).
Reference 27 includes definitions for more than 150 terms. A book of
reference neutron radiographs, specifically related to the inspection of nuclear
fuel has proven to be a valuable reference book for the nuclear community
(17).

There is also an excellent collection of neutron radiographs prepared by the
Japanese Society for Non-Destructive Inspection (20). Two standards for
neutron radiography have been developed in France (107, 108) for the
characterization of facilities and the determination of film speed and contrast.
A discussion of these and other aspects of neutron radiographic standards is
given in a review by Berger and LaPorte (109). Other reviews of neutron
radiographic standards are given by Haskins (110, 111) and Brenizer (112).

5.2 PERSONNEL QUALIFICATION
Neutron radiography, like other nondestructive testing procedures, requires
trained, qualified people to do the testing. Training and certification of neutron
radiographic operators is described in a military standard (MIL-STD-410E,
Ref. 3) and in documents available from theAmerican Society for
Nondestructive Testing (1 and 2). Both documents outline the training and
practical experience needed to qualify for various levels of responsibility.
The basic subjects required for neutron radiographic operator training are
out1ined briefly in Table 5.1; Additional information is available in the
references cited (113, 114, 115). Obviously a neutron radiographic operator
who is already qualified in X-radiography (radiographic testing) will be
relatively easier to train for neutron radiographic testing since the operator will
already have basic knowledge of radiation, sources, detectors, imaging
geometry, scatter, film processing and interpretation. Once the new neutron
radiographer learns how neutrons are generated, attenuated and detected,
the basic knowledge for performing neutron radiography will be available for
use.

Table 5.1 General Training Topics for Neutron Radiographic Training

5.3 REGULATORY CONTROL
In the United States, radiation equipment is controlled by the government as a
safety measure. Primary control is at the federal level with the U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission; this control is primarily concerned with radioactive
sources and nuclear materials as described in the Atomic Energy Act of 1954
and the federal regulations (106). For neutron radiography, this federal control
clearly involves radioactive neutron sources such as 252Cf or 241Am-Be, etc.
Sources that include nuclear fuel material for use as a sub-critical assembly
are also covered by the federal regulations (51, 52), as are reactor sources.
States also have radiation control requirements. In many cases the states,
known as Agreement States, have taken over parts of the regulatory control
from the federal government. In addition, many states and local governments
maintain control over all radiation sources, including the machine or
accelerator sources not generally covered by federal regulations.
A description of the government regulatory program is given in Reference 50.
The major objective of the government control is to assure safe use of
radiation to protect the radiation worker and the general public.

6.0 APPLICATIONS
6.1 GENERAL APPLICATIONS
As indicated previously in Section 1, differences in attenuation between
neutrons and X-rays (or gamma rays) lead to applications for each
radiographic method. In general terms, thermal neutron radiography tends to
complement X-radiography in that, for neutrons, there is strong attenuation for
several low atomic number (Z) materials and high transmission for many high
Z materials; for X-rays the situation is reversed. Observation of hydrogenous
material such as a rubber "0" ring in a steel assembly can be considered for
thermal neutron radiography whereas such an application would be difficult
for X-radiography. In the neutron case, the attenuation of the hydrogenous
rubber ring would be significant. In the X-ray case, once the X-ray energy is
raised to penetrate the steel case, the X-ray attenuation in the rubber or other
low Z material would be very low.

Clearly, considering cost and availability of equipment, X-ray or gamma ray
techniques should be used where these methods will solve the problem. For
situations where X-ray methods do not provide sufficient information, neutron
radiography should be considered.
Generally, inspection of a homogeneous material such as a steel casting, is

best done by X-rays or some other NDT technique.
Neutron radiography normally offers advantages for inspections of multi-

material components or assemblies where it is desired to observe one
material in the presence of another.

There are four general classes of application problems where neutron
radiography offers advantages (1-20), as follows:
1. Detection of high neutron attenuating material in a matrix of a relatively

transmitting material. Advantage may be taken of the differences between
thermal neutron and X-ray attenuation as shown earlier in Figure 1.1.
Contrast agents such as liquid penetrants and as described in Section 4.6
may offer advantages in certain crack detection applications. An example of
low Z type of application is shown in Figure 6.1, a neutron radiograph of a
portion of an assembly, showing "0" rings inside a metal case; twisted
"0“ rings, that would not seal properly, are easily seen in the neutron image.
Figure 4.1 showed another example, imaging of hydrogen-containing material
in a steel matrix.

Figure 6.1. Thermal neutron radiograph of a metal assembly showing
"0“ rings. The arrows indicate rings that have twisted out of the groove so that
they no longer seal (122). Courtesy Aerotest Operations Inc.

2. Inspection of radioactive material (taking advantage of the capability to
detect neutrons without sensitivity to gamma rays, as in the transfer or
track- tch detection methods). Examples of such neutron radiographs were
shown in Figures 4.2, 4.3 and 4.5.
3. Detection of differences in isotopic content. Neutrons offer sensitivity to
different isotopes of the same element. For example, U-238 is relatively
transparent while U-235 is highly attenuating for slow neutrons. An
example of a neutron radiograph of nuclear fuel showing differences in
attenuation for different fuel isotopes is shown in Figure 4.5.
4. Inspection of relatively thick, neutron-transparent material because of
decreased exposure time (as compared to X-ray techniques). An example
would be inspection of lead shielding to detect voids.

These general classes of applications are discussed in the following sections.
Additional general information on applications may be found in many of the

earlier references cited; see in particular references 1 to 20.
Table 6.1 shows typical half-value layers for thermal neutrons. Additional half-
value layer information can be gained by looking at neutron cross section
values (37, 41); material is also available in Ref. 55. The values listed below
will suggest other applications for neutron radiography.

6.2 AEROSPACE APPLICATIONS
The aerospace industry is a major user of neutron radiography. Applications
include inspections to detect corrosion, residual core in investment cast
turbine blades and residuals in other applications such as cooled rocket
nozzles, inspections of explosive lines and other small explosive devices,
adhesive bonds, composites and assemblies of many types to assure proper
placement of components such as rubber "0" rings (see Figure 6.1 ).
Detection of corrosion in aircraft structures is an active application area for
neutron radiography. Since corrosion products are typically hydroxides, the
build-up of the corrosion product can often be detected by thermal neutron
radiography before there is appreciable loss of metal; Other nondestructive
test methods for corrosion detection depend primarily on observation of metal
loss (28, 29, 30, 44, 47, 117, 118). Examples of neutron radiographs showing
images correlated with corrosion are shown in Figures 6.2 and 6.3. Figure 6.2
is a film neutron radiograph of an aluminum aircraft honeycomb structure,
showing spots of corrosion after insertion of water (119). Figure 6.3 is a
neutron radioscopic image showing dark areas of corrosion in an aluminum
aircraft structure, taken with a reactor source and a neutron image intensifier
detection system (120).

Figure 6.2 Neutron radiograph of an aluminum honeycomb structure.
The white linear indication shows adhesive coupling two core sections
together. The whitish spots show early indications of corrosion (119).

Figure 6.3 Neutron radioscopic image of an aluminum aircraft structure
showing images of corrosion (dark, irregular areas, particularly in the upper
left). The rectangular image at lower left shows an acrylic, stepped wedge test
piece containing holes (120).

Reports describing experiments with polyethylene to simulate the hydrogen
content of typical corrosion products in aluminum indicate that thermal
neutron radiography will detect corrosion product build-up equivalent to 0.001
inch metal loss in aluminum (118, 120). Recent work on the use of neutron
radiography to detect corrosion has led to the design and operation of a
practical inspection facility for aircraft maintenance (29, 119, 121) at
McClellan Air Force Base in California. The facility includes a reactor source
for neutron radiography of components removed from the aircraft and a
robotic system for neutron radiography of components on the aircraft. A
portion of the robotic arm and Cf-252 source assembly for this operational
maneuverable neutron radiography system is shown in the photograph in
Figure 6.4; the inset is an artist's design view of the maneuverable inspection
system (119). Many transportable neutron radiographic systems have also
been developed. Examples were shown in Figures 3.3, 3.5 and 3.6 (30, 44,
45, 46, 47, 63).

Investment-cast turbine blades are made by molding metal around a ceramic
core and then leaching away the ceramic to leave open internal cooling
passages. Since neutrons are sensitive to many of the rare earth materials
found in ceramics, small amounts of residual core material can be detected.
Sensitivity is often further enhanced by adding a few percent of gadolinia to
the ceramic core material (or using a gadolinia solution wash before the
neutron radiographic inspection). The addition of the high neutron cross
section gadolinium material as a contrast agent permits detection of very thin
residual ceramic films that might impede the thermal transfer characteristics
of a turbine blade and lead to failure (103, 104, 122). Similar neutron
radiographic applications have been demonstrated to detect wax cores in
cooled rocket nozzles (122). An example of a turbine blade neutron
radiograph was shown in Figure 4.7.

Ceramic materials can also sometimes be usefully inspected by neutron
radiography (122). Other applications involve inspection of assemblies to
detect rubber or plastic seals, detection of adhesives in bonded assemblies
and inspection of explosive devices (104, 122). All these types of neutron
radiographic inspections have been very valuable. The rubber or other
neutron absorbing gasket material can be readily detected, even in a metallic
assembly. Hydrogenous adhesives can be imaged in metallic assemblies to
assure the presence of the adhesive, and sometimes the degree of the
adhesive cure by observation of the bubble structure. Composite materials
can be inspected to detect variations in density, resin content and excess
moisture. Explosive inspection is a major application area in itself, to be
covered in the following section. A typical aerospace application is the
inspection of lead or stainless steel encased explosive lines of the type used
to separate components and eject military pilots in emergency situations.

Figure 6.4 Photograph of a robotic
arm at the maneuverable
inspection bay at McClellan Air
Force base. The large round
structure at lower left is the
moderator-collimator housing for
the Cf-252 neutron source. The
inset is a diagram of the on-aircraft
inspection facility for F-111 aircraft
(29, 119).

6.3 EXPLOSIVE DEVICES
Explosive materials typically contain neutron attenuating material such as
hydrogen, lithium, or boron. Therefore, explosive materials usually shadow
well on a neutron radiograph, even when encased in an assembly with metal.
A typical range of thermal neutron half-value layers for explosives was given
in Table 6.1. Explosive lines and bolts, detonators, and similar small
explosive devices are readily inspected by neutron radiography. The
purposes for the inspection may include one or more of the following:
1. Assurance that the explosive is present, in the correct location, and in the
correct amount.
2. Measurement of gaps (often necessary).
3. Detection of voids, density variations, cracks, or contamination.
Neutron radiographs of explosive devices were routinely taken for many
years with a Cf-252 subcritical assembly source (51, 52). Inspection of small
explosive devices is also a common application at a neutron radiography
service facility reactor source (104, 122). Since many of the explosive devices
to be inspected are relatively small, an assembly of many devices on one
radiograph is typical.

Examples of neutron radiographs of small explosive devices are shown in
Figures 6.5, 6.6, 6.7 and 6.8. Figures 6.5 and 6.6 show explosive bolt images.
Figure 6.7 shows a comparison of radiographs of 45-caliber ammunition,
taken with thermal neutrons and x-rays (122). Figure 6.8 illustrates neutron
images of explosive tips. Neutron radiographs of larger explosive devices is
sometimes done even though the attenuation of thermal neutrons makes it
difficult to penetrate larger devices. Such a thermal neutron radiograph is
shown in Figure 6.9; the radiograph of an ordnance device 2% inch diameter
shows detail mainly in the upper, thinner areas and in the region of the
internal cracks in the central unit (123); the radiograph shows useful
information that can supplement that obtained from a conventional X-ray
image.

Figure 6.5 Neutron (left) and X-radiographs (right) of an explosive bolt about 2
inches high. The x-ray image shows the metallic parts. The neutron image
shows plastic, epoxy, paper (slanted white line near the top) and the
explosive charge (salt and pepper image near the top, inside the stainless
steel cap) (34).

Figure 6.6 Neutron (left) and x-radiographs (right) of three explosive bolts (A,
Band C) showing differences in the images (122). Courtesy: Aerotest
Operations, Inc.

Figure 6.7 Neutron radiographs of 45-caliber ammunition (upper views)
compared to x-ray images at 150 kV (lower left) and 90 kV (lower right)
(122). Courtesy: Aerotest Operations, Inc.

Figure 6.8 Neutron radiographs of
small explosive tips used to
initiate mechanical actions in
remote locations. The tip at left is
satisfactory although the upper
pellet shows slightly lower density.
The tip at right shows separation
between the two pellets. The
middle sample (tip at the bottom)
shows a missing pellet.

Figure 6.9 Neutron radiograph of
an ordnance device, 2% inch
diameter, showing detail near the
thin top and in the cracked region
at lower center. Courtesy: J.
Moravec, U.S. Army Proving
Ground, Yuma. Arizona.

6.4 ELECTRONIC DEVICES
The inspection of critical epoxy-potted, small electronic devices such as filters
can be accomplished effectively by neutron radiography. The relatively high
attenuation of the potting materials (usually hydrogenous) means that small
discontinuities can be detected with neutrons, even though the assembly is in
a metallic case. In addition, neutron inspection of critical relays can disclose
problems with hydrogenous material, such as loose insulation, inside the
relay case that could cause connection problems at an important moment.
Neutron images of relays are shown in the neutron radiograph in Figure 6.10
(122).
Delaminations in high reliability ceramic capacitors have been successfully

detected using neutron radiography, another example of neutron radiographic
electronic applications (124). Because there are many effective
nondestructive testing methods used for electronic devices - radiography,
infrared, acoustic emission, etc. - neutron radiography is not broadly applied.
However, for the types of applications indicated here, neutron radiography
has contributed to improved reliability in critical electronic components.

Figure 6.10 Neutron radiographs of relays. Any foreign materials could result
in electrical connection problems (119). Courtesy Aerotest Operations, Inc.

6.5 NUCLEAR APPLICATIONS
Neutron radiographic applications started in the nuclear field (33, 34, 72).
Nuclear R&D organizations generally had good neutron sources available
and also experienced problems in inspecting experimental assemblies
containing reactor fuel and control materials. The objects, such as irradiated
spent fuel assemblies, were often highly radioactive so neutron radiographic
methods that are insensitive to gamma radiation, such as the transfer

detection or track-etch methods, were ideally suited to the problem.
Applications often involved experimental fuels and other nuclear materials.
Inspection was desired at intervals during irradiation tests to measure
changes in dimension, from swelling for example, and to detect
inhomogeneities that develop during the rigors of irradiation. Examples of
neutron radiographs of some experimental reactor fuel material were shown
in Figures 4.2, 4.3, and 4.5. Highly enriched fuel material is relatively opaque
to thermal neutrons so the epithermal neutron radiograph shown in Figure 4.5
gives better penetration to show internal details of the irradiated fuel and the
fission materials deposited in the central void of the fuel.

Nuclear applications have included examinations of nuclear fuel, both before
and after irradiation. Pre-irradiation radiographs are useful for comparison
after irradiation; they have also disclosed contaminating material such as
plastic sheet in~dvertently left inside assemblies. Entry into a fuel assembly of
foreign material such as water and hydriding of metallic components has also
been observed using neutron radiography (125). Nuclear attenuating control
materials have been inspected with neutron radiography as have other
nuclear components such as cold traps (126). Radioactive sources can also
be inspected to detect voids or other problems. A significant capability of
neutron radiography is represented by the possibility to differentiate between
particular isotopes, as indicated earlier. This has been used to some degree
in the nuclear field to differentiate between isotopes of fuel materials before
and after irradiation and to determine bum-up in control materials. Nuclear
applications of neutron radiography continue at nuclear centers around the
world.

Recent work has included techniques such as tomography (84). This
technique for imaging cross sections of assemblies has been particularly
useful for imaging details in fuel subassemblies. These subassemblies may
contain 60 or more individual fuel pins in an array. Since it is desired to
inspect each pin, the subassembly must be taken apart or a technique such
as tomography or laminography (127) can be used. In tomography, the
radiation attenuation along many paths through the object is determined. This
information is used to reconstruct the cross-sectional image of the object. For
tomography of nuclear fuel, many radiographs taken at different angular
orientations can be digitized to obtain the initial data. As few as 75 views can
be used to obtain the initial data (84) for reconstruction.

6.6 MOTION/DYNAMIC APPLICATIONS
Neutron time lapse radiographs and dynamic detectors such as neutron
image intensifiers and scintillator-camera systems have been used to obtain
information about dynamic events. Demonstrations of capability have been
made to observe thermal expansion of nuclear fuel material and to follow
liquid metal in the casting process (see Figure 4.4). Application studies in
ballistics have required very fast image frame rates to obtain useful data from
rapid motion. This has been accomplished with a pulsed reactor and high
speed cameras. Images have been observed at rates as high as 10,000
frames/second (77). A number of neutron applications for dynamic events
have been pursued with conventional television frame rates (30 frames/
second) using television cameras and new solid state cameras to detect the
light from neutron scintillators or neutron image intensifier tubes.

Applications have included observations of fluid flow in metallic assemblies,
for example, jnvestigations of heat pipes to optimize the fluid flow and the
heat transfer of the system (128). Extensive motion studies of lubricants and
fuels have been conducted in engines and engine components to learn more
about the dynamics (76, 78, 79, 80, 81, 130, 131). Some of this work has
been done with lower energy, cold neutrons (78) in order to provide greater
sensitivity to the hydrogenous fluid, and greater penetration through the
surrounding metal. An example of results from an engine study is given in
Figure 6.11. The two neutron radioscopic images show a GEM turboshaft
engine, one a static view (left) and the other a dynamic view (right). The oil
scavenge pipe (slightly bent pipe at lower center of the images) is shown full
of oil in the static view but with very little oil in the dynamic view. The neutron
radioscopic tests led to a redesign of the engine to permit oil to flow freely
during engine operation (78).
Dynamic neutron imaging studies have also been used for a variety of other
applications, including real-time inspection applications to detect aircraft
corrosion, hydrogen locations in titanium, and to study pneumatic systems,
filters and moisture/water migration (29, 44, 47, 82, 85, 87).

Figure 6.11. Neutron radioscopic images of a GEM turboshaft engine. Left is
a static view. Right is a dynamic view, engine running. The images show that
the oil scavenge pipe (lower center) has little oil in it during operation, an
indication of poor oil circulation (78).

6. 7 MISCELLANEOUS APPLICATIONS
There are many neutron inspection applications that have not been
specifically cited. Many such applications are discussed in References 1 to 20.
There have been medical/biological investigations for neutron radiography.
For in-vivo ( applications, the results have been relatively negative (132); The
extensive neutron attenuation of tissue presents problems in penetration and
dose. Biological work on excised samples, however, has produced useful
results. Neutron radiography has been shown to be useful for detecting and
confirming the extent of tumors in bones removed from patients (133). New
neutron radiographic results to show application of neutron radiography to
detect lung cancer in mice have shown promise, mainly as a result of
extensive image processing (134). Diffusion studies have been successfully
done to observe the movement of water/moisture in concrete samples as a
function of time/temperature, as well as water movement in plants (135, 136).
Movement of smoke, aerosols and contrast media through filters has been
investigated (137, 138, 139). Soils have been investigated to complement X-
adiographic results (140, 141).

Metallographic data have been obtained in studies of metals containing a
neutron-opaque material such as cadmium or boron, for observations of
hydrogen in metals, and of investigations of brazing materials. The
techniques have included microneutron radiography and neutroninduced
auto-radiography. In the latter technique, neutron exposure leads to the
emission of radiation such as alpha particles which can be detected to reveal
locations of boron or lithium in the metal sample. Microneutron radiography is
usually done with thin gadolinium converter screens and slow, fine-grain
emulsions. The resultant radiograph can be enlarged to factors approaching
100X to show detail in the order of 10 microns (142). Other metallurgical
applications in steels and aluminum alloys have been reported (143, 144). Art
objects and historical artifacts represent another application area for neutron
radiography.

The complementary nature of neutron radiography often reveals details that
cannot readily be detected by other methods (145, 146, 147). An example of
a neutron radiograph of a rare historical object is shown in Figure 6.12 (146).
The object was a lead vessel about 25 em in height, dating from the Western
Chou period in China, approximately 1000 B.C. Neutrons easily penetrated
the lead walls of the vessel to show evidence of early repairs and to confirm
that the vessel was empty. X-ray tests were inconclusive because of the
significant attenuation of the lead walls. This neutron radiograph was taken by
a xeroradiographic method using a gadolinium oxysulfide conversion screen.
The xeroradiographic detection method used for this application serves to
illustrate that any method that can be used for X-ray inspection can be
considered for neutron radiography.

A related neutron technique in the art world involves neutron autoradiography
of paintings. Neutron exposure excites radioactive emissions from the
paintpigments. These can be studied as a function of time after the neutron
radiation is complete to produce images from different paint materials. The
method is used to bring out underlying paintings, to verify authenticity, and to
study artist's technique (147, 148).

Figure 6.12 Neutron xeroradiograph of a lead vessel, dating back to about 1,000 B.C.
The image shows the vessel is empty and also outlines the
dark shadows of corrosion along the walls and at the cover, which was corroded
closed (146).

7.0 CONCLUSIONS
Neutron radiography continues to offer inspection solutions for many difficult
problems, as has been discussed throughout this review of the technology.
Significant advances have been realized in recent years in terms of neutron
sources and electronic imaging techniques. Sources now available include a
range of accelerators that can be considered for either fixed installation or
transportable systems. Cold neutron sources, including guide tube techniques
that bring a gamma-free neutron beam to a position remote from the reactor
source, are now more readily available for neutron research and radiography
and the special problems that can be solved by the use of these very low
energy neutrons (151 ). Electronic image systems for slow and fast neutrons
have been described, offering large fields-of-view and prospects for improved
sensitivity and spatial resolution (73). The combination of high output
accelerator sources and electronic image detection is leading to consideration
of practical aircraft inspection systems that offer good economic potential for
early detection of corrosion.

Standards for neutron radiography continue to advance and mature as
experience is gained with the existing standards. Active standards work
continues in ASTM, through Committee E-7 on Nondestructive Testing and
internationally through ISO, the International Organization for Standardization;
the group directly involved internationally is ISO/TC 135/SC 51 WG 4, under
the auspices of !SO-Technical Committee 135, Nondestructive Testing,
Radiation Subcommittee 5 and the Neutron Radiography Working Group 4.
Current contact (1998) for the neutron radiography standards work in both
ASTM and ISO is Dr. Jack Brenizer, University of Virginia. Brenizer is the
Chairman of ASTM Subcommittee E 7.05 and the Convenor of the ISO
Working Group. Contact with Brenizer may now be made at the Pennsylvania
State University in University Park, PA.

As implied in the description of the standards work, there is strong neutron
radiography activity in the international community. In Europe, an active group
is the Eurapean Neutron Radiography Working Group (ENRWG), which
includes representatives from many of the European centers. A current
contact for the ENRWG is Dr. Marton Balask6, KFKI Atomic Energy Research
Institute in Budapest, Hungary. In Japan, where many neutron radiography
research and application programs are under way, there is an active neutron
radiography group organized under the auspices of the Japan Atomic Energy
Research Institute (JAERI), Tokai Establishment; a contact is Dr. Shigenori
Fujine at the Research Reactor Institute at Kyoto University in Osaka. A new
technical society has been formed to address issues relative to neutron
radiography, the International Society for Neutron Radiology (8); the current
President is Dr. Keiji Kanda, Research Reactor Institute, Kyoto University in
Osaka. Complete addresses for the people named in this international activity
paragraph can be found in recent international conference proceedings (8, 10,
11 ).

Neutron radiographic service work is available from at least two organizations
in the United States. Aerotest Operations, Inc., San Ramon, CA and General
Electric, Nuclear Test Reactor, Vallecitos, CA are known to provide
commercial neutron radiographic service, including the capability to inspect
explosive devices. In Canada commercial neutron radiographic service is
available from NRA Y Services, Inc., Petawawa, Ontario. In addition, several
foreign centers offer such services; contacts may be made through the ENR
WG or JAERI. Limited neutron radiographic services are also made available
occasionally through university neutron radiographic centers on a case-by-
ase basis. Contacts for such services may be found in current conference
proceedings (8, 10, 11). The future for neutron radiography appears
promising, both in terms of research and applications. Research activity
continues at a high level, as indicated in the number of papers and attendees
at neutron radiographic meetings. A growing number of practical applications
has been demonstrated at these periodic conferences. In addition, the
extensive neutron radiographic facilities for aircraft inspection at the Air Force
Air Logistics Center, McClellan Air Force Base in Sacramento, CA are coming
to the attention of the air<traft community.

In 1998 the Federal Aviation Administration issued an Air Agency Certificatcl
for that facility for a broad range of nondestructive inspection techniques,
including neutron radiography, for inspection of selected commercial aircraft
(152). The likely impact of this event will be the introduction of several more
aircraft inspection facilities around the world, each offering neutron
radiographic inspection for early detection of corrosion.
Looking toward the future, there are many opportunities for advanced
techniques and applications in the field of neutron radiography. Since image
detection methods used for x-rays have been relatively easily transferred for
neutron imaging use, one can envision that new, emerging, electronic x-ray
image methods will be adapted for neutron use (154). Initial work has already
been reported on the use of photostimulable phosphor plates for neutron
radiographic use (94, 95, 96). These storage phosphor detectors are re- sable,
thereby eliminating the continuing cost of film and easing environmental
problems in the use and disposal of film processing chemicals. In addition,
the storage phosphor technique offers wide dynamic range, digital imaging.

Another rapidly maturing x-ray imaging technology is the flat panel, a large
area, solid state detector, such as amorphous silicon, made up of
combinations of photodiodes and an integral thin film transistor (154, 155).
These image panels also offer the wide dynamic range, digital imaging
advantages indicated above for the storage phosphor, plus the capability for
dynamic response. The panels are showing advantages for medical
diagnostic x-ray imaging, as well as industrial applications over a broad range
of x-ray energies, from less than 100 ke V to the MeV range. There are
advances in non-reactor neutron sources, as described in Section 3.4.
Developments include high neutron yield linear accelerators, cyclotrons and

low voltage ( d, T) sources (28). Fast neutron yields from these sources are in
the order of 1011 to 1012 n/s, outputs that give these sources neutron
radiographic image quality approaching those from reactor beams. In addition,
portability is being investigated more vigorously, as shown in Figures 3.3, 3.5
and 3.6. The combination of high yield, transportable neutron sources and
electronic neutron imaging offers promise for increased application of this
inspection technique.

Neutron energy ranges outside of cold neutrons, the widely used thermal
energy range and the sometimes used near-epithermal neutron energy
range(see Figure 4.5), also offer promise for further development and
application. Resonance energy neutrons, as described in Table 1.1, can show
exceptional sensitivity for particular materials such as indium or gold,
materials that show resonance response in the near epithermal energy range
(12). A real application for resonance neutron radiography would advance the
field. Epithermal neutrons in the 1,000 or more ev range offer reasonable
prospects for materials discrimination contrast approaching that of thermal
neutrons, while also providing much improved neutron transmission through
thick objects. An inspection such as the ordnance devices shown in Figure
6.9, for example might benefit from the use of high epithermal neutrons.
Opportunities for future advances in neutron radiography are likely as
research and development work continues to more fully explore neutron
energies, sources and detectors and the opportunities these developments
may offer.

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What are some of the techniques discussed for neutron radiography?

What are some of the techniques discussed for neutron radiography?

Understanding

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6. Safety and Health

Reference Catalog Number

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The attenuation coefficients for thermal neutrons differ from material to

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a. Other materials relatively transparent to thermal neutrons include gold,

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The collimator may be used to extract a beam in any one of a variety of

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Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang ASMV17 Neutron Radiography

Charlie Chong/ Fion Zhang ASMV17 Neutron Radiography

I = Ioe –μx t Eq.1

I = Ioe –Nσt = Ioe –μn t Eq.2

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μ = ρ∙Nσ/ A Eq.7 (where ρ∙N/A is the number of nuclei/cm2)

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