Esi

VTI meddelande 852A • 1999
Operation and maintenance

of gravel roads
A literature study
Hossein Alzubaidi
VTI meddelande 852A • 1999
Operation and maintenance

of gravel roads
A literature study
Hossein Alzubaidi
Cover: Heikki Heiniö, Finland

Publisher: Publication:
VTI meddelande 852A
Published: Project code:

1999 60519
S-581 95 Linköping Sweden Project:

Efficient production methods in the operation
and maintenance of gravel roads
Author: Sponsor:
Hossein Alzubaidi Swedish National Road Administration
(SNRA)
Title:
Operation and maintenance of gravel roads – A Literature Atudy
Abstract
Gravel roads form a large percentage of the road network in Sweden. The public road network under the
jurisdiction of the Swedish National Road Administration has a total length of some 98,000 kilometres.
About 22,000 km of this network consist of gravel roads. In addition, there are about 74,000 kilometres
of private road and 210,000 kilometres of forest roads.
The report describes the present position in the operation and maintenance of gravel roads. It presents a
comprehensive literature survey of current and recent national and international research. It deals only
with summer maintenance and focuses primarily on roads surfaced with aggregate.
The following areas are treated in the report:
1-Definitions and terms regarding the operation and maintenance of gravel roads.
2-General description of the Swedish road network.
3-Major factors causing deterioration of gravel roads.
4-Technical requirements for Swedish gravel roads.
5-Factors, which influence the operation and maintenance of gravel roads.
6-Operation and maintenance methods.
7-Condition assessment of gravel roads.
8-Planning and evaluation of operation and maintenance measures.
ISSN: Language: No. of pages:

0347-6049 English 231 + Appendixes
Foreword
This study of the literature forms the first part of a PhD project "Efficient
production methods in the operation and maintenance of gravel roads". The
project is carried out in the Centre for Research and Education in the Operation
and Maintenance of Infrastructure (CDU), with financial assistance from the
Swedish National Road Administration (SNRA), Management of State Roads.
The project is carried out at the Swedish National Road and Transport Research
Institute (VTI). My principal supervisor and examiner is Professor Rolf
Magnusson, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH). Project manager at VTI is Lars
Bäckman, and the SNRA representative is Ulf Påhlsson. A combined steering and
reference group has been formed for the project, comprising the following
members:
Gunnar Svensson SNRA, Production

Göran Andersson SNRA, Region Mälardalen (VMN)
Hans Cedermark CDU
Ingvar Sikh SNRA, Production
Jan Nordqvist SNRA, Region North (VN)
Jan-Åke Karlsson SNRA, Region South-east (VSÖ)
Johan Hansen SNRA, Highway Division
Karin Högström SNRA, Highway Division
Kent Enkell VTI, Operation and Maintenance (DU)
Lars Bäckman VTI, Highway Engineering (VB)
Rolf Magnusson KTH, Highway Engineering
Ulf Isacsson KTH, Highway Engineering
Ulf Påhlsson SNRA, Highway Division
I wish to express my sincere thanks to my supervisor, the project manager, the

members of the steering and reference group, the sponsor and all who have
provided assistance during the performance of this work.
Linköping, May 1999
Hossein Alzubaidi
VTI meddelande 852A

Contents i
Contents
Summary vi!
!
1 Introduction 1
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1.2 ,-.!#/0 2
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2 Definitions 4
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3 General description of the Swedish road network 12

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4 Deterioration of gravel roads 24

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VTI meddelande 852A

Contents ii
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VTI meddelande 852A

Contents iii
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6 Factors which influence the operation and maintenance of

gravel roads 57
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7 Operation and maintenance methods 75

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VTI meddelande 852A

Contents iv
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8 Condition assessment of gravel roads 154

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VTI meddelande 852A

Contents v
9 Planning and evaluation of operation and maintenance

measures 192
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10 References 213
11 Figures and tables 225
!
!
Appendix No 1- 1.*&2-3!#*+!7.'$.*2#&.3!(5!+/55.'.*2!>.#'/*&!$()'3.!2=7.3!/*!
2-.!+/55.'.*2!$()*2/.3
Appendix No 2- G'#@.;!'(#+!/*37.$2/(*!3-..2
Appendix No 3- c*3)'5#$.+!'(#+!/*37.$2/(*!3-..2!
VTI meddelande 852A

Summary vi
Summary
Gravel roads form a large percentage of the road network in Sweden. The public
road network under the jurisdiction of the Swedish National Road Administration
(SNRA) has a total length of some 98,015 km. About 22% (22,136 km) of this
network consists of gravel roads. In addition, there are about 74,000 km of private
roads and 210,000 km of forest roads. The Swedish National Road Administration
has recognised the need for more research concerning gravel roads. The need to
optimise the costs of maintaining optimum quality has been of great concern to
SNRA.
This report describes the present position in the operation and maintenance of
gravel roads. It presents a comprehensive literature survey of current and recent
national and international research, and deals only with summer maintenance.
Summer in Sweden extends from May to October. The report focuses primarily
on roads surfaced with aggregate, and forms the first part of a PhD project,
"Efficient production methods in the operation and maintenance of gravel roads".
The project will be carried out in collaboration between the Swedish National
Road and Transport Research Institute (VTI) and the Department of Infrastructure
and Planning, Highway Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology (KTH).
The report consists of eleven chapters. A brief description of the content of each
chapter is given below.
Chapter 1 discusses the background to the PhD project, the aim of the current
report. This chapter also presents the limitations this literature study is subject to
and how the search of information is performed.
Chapter 2 gives a review of several definitions and terms regarding the operation
and maintenance of gravel roads. These include maintenance, operation,
stabilisation, unsealed roads, different wearing courses and different layers in the
road structure.
Chapter 3 provides general information on the Swedish road network. The extent
of gravel roads is described in tabular form. The chapter also contains details such
as length, traffic volume, speed limits, road width and maintenance costs.
Corresponding information on other types of wearing course is given for
comparison.
Chapter 4 briefly describes the major factors which cause deterioration of gravel
roads. These include routine maintenance activities, traffic and climatic factors.
The chapter also discusses surface damage and problems associated with gravel
roads and their development in connection with the above factors. The major
problems are dust, corrugations, potholes, insufficient drainage, loose aggregate
and frost damage.
Chapter 5 sets out the technical requirements for gravel roads in Sweden which
are applied by the Swedish National Road Administration. These requirements
mainly relate to materials and workmanship concerning gravel wearing course,
VTI meddelande 852A

Summary vii
roadbase, sub-base and protection course. Requirements relating to operation and

maintenance are also covered.
Chapter 6 deals with factors which affect the frequency and cost of the
maintenance of gravel roads. These include road standard, traffic, aggregate
characteristics, and geometric and climatic factors. Traffic is one of the man made
factors that affect gravel roads, and the types and speeds of vehicles and the
annual average daily traffic (AADT) on the roads all constitute variables in this
context. The effect of geometric factors is seen in terms of road width, cross
section and alignment. Aggregate characteristics comprise proportioning, shape
and type of aggregate.
Chapter 7 describes maintenance methods for gravel layers. These are dust
control, grading, regravelling, ditching, watering and dragging. The chapter also
examines different materials used in dust control such as calcium chloride CaCl2,
magnesium chloride MgCl2, lignosulphonate and bitumen emulsion. The selection
of a suitable dust control agent, total cost, dust control procedures, frequency,
environmental impacts and evaluation of a dust control programme are discussed
here.
Chapter 8 reviews methods for assessing the condition of gravel roads. Methods
of subjective assessment applied or proposed in Sweden, Finland, USA, Canada,
Australia and New Zealand are described. These subjective assessments have been
correlated with objectively measured condition factors such as surface roughness.
Objective measurement methods used in Sweden are described.
Chapter 9 covers planning and economic evaluation of road improvements. It

describes the relationship between improvements achieved by operation and
maintenance activities, and discusses the benefits resulting from savings in road
user costs such as vehicle operating costs, and from greater traffic safety and
trafficability.
Chapter 10 lists the literature quoted in the report.
Chapter 11 lists the figures and tables.
VTI meddelande 852A

Chapter 1/ Introduction 1
1
Introduction
Gravel roads constitute more than 22% of the Swedish road network managed
by Swedish National Road Administration (SNRA) for whom maintenance
represents 17% of the total maintenance budget. This chapter discusses the
background to the PhD project and presents the aim of the current report. This
chapter also describes the limitations this literature study is subject to and how the
search of information is performed.
1.1 Background 1
1.2 The aim 2
1.3 Limitations 2
1.4 Information search 3
1.1 Background
Gravel roads make up a considerable proportion of the Swedish road network.
The State maintained road network comprises 98,015 km roads, of which 22,136
km (22%) are gravel roads (1997). Apart from the State gravel roads there are also
about 74,214 km private gravel roads and about 210,000 km forest roads.
Maintenance costs for gravel roads constitutes about 17.3%, a significant

proportion, of the total maintenance expenditure. Maintenance costs relates to
paved roads, gravel roads, bridges, tunnels and ferries.
The performance of gravel roads is important for rural areas, recreation and
forestry. Gravel roads have societal rather than traffic policy significance. They
represent the end points of the road network and must be kept in a state acceptable
to society and the road user. In certain cases, gravel roads also have a cultural and
historic value.
Should gravel roads be paved? This is a question that is often posed by road
users. In recent years some gravel roads have been given a simple type of
surfacing. For two reasons, however, all gravel roads will not be paved. The first
reason is low road traffic flow, and the second lack of funds.
VTI meddelande 852A

A large proportion of gravel roads have such a low traffic flow that, from the
standpoints of both business economic (road management authority) and societal
considerations, there is little chance of these being paved. The aim of the Swedish
National Road Administration is to pave gravel roads carrying more than 250
AADT.
However, owing to lack of funds, all gravel roads that have a high traffic flow will
not be replaced by paved roads in the next few years. The roads are in such a poor
state that they cannot be simply given a surfacing. The wearing course, roadbase
and sub-base must all be reconstructed.
Gravel road research was intensive during the 1930s and 1940s, but has been at
a low level since then. Attention was instead directed towards permanent
carriageways.
Much of the earlier gravel road research consisted of small investigations of

limited scope which were seldom described in reports, which means that there is a
need for investigations of a more systematic nature.
At present there is thus a lack of knowledge and research in this field. Greater
competence in the field of gravel road management is therefore desirable if a
transport system of greater long-term sustainability is to be achieved.
1.2 The aim

The aim of this study of the literature has been to collate knowledge and previous
experience within or closely related to the subject of this PhD project, "Operation
and maintenance of gravel roads". It also serves as a knowledge base for the
postgraduate student in his further studies. The study of the literature is intended
to cover most of the problem area that is the operation and maintenance of gravel
roads.
1.3 Limitations
The study of the literature is subject to the following limitations:
• The report mainly deals with Nordic conditions.
• The methods for operation and maintenance of gravel roads mainly relate to
measures during the period when roads are free of snow and ice. Winter
maintenance of gravel roads is not dealt with in this report.
• Technical requirements for gravel roads, operation and maintenance methods
and condition assessment refer primarily to the requirements and methods
applied in Sweden.
• The study of the literature does not cover strengthening or improvement
measures. In some cases it has however been difficult to distinguish between
maintenance and strengthening measures.
• Measures, which have the aim of providing gravel roads with a surfacing, are
not included in this literature study.
• The literature study mainly deals with State maintained roads.
VTI meddelande 852A

1.4 Information search

The search for information has been performed at the VTI Library and
Information Centre and comprised the following databases: ROADLINE (VTI
library catalogue), accessible via TRANSGUIDE [URL: http://transguide.vti.se],
SNRA library catalogue, and the two international databases IRRD (International
Road Research Documentation), produced by OECD [URL: http://www.oecd.org]
and TRIS (Transportation Research Information Services) produced by TRB
[URL: http://www.nas.edu/trb].
Information retrieval is based on keywords coupled together in blocks. Everything

connected with gravel roads has been correlated with various construction,
operation and maintenance aspects. Retrieval has no limitations regarding
geography, language or time. In order to facilitate processing of the material, the
different aspects are brought out in order. Search can be described as A * (B + C +
D), where the blocks comprise the following terms:
A) Gravel road? + Low cost road? Unsurfaced road? + Unpaved road? +

Grusväg?(Gravel road) + Skogsväg?(Forest road) + Skogsbilväg?(Forest
road)
B) Dust + Damm(Dust)
C) Ditch + Drainage + Dikning(Ditch)
D) Construction + Production + Maintenance + Grading + Surfacing +

(Recycling * Aggregate) + Produktion(Production) + Konstruktion(Design) +
Hyvling(Grading) + Grusåtervinn? (Aggregate recycling) +
Tillståndsmätning(Condition rating)
The wildcat [?] character indicates that there may be any number of characters
after the word, e.g. road? means roads, road construction, road maintenance.... etc.
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Chapter 2/ Definitions 4
2
Definitions
The fundamental concepts used in the report are defined in this chapter. These
concepts are operation and maintenance, maintenance, operation, stabilisation,
strengthening, State, municipal, forest roads and private roads, types of wearing
course and the different courses of a road. Terms such as maintenance and
operation will be described in greater detail.
2.1 Operation and maintenance 4

2.2 Maintenance 4
2.3 Operation 7
2.4 Stabilisation and strengthening 7
2.5 Different types of road 8
2.6 The structure of the road 9
2.7 Types of wearing course 10
2.1 Operation and maintenance

Operation and maintenance are often used as one expression or concept. This
concept covers all activity relating to the upkeep of gravel roads so that the road is
kept in a trafficable state. In this literature study, operation and maintenance are
used as one concept.
2.2 Maintenance
The Swedish National Road Administration defines the term maintenance as a
measure whose object is to restore the properties of structures, facilities and
devices to the level intended at the time of original construction or a later
improvement (Regulations for Maintenance and Operation, 1990, in Swedish).
According to the Swedish Association of Local Authorities, maintenance is

defined as measures after which the function of the facility remains unchanged but
which have a residual value at the end of the year (Bäckman et al., 1998).
In the course "Operation and Maintenance of Traffic Facilities-KTH" (1997), in

Swedish, Olsson defines maintenance as the measures needed in order that the
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desired properties of a building or facility should be preserved or restored and

which result in economic values with a duration longer than one year. He gives
some examples of maintenance activities such as enlargement of drainage
systems. According to this definition, ditching along gravel roads is assigned to
the concept maintenance since ditches last longer than one year. Olsson also
assigns repaving works of asphalt concrete roads to the concept maintenance
because they have a duration longer than one year.
He himself thinks that his interpretation of what is comprised in the term paved
road maintenance and gravel road maintenance does not fully agree with the
terminology at present applied by professionals in civil engineering.
Bäckman et al. (1998) give a schematic picture of the way maintenance can be
subdivided; see figure 2.1.
Maintenance
AU FU
OAU PAU OFU PFU
Disruptions Lower costs

maintenance
Higher costs Less event
Low availability maintenance maintenance
Expensive Greater Less

maintenance availability availability
Greater
availability
Figure 2.1 Schematic representation of the subdivision of maintenance

(Bäckman et al., 1998).
AU Event maintenance
FU Preventive maintenance
OAU Unplanned event maintenance
PAU Planned event maintenance
OFU Unplanned preventive maintenance
PFU Planned preventive maintenance
In the course "Operation and Maintenance of Traffic Facilities-KTH" (1997),

Sundquist (1997) shows a similar schematic relationship between different types
of maintenance; see figure 2.2.
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Maintenance
Event Preventive
Acute Planned Condition Periodic

controlled
Figure 2.2. Relationship between different types of maintenance (Sundquist,

1997).
Preventive maintenance (FU) is defined by Sundquist (1997) as measures whose

object is to prevent the occurrence of defects (direct FU) or to detect defects
before these result in breakdown (indirect FU).
Event maintenance (AU) is defined as measures whose object is to remedy

defects, which have occurred. Such maintenance may be unplanned, resulting in
acute repair work, or it may be planned and controlled. In most cases the greatest
proportion of event maintenance is unplanned, while the proportion of planned
event maintenance is small (Sundquist, 1997).
The term condition controlled maintenance implies that the condition of the
object concerned is checked at regular intervals. It is not until gradual
deterioration causes the object to approach an unacceptable condition that
appropriate measures are taken.
Condition assessment is assigned to preventive maintenance. The resulting

measures may be assigned to either preventive or event maintenance. As a rule,
condition controlled maintenance can be planned in good time as regards both its
extent and its timing and costs (Sundquist, 1997).
It is worth noting that Sundquist's definitions agree quite well with the operation
and maintenance of bridges, but are often less appropriate for gravel roads.
Periodic maintenance denotes action of greater extent that is taken at intervals of

several years. Examples of periodic maintenance are ditching and recycling of
aggregate. (Olsson, "Operation and Maintenance of Traffic Facilities-KTH"
(1997).
Routine maintenance is activity that is carried out every season on a section of

road; this necessitates continuous surveillance of the condition of the road.
Examples of routine maintenance are dust control, grading etc which are
performed by the contractor himself.
Service activity and actual maintenance are expressions that are used in some
old literature, but are seldom used now. Service activity is work that is closely
related to keeping the road trafficable and safe in the short term. Examples of this
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are dust control, grading, patching and repair of damage such as frost damage
(Bergfalk and Åkeson, 1969).
Actual maintenance denotes work to prevent deterioration of the road through

wear, such as regravelling, ditching and maintenance of culverts (Bergfalk and
Åkeson, 1969).
2.3 Operation
The National Swedish Road Administration defines operation as the measures
necessary to ensure that roads, bridges and traffic facilities at all times have the
functional properties they are designed for (Regulations for Maintenance and
Operation, 1990).
According to the Swedish Association of Local Authorities, operation denotes

the upkeep needed to ensure that a facility is at all times available and can be used
by the users, such as snow clearance and skid-control. Operation measures have
no permanent value at the end of the financial year (Silborn, 1997, in the course
"Operation and Maintenance of Traffic Facilities-KTH" (1997).
In the course "Operation and Maintenance of Traffic Facilities-KTH", Olsson

(1997) defines operation as activity to keep a building or facility in function,
which results in economic values of a duration shorter than one year. He quotes
dust control and grading of gravel roads as examples of operation activities. At
times, however, grading and dust control has duration longer than one year, for
instance on forest roads and when emulsion is used for dust control. He writes that
the first part of this definition is practically identical with that given by the
Swedish Centre for Technical Terminology (TNC) 1989:
"Activity to maintain the function of a building, installation and similar, or to use

such function". Olsson justifies the addition concerning economic duration by
saying that monitoring and prediction of life time costs are made easier if
operation is distinguished from maintenance in this way. Others think that
Olsson's definition of operation and maintenance is contrary to older and
established definitions, and some people in this field consider that the definition
of operation and maintenance by the Swedish National Road Administration is in
actual fact a clarification of the TNC definition.
2.4 Stabilisation and strengthening

Stabilisation and strengthening are terms that are often used in a maintenance
context.
Stabilisation is defined in ROAD 94, 1996 as improvement of the properties of

an unbound material, for instance by the admixture of hydraulic or bituminous
binders.
According to the definition of the Swedish National Road Administration, the

term strengthening implies upgrading of the bearing capacity of the road.
Bergfalk and Åkeson (1969) define this word as work entailing improvements and
minor reconstruction in order to adapt the standard of the road to the traffic it
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carries. However, it is not clear how adaptation of the standard of the road to
traffic can be determined for a gravel road.
Sundquist (1997) defines strengthening as "Improvement over and above the

original standard of the serviceability of an undamaged or damaged construction".
It is not likely, however, that it is possible in practice to determine the original
standard of a gravel road.
2.5 Different types of road

Terms such as state, municipal and private roads, forest roads, lightly trafficked
roads, secondary and tertiary county roads, will be defined here.
State roads are roads where the Swedish National Road Administration is
responsible for road planning, construction, operation and maintenance.
Municipal roads are streets and roads in local development plan areas in towns
and built-up areas, which are maintained by the municipality.
Private roads are roads maintained by private property owners and other
partnership owners. Private roads may or may not receive a State grant (Private
Roads, 1996, in Swedish). The Swedish National Road Administration is the
authority that administers the allocation of grants for private roads. The generic
term private road has three subdivisions depending on the legal status of the road:
easement roads, agreement roads and privately owned roads.
Forest roads are defined as roads, which predominantly serve forestry interests.
Forest roads are often classified as private roads without a State grant (Forest road
service, 1992, in Swedish).
Lightly trafficked roads are defined as roads with traffic below 1000 AADT or
100 heavy vehicles per day (Bäckman et al., 1998). There are however many
different limits for this definition.
Secondary county roads are normally

• Roads along which there are built-up areas with at least 200 inhabitants
• Roads with a traffic volume greater than 500 AADTt or a traffic volume per
summer or winter day that is greater than 1000 AADTt
• Roads which have or maybe expected to carry an average volume of goods
traffic greater than ca 100,000 tonnes per year over the next 5 years
(Regulations for Maintenance and Operation, 1990)
Tertiary county roads are normally

• Roads with a traffic volume less than 500 AADTt and less than 1000 AADTt
per summer or winter day
• Roads with an average volume of goods-traffic less than ca 100,000 tonnes
per year
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According to Regulations for Maintenance and Operation (1990), gravel roads are
classified as secondary and tertiary county roads. In Sweden they have road
classification numbers of 500 and above.
Average annual daily traffic AADT is a mean value which refers to a mean day
during a certain year for a certain road. If AADT refers to both carriageways of a
two-way road, AADT refers to the total two-way flow and is denoted AADTt
(ROAD 94, 1996).
2.6 The structure of the road

Terms such as subgrade, road structure, pavement and embankment are defined
below.
The road structure consists of embankment and pavement; see figure 2.3.
The pavement is the part of the road construction that is above the formation
level. The pavement consists of wearing course, base course and sub-base and
protection course if any. The pavement has the function of distributing pressure
on the underlying material; see figure 2.3.
The subgrade is defined as that part of the soil to which load is transmitted by a
building, bridge, road structure or similar; see figure 2.3.
The embankment is the part of the road construction between the subgrade and
the formation level. The embankment mainly consists of imported soil and rock
masses; see figure 2.3.
Figure 2.3 Subgrade, embankment, formation level, pavement and slopes

(ROAD 94, 1996).
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2.7 Types of wearing course

Terms such as paved road and gravel road are discussed in this clause. The terms
oil gravel, sealed gravel and single course gravel surface dressing Y1G have been
used in the report, and a brief description of each of these terms is therefore given
below.
A paved road is defined in ROAD 94 as "A road with a cement or bitumen bound
wearing course or base course. However, a gravel wearing course treated with
emulsion to control dust is not classified as a bitumen bound wearing course".
A gravel road is defined according to Glossary for Bituminous Surfacings

(1976), in Swedish, as a road with a gravel wearing course.
There is some confusion regarding the designations for aggregate. These

designations vary to a certain extent depending on the activity in which the
aggregate is used. In road construction, gravel is naturally occurring aggregate
that passes a 60 mm sieve and is predominantly of 6-60 mm particle size. Crushed
gravel is aggregate obtained by crushing gravel, larger stones and rock (Memo for
highway engineering, 1995, in Swedish). It is worth noting that gravel wearing
courses consist of particles of different sizes. The maximum stone size for a
gravel wearing course is 20 mm.
Up to 1986-87, the following fraction limits were applied in highway engineering;

see table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Fraction limits (mm) previously used in highway engineering

(Glossary for Bituminous Surfacings, 1976).
0,002 0,006 0,02 0,06 0,2 0,6 2 6 20 60 200 600 20000
Clay Silt Fine sand Sand Gravel Stone Block

fine Coarse fin Coarse Interm Coarse Fin Coarse
At present the fraction limits applied in highway engineering are the same as
those in soil mechanics. See table 2.2.
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Table 2.2 Fraction limits at present applied in highway engineering

(Karlsson & Hansbo, 1984).
Main groups Subgroups
Designation Particle size, mm Designation Particle
size, mm
Boulders and stones

Rock ≥2000
Boulders ≥600
Stone block 2000-600
Large stone 600-200
Stone 600-60
Medium stone 200-60
Coarse soil
Coarse gravel 60-20
Gravel 60-2 Medium gravel 20-6
Fine gravel 6-2
Coarse sand 2-0,6
Sand 2-0,06 Medium sand 0,6-0,2
Fine sand 0,2-0,06
Fine soil
Coarse silt 0,06-0,02
Silt 0,06-0,002 Medium silt 0,02-0,006
Fine silt 0,006-0,002
Clay ≤0.002 Fine clay* ≤0.0006
* This classification is mainly used in a research context
Gravel roads are classified as unpaved roads. Depending on the material in the
wearing course, unpaved roads may be gravel or earth roads. Unpaved roads often
carry little traffic. In foreign literature, unpaved roads are called unpaved,
untreated, unsurfaced, unsealed or unimproved roads. Gravel roads are often
referred to as dirt roads, a name that reflects the state of these roads in some
countries.
Oil gravel is a plant mix surfacing in which the binder is road oil and adhesion
between the aggregate and binder is improved by the admixture of an adhesion
agent (Glossary for Bituminous Surfacings, 1976).
Sealed gravel roads have been treated with bitumen emulsion according to the
hard method in order to control dust. See chapter 7.
Single course surface dressing Y1G is usually carried out as maintenance on

existing bituminous surfacings, and also on oil gravel. The wearing course
consists of a bituminous binder layer into which chippings are rolled. (Glossary
for bituminous surfacings, 1976).
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Chapter 3/ General description of the Swedish road network 12
3
General description of the Swedish
road network
The aim of this chapter is to illustrate the role played by gravel roads as part of
the Swedish road network. In the following, information concerning the length
and composition of the road network and the proportion of maintenance costs and
traffic volume accounted for by gravel roads will be tabulated. Data for these
tables were obtained from the databank of the Swedish National Road
Administration (VDB), with the exception of tables 3.1 and 3.14 where the data
were obtained from "Statistics from the Swedish National Road Administration",
1997, in Swedish. The data were downloaded in April 1998.
3.1 Administrative classification of Swedish roads (km) 13

3.2 Breakdown by type of wearing course (km) 13
3.3 Breakdown by type of wearing course in different counties 14
3.4 Length of gravel roads in different counties 15
3.5 Breakdown of type of wearing course by vehicle mileage 17
3.6 Breakdown by AADT on different types of wearing course in 1997 18
3.7 Breakdown of road width by different types of wearing course in 1997 19
3.8 Breakdown by speed limit on different types of wearing course in 1997 20
3.9 Lengths and proportions of paved and unpaved roads 21
3.10 Swedish gravel road network in 1997 22
3.11 Maintenance costs 23
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3.1 Administrative classification of Swedish roads

(km)
Table 3.1 Administrative classification of Swedish roads (km), breakdown by
road management authority (Statistics from Swedish National Road
Administration, 1997).
1 1 1 1 1
Type of road 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996
National trunk roads - - - 8,029 8,000
2
Other national roads 14,610 14,587 14,637 6,616 6,647
Motorways 1,005 1,061 1,141 1,262 1,350
Expressways 478 493 466 395 380
County roads 83,252 83,233 83,249 83,263 83,368
All State roads 99,345 99,374 99,493 99,565 99,745
3
Municipal roads 37,925 38,618 38,300 38,900 38,900
Private roads with State 73,071 73,562 73,914 74,119 74,214

grants
Other roads, round 210,000 210,000 210,000 210,000 210,000
numbers
Total length of road 420,341 421,554 421,707 422,584 422,859
network, round
numbers
1
until 31 December.
2
1992-1994 all national roads, from 1995 national roads which are not national trunk roads.
3
31 December 1995, according to survey performed by Swedish Association of Local
Authorities in 1996.
3.2 Breakdown by type of wearing course (km)

Table 3.2 Breakdown by type of wearing course (km) of State roads in
Sweden over the period 1990-1997.
Year Total Gravel Y1G Sealed Oil gravel Bituminous
lengt gravel
h
km Km % km % km % km % Km %
1990 99390 27145 27.3 10153 10.2 148 0.1 14590 14.7 47286 47.6
1991 99345 26543 26.7 10264 10.3 187 0.2 14484 14.6 47804 48.1
1992 99491 25704 25.8 10570 10.6 239 0.2 14358 14.4 48560 48.8
1993 99686 24143 24.2 11558 11.6 252 0.3 14288 14.3 49371 49.5
1994 99893 23354 23.4 11780 11.8 258 0.3 14248 14.3 50165 50.2
1995 100166 22619 22.6 11920 11.9 257 0.3 14244 14.2 51039 51.0
1996 100348 22267 22.2 11936 11.9 257 0.3 14317 14.3 51463 51.3
1997 100429 22136 22.0 11900 11.8 257 0.3 14344 14.3 51684 51.5
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According to Table 3.2, the length of gravel roads decreased by 5009 km between
1990 and 1997, from 27,145 km to 22,136 km. This is a reduction by 5.3
percentage points in the total State road length, from 27.3% to 22%. Roads with
single course surface dressing, Y1G, increased by 1747 km during the same
period, from 10,153 km to 11,900 km. This is an increase by 1.6 percentage points
in the State road network, from 10.2% to 11.8%. Figure 3.1 summarises the total
length of gravel roads, Y1G, oil gravel and bituminous roads over the period
1990-1997.
Gravel roads Y1G Oil gravel Asphalt concrete
55000
50000
45000
40000
35000
Length (km)
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
Year
Figure 3.1 Total length of the four wearing course types over the period
1990-1997.
3.3 Breakdown by type of wearing course in

different counties
Table 3.3 sets out the lengths of different wearing course types on the State road
network in the different counties in 1997, and the percentages of the total State
road network that these types represent.
As will be seen from the table, there is considerable variation in the percentages
of gravel roads in different counties. The county which has the most gravel roads
in relation to the total State length is Västerbotten county which has 3682 km
gravel roads. It is the four most northerly counties, Västernorrland, Jämtland,
Västerbotten and Norrbotten, in which the proportion of gravel roads exceeds
30%. The county of Gotland has the lowest percentage, 0.07%. It is worth noting
that dust control of gravel roads on Gotland with bitumen emulsion (BE) began in
1990. (0) in the tables often denotes a length less than 500 m, but may also signify
nothing (0 km), while (:) always denotes nothing.
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Table 3.3 Breakdown by type of wearing course of State roads in different

counties in 1997.
County Total Gravel Y1G Sealed gravel Oil gravel Bituminous
letter length
km km % km % km % km % km %
AB 3138 85 3 26 1 : 0 1 0 3024 96
C 3013 524 17 302 10 : 0 40 1 2147 71
D 2832 512 18 205 7 : 0 3 0 2112 75
E 4731 981 21 705 15 : 0 2 0 3043 64
F 4567 735 16 861 19 0 0 223 5 2748 60
G 3664 647 18 636 17 114 3 326 9 1941 53
H 4030 339 8 742 18 : 0 74 2 2875 71
I 1486 1 0 317 21 : 0 15 1 1146 77
K 1552 46 3 242 16 129 8 151 10 984 63
M 7977 718 9 1149 14 : 0 181 2 5881 74
N 3093 197 6 549 18 14 0 962 31 1320 43
O 2926 183 6 137 5 : 0 246 8 2360 81
P 5254 1264 24 736 14 : 0 375 7 2879 55
R 4093 632 15 476 12 : 0 282 7 2703 66
S 4816 1372 28 537 11 : 0 768 16 2139 44
T 2984 761 26 398 13 : 0 106 4 1719 58
U 2574 485 19 492 19 : 0 24 1 1573 61
W 5001 1030 21 668 13 : 0 1196 24 2107 42
X 3596 426 12 307 9 : 0 1039 29 1824 51
Y 5134 1969 38 238 5 : 0 1335 26 1592 31
Z 5994 2322 39 377 6 : 0 677 11 2618 44
AC 9251 3682 40 852 9 : 0 3058 33 1659 18
BD 8723 3225 37 948 11 : 0 3260 37 1290 15
Totals 100429 22136 11900 257 14344 51684
3.4 Length of gravel roads in different counties

The length of the gravel road network (km) in 1997 on the State road network in
the different counties, as well as the percentages of the total length of State gravel
roads, 22,136 km, accounted for by gravel roads in the different counties, are set
out in table 3.4.
Västerbotten county has both the greatest length and the highest percentage of
gravel roads. The length of gravel roads in this county is 3682 km which is 16.6%
of the total length of 22,136 km in Sweden.
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Table 3.4 Length of State gravel roads (km) in the different counties in 1997.
County and county letter Gravel roads
County County letter Length (km) Percentage of whole
country
Stockholm AB 85 0.4
Uppsala C 524 2.4
Södermanland D 512 2.3
Östergötland E 981 4.4
Jönköping F 735 3.3
Kronoberg G 647 2.9
Kalmar H 339 1.5
Gotland I 1 0.0
Blekinge K 46 0.2
Skåne M 718 3.2
Halland N 197 0.9
V.Götaland O 183 0.8
Älvsborg P 1264 5.7
Skaraborg R 632 2.9
Värmland S 1372 6.2
Örebro T 761 3.4
Västmanland U 485 2.2
Dalarna (Kopparberg) W 1030 4.7
Gävleborg X 426 1.9
Västernorrland Y 1969 8.9
Jämtland Z 2322 10.5
Västerbotten AC 3682 16.6
Norrbotten BD 3225 14.6
Totals 22136 100.0
Appendix No 1 shows the lengths of different wearing course types on the State
road network in the different counties over the period 1990-1997, as well as the
percentages of the total length of State roads accounted for by the different types
of wearing course. Figure 3.2 shows the lengths of State gravel roads in different
counties in 1997.
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Figure 3.2 Lengths of State gravel roads in different counties in 1997.
3.5 Breakdown of type of wearing course by vehicle

mileage
Table 3.5 Vehicle mileage (VM) (two axle unit km x 103) on different types of
wearing course, and percentages of total vehicle mileage on State
road network accounted for by the different types of wearing
course.
Year Total TA Gravel Y1G Sealed gravel Oil gravel Bituminous
VM % VM % VM % VM % VM %
1990 123966 2405 1.94 1982 1.60 9 0.01 6960 5.61 112162 90.48
1991 129678 2327 1.79 1973 1.52 13 0.01 6947 5.36 117968 90.97
1992 131064 2220 1.69 2025 1.55 19 0.01 6822 5.21 119541 91.21
1993 130982 2008 1.53 2142 1.64 20 0.02 6661 5.09 119631 91.33
1994 131727 1892 1.44 2193 1.66 21 0.02 6990 5.08 120324 91.34
1995 132716 1816 1.37 2322 1.75 23 0.02 6766 5.10 121185 91.31
1996 134258 1789 1.33 2372 1.77 24 0.02 6816 5.08 122455 91.21
1997 133739 1761 1.32 2392 1.79 24 0.02 6834 5.11 121924 91.17
It is worth noting that in 1997 only 1.32% of the total vehicle mileage takes place
on gravel roads.
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3.6 Breakdown by AADT on different types of

wearing course in 1997
Table 3.6 sets out the breakdown of the lengths of the different types of wearing
course by average annual daily traffic (two axle units) and the percentages of the
total length of State roads with a certain AADT accounted for by the different
wearing courses.
Table 3.6 Breakdown of different types of wearing course by AADT in 1997

(km).
AADT Total Gravel Y1G Sealed gravel Oil gravel Bituminous
length
km km % km % km % km % Km %
-99 20906 15700 75.1 2297 11.0 156 0.7 1085 5.2 1667 8.0
-124 6436 2855 44.4 1534 23.8 53 0.8 715 11.1 1278 19.9
-250 16779 3173 18.9 5130 30.6 48 0.3 3121 18.6 5306 31.6
-300 4355 264 6.1 1041 23.9 : 0.0 1162 26.7 1887 43.3
-350 2977 58 1.9 625 21.0 : 0.0 811 27.2 1483 49.8
-400 2841 36 1.3 393 13.8 : 0.0 783 27.6 1629 57.3
-450 2586 25 1.0 287 11.1 : 0.0 925 35.8 1349 52.2
-500 2235 22 1.0 198 8.9 : 0.0 710 31.8 1305 58.4
-550 2043 0 0.0 135 6.6 : 0.0 643 31.5 1265 61.9
-600 1925 0 0.0 58 3.0 : 0.0 746 38.8 1121 58.2
-1000 9463 2 0.0 186 2.0 : 0.0 2290 24.2 6983 73.8
Totals 72546 22135 11884 257 12991 25273
Table 3.7 Breakdown of gravel roads by AADT (two axle units) in 1997 (km)
and the percentages of the total length of State gravel roads –
22,136 km – with a certain AADT.
AADT 2 axle units Gravel roads
km %
-99 15700 70.9
-124 2855 12.9
-250 3173 14.3
-300 264 1.2
-350 58 0.3
-400 36 0.2
-450 25 0.1
-500 22 0.1
-550 0 0.0
-600 0 0.0
-1000 0 0.0
According to table 3.7, ca 71% of the total State gravel road network has AADT
below 100.
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3.7 Breakdown of road width by different types of

Table 3.8 Breakdown of different types of wearing course by road width (m)
and the percentages of the total length of State roads of a certain
width accounted for by the different types of wearing course.
Width Length Gravel Y1G Sealed gravel Oil gravel Bituminous
m km km % km % km % km % km %
0-3.5 12546 11141 88.8 453 3.6 103 0.82 247 1.97 602 4.8
3.6-4.5 14189 7709 54.3 2604 18.4 148 1.04 772 5.44 2956 20.8
4.6-5.5 15038 2530 16.8 4617 30.7 29 0.19 1846 12.28 6015 40.0
5.6-6.5 25953 675 2.6 4055 15.6 0 0.00 9147 35.24 12073 46.5
6.6-7.5 3008 34 1.1 141 4.7 : 0.00 668 22.21 2165 72.0
7.6-8.5 1348 2 0.1 0 0.0 : 0.00 264 19.58 1074 79.7
8.6-9.5 317 : 0.0 1 0.3 : 0.00 37 11.67 279 88.0
9.6-12.5 63 0 0.0 1 1.6 : 0.00 4 6.35 58 92.1
12.6-40.0 41 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.00 2 4.88 39 95.1
Table 3.9 Lengths of gravel roads (km) on State road network in 1997 and
the percentages of the total length of State gravel roads of a certain
width accounted for by gravel roads.
Width Length Percentages in 1997 of total length of State gravel
m km roads of a certain width
0-3.5 11141 50.3
3.6-4.5 7709 34.8
4.6-5.5 2530 11.4
5.6-6.5 675 3.0
6.6-7.5 34 0.2
7.6-8.5 2 0.0
8.6-9.5 : 0.0
9.6-12.5 0 0.0
12.6-40.0 0 0.0
It is seen from table 3.9 that 50.3% of State gravel roads have a width up to 3.5 m,
and 34.8% have a width between 3.6 and 4.5 m.
The road width that is sometimes measured is the loadbearing width, i.e. the width
which can normally be used by vehicles with the permissible axle pressure.
Usually about 0.5 m near each ditch must be deducted from the total width. Since
road width varies along a long stretch of road, the tabulated width is the mean
width.
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3.8 Breakdown by speed limit on different types of

Table 3.10 Lengths of different types of wearing course by speed limit (km/h)
and the percentages of the total length with a certain speed limit on
the State road network accounted for by these lengths.
Speed Total Gravel Y1G Sealed gravel Oil gravel Bituminous
length
km/h km km % km % km % km % km %
-30 68 3 4.4 4 5.9 0 0.00 16 23.53 45 66.2
31-50 4244 191 4.5 456 10.7 2 0.05 964 22.71 2628 61.9
51-70 52757 20502 38.9 10366 19.6 278 0.53 5889 11.16 15720 29.8
71-90 12920 1377 10.7 973 7.5 - 0.00 4622 35.77 5948 46.0
91-110 2471 0 0.0 80 3.2 - 0.00 1492 60.38 899 36.4
Table 3.11 Lengths of gravel roads (km) with a certain speed limit in 1997 and
the percentages of the total length, 22,136 km, of State gravel roads
with a certain speed limit accounted for by these lengths.
Speed Length Percentage of total length of State gravel roads in Sweden in
(km/h) (km) 1997 with a certain speed
-30 3 0.01
31-50 191 0.86
51-70 20502 92.62
71-90 1377 6.22
91-110 0 0.00
According to table 3.11, gravel roads with a speed limit of 51-70 km/h represent
93% of the total length of State gravel roads.
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3.9 Lengths and proportions of paved and unpaved

roads
Table 3.12 Lengths of paved and unpaved roads and the percentages of the
total length, 422,667 km, of the State road network on 31
December 1997 accounted for by these lengths.
Road types Length (km) Percentage of total
length
Bituminous (Bi) 51,684 12.230
Y1G 11,900 2.820
Concrete (Be) 101 0.024
Paved
Stone (St) 7 0.002
Municipal roads 38,325 9.070
Total 102,017 24.140
Gravel (Gr) 22,136 5.240
Oil gravel (Ol) 14,344 3.390
Sealed gravel (Fö) 257 0.060
Unpaved Forest roads with gravel wearing 210,000 49.680
course
Private roads with State grants, 73,913 17.490
1)
gravel wearing course
2)
Total 320,650 75.860
1)
A small proportion of private roads with State grants may be paved
2)
Roads that can be graded may perhaps be classified as unpaved roads or roads that are not
properly paved
Table 3.12 shows that about 76% of the total length of the State road network is
unpaved.
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3.10 Swedish gravel road network in 1997

Table 3.13 Summary of Swedish gravel road network in 1997.
Length of State gravel road network 22,136 km
Percentage of State road network (100,429 km) 22%
accounted for by State gravel road network
Percentage of total road network (422,667 km) 5.24%
accounted for by State gravel road network
Reduction of State gravel road network from 5,009 km (from 27,145 to 22,136 km)
1990 until 1997
Percentage reduction of State gravel road 18.4%
network from 1990 until 1997
Vehicle mileage on gravel road network 1761
(thousands of two axle units)
Percentage of vehicle mileage on State road 1.32%
network (133,739) accounted for by gravel road
network
Percentage of State gravel road network 50.3% (11,100 km)
(22,136 km) accounted for by gravel roads up
to 3.5 m wide
(22,136 km) accounted for by gravel roads 3.6-
4.5 m wide
(22,136 km) accounted for by gravel roads 4.6-
5.5 m wide
Percentage of total gravel road network 92.62% (20,500 km)
(22,136 km) accounted for by gravel roads with
speed limit of 51-71 km/h
Counties where length of gravel road network Stockholm, Södermanland, Värmland,
remained unchanged between 1996 and 1997 Blekinge, Västmanland, Gävleborg
Percentage of State gravel road network 72%
(22,136 km) accounted for by State gravel
roads with AADT up to 99 two axle units
County with most State gravel roads in relation Västerbotten county (39.80% gravel
to total length of State roads in the county roads)
Counties where the proportion of State gravel Västerbotten (40%), Jämtland (39%),
roads exceeds 35% of the total length of State Västernorrland (38.5%) and Norrbotten
roads in the county (37%)
County where gravel roads account for the Gotland county (0.07%)
smallest percentage of the total length of State
roads
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3.11 Maintenance costs

Table 3.14 Total budget of Swedish National Road Administration in 1994-1996
for different maintenance services (Statistics from SNRA, 1997).
Maintenance Maintenance costs, SEK million
services
1994 1995 1996
SEK m % SEK m % SEK m %
Paved roads 1,691.0 66.4 1,866.2 65.7 1,294.0 65.4
Gravel roads 387.6 15.2 495.2 17.4 343.6 17.3
Bridges 439.1 17.2 427.1 15.0 313.4 15.8
Tunnels 19.1 0.75 24.7 0.86 16.5 0.83
Ferries 9.3 0.3 26.0 0.9 8.9 0.45
Others 0 0 0.5 0.017 0.3 0.015
Totals 2,546.2 100 2,839.8 100 1,976.9 100
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Chapter 4/Deterioration of gravel roads 24
4
Deterioration of gravel roads
The deterioration of gravel roads is governed by the behaviours of the road

material and the drainage capacity under the combined actions of traffic and
climate and the absent of sufficient maintenance activities. Generally problems
begin slowly and progressively become more serious. Slight defects will grow
into moderate faults and severe conditions. At first, the distress might be found in
only a few isolated places. As the condition worsens more and more, the distress
will show up on the surface. This chapter discusses the causes of deterioration of
gravel roads, for instance traffic, precipitation and grading. Damage such as
incorrect shape, insufficient drainage, dust, potholes, corrugation, rutting, loose
gravel on the road and frost damage, are also dealt with in this chapter.
4.1 The causes of deterioration 25

4.1.1 Traffic 25
4.1.2 Precipitation and climate 26
4.1.3 Grading 26
4.2 Distresses of gravel roads 26
4.2.1 Incorrect shape 26
4.2.2 Insufficient drainage 30
4.2.3 Dust 31
4.2.4 Corrugation 35
4.2.5 Potholes 38
4.2.6 Ruts 40
4.2.7 Loose aggregate on the road 42
4.2.8 Frost damage 42
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4.1 The causes of deterioration

The road gradually deteriorates due to the action of traffic, rain, wind and grading.
Sultan (1974) in his literature study gives a detailed description of the way the
carriageway is abraded by wind, precipitation and traffic. In Sweden, wear due to
the action of wind is mostly of relatively small extent compared with wear caused
by traffic, rain and grading.
4.1.1 Traffic
Hubendick (1969) confirms that traffic is the greatest cause of wear of the road.
Soil erosion caused by traffic comprises two active mechanisms, the slipstream
and mechanical abrasion due to the torque developed by the driving wheel (Lindh,
1981).
When the wheels of a vehicle roll along the road, the particles of aggregate in the
surface are subjected to considerable forces. Underneath the wheel load, the
carriageway deflects to some extent. This gives rise to a certain movement
between the particles a little lower down in the wearing course. The particles
grind against one another and are abraded. Gradually, large particles become
smaller. As the vehicles rush along the road, some aggregate particles are
inevitably thrown to the sides and vanish. They are carried along by the tailwind
and are also spread out by the wheels as they are thrown into the air. As regards
loss of material, however, dusting is much more serious (Hubendick, 1969).
Persson (1993) states that the wearing course is continuously broken down by the
vehicle wheels crushing the larger particles. The result is a shortage of aggregate
and an excess of sand. The road easily becomes corrugated. Figure 4.1 shows how
the particle size distribution curve changes.
Figure 4.1 Change in the wearing course due to crushing, dusting and rain
action (Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992, in
Swedish).
Vertical axis- Percentage passing in %
Horizontal axis-Particle size in mm
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4.1.2 Precipitation and climate

During a heavy fall of rain, fine particles are dislodged, are suspended in the water
and are carried by the water into the ditch. The condition of gravel roads varies
greatly from season to season. In the spring and autumn the carriageway is
generally softened by water. During the summer gravel roads are often
corrugated, potholed and dusty.
Beskow (1934) says that gravel carriageways are subjected to the greatest stress
on two occasions, when the water ratio is high and when the moisture content is
very low. The water ratio is elevated during long rains and especially when the
soil thaws out, while the moisture content becomes very low during dry periods in
the summer.
A high water ratio reduces bearing capacity. When water ratio is very low,
cohesion decreases and material in the surface of the road is easily dislodged by
traffic. One of the consequences of this is the formation of corrugations across the
gravel wearing course.
4.1.3 Grading
Each time the road is graded, some abrasion occurs. The grader blade abrades,
crushes and cuts into the aggregate. The wetter the carriageway, the smaller the
abrasion. But this abrasion is in most cases relatively small compared with that
caused by traffic.
4.2 Distresses of gravel roads

The distresses of which will be dealt with is incorrect shape, insufficient drainage,
dusting, potholes, corrugation, loose aggregate on the road and frost damage.
4.2.1 Incorrect shape

In the context of operation and maintenance, it is primarily the transverse shape of
the carriageway that is of interest. There is no other measure in gravel road
maintenance that is so critical for condition and cost as correction of the shape of
the road in the transverse direction, i.e. cambering and superelevation. All other
measures such as aggregate recycling, regravelling, ditch clearing etc are of little
use if, after being graded, the road becomes flat without sufficient camber and
superelevation (Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992). Camber
and superelevation are corrected by deep grading. A gravel road of the wrong
shape easily becomes potholed by rain. A well shaped road from which the rain is
quickly drained often stands up to several falls of rain before grading is needed.
The shape of road on straight sections and through curves will be dealt with in the
following.
4.2.1.1 Shape of road on straight sections

On straight sections it is chiefly the endeavour to prevent ponding of water on the
road that determines the shape. The sideways slope on straight sections is called
camber or crown. The appropriate camber on gravel roads is between 4% and 5%
(Hubendick, 1969).
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If the road on straight sections is flat as a floor, rain falling on the road is not
drained properly. It collects in pools. In such conditions it does not take long for
the road to be destroyed. The road is therefore constructed roughly as a roof, with
the ridge along the centre line and the roofs sloping down towards the edges of the
road. Water then drains into the ditches.
Water must take the shortest route to the sides. The more the road slopes
sideways, the more quickly water drains away. A proper sideways slope is
therefore desirable. But, on the other hand, the road must not have such a steep
sideways slope that a vehicle may overturn or slide off the road, or it becomes
difficult to keep the vehicle on the road; see figure 4.2.
Figure 4.2 Examples of correct and wrong camber (Unsealed Roads Manual-
Guidelines to Good Practice, 1993).
The more uneven the road, the more slowly water will drain. The cambers on a
gravel road must therefore be slightly steeper than on a paved road. Hubendick
(1969) says that the shape of a road will deteriorate due to wear and overload.
A. Incorrect shape due to wear

Wear reduces camber. To some extent, wear is due to the fact that the finest
material, in particular, turns to dust and is blown away. Some of the coarser
material is also displaced by the wheels of vehicles and is spread to the sides.
When the wheel rolls along the road, it draws material towards itself. This
material is lifted off the surface to some extent. When the material returns to the
sloping surface, it falls a little to the side. This process is illustrated in figure 4.3.
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Figure 4.3 Owing to the camber of the road, material tends to be displaced
towards the sides (Hubendick, 1969).
In this way, the road gradually becomes flatter while the edges are raised up.
Figure 4.4 gives some examples of how the camber is worn down.
Figure 4.4 The camber is gradually worn down, the edges are raised up, and
ruts are formed in the carriageway if this is not graded
(Hubendick, 1969).
If camber is greatly reduced, water will not drain satisfactorily and the road will
therefore be exposed to other types of damage. The road must therefore be
reshaped in time before wear has gone too far. Deep grading does this. If the road
is not reshaped in time, a reverse camber is formed; see figure 4.5.
Figure 4.5 Reverse camber (Unsealed Roads Manual-Guidelines to Good

Practice, 1993).
B. Incorrect shape caused by overloading

The road can also be deformed by overloading. If the road has not sufficient
bearing capacity, traffic consisting of too heavy vehicles may flatten the camber.
In such a case it is not certain that the camber can be restored by grading. On
simpler roads the layer of gravel is often relatively thin. If an attempt is made to
restore the camber by grading material from the sides towards the centre, the
gravel layer will become too thin at the sides. This process is illustrated in figure
4.6.
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Figure 4.6 If the road structure is too weak, camber may be flattened in the
middle (Hubendick, 1969).
försvagat parti=weakened part
4.2.1.2 Shape of road through curves

Through curves it is chiefly traffic engineering factors which determine the shape
of the road. If the road is inclined transversely towards the inside of the curve,
road users will find it easier to negotiate the curve. This slope is called
superelevation.
The more vehicles there are, the higher their speed and the sharper the curve, the
greater wear will be. The inside of the curve, in particular, is subject to heavy
abrasion. The material in the carriageway is dislodged by the wheels and is
thrown towards the outside of the curve. The road along the inside of the curve
therefore loses material and becomes lower. The thrown out material, on the other
hand, raises the road along the outside of the curve. In this way, superelevation
gradually becomes too steep.
The thrown-out material does not usually end up at the outer edge, but
approximately in the middle of the outer half of the road. The superelevation
along the outermost part of the road is therefore too flat. Sometimes it becomes
horizontal or even slopes the wrong way. Such a road is a danger to traffic. See
figure 4.7.
Figure 4.7 The wheels of a vehicle abrade the material on the inside of the
curve and throw it towards the outer edge of the curve (Hubendick,
1969).
In sharper curves where vehicles must make larger changes in their direction and
speed in order to negotiate the curve, the road often becomes heavily worn at the
entrance to the curve. It is here that vehicles begin to turn and brakes are usually
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applied the hardest. The surface therefore easily becomes uneven at the entrance
to the curve.
Even over transition sections between superelevation and camber along the
outside of a curve, the road may become uneven. The normal camber and
superelevation on gravel roads is illustrated in figure 4.8.
Figure 4.8 Normal camber on straight sections and superelevation in curves

on gravel roads (Persson, 1993).
4.2.2 Insufficient drainage

Water or moisture is certainly an important ingredient of a gravel road. The road
surface should be slightly moist for correct cohesion. Too much water on the road
is however destructive. Water can damage a road in many ways, and the road
must therefore have a functioning drainage system. The different parts of a
drainage system are discussed below.
4.2.2.1 Crossfall
Crossfall has been discussed in Subclause 4.2.1.
4.2.2.2 Road edge

Banks consisting of worn out or displaced aggregate, dirt and clumps of grass may
sometimes form along the edges of the road. If this happens, water is prevented
from draining into the ditch, and runs along the road instead. On inclines the water
gathers speed and may wash away the road surface. If water is kept back by the
banks on horizontal sections, it remains on the surface of the road. These pools
obstruct traffic. Potholes form, and the material in the road structure may finally
be softened by moisture to such an extent that the bearing capacity of the road is
reduced.
4.2.2.3 Slopes
The inner slope must not be too steep since it serves as support for the road
structure. If the slope is too steep, the edge of the road will collapse. On steep
slopes water has a high speed. The faster water drains away, the more soil and
sand it carries with it, so that the slope is washed away.
4.2.2.4 Ditches
According to Hubendick (1969), ditches are the most important part of the road. If
there are no ditches, there is nowhere for water to go; the result is that water
builds up in the road structure so that its bearing capacity is reduced. Ditching is
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therefore important work. Jansson (1985) and Hubendick (1969) say that a ditch
has several functions:
• To take away water that runs off the road. This does not require either a
particularly wide or deep ditch. Water is drained from the surface of the road
due to its crossfall.
• To remove water from the surroundings of the road which would otherwise run
on to the road. In most cases, more water comes from the surrounding terrain
than from the road itself. The ditch must therefore have a certain size. If water
must be carried over a long distance along the road, the ditch must be made
larger. Water from the surrounding terrain and from the carriageway is in most
cases removed through an open ditch.
• To drain the road structure. This can be achieved with an open or covered
ditch. The deeper the bottom of the ditch, the better the road structure will be
drained. In terrain that is susceptible to frost action, it is extremely important
for the road structure to be properly drained. If ditches are allowed to
deteriorate, this may be the direct cause of very serious frost damage to the
road during the thaw; see Subclause 4.2.8. Water is present in the road
structure in many forms, and all water cannot be drained by ditches. Water that
is bound around the particles of material, for instance, is not affected. Two
experiments performed by Jansson (1985), however, show that there is no
relationship between depth of ditch and the bearing capacity of gravel roads. A
Finnish study shows that, in a normal road construction, very little water is
drained sideways into the ditch (Jansson, 1985).
• To act as a storage place for snow (Jansson, 1985).
4.2.2.5 Culverts
Culverts have an important role in ensuring that the road is drained. Culverts,
especially at their inlets and outlets, can silt up or be blocked when snow melts or
when ditches are cleared, bushes are trimmed or trees are felled. In the worst case
the road structure can be completely washed away (Forest roads, 1992, in
Swedish).
4.2.3 Dust
The finest particle fractions in the gravel wearing course are swirled up by the
slipstream of passing vehicles into clouds of dust that are driven to the sides and
vanish from the road. A speed of 100 km/h corresponds to a wind speed of ca 28
m/s. This is almost the wind speed in a hurricane. The movement of air is
sufficiently high to dislodge and remove a quantity of fine material from the
carriageway. If traffic is heavy, the quantity of material that disappears in this way
will in time be considerable. Ordinary wind also removes fine material in the
same way. This is usual in coastal areas and flat country.
4.2.3.1 Definition of dust

Foley and Cropely (1995) define dust as fine particles (smaller than 0.075 mm)
that have been transmitted to the atmosphere. Dust normally represents 10-15% of
the total material in the wearing course. Foley and Cropely (1995) quote Coppin
and Armstrong regarding dust classification by particle size. According to Sultan
(1974), the dusting phenomenon may be classified as a kind of soil erosion.
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4.2.3.2 The quantity of dust

The quantity of dust emitted to air from gravel roads depends on the following
factors, which are briefly described below.
A. Air velocity near the road surface
B. Number of vehicles
C. Composition of wearing course
D. Cohesion
E. Climate
A. Air velocity near the road surface

Air velocity near the road surface is proportional to vehicle speed and is also a
function of vehicle type.
Vehicle speed influences both the quantity of dust and its dispersal from the road.
Relationships between vehicle speed, vehicle type and quantity of dust are
illustrated in figure 4.9. Three vehicle types are covered by the figure, small car,
large car and lorry. The vehicle type has the influence that e.g. a low vehicle with
several wheels raises more dust. Foley and Cropely (1995) quote one of the
Transit New Zealand Research reports. The results of this report suggest that
heavy vehicles at high speed cause more dust.
Figure 4.9 Relationship between vehicle speed, vehicle type, vehicle size and
quantity of dust (Jones, 1984, in Foley and Cropely, 1995).
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Lindh (1981) quotes Roberts and Walter (1975) and gives a relationship between
vehicle speed and dust formation. Figure 4.10 shows the relationship between
vehicle speed and dust formation on a gravel road in terms of weight per vehicle
per mile, for particles smaller than 0.01 mm and 0.002 mm.
Figure 4.10 Relationship between vehicle speed and dust formation (Lindh,
1981).
Foley (1996) quotes Addo and Sanders (1995) and gives a relationship between
speed and quantity of dust; see figure 4.11.
Figure 4.11 Relationship between speed and quantity of dust (Foley, 1996).
B. Number of vehicles
The greater the number of vehicles, the greater the quantity of dust.
C. Composition of wearing course

The influence of the composition of the wearing course is that it is more difficult
for heavy particles than lighter particles to be transported, i.e. a fine grained
wearing course dusts more, and that cohesion depends on composition.
D. Cohesion
Cohesion depends on how well the wearing course is compacted, the cohesion
between particles in the wearing course, and the durability of the material in the
wearing course.
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E. Climate
The climate has an influence because a number of the effects of dust control
agents, e.g. hygroscopic salts, are greatly dependent on moisture. Moisture varies
as a function of rain and evaporation. With regard to net rainfall and temperature,
a classification into climatic zones can be made.
4.2.3.3 Measurement of quantities of dust

Few experiments have been made to measure and characterise dust from unpaved
roads. This is pointed out by Handy in Lindh (1981). Lindh considers this rather
surprising in view of the fundamental significance that these properties may have
for the development of methods of dust control.
Investigations concerning the significance of gravel roads as a source of dust

particles in air have been made by Handy (1975), Roberts and Walter (1975) in
Lindh (1981) and Jones (1984) in Foley and Cropely (1995). Investigations have
also been made to create a basis for theoretical calculations of the quantity of dust
particles that may be expected to be emitted from a gravel road when the factors
that cause dusting are known (Lindh, 1981).
Some measurements have been made to determine the quantity of dust emitted to
air from gravel roads when a vehicle is driven along the road at different speeds.
The publication "Guidelines for cost effective use and application of dust
palliatives" (1987) shows an equipment, a Dustfall Station, that is used to analyse
and measure the quantity of emitted dust; see figure 4.12.
Figure 4.12 Equipment used to measure the quantity of emitted dust.
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The purpose of dust analysis was to chart the proportions of particles smaller than
0.01 mm and 0.002 mm, respirable dust, i.e. particles that can penetrate into the
lungs, to find how far from the road the dust fallout is measurable, and finally to
determine its content of carbonates, quartz, clay, organic substances and other
materials (Lindh, 1981).
In their report, Foley and Cropely (1995) give equations or models for calculating
the quantities of material removed as dust from gravel roads.
Most states in the USA have drawn up regulations for the maximum permissible
quantity of "fugitive dust". The term fugitive dust refers to particles smaller than
30 µm in the atmosphere. In Sweden there are no rules for the maximum
permissible quantity of dust in air, and perhaps this is not so important here
because of e.g. climatic factors (Lindh, 1981).
4.2.4 Corrugation
The term corrugation denotes a wavy surface. The road surface consists of a series
of waves, with ridges and troughs. The pitch of such a wave is the distance
between two consecutive ridges or troughs. The difference in height between
trough and ridge is the wave height. There is very little connection between pitch
and height. Ridges ranging from a few millimetres to 10-20 centimetres can be
seen on the same stretch of corrugated road where the pitch is approximately the
same.
A gravel road must consist of both coarse and fine material and must on no
account be sandy. The aggregate is gradually broken down by wear and sand is
formed. When the road contains a lot of sand it is susceptible to corrugation.
Beskow (1932) quotes two factors for the formation of corrugations, vehicles
which are the active factor, and the carriageway itself which is the passive factor.
4.2.4.1 Types of corrugation

Beskow (1932) says that three types of corrugation can be distinguished:
Type 1: Dislodgement of loose aggregate, "Ordinary, normal corrugation"
Type 2: Water splash, "Potholing". Stirred-up water contains suspended fines
Type 3: Plastic undulating deformation
The first type of corrugation, dislodgement of loose aggregate, is discussed below.
Ordinary or normal corrugation is the most important type of corrugation. It is

caused by dislodgement of loose aggregate. It is this type of corrugation that
dominates on Swedish roads during the dry part of the year; see figure 4.13 and
4.14.
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Figure 4.13 Corrugation (Chong and Wrong, 1989).
Figure 4.14 Corrugation (Chong and Wrong, 1989).
Beskow (1932) says that part of the unbound material is thrown up by the wheels
and is carried along by the slipstream, and part is caught up on the wheels. This
results in a sorting of the material. The finest particles are entrained by the
slipstream in the form of a dust cloud. The intermediate particles are too large to
be entrained but too small to roll along the carriageway on their own. They
accumulate in the corrugation ridges which thus attain a clearly graded,
sometimes very well graded, sandy composition. The coarse aggregate particles
and stones roll easily if they have a rounded shape, and cannot remain on the
ridges. In its purest form, this type of corrugation arises where there is a thin
cover of aggregate on a hard and firm surface, for instance a carriageway treated
with sulphite lye and well compacted.
The ridges do not usually consist completely of loose aggregate but have a core of
more or less hard compacted material. These cores are formed by deepening of the
troughs due to dislodgement of material, so that the bases of the ridges are slightly
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elevated above the original surface. On the whole, however, the firm ridges are
formed by loose aggregate that has been thrown up and gradually compacted. See
figure 4.15.
Figure 4.15 Schematic profile through a normally corrugated road surfaced

with fine sandy aggregate (Beskow, 1932).
a. Loose material on ridges, often fine sand, coarser in troughs.
b. Compacted but very easily dug material of approximately the same
composition.
c. Firm, often stone bound, base level.
Hubendick (1969) distinguishes between two types of corrugation, dry

corrugation and wet corrugation.
Dry or summer corrugation occurs on a dry carriageway with a corrugation

susceptible gravel wearing course. This affects only the wearing course itself.
Wet corrugation occurs on a wet or moist road where the road structure has
insufficient bearing capacity. In such a case it is not the top layer that is abraded,
but the substructure is deformed in depth. Wet corrugation normally occurs during
or as a consequence of thaw.
4.2.4.2 Practical measures to counteract corrugation

These practical measures relate to both the vehicle and the carriageway.
Corrugation is reduced by the use of suspension dampers. Modern vehicles may

be said to have well complied with this requirement. The second group relates to
the carriageway itself.
Beskow (1932) collates information from a number of books and reports. These
are based on either experimental investigations or direct observations and general
experience. The results indicate that
• Corrugation occurs especially on carriageways that have a considerable
thickness of unbound fine aggregate.
• An increase in the moisture content or soil binder content of the carriageway
reduces its susceptibility to corrugation.
• Properly executed grading is the best way of preventing corrugation.
Beskow (1932) summarises the most important measures that can be taken against
corrugation as follows:
1. Appropriate adjustment of aggregate composition by avoidance of fine sandy
aggregate, at least on roads not treated with salt, and primarily by avoidance of
VTI meddelande 852A

stony aggregate. The ideal appears to be intermediate aggregate up to ca 1 cm

in size that is free of stone and has a sufficient sand and soil binder content.
2. Avoidance of a base course construction that dries out the surface, especially a
porous compacted stone base.
3. Grading and dragging must be carried out in a way that not only makes the
surface appear smooth but also makes the surface layers really homogeneous,
i.e. in such a way that corrugations formed in the firm carriageway are
removed completely. Such deep grading is particularly important in the spring
after thaw, and in other cases after long wet periods when it is easiest to
reshape the carriageway.
4. Treatment with hygroscopic salt. This binds the aggregate and grading need not
therefore be carried out so often. Once an even and well bound road surface
has been achieved, the conditions are favourable for future use of some other
binder, e.g. sulphite lye.
Glänneskog and Skog (1994) say that corrugation can be remedied by spreading
additional aggregate of e.g. 4-16 mm fraction.
4.2.5 Potholes
Potholes are usually between 30 and 80 cm long, but shorter and longer ones also
occur. Their depth is usually between 3 and 7 cm.
Potholes are most common on horizontal sections, in depressions and where the
camber is insufficient, and where the road is highly susceptible to corrugation.
Potholes often penetrate some way into the roadbase and it is therefore very
difficult or impossible to eliminate them by ordinary grading. They form a
permanent base for corrugation, a base system through which, in spite of full
surface treatment by grading or aggregate spreading, corrugation soon recurs
(Beskow, 1932).
4.2.5.1 Formation of potholes

Beskow (1932) describes potholes as a form of corrugation that is caused by
splashing. This process cannot however on its own cause any corrugation; the
depressions already existing in the carriageway in which rainwater collects are the
primary cause. In these depressions, water softens the carriageway, causing finer
material to be dissolved and removed when traffic throws water out of the
potholes.
4.2.5.2 Classification of potholes

Beskow (1932) classifies potholes in three groups, potholes in a regular pattern,
transitional form, and potholes in an irregular pattern.
Potholes are said to form a regular pattern where several potholes occur in a row
at constant intervals approximately corresponding to the pitch of normal
corrugations. These clearly regular potholes occur on roads with moderate traffic
where deep ruts are formed in the single lane. All the corrugation troughs
therefore assume the shape of elongated potholes that are filled with water. See
figure 4.16.
VTI meddelande 852A

Figure 4.16 Potholes in a regular pattern (Beskow, 1932).
The transitional form is intermediate between regular and irregular potholes.

Multiple rows of these occur on heavily trafficked roads. See figure 4.17
(Beskow, 1932).
Figure 4.17 Transitional form between regular and irregular potholes

(Beskow, 1932).
Potholes in an irregular pattern are the third group. If these potholes are
compared to the regular normal corrugations, it is seen that the distribution of
potholes across the carriageway is quite irregular, with different distances
between potholes along the road. Potholes are unevenly distributed across the
carriageway. Beskow (1932) explains the irregularity of potholes as follows:
VTI meddelande 852A

In order that water should collect in the corrugation troughs, it is necessary for
these troughs to have the shape of enclosed holes. If the carriageway has a
sufficient crossfall, no water will collect in the corrugation troughs. In this
respect, the individual corrugation troughs on the same section of road are usually
quite different. The result is that only certain of these depressions will become
potholes. See figure 4.18.
Figure 4.18 Potholes in an irregular pattern.
4.2.6 Ruts
Ruts are described as transverse irregularities caused by vehicular traffic. The
shapes and character of ruts vary depending on what has given rise to rutting.
Rutting is due to deformation of the road structure. It is seen from Unsealed
Roads Manual (1993) and Memorandum for Traffic Engineering (1995, in
Swedish) that deformations may occur in the subgrade, wearing course or base
course.
If the subgrade has inadequate bearing strength, permanent deformation occurs in

the road structure; see figure 4.19.
Figure 4.19 Deformations due to inadequate bearing strength (Ferry, 1986).
If plastic deformations occur, the base course and wearing course may be
displaced to the side. As a result, these courses are raised up on each side of the
rut; see figure 4.20.
VTI meddelande 852A

Figure 4.20 Plastic deformations (Ferry, 1986).
Traffic load may give rise to compaction and displacement of aggregate in the
wearing course; see figure 4.21.
Figure 4.21 Inadequate wearing course (Ferry, 1986).
Problems Associated with Gravel Roads (1998) describes development of ruts on

gravel roads due to plastic deformations in the base course and wearing course;
see figure 4.22.
Figure 4.22 Rutting on gravel roads.
VTI meddelande 852A

Unsealed Road Manual (1993) states that the following are the causes of
deformations:
• Inappropriate aggregate composition
• Wearing course of insufficient thickness
• Inadequate compaction
• Insufficient drainage
• High fines content
Hubendick (1969) says that ruts make driving unpleasant because the tyres are
forced to follow the ruts. Ruts also collect water which gives rise to other damage.
4.2.7 Loose aggregate on the road

Aggregate may collect on the road in different ways. One of these that is
described by Glänneskog and Skog (1994) is that aggregate on the carriageway is
abraded or thrown to the edge of the road by traffic. In order to improve the
carriageway, it is necessary in this case to deposit a new gravel wearing course on
the road. See figure 4.23.
Figure 4.23 Loose aggregate on the road.
4.2.8 Frost damage

The harmful effects of frost may be classified as frost heave, softening, frost boil
and stone migration (Guidelines for the Construction and Maintenance of Forest
Roads, 1946, in Swedish) and (Persson, 1993).
4.2.8.1 Frost heave

The main cause of frost heave is that water is drawn up to the frost zone and
freezes to ice. Thin layers of ice are formed one below the other as the frost
boundary moves downwards. These ice layers may be of highly variable
thickness, from the barely visible to layers several centimetres or even tens of
centimetres thick. The higher the groundwater level, the shorter the time taken for
VTI meddelande 852A

water to be drawn up, and the quicker the growth of the ice layers and the greater
the frost heave. This emphasises the importance of a well drained road structure.
When water freezes it expands since ice has a larger volume. Expansion takes
place upwards, i.e. the road rises as it thaws; the total rise is often 20 centimetres
and at times almost 50 centimetres. Frost heave exerts such force that sometimes
even heavy buildings are lifted up and may thus be damaged (Guidelines for
Construction and Maintenance of Forest Roads, 1946).
Frost heave varies with the type of soil. The most frost susceptible soils are silt
and fine grained moraines.
4.2.8.2 Softening
Typical softening of the surface occurs in the beginning of the thaw period,
especially in conjunction with rain or meltwater. Frost prevents drainage of the
road structure so that excess water accumulates in the top layers (Persson, 1993).
In normal cases this has no serious consequences if ditches and culverts are in
good order and heavy traffic can be kept off the road until it has dried. Deep ruts
formed by heavy vehicles can further reduce drainage and thus delay drying. The
carriageway becomes soft, of low bearing strength and rutted by traffic.
4.2.8.3 Frost boil

In the spring when the soil thaws out, the ice layers in the road melt. If these ice
layers are thick, a lot of water is released. The road loses its bearing capacity and
cracks open. Frost boil originates deep down in the road structure when heavy
traffic "pumps" water and finer material up through the structure where it erupts
through the surface. As a rule, frost boil occurs at a late stage of thaw in the most
frost susceptible soils.
4.2.8.4 Stone migration

The migration of stones and boulders depends on several factors, such as the
presence of stones in the road structure and the subgrade, the frost susceptibility
of the subgrade, the groundwater level and temperature alternations in winter. The
road pavement is also of importance.
Persson (1993) describes the process which results in migration of stones to the
surface layer. When the soil freezes, a layer of ice forms around the stone. The
increase in volume which occurs when water freezes pushes the stone upwards.
As the ice melts, the hollow around the stone is filled with fine particles and the
stone cannot regain its original position.
Persson lists some problems due to the presence of stones in the carriageway. He
says that larger stones in the carriageway reduce the efficacy of grading and
dragging because it is more difficult to shape the carriageway. There is more wear
on the blade. Snow clearance is also hindered. The stones can damage plant and
appliances. Large stones jeopardise traffic safety and reduce trafficability.
VTI meddelande 852A

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Technical requirements for Swedish

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'(#+3!>/2-!#!5;.]/:;.!7#@.0.*2d!K'(0!2-.!2(7!+(>*[!2-.!$(*32')$2/(*!$(07'/3.3j!
• G'#@.;!>.#'/*&!$()'3.!
• c*:()*+!:#3.!$()'3.!
• 9):O:#3.!#*+!7'(2.$2/(*!$()'3.[!/5!#*=!
!
<.3/&*! >/2-! '.37.$2! 2(! :.#'/*&! $#7#$/2=! 3-#;;! :.! '.&);#2.+! :=! @#'=/*&! 2-.!
2-/$%*.33!(5!2-.!3):O:#3.[!#*+!+.3/&*!>/2-!'.37.$2!2(!5'(32!-.#@.!3-#;;!:.!'.&);#2.+!
)3/*&!#!7'(2.$2/(*!$()'3.!('!3):O:#3.d!
!
,-.! 7#@.0.*2! 3-#;;! :.! +.3/&*.+! 3(! 2-#2! 2-.! @.'2/$#;! $(07'.33/@.! 32'#/*! /*! 2-.!
5('0#2/(*!+(.3!*(2[!+)'/*&!#*=!$;/0#2/$!7.'/(+[!.]$..+!2-.!@#;).3!/*!2#:;.!NdQd!?!
&'#@.;! >.#'/*&! $()'3.! 3-#;;! *(2! :.! /*$;)+.+! /*! 2-.! $#;$);#2/(*! (5! 32'#/*3! #*+!
32'.33.3d!
!
Table 5.3 Maximum permissible vertical compressive strain in the formation
for a gravel pavement (ROAD 94, 1996, table 3.3-2).
Climatic zone 1 2 3 4 5 6
6%'#.-( CMCCQC( CMCC>)( CMCC>C( CMCCU)( CMCCUC( CMCCJ)(
!
G'#@.;! >.#'/*&! $()'3.3! )3.+! /*! &'#@.;! '(#+3! 3-#;;! :.! NR! 00! 2-/$%d! ,-.! 2(2#;!
2-/$%*.33!(5!2-.!7#@.0.*2!/3!37.$/5/.+!/*!5/&)'.!NdQ!#*+!2#:;.!NdLd!
!
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'()*(+&,"-.,#/('&01.'&2&-%3(45'(67&8.3"(9'#:&/('5#83( ;>(
!
!
Figure 5.2 Structure of gravel pavement, dimensions in mm (ROAD 94, 1996).
!
!
Table 5.4 Gravel pavement, mm (ROAD 94, 1996).
Total pavement thickness on Climatic zone
formation of material of following S( ?( L( ;( )( J(
types
S( ?CC( ?CC( ?CC( ?CC( ?CC( ?CC(
?( LCC( LCC( LCC( LCC( LCC( LCC(
L( L)C( L)C( L)C( ;CC( ;CC( ;CC(
;( )CC( )CC( )CC( ))C( ))C( ))C(
)( )CC( )CC( ))C( JCC( JCC( JCC(
!
"#$#)%?+34/2+5+.67%/.%@-0A6+2%"%98%?BCD%E&%!
4*!H-#72.'!N[!bc*:()*+!F#@.0.*2!1#=.'3b[!'.J)/'.0.*23!#'.!3.2!()2!5('!0#2.'/#;3!
#*+! 5('! 2-.! $(*32')$2/(*! (5! &'#@.;! >.#'/*&! $()'3.[! :#3.! $()'3.[! 3):O:#3.! #*+!
7'(2.$2/(*!$()'3.!/5!#*=d!
!
"#$#)#$%?+34/2+5+.67%892%;20<+1%:+02/.;%,9427+!
I6?<! DL! 37.$/5/.3! '.J)/'.0.*23! 5('! 2-.! &'#@.;! >.#'/*&! $()'3.! 0#2.'/#;! #*+! 5('!
2-.!$(*32')$2/(*!(5!2-.!&'#@.;!>.#'/*&!$()'3.d!
!
?+34/2+5+.67%892%;20<+1%:+02/.;%,9427+%506+2/01!
,-.! 0#2.'/#;! 5('! #! &'#@.;! >.#'/*&! $()'3.! 3-#;;! -#@.! #! :#;;O0/;;! @#;).! (5! DOMRd!
6'&#*/$!$(*2.*2!3-#;;!*(2!.]$..+!Qm!:=!>./&-2d!,-.!7#'2/$;.!3/X.!+/32'/:)2/(*!5('!#!
&'#@.;!>.#'/*&!$()'3.!3-#;;!$(07;=!>/2-!2-.!'.J)/'.0.*23!3.2!()2!/*!2#:;.!NdN!#*+!
5/&)'.!NdMd!,-.!$(*2.*2!ARdRRQoRdRENB!3-#;;!:.!CROMRm!:=!>./&-2d!,-.!7'(7('2/(*!
(5!)*$')3-.+!0#2.'/#;!pg!00!3-#;;!:.!TNRm!:=!>./&-2d!
!
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'()*(+&,"-.,#/('&01.'&2&-%3(45'(67&8.3"(9'#:&/('5#83( ;Q(
Table 5.5 Gravel wearing course, requirement for particle size distribution
(ROAD 94, 1996).
Sieve mm 0.063* 0.075 0.25 1.0 4.0 8.0 16 22.4 31.5
P#[(\( WS)X( SJ( ?L( L;( )U( UU( QQ( D( D(
P.-(\( WSCX( SC( SL( ?C( L)( ))( >)( Q>( SCC(
]6.&:&(CMCJL(#-8(.%3(:#/1&3(#'&(#/%&'-#%.:&3(%5(3.&:&(CMCU)(22(
!
!
Figure 5.3 Gravel wearing course, requirement for particle size distribution
(ROAD 94, 1996).
!
?+34/2+5+.67%892%,9.7624,6/9.%98%;20<+1%:+02/.;%,9427+!
,-.!0#2.'/#;!3-#;;!:.!37'.#+!#*+!-#*+;.+!/*!3)$-!#!>#=!2-#2!#!-(0(&.*.()3!;#=.'!
/3!(:2#/*.+d!
!
<)32! $(*2'(;! (5! 2-.! &'#@.;! >.#'/*&! $()'3.! /3! 7.'5('0.+! )3/*&! $#;$/)0! $-;('/+.[!
.0);3/(*!('!#!7'(+)$2!>/2-!#2!;.#32!.J)#;!.55.$2d!,-.!J)#*2/2=!(5!$#;$/)0!$-;('/+.!
3-#;;!:.!*(2!;.33!2-#*!RdN!%&o0Qd!,-.!7#'2/$;.!3/X.!+/32'/:)2/(*!/*!#$$('+#*$.!>/2-!
I6?<!DL!/3!+.3/&*.+!5('!$#;$/)0!$-;('/+.!(*;=d!,-.!7#'2/$;.!3/X.!+/32'/:)2/(*!(5!
2-.!&'#@.;!>.#'/*&!$()'3.!0#=!2-.'.5('.!-#@.!2(!:.!#+^)32.+!>-.*!7'(+)$23!(2-.'!
2-#*!$#;$/)0!$-;('/+.!#'.!)3.+!/*!+)32!$(*2'(;d!
!
I6?<!DL!'.$(00.*+3!2-#2!2-.!&'#@.;!>.#'/*&!$()'3.!3-();+!:.!$(07#$2.+d!,-.!
'(;;.'! 3-#;;! -#@.! #! 32#2/$! ;/*.! ;(#+! *(2! ;.33! 2-#*! CN! %Yo0d! I6?<! DL! #;3(!
'.$(00.*+3!2-#2!#2!;.#32!2>(!7#33.3!3-();+!:.!#77;/.+d!
!
"#$#)#'%?+34/2+5+.67%892%F07+%,9427+%
I6?<! DL! 37.$/5/.3! '.J)/'.0.*23! 5('! :#3.! $()'3.! 0#2.'/#;! :(2-! #3! +.;/@.'.+! #*+!
+.7(3/2.+!(*!2-.!'(#+[!#*+!5('!/23!37'.#+/*&!#*+!$(07#$2/(*d!
!
?+34/2+5+.67%892%F07+%,9427+%506+2/01!
,-.!$(07(3/2/(*!(5!2-.!:#3.!$()'3.!5('!&'#@.;!'(#+3!3-#;;!:.!3)$-!2-#2!/2!$(07;/.3!
>/2-! 2-.! '.J)/'.0.*23! $(*$.'*/*&! :(2-! :.#'/*&! $#7#$/2=! #*+! 0(/32)'.! '.2.*2/(*!
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'()*(+&,"-.,#/('&01.'&2&-%3(45'(67&8.3"(9'#:&/('5#83( )C(
7'(7.'2/.3d!,-.!:.32!'.3);23!#'.!(:2#/*.+!/5!2-.!0#2.'/#;!/3!7'(+)$.+!5'(0!0('#/*.!
A2/;;B!('!#!0/]2)'.!(5!0('#/*.!#*+!$')3-.+!'($%d!,-.!$(*2.*2!ARdRRQoRdRENB!3-();+!
:.!CROMRm!:=!>./&-2d!6'&#*/$!$(*2.*2!3-#;;!*(2!.]$..+!Qm!:=!>./&-2d!"#;;O0/;;!
@#;).!SMRd!
!
I6?<!DL!37.$/5/.3!'.J)/'.0.*23!5('!2-.!7#'2/$;.!3/X.!+/32'/:)2/(*!#*+!7'(7('2/(*!
(5!)*$')3-.+!0#2.'/#;!5('!:#3.!$()'3.3d!
!
,-.!7#'2/$;.!3/X.!+/32'/:)2/(*!(5!0#2.'/#;!+.7(3/2.+!(*!2-.!'(#+!3-#;;!$(07;=!>/2-!
2-.! '.J)/'.0.*23! /*! 2#:;.! Nda! #*+! 5/&)'.! NdLd! ,-.! 0#]/0)0! 32(*.! 3/X.! 3-#;;! *(2!
.]$..+! -#;5! 2-.! $()'3.! 2-/$%*.33d!,-.!7'(7('2/(*!(5!)*$')3-.+!0#2.'/#;!pCa!00!
3-#;;!:.!TNRm!:=!>./&-2d!
!
W-.*! +)32! $(*2'(;! (5! &'#@.;! >.#'/*&! $()'3.3! /3! 7.'5('0.+! )3/*&! .0);3/(*[! :#3.!
$()'3.3!5('!7#@.+!'(#+3!/*!#$$('+#*$.!>/2-!9):$;#)3.!NdNdC!(5!I6?<!DL!3-();+!
:.!)3.+!/*32.#+!(5!2-.!:#3.!$()'3.!37.$/5/.+!/*!2-/3!9):$;#)3.d!45!2-/3!+.$/3/(*!/3!
0#+.[!+)32!$(*2'(;!)3/*&!$#;$/)0!$-;('/+.!/3!*(!;(*&.'!3)/2#:;.d!
!
Table 5.6 Base course for gravel roads, requirement for particle size
distribution (ROAD 94, 1996).
Sieve mm 0.063* 0.075 0.25 1.0 4.0 16 22.4 31.5 45
P#[(\( WSSX( S?( SU( ?Q( ;Q( >?( QQ( D( D(
P.-(\( WJX( (J( (>( S;( ?;( ;J( )U( J>( Q>(
]6.&:&(CMCJL(#-8(.%3(:#/1&3(#'&(#/%&'-#%.:&3(%5(3.&:&(CMCU)(22(
!
!
!
Figure 5.4 Base course for gravel roads, requirement for particle size
?+34/2+5+.67%892%7A2+0=/.;%0.=%,95A0,6/9.%98%F07+%,9427+%506+2/01!
?$$('+/*&!2(!I6?<!DL[!2-.!:#3.!$()'3.!0#2.'/#;!3-#;;!:.!37'.#+!#*+!-#*+;.+!/*!
3)$-! #! >#=! 2-#2! #! -(0(&.*.()3! ;#=.'! /3! (:2#/*.+d! 4*! ('+.'! 2(! '.+)$.! 2-.! '/3%! (5!
3.&'.&#2/(*!#*+!)*.@.**.33[!2-.!0#2.'/#;!0#=!:.!+.7(3/2.+!>/2-!#!37'.#+.'d!
!
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'()*(+&,"-.,#/('&01.'&2&-%3(45'(67&8.3"(9'#:&/('5#83( )S(
,-.! 0#2.'/#;! 3-#;;! *(2! :.! 5'(X.*! >-.*! $(07#$2.+d! ,-.! :#3.! $()'3.! 3-#;;! :.!
$(07#$2.+! >/2-! #! @/:'#2('=! ('! (3$/;;#2/*&!3/*&;.! >-..;!'(;;.'!>/2-! #2!;.#32!CNOMR!
%Yo0!;/*.!;(#+!#*+!$(*32#*2!37..+!>/2-/*!2-.!'#*&.!QdNOLdR!%0o0d!45!#!$(07#$2/(*!
0.2.'! >/2-! +($)0.*2#2/(*! /3! )3.+[! #2! ;.#32! L! 7#33.3! 3-#;;! :.! #77;/.+d! 9)'5#$.3!
>-.'.! 2-.! :.#'/*&! $#7#$/2=! /*$'.#3.3! #'.! 2(! :.! 5)'2-.'! $(07#$2.+d! 45! 2-.'.! /3! *(!
$(07#$2/(*! 0.2.'[! #2! ;.#32! a! 7#33.3! 3-#;;! :.! #77;/.+d! H(07#$2/(*! 3-();+! :.!
$#''/.+! ()2! #2! #! ;(>! #07;/2)+.! 2(! '.+)$.! 2-.! '/3%! (5! $')3-/*&! 2-.! 0#2.'/#;d! ,-.!
'.3);23!(5!$(07#$2/(*!>/;;!:.!:.32!/5!2-.!>#2.'!'#2/(!/3!*.#'!2-.!(72/0)0d!
!
"#$#)#)%?+34/2+5+.67%892%6-+%74FGF07+!
,-.!$(07(3/2/(*!(5!2-.!3):O:#3.!5('!#!&'#@.;!'(#+!3-#;;!:.!3)$-!#3!2(!3#2/35=!2-.!
'.J)/'.0.*23!5('!:(2-!:.#'/*&!$#7#$/2=!#*+!0(/32)'.!'.2.*2/(*!7'(7.'2/.3d!,-.!:.32!
'.3);23!#'.!#$-/.@.+!/5!2-.!0#2.'/#;!/3!7'(+)$.+!5'(0!0('#/*.!A2/;;B!('!#!0/]2)'.!(5!
0('#/*.!#*+!$')3-.+!'($%d!I6?<!DL!37.$/5/.3!'.J)/'.0.*23!5('!3):O:#3.!0#2.'/#;!
#3!+.;/@.'.+!#*+!37'.#+!(*!2-.!'(#+d!,-.'.!#'.!#;3(!'.J)/'.0.*23!5('!>('%0#*3-/7!
#*+!$(07#$2/(*d!
!
?+34/2+5+.67%892%74FGF07+%506+2/01%
W-.*! +.;/@.'.+[! 2-.! :#;;O0/;;! @#;).! (5! 2-.! 0#2.'/#;! 3-#;;! *(2! .]$..+! MRd! ,-.!
ARdRRQoRdRENB! $(*2.*2! 3-();+! :.! CROMRm! :=! >./&-2d! 6'&#*/$! $(*2.*2! 3-#;;! *(2!
.]$..+!Qm!:=!>./&-2d!
!
,-.! 7#'2/$;.! 3/X.! +/32'/:)2/(*! (5! 2-.! 37'.#+! 3):O:#3.! 3-#;;! $(07;=! >/2-! 2-.!
'.J)/'.0.*23!/*!2#:;.!NdE!#*+!5/&)'.!NdNd!,-.!0#]/0)0!32(*.!3/X.!3-#;;!*(2!.]$..+!
-#;5!2-.!2-/$%*.33!(5!2-.!;#=.'d!
!
45! 2.32! '.3);23! #'.! >/2-/*! :)2! @.'=! *.#'! (*.! (5! 2-.! ;/0/2/*&! $)'@.3[! 3#07;/*&!
5'.J).*$=!3-();+!:.!/*$'.#3.+d!
!
W-.*! +)32! $(*2'(;! (5! 2-.! &'#@.;! >.#'/*&! $()'3.! /3! 7.'5('0.+! )3/*&! .0);3/(*[! #!
3):O:#3.! 5('! 7#@.+! '(#+3[! /*! #$$('+#*$.! >/2-! 3):$;#)3.! NdNdC! (5! I6?<! DL[!
bI.J)/'.0.*23!5('!5;.]/:;.!$(*32')$2/(*3b[!3-();+!:.!)3.+!/*32.#+!(5!2-.!3):O:#3.!
+.3$'/:.+! /*! 2-/3! 3):$;#)3.d! 45! 2-/3! /3! +.$/+.+! (*[! +)32! $(*2'(;! >/2-! $#;$/)0!
$-;('/+.!/3!2-.'.#52.'!/*#77'(7'/#2.d!
!
Table 5.7 Sub-base for gravel roads, requirement for particle size
Sieve mm 0.063* 0.075 0.25 1.0 4.0 16 31.52 90
P#[(\( WSSX( S?( SU( ?Q( ;Q( >?( QQ( D(
P.-(\( WJX( (J( (>( S;( ?;( ;J( JC( Q>(
]6.&:&(CMCJL(#-8(.%3(:#/1&3(#'&(#/%&'-#%.:&3(%5(3.&:&(CMCU)(22(
!
!
!
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'()*(+&,"-.,#/('&01.'&2&-%3(45'(67&8.3"(9'#:&/('5#83( )?(
Figure 5.5 Sub-base for gravel roads, requirement for particle size
!
?+34/2+5+.67%892%7A2+0=/.;%98%74FGF07+%506+2/01%
,-.!0#2.'/#;!3-#;;!:.!37'.#+!#*+!-#*+;.+!/*!3)$-!#!>#=!2-#2!#!-(0(&.*.()3!;#=.'!
/3!(:2#/*.+d!45!*.$.33#'=[!-)*&'=!7#2$-.3!3-#;;!:.!3.#;.+!#*+!2-.!3):O:#3.!#+^)32.+!
)3/*&!:#3.!$()'3.!0#2.'/#;!#$$('+/*&!2(!3):$;#)3.!NdNdC!(5!I6?<!DLd!
!
I6?<! DL! 37.$/5/.3! 2-#2! 2-.! 0#2.'/#;! 3-#;;! *(2! :.! 5'(X.*! >-.*! $(07#$2.+d! ,-.!
3):O:#3.! 3-#;;! :.! $(07#$2.+! >/2-! #! @/:'#2('=! ('! (3$/;;#2/*&! 3/*&;.! >-..;! '(;;.'!
#$$('+/*&! 2(! ,#:;.! Ndg! ('! >/2-! #!3/0/;#'!$(07#$2/(*!.J)/70.*2d!,-.!'(;;.'!3-#;;!
0(@.! #2! #! $(*32#*2! 37..+! >/2-/*! 2-.! '#*&.! QdNOLdR! %0o0d! W-.*! #! $(07#$2/(*!
0.2.'! >/2-! +($)0.*2#2/(*! /3! )3.+[! #2! ;.#32! L! 7#33.3! 3-#;;! :.! #77;/.+d! 9)'5#$.3!
>-.'.! 2-.! :.#'/*&! $#7#$/2=! /*$'.#3.3! #'.! 2(! :.! 5)'2-.'! $(07#$2.+d! 45! 2-.'.! /3! *(!
$(07#$2/(*!0.2.'[!#2!;.#32!g!7#33.3!3-#;;!:.!#77;/.+l!3..!2#:;.!Ndgd!
!
Table 5.8 Maximum thickness of layer when compacted with rollers of
different line loads (ROAD 94 ).
Line load kN/m Maximum layer thickness, m
S)( CM?(
?)( CML(
LC( CM;(
;)( CMJ(
!
I6?<!DL!#++3!2-#2!2#:;.!Ndg!3.23!()2!2-.!;.#32!$(07#$2/(*!.55('2!>-/$-!/3!3-(>*!
:=! .]7.'/.*$.! 2(! #$-/.@.! 2-.! *.$.33#'=! $(07#$2/(*! (5! 5'/$2/(*! 0#2.'/#;! >-.*! /23!
>#2.'!'#2/(!/3!*.#'!2-.!(72/0)0d!
!
"#$#)#&%?+34/2+5+.67%892%A296+,6/9.%,9427+%%
I6?<!DL!37.$/5/.3!'.J)/'.0.*23!5('!7'(2.$2/(*!$()'3.!0#2.'/#;!:(2-!#3!+.;/@.'.+!
#*+! +.7(3/2.+! (*! 2-.! '(#+[! #*+! 5('! /23! 37'.#+/*&d! ,-.! $(07(3/2/(*! (5! 2-.!
7'(2.$2/(*! $()'3.! 5('! &'#@.;! '(#+3! 3-();+! :.! 3)$-! 2-#2! 2-.! 0(/32)'.! '.2.*2/(*!
7'(7.'2/.3! #'.! 0#/*2#/*.+d! ,-.! 7'(2.$2/(*! $()'3.! 3-#;;! $(*3/32! (5! *(*O5'(32!
3)3$.72/:;.! 5'/$2/(*! 3(/;! /*! >-/$-! ./2-.'! 2-.! ARdRENoCaB! $(*2.*2! /3! :.;(>! CQm! :=!
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'()*(+&,"-.,#/('&01.'&2&-%3(45'(67&8.3"(9'#:&/('5#83( )L(
>./&-2!('!$#7/;;#'/2=!/3!:.;(>!C!0d!?;2.'*#2/@.;=[!2-.!7#'2/$;.!3/X.!+/32'/:)2/(*!3-#;;!
$(07;=! >/2-! 2-.! '.J)/'.0.*23! 5('! 2-.! 3):O:#3.! #3! /*! 2#:;.! NdE! #*+! 5/&)'.! NdNd!
6'&#*/$!$(*2.*2!3-#;;!*(2!.]$..+!Qm!:=!>./&-2!(*!+.;/@.'=d!
!
?+34/2+5+.67%892%7A2+0=/.;%98%A296+,6/9.%,9427+%506+2/01%
,-.!0#2.'/#;!3-#;;!:.!37'.#+!#*+!-#*+;.+!/*!3)$-!#!>#=!2-#2!#!-(0(&.*.()3!;#=.'!
/3!(:2#/*.+d!I6?<!DL!7.'0/23!#!7'(2.$2/(*!$()'3.!(5!;.33!2-#*!RdN0!2-/$%*.33!2(!
:.!$(07#$2.+!2(&.2-.'!>/2-!2-.!3):O:#3.d!
!
"#'% !+,-./,01% 2+34/2+5+.67% 892% 6-+% 9A+206/9.% 0.=%
%%%%%%%50/.6+.0.,+%98%>:+=/7-%;20<+1%290=7%
,-.!'.J)/'.0.*23!(5!2-.!Y#2/(*#;!9>.+/3-!I(#+!?+0/*/32'#2/(*!5('!2-.!(7.'#2/(*!
#*+! 0#/*2.*#*$.! (5! 2-.! 2-'..! 32#*+#'+! $;#33.3! ?[! "! #*+! H! #'.! ;#/+! +(>*! /*!
bI.&);#2/(*3! 5('! 8#/*2.*#*$.! #*+! 67.'#2/(*[! CDDRd! F.'5('0#*$.! #*+! 92#*+#'+!
97.$/5/$#2/(*3[! bK9"b! ACDDgB[! /*! 9>.+/3-[! ;#=! +(>*! '.J)/'.0.*23! 5('! 2-.!
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Chapter 6/ Factors which influence the operation and maintenance of gravel roads 57
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6
Factors which influence the operation
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VTI meddelande 852A

6.1 Road standard

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Figure 6.1 Principle of optimum condition and relationship between costs and
road standard (Bäckman et al., 1998).
Vertical axis-Annual cost
Horizontal axis-Standard
Totalkostnad=Total cost
Sök minimum=Find minimum
Trafikkostnad=Traffic cost
Väghållarkostnad=Road management cost
Hög=High
Låg=Low
!
6.2 Traffic dependent factors!
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!
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!
6.2.1 Traffic volume AADT!
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>/+2-!/*$'.#3.d!
VTI meddelande 852A

43.0(!#*+!f(-#*33(*!ACDEaB!32#2.!2-#2!/2!/3!(:@/()3!2-#2!2'#55/$!5;(>!/*5;).*$.3!2-.!
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!
!
Figure 6.2 Relationship between number of vehicles and the costs (SEK/m) of
different operation and maintenance measures (Bergfalk and
Åkeson, 1969).
Vertical axis- SEK/m
Horizontal axses-vehicles/mean summer day
Undersökning av grusvägbanekostnader 1953/54-1955/56, Sammanlagd kostnad
= Investigation of gravel road costs, 1953/54-1955/56, Aggregate costs
Barmarkstid=Snow & ice free period 9 months
Vägbredd= Road width
Grus=gravel
Lera=Clay
Flickning=Patching
Hyvling=Grading
Vattning=Watering
Dammbindning=Dust control
Lerning=Clay spreading
Grusspridning=Regravelling
!
VTI meddelande 852A

6@.'! 2-.! 7.'/(+! CDaaOCDaD[! ".'&5#;%!#*+!s%.3(*!ACDaDB!2-.03.;@.3! $#''/.+!()2!

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!
!
Figure 6.3 Maintenance costs for gravel roads.
Vertical axis- SEK 1000/m
Horizontal axis-Vehicles/annual mean day
Servicrabete=Service work
Egentlig underhåll=Actual maintenance
Allm. kostnader=General costs
!
!
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!
6.2.2 Traffic composition
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VTI meddelande 852A

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!
6.2.3 Vehicle speed
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!
!
Figure 6.4 Estimated annual loss of aggregate at different speeds
(GDP, 1987).
!
6.3 Geometric factors!
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6.3.1 Width of road
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!
VTI meddelande 852A

6.3.2 Alignment and profile of the road

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VTI meddelande 852A

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8/$#$.()3! 0#2.'/#;3[! 0#/*;=! 3;#2.[! $#*! :.! :'(%.*! +(>*! :=! $#;$/)0! $-;('/+.!
VTI meddelande 852A

>-/$-! .].'23! #! +/37.'3/*&! .55.$2! (*! 0/$#$.()3! 0#2.'/#;[! 2-)3! /*$'.#3/*&! 2-.! 5/*.!
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;#'&.!#0()*2!(5!0/$#$.()3!'($%[!)*;.33!2-.'.!/3!#!3-('2#&.!(5!3(/;!:/*+.'!AZh:.+#!
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5#@()'#:;.!5('!2-.!'.3);23!(5!+)32!$(*2'(;[!5('!/*32#*$.!>/2-!;/&*/*d!Z((@.'!ACDEMB!
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)3.!(5!#3!5#'!#3!2-/3!/3!7(33/:;.d!
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0#2.'/#;! $(*3/32/*&! (5! /''.&);#'! 7#'2/$;.3! /3! -/&-.'! 2-#*! 2-#2! 0#+.! )7! (5! '()*+.+!
7#'2/$;.3d! ")2! 2-.! 30#;;.'! 2-.! 7#'2/$;.! 3/X.[! 2-.! 30#;;.'! /3! 2-.! 3/&*/5/$#*$.! (5! 2-.!
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VTI meddelande 852A

6.4.1.3 Particle size distribution

G'#@.;! >.#'/*&! $()'3.3! 0)32! -#@.! #! 37.$/#;! 7#'2/$;.! 3/X.! +/32'/:)2/(*d! W.#'/*&!
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>.#'/*&!$()'3.!0)32!*(2!.]$..+!QR!00d!
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2-#2! 2-.! ;#=.'! -#3! 2-.! ;.#32! 7(33/:;.! *)0:.'! (5! @(/+3d! 42! /3! 2(! :.! *(2.+! 2-#2! /*!
*('0#;! &'#@.;! '(#+! 0#/*2.*#*$.! /2! -#3! :..*! 5()*+! +/55/$);2! 2(! #$-/.@.!
-(0(&.*.()3! 0/].3[! #;2-()&-! ;#:('#2('=! 2.323! #33)0.! 2-#2! 2-/3! /3! 2-.! $#3.!
AZh:.+#[!CDEgBd!
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/*5;).*$.! :(2-! 2-.! .;#32/$! #*+! 7;#32/$! 7'(7.'2/.3! A1.%#'7[! CDDNBd! ,-.! &.*.'#;!
$(*3.*3)3!/3!2-#2!:);%!+.*3/2=!#*+!@(/+3!'#2/(!-#@.!#!&'.#2!/*5;).*$.!(*!2-.!.;#32/$!
7'(7.'2/.3!(5!)*:()*+!&'#*);#'!0#2.'/#;3d!
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0.$-#*/$#;!;.@.;;/*&!(5!2-.!3)'5#$.!/*!2-.!5('0!(5!&'#+/*&!A".3%(>[!CDMLBd!
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• ?:'#3/(*!'.3/32#*$.!
• H(0:/*#2/(*!(5!:.#'/*&!$#7#$/2=!#*+!#:'#3/(*!'.3/32#*$.!
• K/*.!0#2.'/#;!
• F'(7.'2/.3!(5!3(/;!:/*+.'!
• H-#*&.3!/*!2-.!('/&/*#;!7#'2/$;.!3/X.!+/32'/:)2/(*!
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!
• Bearing capacity
,-.! :.#'/*&! $#7#$/2=! (5! &'#@.;! '(#+3! /3! (5! 7#'2/$);#'! /07('2#*$.! >-.*! 2-.=! #'.!
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$()'3.!2(!7'.33)'.[!>-/$-!/3!7'/0#'/;=!+.7.*+.*2!(*!2-.!7#'2/$;.!3/X.!+/32'/:)2/(*[!
+.&'..!(5!$(07#$2/(*!#*+!>#2.'!'#2/(!(5!2-.!>.#'/*&!$()'3.d!
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:.;(>!2-.!$(*2#$2!#'.#!(5!2-.!>-..;[!#*+!+.$'.#3.3!>/2-!+.72-!(>/*&!2(!+/37.'3/(*!
(5! 7'.33)'.d! <.5('0#2/(*3! #'.! *('0#;;=! ;($#;/3.+! #2! 2-.! 3)'5#$.d! ,-.! 5#$2! 2-#2!
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$()'3.!&'#@.;!(5!&((+!:.#'/*&!$#7#$/2=!7'(7.'2/.3d!Z.!7(/*23!()2!-(>.@.'!2-#2!2-.!
7(3/2/(*3! (5! 2-.3.! $)'@.3! 0#=! @#'=! 3;/&-2;=! +.7.*+/*&! (*! 2-.! 0#]/0)0! 7#'2/$;.!
3/X.! (5! 2-.! 0#2.'/#;d! ,-.! ;#'&.'! 2-/3! /3[! 2-.! &'.#2.'! 2-.! 5/*.3! $(*2.*2! 2-#2! $#*! :.!
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VTI meddelande 852A

,-.!;/0/2/*&!$)'@.!$#*!:.!'(2#2.+!#:()2!#!$.'2#/*!7(/*2[!#*+!/23!3;(7.!/*!.#$-!$#3.!
+.7.*+3!(*!2-.!/*/2/#;!7#'2/$;.!3/X.d!K/&)'.!adN!3-(>3!2-.!.]2'.0.!7(3/2/(*3!2-#2!2-.!
:.#'/*&!$#7#$/2=!;/0/23!$#*!*('0#;;=!#33)0.d!,-.!5);;!;/*.!/3!7'/0#'/;=!#77;/$#:;.!
5('!2-.!>.#'/*&!$()'3.d!
!
!
Figure 6.5 Limiting curves for carriageway composition of acceptable bearing
capacity.
Vertical axis- Percentage by weight passing
Horizontal axis- Håldiam för såll i mm=Hole dia of screen in mm
Fri maskvidd för siktar i mm=Clear aperture of sieve in mm
Bärigt=acceptable bearing capacity
!
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>#=! 2-#2! $(07(3/2/(*3! (5! 2-.! >.#'/*&! $()'3.! &'#@.;! :.;(>! 2-/3! ;/0/2! >/2-()2! #!
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3#2)'#2.+! (@.'! #! 7'(;(*&.+! 7.'/(+! #*+! 3):^.$2.+! 2(! -/&-! 2'#55/$! ;(#+d! K'(0! 2-/3!
;/0/2/*&!$)'@.!2(>#'+3!#!$(07(3/2/(*!(5!&'.#2.'!5/*.3!$(*2.*2[!:.#'/*&!$#7#$/2=!/*!
2-.!.@.*2!(5!3#2)'#2/(*!&'#+)#;;=!+/0/*/3-.3d!
!
".3%(>! ACDMLB! 3)00#'/3.3! 2-.! 7'#$2/$#;! $(*$;)3/(*3! #*+! 32#2.3! 2-#2[! /*! @/.>! (5!
:.#'/*&! $#7#$/2=[! 2-.! J)#*2/2=! (5! $(#'3.! 0#2.'/#;! /*! 2-.! $#''/#&.>#=! 3-();+! :.!
/*$'.#3.+d! 8#2.'/#;! $(#'3.'! 2-#*! L! 00! /3! 0(32! .55.$2/@.d! 4*! $(*2'#32[! 5/*.!
#&&'.&#2.! 7#'2/$;.3! #*+! 3#*+! -#@.! $(*3/+.'#:;=! ;.33! .55.$2d! 42! /3! (*;=! >-.*! 2-.!
$#''/#&.>#=!$(*2#/*3!#!;(2!(5!$;#=!2-#2!#!30#;;!#++/2/(*!(5!5/*.!#&&'.&#2.!#*+!3#*+[!
2(&.2-.'!>/2-!2-.!$(#'3.!0#2.'/#;[!0#=!:.!*.$.33#'=d!
!
• Abrasion resistance
".3%(>!ACDMLB!/3!(5!2-.!(7/*/(*!2-#2!2-.!'.J)/'.0.*23!>-/$-!#!$#''/#&.>#=!3-();+!
3#2/35=!5'(0!2-/3!32#*+7(/*2!#'.!5'..+(0!5'(0!+)32!#*+!3)'5#$.!'.&);#'/2=d!
!
K'..+(0!5'(0!+)32!$#*!:.!#$-/.@.+!:=!.*3)'/*&!2-#2!2-.!'(#+!$(*2#/*3!*(!7#'2/$;.3!
(5!#!3/X.!3)$-!2-#2!2-.=!5('0!+)32[!('!:=!%..7/*&!2-.3.!7#'2/$;.3!:()*+!3(!2-#2!2-.=!
$#**(2!:.!+/3;(+&.+!:=!2'#55/$d!
VTI meddelande 852A

,-.! 3)'5#$.! .@.**.33! (5! #! $#''/#&.>#=! /3! 0#/*;=! +/3')72.+! :=! $('')&#2/(*d! ,-.!
0(32! /07('2#*2! $#)3.! (5! $('')&#2/(*! /3! 2-#2! 2-.! 0#2.'/#;! /*! 2-.! $#''/#&.>#=! /3!
./2-.'! ;((3.! 5'(0! 2-.! ()23.2! ('! /3! +/3;(+&.+! :=! 2'#55/$[! #*+! 2-/3! ;((3.! 0#2.'/#;! /3!
+/32'/:)2.+!/*!2-.!5('0!(5!'/+&.3!#$'(33!2-.!$#''/#&.>#=d!
!
".3%(>!ACDMLB!#*+!ACDLRB!32#2.3!2-#2!2-.!0.#*!7#'2/$;.!3/X.!(5!#&&'.&#2.!>-/$-!/3!
0(32! 3)3$.72/:;.! 2(! $('')&#2/(*! /3! C! 00d! 5/&)'.! ada! 3.23! ()2! 2-.! '.3);23! (5! 3(0.!
3/.@.!#*#;=3.3!(5!#&&'.&#2.!3#07;.3!5'(0!$('')&#2.+!$#''/#&.>#=3!>-/$-!".3%(>!
$#''/.+!()2d!
!
!
Figure 6.6 Range of variation for aggregates of differing susceptibilities to
corrugation (Beskow, 1934).
Horizontal axis- Diameter för såll i mm=Hole dia of screen in mm
DAMM=DUST
KORRUGERINGSKÄNSLIGT=SUSCEPTIBLE TO CORRUGATION
NEUTRALT=NEUTRAL
KORRUGERINSUTJÄMNANDE=EVENS OUT CORRUGATIONS
!
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$('')&#2.+!#&&'.&#2.!#'.!;($#2.+d!
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$('')&#2/(*!/3!2(!2'.#2!/2!>/2-!#!-=&'(3$(7/$!3#;2!('!3(0.!(2-.'!+)32!$(*2'(;!#&.*2d!
?$$('+/*&! 2(! ".3%(>[! /*! ('+.'! 2-#2! 2-.! >.#'/*&! $()'3.! 3-();+! :.! %.72! 5/'0! #*+!
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/3! 3)55/$/.*2;=! -/&-[! /d.d! *(2! ;.33! 2-#*! CMm! :=! >./&-2d! K/*.! 0#2.'/#;! *..+! *(2!
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&'#+/*&d!
VTI meddelande 852A

".3%(>!ACDLRB!3)00#'/3.3!2-.!7'#$2/$#;!$(*$;)3/(*3!#*+!3#=3!2-#2!5('!0(32!'(#+3[!
#*+! .37.$/#;;=! 2-(3.! $#''=/*&! 2-.! 0(32! 2'#55/$[! /2! /3! *(2! :.#'/*&! $#7#$/2=! :)2!
'.3/32#*$.! 2(! $('')&#2/(*! 2-#2! /3! $'/2/$#;d! 42! /3! >('2-! *(2/*&! 2-#2! 2(+#=q3! 2'#55/$! /3!
.*2/'.;=!+/55.'.*2!5'(0!2-#2!/*!CDLR[!5('!/*32#*$.!;(''/.3!#'.!0)$-!-.#@/.'d!
!
• Combination of bearing capacity and abrasion resistance
6*.! '.3);2! (5! ".3%(>q3! /*@.32/&#2/(*3! >#3! 2-.! 7'(+)$2/(*! (5! #*! /+.#;! #&&'.&#2.!
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#$$.72#:;.!:.#'/*&!$#7#$/2=!/*!2-.!.@.*2!(5!3#2)'#2/(*[!#*+!2-#2!5('!#!5/'0[!$(-.3/@.!
#*+! $('')&#2/(*! '.3/32#*2! $#''/#&.>#=[! -#@.! J)/2.! +/55.'.*2! 7(3/2/(*3d! ,-.=! $#*!
-(>.@.'! (@.';#7! 2(! #! $.'2#/*! .]2.*2! 3(! 2-#2! 2-.'.! /3! #! $(00(*! X(*.! >-.'.! 2-.!
7#'2/$;.!3/X.!+/32'/:)2/(*!3#2/35/.3!:(2-!2-.!'.J)/'.0.*2!5('!5);;!:.#'/*&!$#7#$/2=!/*!
2-.! .@.*2! (5! 3#2)'#2/(*! #*+! 2-.! '.J)/'.0.*2! 5('! #! $#''/#&.>#=! (5! &((+! :/*+/*&!
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#&&'.&#2.d!?$$('+/*&!2(!".3%(>!ACDMLB[!2-.!ideal aggregate zone /3!2-.!$(00(*!
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;(>.'!:()*+#'=!5('!$(-.3/@.!0#2.'/#;d!9..!5/&)'.!adEd!
!
!
Figure 6.7 The ideal road aggregate or "universal" aggregate (Beskow,
1934).
Horizontal axis-Diameter för såll i mm=Hole dia of screen in mm
Gräns för den för vägbanans översta lager tillåtliga avvikelsen från universal-
gruszonen= Boundary for the permissible deviation of the top layer of the
carriageway from the universal aggregate zone
Universal-eller idealgrus=Universal or ideal aggregate
!
VTI meddelande 852A

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!
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VTI meddelande 852A

!
Figure 6.8 Aggregate of different fines contents.
!
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5/&)'.!adDd!
VTI meddelande 852A

!
Figure 6.9 Effect of fines content on permanent deformations in base course
consisting of crushed gneiss-granite after 105 loading cycles
(Lekarp, 1995).
Vertical axis- Permanent strain
Horizontal axis-Fines content
100% T-180C –densitet=100% T-180C-density
!
• Properties of soil binder!
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!
VTI meddelande 852A

• Change in the original composition!

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!
A. Removal of material
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!
B. Breakdown of existing material!
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C. Addition of new material!
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!
• Relationship between particle size distribution and maintenance costs!
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!
VTI meddelande 852A

6.4.2 Frost susceptibility of subgrade and road structure!

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!
6.4.3 Type of landscape and the surroundings of the road!
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6.4.4 Buildings!
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!
6.5 Meteorological factors!
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6.5.1 Precipitation of different forms
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VTI meddelande 852A

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3)*! #*+! >/*+[! 0#=! './*5('$.! 2-.! +.&'#+/*&! .55.$2! (*! .0);3/(*d! \0);3/(*!
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!
6.5.3 Length of period when the road is free from snow
and ice
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!
6.5.4 Humidity!
Z)0/+/2=!-#3!#*!/07('2#*2!'(;.!5('!2-.!$(-.3/(*!(5!#!+'=!$#''/#&.>#=!#*+!#;3(!5('!
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;(32!0('.!J)/$%;=!5'(0!'(#+3!.]7(3.+!2(!>/*+!#*+!*(2!3-.;2.'.+!:=!2'..3d!
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Chapter 7/ Operation and maintenance methods 75
7
Operation and maintenance methods
The methods applied for the operation and maintenance of gravel roads during
the time of year when the roads are free from snow and ice are largely the same in
most countries. The purpose of operation and maintenance measures is to try to
keep the surface of the gravel road dustfree, even, of the correct shape and firm,
and thus enhance e.g. driving comfort and traffic safety.
Gravel road maintenance chiefly concentrates on the wearing course. The

principal measures comprise dust control, grading, edge trimming and aggregate
recycling, regravelling, watering, patching, dragging, ditching and removing
stones from the carriageway. The method to be used is governed to a high degree
by the damage sustained by the road surface and the road structure.
Operation and maintenance of gravel roads costs SEK 6-10 per metre of road
(1997). The cost varies depending on the factors described in detail in Chapter 6,
"Factors which influence the operation and maintenance of gravel roads".
Different dust control agents are studied in this chapter. These agents are water,
clay, inorganic salts such as calcium chloride CaCl2 and magnesium chloride
MgCl2, non-bituminous organic chemicals such as lignin, bituminous binders such
as bitumen emulsion, and dust control oil. The time of year, frequency, coverage,
workmanship and the environmental impact of dust control with different agents
are also studied in this chapter.
7.1 Dust control 76

7.1.1 Different reasons for dust control 77
7.1.2 Different types of dust control 78
7.1.3 Different types of dust control agent 79
7.1.4 Costs of dust control using salt, lignosulphonates and bitumen emulsion 123
7.1.5 The benefits of dust control 125
7.1.6 Choice of dust control agent 127
7.1.7 Laboratory tests to evaluate dust control agents 128
7.2 Grading of gravel roads 130
7.2.1 Surface grading and deep grading 131
7.2.2 Factors which influence grading 132
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7.2.3 Frequency and times of year 132

7.2.4 Method specification for grading 132
7.2.5 Plant and equipment for grading 134
7.2.6 Costs of grading 140
7.2.7 Experience from grading 141
7.3 Regravelling 142
7.4 Edge trimming and aggregate recycling 144
7.4.1 Working methods in aggregate recycling 145
7.5 Watering 147
7.6 Patching 148
7.7 Dragging 149
7.8 Ditching 151
7.9 Removing stones from the road 152
7.1 Dust control

Dust control of gravel roads is expensive. It may account for as much as about 25-
30% of maintenance costs during the period when the road is free from snow and
ice (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995).
Dust control became necessary when traffic increased in the 1920s. Dusty gravel
roads are a serious problem for both road users and those living near the road. A
gravel wearing course that contains too little fine material is not cohesive enough,
with the result that there is a greater risk of loose aggregate and corrugation of the
wearing course. On gravel roads with a large volume of traffic, a lot of money can
be saved by keeping the road under constant dust control. Dust control makes it
possible for the wearing course material to retain its correct composition for a
longer period. The road can remain in a good state longer without being graded
and having new aggregate spread on it, and this reduces costs.
Dust control of gravel roads is a measure whose effect does not last long and it
may therefore have to be repeated several times a year. The matter of which roads
are to be given a permanent surfacing is largely decided by traffic volume.
Han (1992) quotes a report by the Transport Research Board and says that gravel
roads with a traffic flow of 15-500 AADT should be dust controlled. According to
this report, gravel roads with a traffic flow >500 AADT should be paved.
Guidelines for Cost Effective Use and Application of Dust Palliatives (1987)
states that it can be economically justifiable to dust control gravel roads with an
AADT below 500.
The goal of the Swedish National Road Administration is to pave all roads with
traffic exceeding 250 vehicles per day, and to pave for environmental reasons
gravel roads where there are buildings along the road and the average traffic is
greater than 125 vehicles per day. In 1996 the length of gravel roads with an
average traffic greater than 250 vehicles per day was 475 km, and there were 273
km of gravel roads with buildings along the road on which traffic was in excess of
125 vehicles per day (Statistics from SNRA, 1997, in Swedish). In 1996 the total
length of State gravel roads was 22,267 km; see table 3.2.
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It would appear that the number of times that a road needs dust control every year
varies from one to three. According to interviews conducted by Bergström and
Grebacken (1995), dust control with salt and lignosulphonates must on average be
repeated three times per season. Han (1992) says that a road needs dust control
more often than three times when:
• Speed is higher and there is a higher proportion of heavy traffic
• Humidity is lower
• Fines content in the wearing course is below 10%
• The wearing course contains large quantities of loose aggregate
Han (1992) states that previous experience is the best basis for determining when
and how often dust control should be carried out.
Dust control in Sweden is performed in the form of a basic treatment in the spring
and additional applications during the season (Jämsä, 1983). This applies to dust
control with salt and lignosulphonates. During supplementary applications the
concentration of the solution must normally be about 50% of that used for the
basic treatment. It is sometimes necessary first of all to make minor local dust
control applications in open country where the road surface dries out very quickly
(Jämsä, 1982).
7.1.1 Different reasons for dust control

Dust control is mainly necessary where there is a large volume of traffic, near
built-up areas, near cultivated land and where there is a lot of pedestrian and cycle
traffic. Lindh (1981) gives four reasons for dust control:
• Road engineering reasons
• Economic reasons
• Traffic engineering reasons
• Sanitary reasons.
The road engineering and economic reasons are that road dust mostly consists of
the finest particles of the wearing course. If these are allowed to disappear as dust,
the carriageway loses cohesion, becomes unstable and susceptible to corrugation
since there is an excess of sand. Persson (1993) says that this necessitates more
frequent maintenance in the form of grading or regravelling. Each time the road is
graded, some of the aggregate material is crushed. More frequent maintenance
results in increased expenditure. The traffic engineering reasons are that on a
carriageway with good dust control, with a smooth and firm surface and good
friction, traffic safety is higher than on an uneven, dusty carriageway with loose
aggregate on the surface. Visibility is also improved since there is less dust. A
road with good dust control also increases capacity to some extent since speeds
are higher (Lindh, 1981). The aim of dust control for sanitary reasons is to
prevent or alleviate dust pollution of the surroundings. It is mainly carried out in
built-up areas, on sections where there are buildings and cultivated areas along the
road, and on sections where pedestrian and cycle traffic is of considerable extent
(Persson, 1993).
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7.1.2 Different types of dust control

No simple definition of the term dust control or dust control methods has been
found in the literature. Methods of dust control, surface sealing, surface
strengthening and stabilisation often overlap. It is almost impossible to draw
precise boundaries between e.g. bituminous stabilisation, dust control with
bituminous binders, and the use of surface dressing such as Y1G.
The main reason for these difficulties in definition is that it is the purpose of the
measures and the importance attached to the dust control function which
determine whether or not the method in question can be regarded as a dust control
method. Dust control comprises one or more elements depending on the type of
dust control agent; for instance, dust control with salt comprises the elements
watering, grading and spreading of salt.
Lindh (1981) says that every action which keeps the emission of dust particles
below an acceptable maximum level, is carried out with the chief purpose of
controlling dust and uses a method that does not alter the character of the road as a
gravel road, may be said to be dust control action. Han (1992) quotes three
methods of dust control:
• Chemical method
• Mechanical method
• Administrative method
In the chemical method, chemical agents for instance salt such as calcium
chloride CaCl2, magnesium chloride MgCl2 or sodium chloride NaCl, or organic
bituminous binders or non-bituminous organic chemicals such as lignin, are
spread or added to the road. This literature study mainly deals with this method.
The mechanical method is based on consideration of the dust problem already

during the design and construction of a gravel road. This method entails the use of
filtersheet or "dust free surface material" in the road structure (Brown and Elton,
1994). How the use of filtersheet in the road structure reduces dust emission is not
described clearly in the literature. Foley (1996) describes the mechanical method
as a type of stabilisation.
The administrative method entails the imposition of a speed limit on the road.
When speed is reduced, dust emission decreases. Han (1992) says that this method
is described in detail by Metzger (1967) in his report "Dust suppression and
drilling with foaming agent". Han (1992) quotes Metzger (1967) who says that
dust emission decreased by 40% when vehicle speed was reduced from 40 mph
(64 km/h) to 35 mph (56 km/h).
Lindh (1981) says in his literature study that dust can be controlled or eliminated
in three ways:
By covering the surface of the gravel road with an impervious layer, e.g. a
surfacing. Surfacing is a permanent solution of the dust problem.
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By keeping the dust particles bound in the surface of the wearing course. This
can be achieved by keeping the road moist and in this way utilising surface
tension effects at the air-liquid phase boundary. This method is applied in dust
control with water and solutions of certain hygroscopic salts such as calcium
chloride.
By agglomerating dust particles with larger particles, for instance by using

lignin and oil products.
7.1.3 Different types of dust control agent

Since dust control on gravel roads is an old problem which has engaged
researchers and road management authorities over several decades, a large
number of dust control agents have been tested over the years in order to find the
agents which best satisfy the task of effectively controlling road dust at an
acceptable cost. Dust control agents are usually classified on the basis of what
they contain. These classes may have different forms. The same types of dust
control agent may be marketed under different product names.
Hoover (1981) quotes one of the RRL reports (1971) and gives the following
classification:
• Water, sea water or fresh water
• Inorganic salts and bases, e.g. calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium
chloride, and other inorganic salts such as solutions of aluminium or calcium
salts
• Other inorganic chemicals
• Organic non-bituminous binders such as calcium lignosulphonate, enzyme
products, and other organic non-bituminous binders
• Bituminous materials and elastomers such as bitumen emulsion, asphalt
solution, elastomers and polymers
Another classification may be as follows (Jämsä, 1983):

• Hygroscopic salts such as calcium chloride, magnesium chloride and sodium
chloride
• Industrial waste products, for instance calcium lignosulphonate
• Clay
• Dust control oil
In this study, these two classes above are amalgamated as follows:

• Water
• Inorganic salts
• Non-bituminous organic chemicals
• Bituminuous materials
• Clay
• Dust control oil
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7.1.3.1 Water
Water is the cheapest temporary dust control agent. Few publications regard water
to be a dust control agent on its own. Hubendick in Lindh (1981) describes its
effect as follows:
When the material in the wearing course is moist, the different particles are
surrounded by thin water membranes. Such a water membrane can resist a certain,
relatively large, force by surface tension. When the water membranes between
two particles come into contact, the surface tension endeavours to move the
particles towards one another and to keep them together.
As a consequence, the moist particles of dust in the wearing course are bound
together, both with each other and with the coarser material. Quite a large force is
needed to overcome surface tension and to dislodge moist dust particles from the
wearing course, and this is the reason why a moist wearing course emits no dust.
The drawback of water as a dust control agent is that it rapidly evaporates. In
order to keep a road free of dust, it is necessary to water it more often, which
increases maintenance costs.
The dust control effect of water depends on e.g. traffic volume and the weather. It
varies between a minimum of half an hour and a maximum of twelve hours
(Foley, 1996).
Studies by Struss and Mikucki in Lindh (1981) are stated to show that the water
potential in soil material is a statistically significant factor in determining dust
formation. One conclusion of these studies is that water, if it is readily available,
may be an economic alternative in dust control if it is applied at the correct time
during the drying process.
Sea water is usually more effective than fresh water due to its content of small
quantities of dissolved salts, mainly magnesium chloride. According to Lindh
(1981), sea water has been used in Norway along the coast as an alternative to
dust control with calcium chloride. Both Foley (1996) and Lindh (1981) state that
if the air along the road has a sufficiently high relative humidity, these chemicals
retain the absorbed water and the road remains free of dust for a longer period
than if fresh water is used.
7.1.3.2 Inorganic salts

Inorganic salts account for 75-80% of all dust control agents (Han, 1992). Several
inorganic salts with hygroscopic or deliquescent properties have been used as dust
control agents. The most important are considered to be calcium chloride CaCl2,
magnesium chloride MgCl2 and sodium chloride NaCl.
The two designations hygroscopic and deliquescent are used in the literature not
entirely consistently, the probable reason being that different authors ascribe a
somewhat different meaning to these designations.
A hygroscopic salt is a salt that can absorb atmospheric humidity to such a high
degree that the crystal dissolves.
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Lindh (1981) quotes a dictionary of chemistry and defines the word deliquescent
as follows: "When a salt absorbs moisture from the atmosphere and is dissolved in
the absorbed water it is said to be deliquescent. This occurs only if the vapour
pressure of the water over the solid is lower than the vapour pressure in the
ambient air". Lindh (1981) makes a distinction between hygroscopic and
deliquescent properties and quotes Miall and Sharp (1976). Miall and Sharp
classify calcium chloride and magnesium chloride as deliquescent salts, while
they regard sodium chloride to be a hygroscopic salt. It should however be
pointed out that Lindh (1981) writes that these three chemicals are all hygroscopic
and that all three may also be deliquescent.
The dust control effect of salts is due to the fact that 1. the surface tension of a
salt solution is greater than that of water, and 2. the vapour pressure over a salt
solution is lower than that over water of the same temperature, and that
evaporation of water from the road surface is consequently of lower extent and
may change into absorption of moisture from the air. Lindh (1981) quotes Reyier
(1972) who describes the dust control effect of salts. Lindh says that if dust
control of a gravel road is performed using water, the wet road dries out as soon
as the relative humidity of air is less than 100%, i.e. when the vapour pressure of
air is lower than its saturation pressure at the prevailing temperature. Since the
saturation pressure over a salt solution is lower than that over water, the saturation
pressure can be lowered with a salt that is capable of forming a solution with
water, and water can thus be retained at the surface of the road even when relative
humidity is lower than 100%.
The dust control effect of a certain quantity of salt is a function of the volume of
the solution that is formed when the salt absorbs water. The volume of solution
depends on the chemical character of the salt, temperature and humidity.
According to Reyier (1972) in Lindh (1981), there are two factors which are
critical for the dust control effect of salts, namely the ability to go into solution
and the solution volume formed.
The inorganic salts described in the following are calcium chloride CaCl2,
magnesium chloride MgCl2, sodium chloride NaCl, calcium nitrate and calcium
chloride+sodium chloride.
Calcium chloride
Calcium chloride CaCl2 was tested as a dust control agent as early as the 1920s
(Jämsä, 1983). Many consider that calcium chloride is one of the best dust control
agents that are at present available (Persson, 1993). In Sweden about 20,000-
40,000 tonnes of calcium chloride are used annually for dust control of gravel
roads (Walterson, 1995). Calcium chloride is produced by Kemira Kemi AB.
The dust control effect of calcium chloride is based on the fact that the salt
deliquesces, forms a solution with atmospheric humidity which, due to its high
surface tension, binds the particles together and prevents evaporation of water.
Calcium chloride is sold in the form of a hydrate with the chemical formula CaCl2
2H2O (Svensson, 1997). It is delivered as white flakes either in bulk or in bags
(Hallberg, 1989). As it absorbs moisture, it changes from white flakes into a while
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jelly-like mass and finally into a colourless viscous liquid. On delivery calcium
chloride contains about 20-25% water (Glänneskog and Skog, 1994). Calcium
chloride must be stored so that the salt does not come into contact with moisture.
Reyier (1972) says that commercial calcium chloride theoretically contains about
75% water-free salt, while Nilsson (1980) in Svensson (1997) gives a higher
value, 77-80%. The solubility of calcium chloride in water is stated by Thornburn
and Mura (1969) in Lindh (1981) to be 59.5 g per 100 ml water at 0°C and 159 g
at 100°C.
The relative humidity needed for calcium chloride to be able to absorb moisture
from air varies with temperature. Lindh (1981) quotes Thornburn and Mura
(1969) and says that more than 30% relative humidity is required to enable
calcium chloride to absorb moisture from air. Bergström and Grebacken (1995),
on the other hand, say that relative humidity should be higher than 35%.
As regards the time of year and frequency, there are different opinions as to
when salt must be spread in the spring as basic treatment. Certain road
management areas spread most of their calcium chloride as early as possible in
order to make use of spring moisture. The Swedish National Road Administration
recommends that the first dust control treatment should be applied in the spring
when thaw has penetrated to a sufficient depth. The reference does not however
say what this depth is. Dust control is carried out after the thaw when the
carriageway has stabilised but still retains spring moisture. The road must be
graded because of the settlements that had occurred after the thaw. A road with
good cohesion must be deep graded, as a result of which some of the salt is
wasted (Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992, in Swedish).
According to ROAD 94, the quantity of calcium chloride must be at least 0.5
kg/m2. This applies to new roads, i.e. the first coverage. The whole section of road
need not be dust controlled with the same quantity, but the coverage must be
adjusted in view of the needs of the road section (Road maintenance-roads free
from snow and ice, 1992). For practical reasons, however, the same quantity is in
actual fact applied to the whole section.
According to the literature, the quantity of calcium chloride used in dust control
depends on four factors:
A. Composition of the wearing course
B. Open terrain or terrain sheltered by forest
C. Road width
D. Traffic volume, proportion of heavy vehicles, and speed.
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A. Composition of wearing course

It is evident from ROAD 94 that the particle size distribution of the gravel
wearing course may have to be adjusted when dust control is performed using a
product other than calcium chloride.
Beskow (1934) says that if the quantity of material passing a 0.125 mm sieve is
less than 10%, addition of soil binder to a road treated with a dust control agent is
warranted.
The results of tests (Hallberg, 1989) suggest that wearing courses deficient in soil
binder are controlled better with calcium chloride than with Dustex. He adds that
these results agree quite well with previous tests. However, Hallberg does not
define the term "wearing course deficient in soil binder".
Brown and Elton (1994) tested both calcium chloride and lignosulphonate. The
results suggest that the effect of calcium chloride is better on sandy wearing
courses. Lignosulphonate produces better results on wearing courses containg
quite a lot of clay.
B. Open terrain or terrain sheltered by forest

Open and dry sections require more dust control than shady and moist sections.
Curves and the tops of hills are also places where coverage must be slightly
higher. In Sweden, the need for dust control is in direct proportion to the number
of vehicle passages, openness and the time during which the road is free from
snow and ice. The quantities of calcium chloride used in Sweden are set out in
table 7.1 (Jämsä, 1983). Jämsä has not defined the term openness in the table.
According to Isemo and Johansson (1976), openness can be classified as open
surroundings, i.e. both sides open, open on one side or both sides shaded.
Table 7.1 Quantity of CaCl2 (kg/metre run) used in Sweden for dust control.
Traffic AADT Openness (%)
0-9 10-19 20-
0-49 0.7 0.8 1.0
50-124 0.9 1.1 1.3
125-249 1.3 1.5 1.8
250- 1.7 2.1 2.6
C. Road width
Table 7.2 sets out the average quantities of calcium chloride (tonnes/km) used in
Finland for different road widths and traffic volumes.
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Table 7.2 Quantities of calcium chloride (tonnes/km) per application used in

Finland for different road widths (Jämsä, 1983).
AADT Standard classes* Road width (m)
(vehicles/day)
4 5 6 7
-100 7 0.9 1.2 1.4 1.7
101-200 6 1.4 1.7 1.9 2.2
201-500 5 2.1 2.3 2.6 2.9
501-1500 4 - 3.4 3.7 3.9
1501-6000 3 - - 5.0 5.2
* see Chapter 8 "Condition assessment of gravel roads"
D. Traffic volume, proportion of heavy vehicles, and speed

The higher the speed and the greater the volume of traffic, the more the salt
needed.
Persson (1993) writes that the normal quantity during a year is 0.6-1.5 tonne/km.
If it is necessary to use more than 1.0 tonne/km, about two thirds of this are spread
in the spring on the first occasion. The remainder is spread in conjunction with
grading in the summer, or when it is otherwise necessary to apply dust control.
"Road maintenance -roads free from snow and ice" (1992) lays down that in the
spring about 1.5 kg/metre of road should be used. Bergström and Grebacken
(1995) add that this quantity applies for a road of 4 m width. Hallberg (1989) has
used 1 tonne/km in his test. During maintenance grading in the summer months,
light dust control, about 0.2-0.5 kg/m road, is generally needed (Road
maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992).
Salt retains its dust control properties for 1.5-2 months (Bergström and
Grebacken, 1995). However, Han (1992) gives a considerably longer period, 6-12
months.
Han (1992) says that the quantity of CaCl2 for American conditions is 1.0-1.5
lb/yd2 which is equivalent to 0.5-0.8 kg/m2. No traffic volumes are quoted.
Beckemeyer and McPeak (1995) give the quantity for American conditions as
0.65 kg/m2, which is the same as the quantities used in Sweden.
It is seen from the report "Dust control of gravel roads" (1993) that the quantity of
calcium chloride used in Norway in this test is 1.5-2.0 kg CaCl2/m.
Calcium chloride solution is prepared by mixing 50-200 kg CaCl2 with 1 m3 water.

Calcium chloride solution is used as a first aid measure, and on roads carrying
little traffic, in both Finland and Iceland (Jämsä, 1983).
Magnesium chloride
Magnesium chloride MgCl2 and calcium chloride CaCl2 have several common
properties. Magnesium chloride is also hygroscopic and easy to dissolve. Both
these road salts are also industrial waste products. Magnesium chloride is obtained
when certain naturally occurring potassium salts (e.g. carnallite) are refined.
Magnesium chloride is also obtained from sea water. Both these salts are
marketed in the form of a hydrate, i.e. as solid chemical compounds.
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Theoretically, commercial magnesium chloride contains 47% (46.86%) water-free

salt. In practice, commercial products also contain small quantities of other salts
such as basic chlorides and sulphates. This means that the salt content of
magnesium chloride is lower than that of calcium chloride. The moisture content
of magnesium chloride on delivery is about 40-50%.
The relationship between relative humidity and temperature is shown in

figure 7.1.
Figure 7.1 Relationship between the relative humidity at which the salt goes
into solution and temperature (Foley, 1996).
Foley points out that the figure only applies when the salt is not mixed with other
materials. If the salt is mixed with the road material, the relationship is different.
It can be seen from the figure that calcium chloride goes into solution at a lower
relative humidity than magnesium chloride when the air temperature is higher
than about 23°C, which is the temperature on a quite warm summer day in the
Nordic countries (Jämsä, 1983). This means that calcium chloride has a better dust
control action than magnesium chloride on warm summer days.
The figure also shows that magnesium chloride has the advantage that it can go
into solution at a low temperature by absorbing less moisture, i.e. it has a more
rapid dust control effect, while the opposite applies at higher temperatures.
However, it is considered that the saving made by using magnesium chloride,
because less water needs to be spread, is small compared with the cost of
purchase, transport, storage and spreading. In order to achieve the same effect as
in using calcium chloride, 18% more magnesium chloride per m2 is needed
(Reyier, 1972). Others consider that up to 20% more is needed.
Glänneskog and Skog (1994) state that the final sum is approximately the same.
Magnesium chloride may be even a little more expensive.
Magnesium chloride costs about SEK 1300/tonne (1998) which is about 15%
cheaper than calcium chloride that costs about SEK 1500/tonne (1998).
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The differences between MgCl2 and CaCl2 have been investigated by Nilsson
(1994). He carried out a small scale dust control test on gravel roads between
Alvesta and Vislanda in Kronoberg County. Both magnesium chloride and
calcium chloride were used in the test. Nilsson (1994) summarises the results as
follows:
• Magnesium chloride is more pleasant to handle than calcium chloride. What
is most important, it raises less dust when loaded and spread than calcium
chloride.
• Dust control effect is the same as that of calcium chloride.
• The consumption of magnesium chloride at two of the test areas is slightly
higher than that of calcium chloride.
• Magnesium chloride combines with about 30% less chlorine than calcium
chloride. This may be seen as environmentally favourable if the consumption
of the two salts used in dust control is equal.
• Magnesium chloride runs out of the spreader more freely than calcium
chloride.
• The road has a lighter colour after treatment with magnesium chloride.
• Magnesium chloride should not be loaded the evening before spreading since
it appears to be more hygroscopic than calcium chloride.
Sodium chloride
The cheapest dust control agent is sodium chloride or cooking salt NaCl whose
principal field of application in road management is however as a skid control
agent (Han, 1992). Sodium chloride occurs naturally as rock salt in a number of
places over the whole world, and makes up 3% of sea water. The lowest relative
humidity at which sodium chloride can absorb atmospheric moisture is 80%
(Lindh, 1981 quoting Thornburn and Mura, 1969). RRL in Lindh points out,
however, that the corresponding percentage is 75%. Han (1992) states that the
lowest relative humidity is 76%. Sodium chloride has been tested to a limited
extent in dust control of gravel roads, but the results have not been satisfactory.
The reason is the high relative humidity needed (75-80%) before sodium chloride
can absorb atmospheric moisture and go into solution (Jämsä, 1983).
Calcium chloride + Sodium chloride

According to Han (1992) a mixture of calcium chloride and sodium chloride can
reduce maintenance costs. He says that dust control with this mixture is 20%
cheaper than when only calcium chloride is used, but the dust control effect is 5%
lower. In the Norwegian report Dust control of gravel roads (1993), this mixture is
called Norsalt. The chemical composition of Norsalt is as follows:
• Calcium chloride 30-40%
• Sodium chloride 40-50%
• Magnesium chloride 10-20%
• Potassium chloride 2-10%
• Magnesium fluoride and calcium fluoride 1%.
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The above report refers to an investigation in which calcium chloride, Dustex and
Norsalt were tested. The report states that the quantity of Norsalt used in the test
in Norway was 1.8-2.0 tonnes/km.
Calcium nitrate
Calcium nitrate as a dust control agent has not been dealt with to any major extent
in the literature. In Norway, however, an investigation has been made to find if
calcium nitrate is suitable as a dust control agent for gravel roads.
Calcium nitrate is cheaper than calcium chloride. Jämsä (1982) states that the use
of calcium nitrate saves about NK 400-500/km (1980) when the quantity of
calcium nitrate used is the same as that of calcium chloride.
Jämsä (1982) refers to investigations made in 1980 in Oslo by the National

Norwegian Road Laboratory in which the properties of calcium nitrate were
investigated by field and laboratory experiments. Calcium chloride was used as
the reference material. It was found that calcium nitrate raises less dust than
calcium chloride when it is spread.
It may be stated on the basis of experience that, in spite of its weaker dust control
effect in comparison with calcium chloride, under certain conditions satisfactory
results can be achieved by using calcium nitrate.
Use of calcium nitrate may in the first place be considered:

• On roads with low traffic which do not emit a lot of dust
• In areas with a wet climate
Jämsä (1982) considers that the risk of environmental damage poses no obstacle
to the use of calcium nitrate. Although calcium nitrate is a fertilizer, Jämsä's
report makes no mention of the risk of eutrophication and anoxia.
7.1.3.2.1 Application of dust control agent

Application of the dust control agent may be said to comprise three stages:
A. Analysis of road
B. Spreading or mixing of dust control agent
C. Choice of plant and equipment
Analysis of the road is broadly the same whether salt, lignosulphonate or bitumen
emulsion is used as a dust control agent.
A. Analysis of road
In order that dust control should be as effective as possible, an investigation
should be made to find whether the road is suited to dust control treatment with
salt, lignosulphonate or bitumen emulsion. The analysis is in two stages, check on
the composition of the wearing course and check on the camber and
superelevation.
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A1. Check on composition of wearing course

If salt is used for dust control, the particle size distribution curve of the wearing
course should agree with the ideal aggregate curve in ROAD 94 and contain a
sufficient quantity of fines, about 6-8%. If the fines content of the wearing course
is too low and it contains too much sand, the road surface will become corrugated
(Bergström and Grebacken, 1995). The road shall have the appropriate moisture
content before the salt is spread. The appropriate or optimum moisture content is
that at which the best degree of compaction can be achieved. This moisture
content is 4-6%. Bergström and Grebacken quote a simple test that can be made
on the site. A sample of the wearing course is taken and rolled up into a ball the
size of a tennis ball; it must not fall apart and it should not be possible to squeeze
fines out of it. Glänneskog and Skog (1994) describe the same test by saying that
the ball must not be sticky. However, the road must be allowed to become
stabilised after the thaw before dust control can commence.
In dust control using lignosulphonate, the composition of the wearing course

must be such that the specific properties of the sulphite lye are utilised. Examples
of such specific properties are good cementing action and resistance to water. The
tightest possible composition maximises the adhesive capacity of sulphite lye. A
wearing course with a high gravel shape index is also favourable for the results.
Bergström and Grebacken (1995) write that the particle size distribution curve
given for the wearing course in ROAD 94 is largely suitable when
lignosulphonate is used as the dust control agent, but consider that the fine
material should preferably have a clay content of about 40%. The results of
Hallberg's (1989) tests suggest that Dustex produces a better dust control effect
than calcium chloride when the wearing course is rich in soil binder. He adds that
these results are in quite good agreement with previous experiments. However,
Hallberg does not define the term "wearing course rich in soil binder". Brown and
Elton (1994) tested both calcium chloride and lignosulphonate. The results
indicate that lignosulphonate produces better results on a wearing course
containing quite a lot of clay.
When dust control is carried out using bitumen emulsion the ideal particle size
distribution given in ROAD 94 should be aimed for, but according to Bergström
and Grebacken (1995), tests on Gotland show that a wearing course with
approximately half as much fine material (<0.25 mm) produces better results
when emulsion is used for dust control. The reason is that the limestone found on
Gotland is easily broken down and in this way the fines content increases.
Before dust control treatment begins the wearing course should be inspected, the
need for new aggregate assessed and regravelling if necessary. Regravelling is
described in Clause 7.3.
A2. Check on camber and superelevation

Most of the references say that crossfall on a gravel road should be at least about
3-5% so that water drains from the carriageway so quickly the wearing course is
not softened. ROAD 94, on the other hand, states that the crossfall on a
carriageway with a wearing course of gravel should not be less than 3%.
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The edges of the road shall be trimmed prior to watering and grading so that water
can drain unobstructed and so that vegetation is not drawn on to the road by the
grader. If water ponds on the carriageway, salt and lignosulphonate are dissolved
and the dust control function disappears. When emulsion is used for dust control,
the advance patrol for edge trimming, which consists of two graders and a water
tanker, should be deployed not more than 4-5 hours before emulsion treatment to
ensure that the road has the correct moisture content (Bergström and Grebacken,
1995). Edge trimming is described in more detail in Clause 7.4.
In order that dust control should have long duration, the road must then be graded
to ensure that camber and superelevation are correct. The road shall have the
appropriate moisture content prior to grading. The natural moisture content of the
road can with advantage be utilised by grading the road directly after a heavy fall
of rain or before there has been time for it to dry out after the thaw. If for some
reason the natural moisture content is not enough, the road must be watered until
the correct moisture content is obtained. Watering is described in Clause 7.5.
A road with salt as the dust control agent is easy to grade. A grader blade of
ordinary plain steel works well. Bergström and Grebacken (1995) say that,
depending on how badly damaged the road is, the grader blade should penetrate
about 1.5-3 cm. The reason for shallow grading is to minimise the quantity of
loose material in front of the grader blade and to avoid the risk of cutting into poor
material below the wearing course. Since, as a rule, the road is not constructed in
accordance with any specification, one does not know what there is below the
wearing course.
A road previously treated with bitumen emulsion should be watered and graded to
a depth of 5-10 cm irrespective of how damaged it is. Deep grading is necessary
to break down the lumps of emulsion and to adjust camber and superelevation.
Grading is described in detail in Clause 7.2.
B. Spreading or mixing the salt

There are two methods for dust control with salt, the surface salting method and
the mix-in-place method.
B1. Surface salting method

Salt is spread as an aqueous solution or as a solid. Today, salt is mostly spread in
the solid state. A lorry with a tipping body and a towed salt spreader are used. Salt
is not mixed into the wearing course. The wearing course is compacted by traffic
(Bergström and Grebacken, 1995).
Han (1992) considers that 15-30 cm of adjacent passes must be overlapped when
salt solution is applied. He adds that the road should not be used immediately after
the salt has been spread to ensure that the material mixed with salt does not get
caught up in the tyres. This holds for salt both in solid form and as a solution. The
wait is about 4 hours and depends on the type of wearing course and the climate.
A wearing course with a high fines content requires a longer time. He suggests
that if the road must be used immediately after salt has been spread the surface
should be compacted before the road is opened to traffic.
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B2. The mix-in-place method

Another working method mentioned by Jämsä (1982), Hoover (1981), Sultan
(1974) and others is the mix-in-place method. There are different methods of
mixing the agent into the wearing course.
Jämsä (1982) describes the mix-in-place method as follows: The wearing course
is worked over with a grader. The road must be watered prior to grading to
facilitate both mixing and compaction. In normal conditions, two passes are
needed to loosen up and mix the material. After this treatment the loose wearing
course material forms a windrow in the middle of the road. The material is then
spread and evened out, during which process the coarse material is spread evenly
over the two halves of the carriageway. Salt is then spread on the road. After this,
the salt is mixed into the wearing course and the road is accurately shaped.
Mixing is carried out using an aggregate windrow spreader attached to a grader or
a road drag. After mixing and fine adjustment, the road is compacted with suitable
equipment, e.g. a pneumatic tyred or smooth wheeled roller.
Sultan (1974) recommends that the road should be watered both before and after
grading.
Beckemeyer and McPeak (1995) write that the salt must be mixed into wearing
course material of 25-50 mm thickness. The road must then be rolled. Water must
be added if necessary.
C. Choice of plant and equipment

The plant and equipment described below are needed for the surface salting
method. A windrow spreader to mix the salt into the wearing course, and a roller
for compaction, are also required in the mixing method.
The plant and equipment used in dust control with salt are a water tanker, road
grader and spreading equipment.
Spreading equipments which are used are sand spreader, salt spreader or
fertiliser spreader. A brief description of each of these is given below.
A sand spreader is often used for the spring salt treatment at which time a large
amount is spread (about 1.5 tonnes/km). A sand spreader must be used if more
than 0.7-0.8 tonne/km is to be spread (Persson, 1993); a lorry with a tipper body
and a spreader towed behind are employed. See figure 7.2.
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Figure 7.2 Dust control treatment with a sand spreader (Maintenance of gravel
and earth roads, 1994).
The spreaders which are towed by the lorry have a small container into which the
salt can be tipped from the lorry. This equipment is capable of spreading a
constant quantity of material per unit of surface irrespective of the speed of the
lorry (Jämsä, 1983).
According to "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992), salt
should be spread in two passes so that the whole width of the road is treated. On
dry sections further passes may be needed.
A salt spreader is a simpler version of a sand spreader. A salt spreader is either

only a tipper lorry or some form of spreader appliance that is fixed at the back of
the tipper. Some spreaders are fitted with a number of flaps that can be shut to
reduce the width of spread (Jämsä, 1983). Salt spreaders are often used during
summer grading when small quantities are spread (Road maintenance-roads free
from snow and ice, 1992).
A fertiliser spreader mounted on a tractor can be used when small quantities are
to be spread. When a fertiliser spreader is used, covers must be used on each side
of the spreader and the speed kept low to ensure that the width of spread is
correct; see figure 7.3.
Figure 7.3 Fertiliser spreader (Persson, 1993).
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7.1.3.2.2 Environmental impact of calcium chloride and magnesium chloride

Most people in Sweden know that treatment of winter roads with salt makes for a
safer traffic environment. It is also known that salt affects and destroys vegetation
and shoes and increases the corrosion of e.g. car bodies. What people may not
think about is that salt is also spread on roads in the summer and that this gives
rise to even more corrosion.
The term environmental impact or environmental effects may refer to many

things. According to "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992),
the term environmental effects relates to impact in three areas:
• Natural environment (sources of water supply, soil, buildings and vegetation)
• Working environment (people)
• Road environment (corrosion, soiling)
On the other hand, Bergström and Grebacken (1995) classify environmental

impact as follows:
• Impact on vegetation
• Water pollution
• Corrosion
• Health hazards
Glänneskog and Skog (1994) deal with the following areas in conjunction with the
environmental effects of salt:
• Sources of water supply
• Vegetation
• Corrosion
• People
Walterson (1995) describes environmental effects in greater detail and groups

them in three areas:
• Aquatic environment
Acute toxicity
Chronic toxicity
• Land environment
Toxicity to plants and animals
Other effects on the land environment
• Health effects
In the handbook Environmental Impact Assessments for Roads (1995), the

following areas are quoted in conjunction with the environmental effects of road
construction:
• Landscape
• Recreation
• Cultural environment
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• Natural environment (geology, water, vegetation, animals)

• Natural resources (forestry, agriculture, materials and minerals, groundwater,
commercial fishing)
• Dangerous goods
• Spoil
• Noise
• Air pollution
• Damage during the construction period
For operation and maintenance measures, the following are of interest:

A. Effects on vegetation and the soil
B. Effects on sources of water supply
C. Corrosion
D. Health hazards

Calcium chloride is mainly spread into the natural environment by leaching of the
salt into the surrounding land and water environment.
Walterson (1995) quotes Segerros (1972) and claims that as early as during the
1930s and 1940s it was seen that calcium chloride damaged trees and bushes
along Swedish roads.
Bergström and Grebacken (1995) write that the effect of salt on vegetation is
limited to a strip of about 20 m from the road. Walterson (1995) does not disagree
with an investigation made by Bäckman (1980) which suggests that damage to
vegetation, especially to conifers, occurs more or less generally along winter
roads treated with salt over a distance up to 10 m from the edge of the road.
Calcium chloride CaCl2 consists of three ions, a calcium ion About which is a
natural and necessary constituent of soil, an two chloride ions Cl2 which are not
equally beneficial to the soil. Glänneskog and Skog (1994) claim that chloride
ions are easily taken up by plants and attack their cell membranes so that they
cannot absorb water and nutrients as easily as before.
Walterson (1995) quotes Dragsted (1988) and says that in an experimental study it
was found that treatment of young maple trees with sodium chloride or calcium
chloride caused damage which was correlated with the chloride content of the
leaves. The greatest damage was caused by calcium chloride.
Chloride damage to deciduous trees is characterised by the leaves wilting from the
outside towards the centre. The same symptoms are also found in conifers; the tips
of the needles are affected first, and gradually the whole needle turns a reddish-
brown colour. Entire annual growths of needles can disappear, and branches and
needles are thinned out. Nature can deal with salts in low concentrations
(Glänneskog and Skog, 1994). Halophytic plants such as lyme grass are favoured
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by increased salt content and may therefore grow in certain road environments
Solutions of calcium chloride are classified as substances that cannot accumulate

in the soil (Walterson, 1995). Walterson claims that the large scale dispersion of
chlorides, both via the atmosphere and application to the roads, together with the
progressive acidification of the ground, can, at least theoretically, be assumed to
promote or accelerate natural formation of organic chlorine compounds.
Bergström and Grebacken (1995) consider that the salt affects the structure of the
soil. Voids are reduced, and this makes it more difficult for oxygen and water to
penetrate into the ground.
B. The effect on sources of water supply

It is difficult and expensive to restore a source of water supply that is polluted by
salt. Storage dumps for road salt must be planned in consultation with municipal
authorities so that no damage is caused to sources of water supply and similar
(Glänneskog and Skog, 1994).
Finnish investigations show that problems due to increased chloride content in

groundwater can occur along roads treated with salt. This may result, for instance,
in wells along the road becoming unfit for use (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995).
The conclusions drawn by Walterson (1995) suggest that there is little risk of
groundwater being affected by the use of calcium chloride on roads. On the other
hand, groundwater has on several occasions been contaminated in Sweden by
sodium chloride used in winter for skid prevention.
C. Corrosion
Glänneskog and Skog (1994) claim that calcium chloride accelerates the corrosion
process by retaining moisture and increasing the conductivity of the layer of liquid
on the vehicle body. Salt facilitates combination of oxygen with iron.
Lindh (1981) quotes Hubendick (1975) and says that a corrosion investigation
performed by the Swedish National Road Administration shows that dust control
with hygroscopic salt makes a considerably higher contribution to the corrosion of
vehicles on gravel roads than that due to chemical skid control with sodium
chloride. However, if the small volume of traffic on gravel roads is compared with
that on paved roads, a different picture of the effect of corrosion on vehicles
emerges.
Reyier (1972) quotes Bergström (1956) who claims that one essential difference
between magnesium chloride and calcium chloride is considered to be the greater
aggressivity of the latter towards concrete. Other investigations have however
pointed in the opposite direction.
In order that a complete comparison may be made between MgCl2 and CaCl2, their
environmental impact should be studied not only locally but over a whole life
cycle. In a life cycle analysis (LCA), an analysis is made of e.g. what these
contain, how they are made, what transportation they require, etc. MgCl2 is
brought in from Israel, which in itself is a negative environmental impact.
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D. Health hazards
In the literature studied, there are conflicting data concerning the toxicity of salts.
Svensson (1997) claims that calcium chloride is not poisonous but that it irritates
the skin and the eyes. Calcium chloride may also burn the skin on contact. When
being handled, road salt may emit dust which may irritate the airways. Protective
clothing and gloves should therefore be used when handling road salt so as to
avoid skin contact. When dust is likely to develop during handling, protective
spectacles and respirators should also be worn.
Walterson (1995) quotes Flatla (1976) and says practical observations indicate
that calcium chloride may poison cattle and sheep grazing in the vicinity of roads
treated with salt. Preliminary results from a study made by the Institute of Internal
Medicine in Norway show that high doses, 2-8 g/kg of body weight, taken by
cattle orally caused toxic symptoms and death.
7.1.3.2.3 Secondary effects of salt

The secondary effects described by Reyier (1972) are direct and indirect effects
on bearing capacity.
A. Direct effect on bearing capacity

According to Reyier, tests have shown that in spite of quite high concentrations of
calcium chloride there was insignificant direct effect on the bearing capacity of
soil. Brown and Elton (1994) state, however, that calcium chloride increases the
strength of soil.
B. Indirect effect on bearing capacity

Reyier (1972) states that increased water content in the road structure and a
depression of the freezing point are among the indirect effects on bearing
capacity.
B.1 Increased water content in the road structure

Treatment with a hygroscopic salt causes a change in the water balance of the
road structure. Obviously, when a road is treated with a hygroscopic salt, it will
dry out less after a dry summer. Reyier (1972) points out that it is shown by
investigations that normal autumn rains are not sufficient to saturate the road
structure if no salt treatment has been carried out. If the road has been treated with
salt, there will be so much excess water after the autumn rains that saturation
occurs and bearing capacity is reduced. This reduction occurs irrespective of
whether calcium chloride or magnesium chloride has been used.
B.2 Depression of the freezing point

It is considered that depression of the freezing point of the soil may result in an
unfrozen carriageway being supported by a frozen pavement.
7.1.3.2.4 Practical experiences from dust treatment with salts

Some experiences may be quoted from the studied literature:
• Good results are obtained if the road is graded and is immediately treated
with salt. The road surface is then porous and salt can more easily penetrate
into the surface layer. However, grading should never be carried out if the
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road is not moist enough. In conjunction with grading the road must be
accurately shaped.
• It is satisfactory to spread salt directly on a naturally moist carriageway, for
instance after rain, snowmelt or a thaw, but it is necessary for the road surface
to have stabilised if it has softened due to thaw.
• Another possibility is to spread salt in the evening when humidity is high.
• Salt must not be spread during sustained rainfall since it can be washed off
the road and contaminate sources of water supply. The greatest disbenefit is
that salt is wasted without doing any good.
• Höbeda (1978) considers that the effect on the resistance to abrasion is
slightly greater if the hygroscopic salts are mixed into the gravel wearing
course than if they are spread on the surface.
• According to Lindh (1981), indications are that mechanical admixture of the
salt improves the durability of dust control treatment.
• According to Jämsä (1982), relative humidity may be so low on hot summer
days that calcium chloride changes into the solid state and has no dust control
effect. However, relative humidity in any case increases in the evening, so
that CaCl2 absorbs water from the air and this produces a dust control effect
the next day.
• In cold weather the air contains only small quantities of water and dissolution
may therefore take a long time although relative humidity is high. In
consequence, the CaCl2 grains may be thrown to the edge of the road before a
solution is formed. For this reason, the effect of calcium chloride is weak
early in the spring when the roads are free from snow and ice but frost still
occurs overnight (Jämsä, 1983). Han (1982) recommends that dust control
with either chemicals or organic substances should not be carried out at
temperatures below 4°C.
• According to "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992), dust
control treatment should cover the whole width of the road.
• Beskow (1932) confirms that salts have a dispersing effect on aggregate
containing a lot of slate. Salt treatment under such conditions reduces the
bearing capacity of the road in spring and autumn. In Sweden, such aggregate
is found only in certain relatively small areas such as parts of the northern
mountain chain and smaller slaty areas in southern and central Sweden. It is
only in these areas that care should be taken in treating roads with salts. Such
aggregate has a low ball-mill value and is probably not permitted by
ROAD 94.
7.1.3.3 Non-bituminous organic chemicals

For dust control treatment of gravel roads, organic substances other than
bituminous binders can be used. Examples of such organic substances are
lignosulphonates. In some of the literature, the organic substances obtained from
industry, e.g. vegetable oils, are classified as byproducts or waste products
(Jämsä, 1983).
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The effect of industrial byproducts is due to either the hygroscopicity of the

material or the ability of these products to bind the fine material in the wearing
course, so that a dust-free, firm and abrasion resistant surface is formed. They also
have the same effect as clay and make the wearing course material more plastic
and mouldable, which results in greater density after compaction (Foley, 1996).
The results of Foley's report suggest that non-bituminous organic chemicals

perform best in dry climates and that their effect is reduced in conjunction with
rain. They also produce a lower effect on volcanic rocks, on intermediate and
coarse grained materials and on crushed rock.
Lignosulphonates
In Sweden, about 15000 tonnes of lignosulphonate are used annually for dust
control and stabilisation of gravel roads (Walterson, 1995).
There are several types of lignosulphonates. They are calcium lignosulphonate,

sodium lignosulphonate and ammonium lignosulphonate (Guidelines for cost
effective use and application of dust palliatives "GED", 1987). Lignosulphonate is
also called sulphite lye or lignin. The types used in Sweden are calcium
lignosulphonate and sodium lignosulphonate.
Arnfeld (1941) in Lindh (1981) describes the production and composition of

lignosulphonate. Wood consists, apart from water, of three groups of substances,
cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Arnfeld (1941) in Svensson (1997) states
that, for instance, dry substance in coniferous wood consists of 28% lignin.
Lignosulphonate is obtained as a byproduct when wood is digested in producing
paper pulp by the sulphite method. Digestion dissolves lignin, the cementing
material in wood so that the cellulose fibres are liberated. Lignin is converted into
a water soluble form and is separated from cellulose as sulphite lye. Sulphite lye
is treated and condensed from about 12% to 50-60% dry substance.
Lignin is the natural cementing agent and is the substance that binds together the
fibres in wood. As a dust control agent, it acts as an adhesive and glues together
the aggregate particles even in dry material.
Listab WIBAX AB (1997) states that lignosulphonates have been used for more
than 80 years as dust control agents. Between 1920 and 1960 lignosulphonates
were generally used as dust control agents (Lignin stabilised gravel roads, 1988,
in Swedish). From the 1960s to the 1980s, their use diminished. This reduction is
due to the displeasure of road users and also to reduced availability (Road
maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992). The reason for reduced
availability of lignosulphonate is that the chemical industry has changed from
sulphite to sulphate processes (Jämsä, 1983).
However, owing to the steep increase in the price of calcium chloride in recent
years, there is greater interest in alternative dust control agents. Dust control using
lignosulphonate has therefore again been tested by the Swedish National Road
Administration since 1980 (Lindh, 1981).
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Jämsä (1982) claims that the dust control effect of lignosulphonate is considerably
weaker than that of calcium chloride. According to Jämsä, it is estimated that 1 kg
CaCl2 corresponds to about 1.5 kg dry lye and about 15 kg raw lye. Hallberg
(1989) supports this after dust control tests with both Dustex and calcium
chloride, and writes that the dust control effect is comparable at a dosage of 1.5
parts dry substance Dustex and 1 part dry substance calcium chloride.
Lignosulphonates have been subjected to development, and the lignin products

used today are not the same as those used in the beginning of the 20th century.
The lignin product used in the beginning of the century was mainly raw lye, i.e.
12% sulphite lye. The problems encountered then were that rainwater washed
away the lye, so that no benefit was obtained.
Lignosulphonate products are used not only for dust control of gravel roads but
also have other areas of application, for instance as binders in animal feed, as an
adhesive and dispersing agent (Lundqvist, 1998).
Calcium lignosulphonate is marketed under the name Dustex. Sodium

lignosulphonate is marketed under the name Listab. These two products are
studied below.
Dustex
Dustex is produced by LignoTech. Dustex consists of liquid calcium
lignosulphonate of 50% dry content (Lignin stabilised gravel roads, 1988).
The sulphite lye is neutralised and condensed from about 12% to about 50-60%
dry substance. By this treatment, the previous pungent sulphite smell is largely
eliminated (Hallberg, 1989). Most of the smell has been removed without
reduction of the dust control capacity (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995). Hallberg
states that Dustex is also used in warm and dry countries as a moisture retention
agent in vegetable cultivation. Dustex is supplied as an aqueous solution with a
pH of 6-7. It is stored in a tank and the product has storage stability when it
consists of about 50% dry substance. When the temperature drops below –5°C,
the lignin and water phases separate, but after thawing and agitation the
components again form a mixture and are stable (Bergström and Grebacken,
1995).
Listab
Listab is produced by Wibax AB in Piteå. This product is considered to be
competitive in the northern part of Sweden since transport costs are low.
According to Lundqvist (1998), in 1997 almost 5000 km of road were dust
controlled with Listab. Dustex and Listab are very closely related in that they are
both based on lignin and are both byproducts in the production of sulphite pulp.
Differences between Listab and Dustex:

• Dustex is delivered in greater concentration, 50% dry substance, and it must
therefore be diluted before use, while Listab is delivered in a solution ready
for use (30-35%).
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• Dustex is obtained from a calcium chloride process (calcium lignosulphonate)

while Listab is based on sodium (sodium lignosulphonate).
7.1.3.3.1 Time of year and frequency

Depending on the time of year, treatment with lignosulphonates may be classified
as basic treatment, annual treatment or supplementary treatment.
Basic treatment is described by Glänneskog and Skog (1994) as a form of

stabilisation carried out once every ten years. This treatment stabilises and
cements almost the whole wearing course and has a durable effect. A number of
methods for mixing lignosulphonate into the wearing course are described in the
literature.
Annual treatment is carried out in the spring and is best if it is performed

immediately after thaw when the road has the correct moisture content. If the road
is too dry, a water tanker can be used.
Supplementary "superficial" treatment can be carried out if the road begins to

deteriorate at the end of the summer after a long dry period. According to
Lundqvist (1998), the proportion of road that requires supplementary treatment
seldom exceeds 10%.
How often a road needs treatment with lignosulphonate varies from case to case.
A test was performed in the road management area Mellerud in 1988 where only
Dustex was spread. Dustex treatment was carried out on Road No 1131 on 13
May, and no more treatment was needed before 5 October (Hallberg, 1989).
According to Olsson in Bergström and Grebacken (1995), a road treated with

Dustex must be maintained as much as a road treated with salt, i.e. about 3 times
per season.
Armstrong (1981) carried out a test in Australia. A road was treated for dust
control by mixing lignin into the wearing course at the beginning of summer.
Another road was treated with lignin by merely spreading lignin on the wearing
course. Results indicate that dust on the first road was reduced to an acceptable
level for up to three months. On the other road dust was reduced for only two
weeks before the first rain arrived and washed away the lignin. Armstrong adds
that on the first road, even after three months when dust began to be emitted,
some lignin was still left in the wearing course. Owing to the remaining lignin, a
smaller quantity is needed on the next dust control occasion. The test also shows
that the effect of spreading and admixture is the same during the period April-
August. This may be due to humidity in the winter. The results of this test are set
out in figure 7.4. What weather conditions were like compared with Swedish
conditions is however not clear.
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Figure 7.4 Visual assessment of dust emission on three different sections

(Armstrong, 1981).
7.1.3.3.2 Application of lignosulphonates

In the same way as in dust control using salts, application of lignosulphonates
may be described in three stages, analysis of road, spreading or admixture of
lignosulphonate, and plant and equipment.
A. Analysis of road
Analysis is largely the same in dust control using salt, lignosulphonate or bitumen
emulsion. This stage was described in Subclause 7.1.3.2.1. Analysis may be
performed prior to annual treatment, basic treatment and/or supplementary
treatment.
B. Spreading or admixture of lignosulphonate

Lignosulphonate can either be spread on the road or mixed into the wearing
course to achieve a deeper effect. The method used depends on the purpose of the
treatment.
B.1 Spreading
In Sweden, lignin if often spread on the wearing course at the time of annual
treatment and supplementary treatment.
At the time of annual treatment in the spring, the road is first graded so that the
surface is loosened up and the lignin is then applied in two passes. To ensure that
the road is also compacted, a spreader lorry can be used, but it is best to deploy a
pneumatic tyred roller (Glänneskog and Skog, 1994). However, it is not clear how
a spreader lorry can be used to compact the road.
According to Bergström and Grebacken (1995), tests were made with different
rollers to compact the road, but the results suggest that this is not economically
justifiable. Lundqvist (1998) considers however that it is best if the road can be
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properly compacted after spreading so as to ensure that the dust control treatment
has the maximum life.
Both Bergström and Grebacken (1995) and Glänneskog and Skog (1994) say that
Dustex should be mixed with water in the proportions 1 part of Dustex to 2 parts
of water so that it should mix with the aggregate more easily. Water can with
advantage be pumped up by the spreader lorry from the nearest watercourse.
Glänneskog and Skog consider that brackish or salt water has no deleterious effect
on the results.
In his field tests, Cleghorn (1992) carried out dust control treatment with lignin as
follows. The road was graded to remove surface unevenness and then compacted
until about 100% degree of compaction was achieved. The road was watered if
necessary before the lignin was spread.
Sultan (1974) used both spreading and admixture in his field tests. Spreading was
carried out in three stages; grading with a smooth blade, spreading and
compaction with a pneumatic tyred roller.
B.2 Admixture
Lignin is often mixed into the wearing course during basic treatment. Glänneskog
and Skog (1994) describe admixture as follows: the road is graded, lignin is
spread on the surface and is mixed into the wearing course to a depth of about 3-4
cm by turning the windrow with a grader. In the method employed in the tests
carried out by the firm Vägmaskiner AB, the total quantity of binder used was
1.0-1.5 kg/m2 and it was spread as a 40-43% aqueous solution. The lignin was
spread and mixed in three stages (Lignin stabilised gravel roads, 1988).
Stage 1: A small quantity, about 5-15% of the total quantity of lignin, is mixed in
the water used to water the road.
Stage 2: About 60-80% of the lignin solution is applied to the road in a number of
passes. Between the passes the grader turns the windrow so that lignin is gradually
worked into the aggregate. The grader distributes the aggregate over the road so
that the camber is 4-5% with a pronounced peak "A".
Stage 3: The remaining lignin, about 20-25% of the total quantity, is then spread
over the carriageway as a sealant. This quantity can to advantage be diluted in a
larger quantity of water. However, the quantity of water applied should not be so
large that the road is saturated. The gravel wearing course is compacted with a 5
tonne towed vibratory roller. Experiences from the test suggest that use of a
smooth wheeled roller is not suitable since the moist lignin-treated aggregate
easily sticks to the roller.
As mentioned above, Sultan (1974) used both spreading and mixing in his field
tests. He describes the working method for mixing in the following eleven stages:
• Watering
• Ripping the surface by using the ripper attached to the grader to a depth of
8 cm
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• Watering
• Spreading some of the lignin. Sultan does not however explain what
proportion of the lignin should be spread
• Grading so that the loose wearing course forms a windrow along each edge
• Distribution of the two windrows evenly over the two halves of the road
• Spreading the remaining lignin
• Grading so that the loose wearing course forms a windrow in the middle of the
road
• Distribution of the windrow evenly over the two halves of the carriageway
• Shaping the road surface
• Compaction with a preumatic tyred roller
Jones (1984) calls the mixing method "mix in place". He describes this method as
the one most common in Kenya for dust control with lignosulphonates. According
to Jones, the thickness of the wearing course into which lignosulphonate is to be
mixed should be 7.5-0.0 cm. The road is first graded and the lignin is spread, after
which the wearing course and the lignin are mixed together and compacted.
C. Plant and equipment

The plant and equipment used for dust control with lignosulphonates are a water
tanker, road grader and spreader vehicle.
C.1 Water tanker

A conventional water tanker is used on a road to be dust controlled with lignin.
Often two tankers are needed (Lundqvist, 1998).
C.2 Road grader

Lundqvist (1998) says that two graders are needed. Bergström and Grebacken
(1995) add that the grader should be equipped with "System 2000" on the blade so
as to achieve best mixing and scarification of the wearing course. System 2000 is
described in detail in Clause 7.2. A windrow spreader with a smooth blade should
be used for final adjustment of camber and superelevation. If the road is narrow
and the wearing course extremely thin, a grader equipped with a smooth blade is
used instead of a windrow spreader.
C.3 Spreader vehicle

Lundqvist (1998) notes that Listab is spread with an ordinary water tanker
equipped with a special spray bar with jets. This bar is pressurised with either the
existing hydraulic pump or another pump. Listab is forced through the jets which
produce a fine spray, resulting in good deep action on the road. With this set of
vehicles, 2 graders, 2 water tankers and a spreader vehicle, the capacity is 20-35
km/day.
If lignin is spread the day after grading when the road has already been compacted
by traffic, dust control acts only as a surface seal (Bergström and Grebacken,
1995).
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When Listab is to be used on roads that are not in the immediate vicinity of a
Listab depot, a tank is also needed for intermediate storage. In most cases the
suppliers makes this tank available, which also has the advantage of being mobile
(Lundqvist, 1998). Since the flow rate from the jets is known, coverage is adjusted
by varying the speed.
7.1.3.3.3 Quantities of lignosulphonate

Information varies regarding the quantity of dust control agent to be spread at the
time of basic treatment, supplementary and annual treatment. The quantity also
varies depending on whether or not the road has already had lignosulphonates
spread on it. It is at times not clear which type of treatment is referred to in the
literature or what quantity of water is to be mixed with the lignin.
Quantities for basic treatment

Walterson (1995) writes that the quantity of lignosulphonate for stabilisation
treatment of gravel roads shall be 2 kg/m2. Bergström and Grebacken (1995) write
that 1 kg Dustex solution per m2 of road should be used in basic treatment.
"Lignin stabilised gravel roads", (1988) says that when it is mixed in to a depth of
about 5 cm, lignin at the rate of 1.0-1.5 km/m2 produces good cohesion. It is best
to spread lignin as a 40-43% aqueous solution.
Quantities for annual treatment

Glänneskog and Skog (1994), Walterson (1995) and Bergström and Grebacken
(1995) say that the quantity for annual treatment shall be 1.2 kg 50% Dustex/m of
road. "Lignin stabilised gravel roads", (1988) gives the same quantity, but that it
should be spread as a about 20% solution. Hallberg (1989) gives a larger quantity
than others, 1.5-2 kg solution per metre run of road.
It is seen from the Norwegian report "Dust control of gravel roads" (1993) that the
quantity of Dustex used in tests in Norway is 2.0-3.0 kg/m. Svensson (1997)
quotes Holmen LignoTech (1989) and says that the quantity of Dustex should be
1.5-2 kg solution per metre of road. Lundqvist (1998) says that 0.5 kg Listab/m2
should be regarded as normal coverage. This is equivalent to 3 kg/m on a road 6
m wide. In practice, coverage is 2-4 kg/m depending on several factors such as
traffic flow, topography, road material, etc.
Quantities for supplementary treatment

Hallberg (1989) says that for supplementary treatment Dustex must be mixed with
four parts of water and spread at a rate of 1.5-2 kg solution per metre run of road.
7.1.3.3.4 Environmental impact of lignosulphonate products

Lignosulphonates are mainly spread into the environment by leaching from the
wearing course into the surrounding land and water environment. Operation and
maintenance measures affect the following areas:
A. Vegetation and soil
B. Sources of water supply
C. Corrosion
D. Health hazards
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Walterson (1995) quotes a study performed by Stapanian and Shea (1986). This
study showed that, for single application of 5-15 kg calcium lignosulphonate dry
substance per m2, mobility through the soil profile was low and thus the residence
period was sufficiently long for degradation and/or deposition and take-up of
single substances in the soil strata to take place.
It is evident from the material studied by Walterson that when lignosulphonates

were applied in the field at a rate of at least 10 kg dry substance/m2, no growth
retardation effect was observed in green plants; this is a quantity about 30 times as
high as that in dust control and 5-6 times as high as that for stabilisation of
carriageways. The conclusions drawn by Walterson are that, at the quantities
applied on carriageways, the risk that plants along the road will be affected is
probably low. The toxicity to plants and corrosion are considerably reduced when
the pH value is adjusted to between 6 and 7 (Listab WIBAX AB, 1997, in
Swedish).
As regards effects on vegetation and the soil, the following facts are known from
product information for lignosulphonates (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995):
• Lignosulphonates contain heavy metals, for instance cadmium, chromium,
lead and mercury, but in quantities below the permissible threshold limit
values. However, the heavy metal content depends on where the tree used had
grown. If the raw material comes from an area with a high heavy metal
content, the contents in the dust control products will also be high.
• Lignosulphonates do not give rise to any environmentally harmful
degradation products.
• Lignosulphonates have little effect on vegetation.
B. Effects on sources of water supply

Dispersion of dust control agent to groundwater depends on the quantity per unit
area that is supplied each year.
If lignosulphonate products get into a well the water is discoloured and has a
musty smell, similar to that of humus formed by natural breakdown of plants and
trees. However, the water is not dangerous to health. Walterson (1995) says there
are no data in Sweden relating to the quantities in lakes and watercourses of the
substances contained in lignosulphonate products which can be associated with
the treatment of gravel roads.
C. Corrosion
Investigations by the Swedish Testing and Research Institute have shown that
Dustex 50 causes appreciably less corrosion on steel sheeting than either clean
water or hygroscopic salts (Walterson, 1995).
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D. Health hazards
Lignosulphonates pose no danger to people and are not allergenic. Only ordinary
working clothes need be worn during spreading. Any liquid splashes can be
removed by washing in water (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995).
During evaporation that is part of the production process volatile components

such as acetic acid and sulphur dioxide are given off, which makes the final
product less toxic. Animal experiments show that acute toxicity is very low when
the investigated lignosulphonates are administered orally. The long term effects of
lignosulphonates on animal health have been the subject of many investigations.
The results of studies for the permit procedure of e.g. the US Department of
Health and Human Service, ADAMs (1988) are reproduced in Walterson (1995).
Walterson adds that Dustex and Listab are approved by the Swedish Board of
Agriculture as additives to animal feed.
According to Bergström and Grebacken (1995), the following facts are known
from product information relating to lignosulphonate based products:
• Lignosulphonates contain no other organic substances in concentrations
hazardous to health.
• No damage to people exposed to lignosulphonates has been reported.
• In normal cases, lignosulphonates have low toxicity to fish, but in
LIGNOSOL AP-35, a product that contains 15-16% lignin, there are some
resin acids that are very toxic to fish.
• Lignosulphonates contain no dioxins.
• Lignosulphonates are not toxic to mammals and do not appear to be skin or
eye irritants.
• Contents of toxic trace elements are below the limits laid down by the US
Environment Protection Agency.
7.1.3.3.5 Experiences from the use of lignosulphonates

The following experiences are quoted in the studied literature:
• Wearing courses rich in soil binder are dust controlled better with Dustex
than with calcium chloride. The effect of Listab is very often entirely
dependent on the composition of the wearing course. It is necessary for the
fines content to be at least 10% and preferably higher in order that lignin
should bind the material effectively.
A high fines content in the aggregate material produces a negative effect in
conjunction with rain. A return to the use of lye is therefore open to doubt.
• The use of Dustex is recommended in view of corrosion. This may also be
nationaleconomically justified since this product is a domestic one
• Clayey roads benefit from the stabilising effect of lignin since the surface
becomes hard and resistant to precipitation.
• Handling of Dustex is often found cumbersome. Problems have been
encountered in pumping from the storage tanker to the spreader. The lye
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froths and blocks the pump. Hallberg (1989) gives some solutions, e.g.
placing the storage tank so that gravity flow is achieved.
• Dustex requires a porous surface to penetrate into the carriageway.
"Lignin stabilised gravel roads" (1988) gives the following recommendations for
best results with lye:
• The composition of the gravel wearing course should conform to the ideal
aggregate curve. The actual filler proportion may be higher, but should
preferably be no lower. There shall be no lumps of sand.
• If possible, the moisture content of the surface layer should, after the product
has been sprayed, be equal to the optimum moisture ratio which is 4% or
higher, but it should not be saturated. The surface layer shall be moist but not
sticky in order that compaction should be optimal and service life long.
• The camber of the road shall be about 4-5% and there shall be a pronounced
peak in the centre. There shall be no flat portions.
• Immediately after treatment, the road should be compacted with a pneumatic
tyred roller or a lorry.
• Favourable results have been achieved using a combination of Dustex and
clay. If the wearing course aggregate has a uniform composition with a low
proportion of fines, a larger quantity of Dustex is required for satisfactory
dust control.
7.1.3.4 Bituminous materials

Tests on controlling road dust with bituminous products have been made in
Sweden for a long time. Lindh (1981) quotes Hubendick (1975) who says that as
early as at the end of the 1930s extensive tests were made in Sweden to control
road dust with Estonian shale oil. Bitumen emulsion is the most common agent.
Bitumen emulsion (BE)

In order to satisfy the wishes of road users that gravel roads should be paved,
some counties in Sweden have used bitumen emulsion for dust control of gravel
roads. Dust control with bitumen emulsion has already been tested in e.g. USA,
Canada and New Zealand. The method is a good alternative for the maintenance
of roads that are less susceptible to frost damage (Road maintenance-roads free
from snow and ice, 1992). It is thought that use of bitumen emulsion on gravel
roads reduces the number of times the road has to be graded (Gustafsson, 1982).
Bitumen emulsion binds the dust through its adhesive effect, and, in the same way
as lignosulphonate, it can be used even when the carriageway is dry (Bergström
and Grebacken, 1995).
There are three factors that impede the use of bitumen emulsion and have the
effect that it is not at all times possible to determine its usefulness as a dust
control agent. These factors are:
• Relatively high cost in the first few years
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• Small experimental base. Only 1% of the gravel road network was dust
controlled with bitumen emulsion in 1997
• Short follow-up period
However, dust control with bitumen emulsion is considered by the Swedish

National Road Administration to be of such interest that further tests should be
made (Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992).
Emulsion is a chemical system comprising two liquids that are insoluble or only
slightly soluble in each other, one of which is suspended in the other in the form
of colloidal particles. Bitumen, the first liquid that is often in the form of spherical
particles, forms the disperse phase. The other liquid is water and is the dispersing
agent.
Different descriptions of the composition of emulsion are given in the literature.
Krigsman (1993) says that the composition of emulsion is based on a 60%

bitumen emulsion, i.e. the bitumen content is at least 60% of the emulsion. The
basic bitumen is normal fluxed bitumen MB 2000 which has a further about 5%
flux added to give it good penetration properties when mixed into the gravel
wearing course. The remaining components are emulsifiers and water. Before the
bitumen emulsion is spread on the road, it is mixed by pumping it in the spreader
tank with equal volumes of water.
Bergström and Grebacken (1995) describe the bitumen emulsion used in Örebro
and on Gotland as a blend of the following substances:
1. About 30% fluxed bitumen. Fluxed bitumen "MB" consists of a B180 fluxed
to MB 2000. The mean value of the kinematic viscosity of MB 2000 is 2000
mm2/s at 60°C. The flux used is an oil refinery product that has a lower
viscosity than the basic bitumen it is mixed into. Diesel is a very common
flux.
2. About 65-70% fresh water at a temperature of about 80°C. The two liquids,
fluxed bitumen and fresh water, are mixed in a heated mill (Bergström and
Grebacken, 1995).
3. Emulsions may also contain solvent, e.g. diesel. It is added to make bitumen
less viscous for a longer period after the emulsion has broken.
4. About 0.4% emulsifying agent that prevents separation of the mixture.
There are three types of emulsifying agent, anionic, cationic and neutral. Anionic
agents were introduced as early as 1930 while cationic agents first appeared in
1958 (Lindh, 1981). In Sweden cationic emulsifying agents are used almost
exclusively, and specifications have therefore been developed for these.
When the emulsion has been spread on the road, the disperse phase must separate
or coagulate. The emulsion must coagulate irreversibly, i.e. no new emulsion must
form when water is added. During coagulation the coating on the suspended
droplets is disrupted so that the bitumen begins to work as a dust control agent
through its adhesive effect. As a rule, the emulsion persists for a couple days in a
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tank before separation commences. The emulsion is stored in tanks at a

temperature around 30-40°C the whole time, to prevent both separation and
evaporation of water (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995).
7.1.3.4.1 Quantities of bitumen emulsion

The quantity of emulsion that must be applied the first year is about 2 kg/m2. The
rate of application during maintenance treatment is 1 kg/m2, but if a larger
quantity of new wearing course gravel is needed, maintenance treatment must also
be applied at 2kg/m2. A total of 4 kg/m2 is laid in the first three years, and the road
is left to rest in the fourth year. At present this method appears to be the best
(Bergström and Grebacken, 1995). It is seen from the report "Effect of dust
palliatives on unsealed roads in New Zealand" (1995) that 0.33 l/m2 was used in
tests in New Zealand. The quantity 0.33 l/m2 was used for both surface dressing
and stabilisation. According to the report, the term "surface dressing" means that
the road surface is first watered and then graded to shape the road, and emulsion is
then applied. Sometimes the road is also watered after emulsion is applied.
7.1.3.4.2 Method specification for dust control using BE

Simonsson (1978) quotes two alternative methods for dust control using
bituminous materials:
• The bituminous material and the existing aggregate are mixed together by the
mix-in-place method. This method is usually referred to as the soft method.
• Surface application to achieve penetration of the bituminous material into the
road surface without the application of chippings. The method is usually
referred to as the hard method.
In the first method, a large quantity of binder of high viscosity is used, while in
the second method a smaller quantity of binder of low viscosity is applied.
According to Simonsson (1978), the prevailing opinion is that dust control
through surface application of different oils has a short life, which means that
repeated applications are necessary and this, in turn, limits this application.
Simonsson states that treatment by mixing in larger quantities of binder provides a
better effect, but in reality these methods must be regarded as bitumen
stabilisation or simple forms of surfacing. It is worth noting that the boundaries
between the soft and hard method are indistinct. The two methods are described in
the following.
A. The soft method

In the soft method, the character of the gravel road is retained, but dust is
controlled. The road is still so gradable that a road grader can be used to work and
shape the surface. The method comprises the following operations:
a. Watering
b. Grading
c. Application of emulsion, type BE 60/65, about 2 l/m2
d. Mixing of aggregate and emulsion with the grader
e. Compaction by traffic
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Bergström and Grebacken (1995) say that the soft method has been tested on e.g.
Gotland and in Örebro. According to Junes (1988) and Karlsson (1989), the
method has also been tested in Norrbotten (Råneå). "Road maintenance-roads free
from snow and ice" (1992) describes another method developed during the
"Västerås test". This method is difficult to classify as either the soft or hard
method. The following tests or methods may be classified as soft methods and
will be described below.
A.1 Test in Råneå
A.2 Gotland method
A.3 Örebro method
A.4 Västerås method
A.1 Test in Råneå

In the summer of 1988 emulsion was tried in Råneå on a road of 6 m width with a
traffic volume of 130 AADT. The length of the road was 10 km (Junes, 1988) and
(Karlsson, 1989). The method was applied in three stages:
Stage 1: The road is watered and 2-3 cm of the wearing course is graded into a
windrow along each edge of the road.
Stage 2: About 2 litres emulsion per m2 are spread on each half of the road at a
time with an ordinary water butt.
Stage 3: The aggregate windrows are spread over the emulsion and the two are
mixed into a homogeneous mass before the road is shaped.
A.2 Gotland method (Bergström and Grebacken 1995)

The reason that gravel roads on Gotland began to be dust controlled with bitumen
emulsion is that in 1991 the Swedish National Road Administration and Gotland
Municipality jointly resolved that Gotland would be completely salt free all round
the year. Over the period 1992-1996 dust control using emulsion was therefore
performed for Gotland Municipality on 60-70 km gravel roads annually. Road
widths varied between 3.0 and 4.5 m. The Gotland method comprises three stages:
analysis of road, spreading and mixing of bitumen emulsion, and plant and
equipment.
A.2.1 Analysis of road

The analysis is broadly the same as for dust control with salt and lignosulphonate.
This stage has been described in Subclause 7.1.3.2.1.
A.2.2 Spreading and mixing bitumen emulsion

The road is graded down to 50 mm, after which it is watered and the emulsion is
spread. The emulsion is mixed into the wearing course which is then compacted.
The emulsion used contains at least 55% bitumen. Emulsion spreading needs a
water tanker, an emulsion spreader and a specially equipped road roller.
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Application begins by watering the previously graded road immediately before the
emulsion spreader to ensure that the wearing course is thoroughly wet. The
quantity of water is not described; it is merely pointed out that the wearing course
should be "sufficiently wet".
The quantity of emulsion applied is controlled by the speed of the spreader

vehicle. The spreader vehicle is followed by the grader that mixes emulsion into
the wearing course and adjusts camber and superelevation very accurately. It is
essential that the grader should mix the wearing course properly and spread it
evenly right out to the edges. Bergström and Grebacken (1995) draw the
conclusion that accuracy on the part of the grader operator is very important for
achieving satisfactory results. When the whole road has been treated and has dried
to some extent, the water vehicle returns to compact the wearing course.
Final compaction is carried out by traffic. Investigations are in progress to

ascertain whether or not compaction with a roller is necessary. In order that
application should not be disrupted by breakdowns, tanks of emulsion and water
are set out in suitable places along the road. The vehicles are designed so that the
entire tank can be changed. Bergström and Grebacken (1995) are of the opinion
that coordination within the application train is a highly critical factor for a good
final result. All in the group must be in contact in order to regulate speeds and
quantities and to make sure that work is satisfactory. See figure 7.5.
Grader with Spreader vehicle Water tanker

System 2000 2 kg/m2 BE the first year
and 1 kg/m2 other years
Figure 7.5 The soft method, Gotland method.
Drivers must maintain contact via radio. The driver of the emulsion spreader
vehicle dictates the speed of the water tanker through visual assessment of the
moisture content of the carriageway. In turn, the grader driver dictates the speed
of the spreader vehicle in regard to the quantity of emulsion. After a day or two,
the bitumen emulsion will have dried and the wearing course compacted by
traffic. The results of the treatment will be satisfactory if edge trimming and
grading have been performed accurately. Before the road has dried, the emulsion
may soil vehicles using the road.
A.2.3 Plant and equipment

The plant and equipment that are used in dust control by this method are a water
tanker, a road grader to scarify the wearing course, a road grader to spread the
emulsion into the aggregate, and a spreader vehicle to distribute the bitumen
emulsion.
The water tanker is articulated and fitted with extra wide single tyres.
Conventional double tyres would produce a troublesome uncompacted bank of
material between the wheels. In this way, the whole width of the double wheel is
compacted in one pass. Attempts have also been made to use different kinds of
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pneumatic tyred rollers, but this has not been successful or economically
justifiable. The aggregate-emulsion mixture got caught up on the tyres. When the
water tanker is employed, this problem does not arise.
The road grader for scarifying the wearing course is a 14 tonne grader equipped
with System 2000 on the blade and a toothed blade on the windrow spreader.
These blades break down the wearing course gravel to a lesser extent than a
smooth blade.
The road grader for mixing the emulsion is a 14 tonne road grader equipped
with System 2000 on the blade and a smooth blade on the windrow spreader. The
reason that a smooth blade is fitted on the windrow spreader is that more even and
better mixing of emulsion into the wearing course is to be achieved. When a
toothed blade was used, windrows of emulsion-aggregate mixture were left
behind the grader, with the aggregate and emulsion separated. System 2000 is
described in detail in Clause 7.2.
The spreader vehicle is an ordinary lorry with a tank. The tank is fitted with a
spray bar at the back of the lorry. The spray bar is controlled from a panel near the
driver so that emulsion can be spread evenly and as needed along the entire width
of the road. The tank is equipped with a pressure gauge since the rate of spread is
regulated by pressure. The tank volume is 11,000 litres which is enough for about
3.5 km of road.
Experiences gained with the Gotland method

The problems encountered in the Gotland method were e.g. a high fines content,
potholes with very sharp edges, formation of banks and difficulties in using the
grader and windrow spreader.
• High fines content

There are two reasons for a high fines content on Gotland. The first is that the
aggregate for the wearing course is limestone. Limestone is a weak rock that is
broken down both by traffic and when the road is graded. Owing to the
breakdown of limestone, the fines content increases in time and the effect of dust
control diminishes. The second reason is that gravel roads on Gotland are often
along agricultural land. Tractors and implements carry clay and soil from the
fields to the road. This has the effect that the fines content in the wearing course
gravel increases and becomes excessive.
If the wearing course has a too high fines content, dust control will be
unsuccessful because the emulsion must bind a much larger surface than if the
particle size distribution is correct.
This problem appears to have been solved by correcting the composition of the
wearing course during maintenance by the addition of certain fractions, e.g.
aggregate of 8-16 mm fraction so that the distribution comes as close as possible
to the ideal curve, but with a smaller quantity of fines. Bergström and Grebacken
(1995) note that when a change was made on Gotland to dust control with
emulsion, the aggregate required for supplementary spreading decreased from
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about 30 m3/km to about 6 m3/km annually. Supplementary regravelling is

described in detail in Clause 7.4.
• Potholes with sharp edges

Potholes have very sharp edges and shake vehicles very badly. Single potholes
can be filled with oil gravel if the road is in a good condition in other respects,
otherwise the road must be graded.
• Difficulties in using the grader and windrow spreader

When roads began to be treated with bitumen emulsion, difficulties were
encountered because the windrow spreader tended to penetrate too deeply and to
break up the material below the wearing course, and because the transition
sections between camber and superelevation were unsatisfactory. These problems
were overcome when the supporting wheels of the windrow spreader that mixes in
the emulsion were equipped with hydraulic height control. Difficulties still arise
because emulsion blocks up the blade fitted with System 2000. This difficulty is
minimised by properly cleaning the blade at the end of each working day.
A.3 The Örebro method

In Örebro, dust control using emulsion is still experimental activity on a small
scale (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995). The Örebro method is described in three
stages, road analysis, spreading and mixing the emulsion, and plant and
equipment. It is worth noting that the Örebro method is no longer used.
A.3.1 Analysis of road

The analysis is performed in the same way as for other dust control agents. What
must be pointed out is that in the Örebro method the road must be prepared one
day prior to spreading the emulsion.
A.3.2 Spreading and mixing the bitumen emulsion

The rate of spread of emulsion is 2 kg/m2 in the first year and 1 kg/m2 in other
years. The method requires two water tankers, one emulsion spreader, a road
grader and a pneumatic tyred roller.
Treatment begins by applying large amounts of water to the road. When this
pretreatment has been carried out, water is again sprayed immediately before the
emulsion spreader. The wearing course should be so wet that when a shoe is
pressed into the road, a pool is formed. The emulsion spreader is followed by the
grader that mixes the emulsion into the wearing course and at the same time
adjusts camber and superelevation.
In order to prevent the formation of ruts by ordinary vehicles, the road is

compacted with a pneumatic tyred roller immediately after the grader has mixed
the wearing course. However, fine material mixed with bitumen tends to stick to
the wheels of the roller. It is not clear what significance this has for the final
result; the wearing course might become devoid of fines. On roads wider than 6
m, one half is treated at a time.
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A.3.3 Plant and equipment

Two ordinary water tankers are used to water the road. The same grader is used
for pretreatment and mixing the emulsion into the wearing course. The grader is
an ordinary 14 tonne road grader equipped with System 2000 on the blade, and a
smooth blade on the windrow spreader. The windrow spreader is fitted with
wheels that stop it from penetrating too deep; see figure 7.6.
Pneumatic tyred Grader Spreader vehicle Water tanker Water tanker

roller
Figure 7.6 The soft method, Örebro method.
Comparison between Gotland method and Örebro method

Table 7.3 shows a comparison between Gotland method and Örebro method.
Table 7.3 Differences between Gotland method and Örebro method.

Gotland method Örebro method
1 Wearing course of limestone Wearing course of moraine aggregate
and crushed rock which is less porous
than limestone
2 During pretreatment comprising watering During pretreatment the road is graded
and grading, grading depends on how to a depth of 5-10 cm irrespective of how
damaged the road is. The grader damaged the road is
scarifies to a depth of 1.5-3 cm
3 Pretreatment should be carried out not Pretreatment is carried out the day
more than 4-5 hours before emulsion before emulsion is spread
treatment
4 1 water tanker, 1 spreader vehicle and 1 2 water tankers, 1 spreader vehicle, 1
grader are used for emulsion treatment grader and 1 pneumatic tyred roller are
used for emulsion treatment
5 Watering in conjunction with emulsion Watering in conjunction with emulsion
treatment is carried out once before treatment is carried out twice before
emulsion is spread emulsion is spread
2
6 Rate of spread of emulsion is 2 kg/m in Same rate of spread as in Gotland
2
first year and 1 kg/m otherwise method
7 Road is compacted by traffic Road is compacted with a pneumatic
tyred roller
8 Windrow spreader is equipped with Windrow spreader is equipped with
toothed blade for pretreatment and with smooth blade for both pretreatment and
smooth blade for mixing in emulsion mixing in emulsion
A.4 Västerås method

Only one experiment has been carried out by the National Swedish Road
Administration. This was done in the vicinity of Västerås in the spring of 1991.
The method was carried out in four stages:
Stage 1: Crushed aggregate is mixed with BE 60/65 emulsion. Mixing can be

carried out in a conventional oil gravel works, but it has also been done in a
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mobile slurry machine. The quantity of emulsion added is 3.5% by weight. The
mixed material can be stored for later use.
Stage 2: The aggregate-emulsion mixture is deposited on the road with a lorry.
Stage 3: The material is adjusted with a road grader. The layer thickness shall be
4-5 cm.
Stage 4: The adjusted surface is rolled with a pneumatic tyred roller.
Figure 7.7, 7.8 and 7.9 show deposition, spreading, adjustment and rolling (Road
Figure 7.7 Deposition of crushed aggregate-bitumen mixture on the road.
Figure 7.8 Spreading and adjustment.
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Figure 7.9 Rolling.
Advantages of the soft method

Palmgren (1997) summarises the results of dust control with emulsion on Gotland.
See table 7.4.
Table 7.4 Summary of results of dust control with emulsion on Gotland.
Expected result Previous method Dust control with BE
Dust control Variable result 90% of dust bound
3 3
Aggregate consumption 30 m /km annually 6 m /km annually
Grading 5-6 times annually 2.5 times annually
Price 100% 75%
The following comments may be made on the above summary.

a. The table does not consider environmental effects.
b. It is not clear for how many years dust control with emulsion must be carried
out before the method is profitable.
c. The table does not say what methods are being compared.
d. What operations are included in the price?
e. It is not clear what is meant by 90% of dust being bound.
f. It is doubtful that all gravel roads need 30 m3 aggregate/km annually.
g. In view of the fact that rock on the island is limestone, is the experiment on
Gotland applicable in other conditions? Because of limestone, the breakdown
process is different. This means that the number of grading and dust control
operations will be different.
Krigsman (1993) quotes some positive properties of dust control with emulsion:
• The gravel road can be graded again and compacted in spite of previous
admixture of emulsion.
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• The cost of the annual regravelling can be steeply reduced or completely

discontinued on sections dust controlled with emulsion. This saves wearing
course aggregate.
• After three years, the road will have acquired a quantity of bitumen
equivalent to the single course surface dressing.
• Maintenance is reduced since grading is carried out less often. On some of the
test sections grading has been reduced by 50%.
• Environmental benefits since no salt is spread and corrosion attack on
vehicles is therefore reduced.
• Expenditure on gravel road maintenance is reduced.
B. The hard method, Blekinge method

In the hard method, the road is given a bound surface, and the results are
perceived by road users as though the road had been paved. This is called the hard
method because the gravel wearing course becomes so hard that it must often be
crushed in a crushing plant in conjunction with maintenance. The method is
sometimes called the Blekinge method since it was first tested in Blekinge
County. In 1987, all remaining gravel roads in the Johannishus road management
area in Blekinge County were dust controlled with bitumen emulsion as an
alternative to conventional dust control with calcium chloride. Thomasson has
summarised this test in three reports, VFK Delrapport 1 (1988), VFK Delrapport 2
(1989) and VFK Delrapport 3 (1991). All these reports are in Swedish.
Execution of the hard method

Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, (1992) divides execution of the
hard method into two, measures in the year before dust control and measures in
the year of dust control.
B.1 The year before dust control

The following should be carried out as pretreatment the year before dust control:
• Ditch clearance.
• Removal of stones from the road.
• Regravelling of such fraction that the fines content (0.074 mm) in the top 2
cm of the wearing course is less than 10%.
B.2 The year of dust control

Dust control is carried out as follows:
• The road is watered and graded so that the correct crossfall is obtained
• The road is rolled after grading. Rolling is sometimes omitted.
• The road is kept slightly moist before emulsion is spread. Watering is
sometimes omitted (Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992).
• Emulsion BE 50 M is spread at the rate of 1.5 l/m2 (Road maintenance-roads
free from snow and ice, 1992). In the Blekinge method, about 1.4 kg/m2 BE
45/MY is used (Thomasson, 1988).
• Sand dressing with 0-8 fraction, about 10 l/m2
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• Traffic allowed to compact wearing course after dust control

• After some days the road is swept. Sweeping is sometimes omitted. See
figure 7.10.
Sweeping Sand dressing Spreader Water tanker Roller Grader Water tanker
vehicle
Figure 7.10 The Hard method.
Advantages and disadvantages of the hard method

Thomasson (1988) compares the above with gravel roads dust controlled with salt
or lignosulphonate and gives the following advantages and disadvantages.
Advantages
• Large nationaleconomic gains can be achieved due to shorter trip times,
reduced corrosion, etc. However, Thomasson does not say how large these
gains are. No nationaleconomic calculations for gravel roads have been found
in the litterature.
• The road is perceived to be a paved road.
• Use of salt can be reduced.
• Material that does not comply with specifications can be used.
• Soiling is reduced.
Disadvantages
• More expensive method. The test indicates that under some conditions it is
10-15% more expensive over a 10 year period than conventional gravel road
maintenance, but this disregards the nationaleconomic gains.
• It is probably difficult to return to conventional gravel road maintenance.
• The condition of the road is slightly worse in winter since this dust control is
sensitive to the action of the plough during snow clearance.
7.1.3.4.3 Differences between the soft and hard method

A comparison of the two methods is given in table 7.5.
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Table 7.5 Comparison of the soft and hard method.

Soft method Hard method
1 A road grader can be used to scarify and The gravel layer must often be crushed
shape the road in a crushing plant after many dust
control treatments
2 Execution: Execution:
a. Watering a. Grading
b. Grading b. Compaction with roller
c. Spreading emulsion c. Spreading emulsion
d. Mixing of aggregate and emulsion d. Blinding
e. Compaction by traffic or with roller e. Sweeping after a few days
3 BE 60/65 is often used as binder. The Binder used is as follows:
emulsion contains 70% bitumen Blekinge County, BE 50 M
Johannishus area, BE 45 M
The emulsion contains 45-50% bitumen
2 2
4 Rate of spread is 2 kg/m in first year Rate of spread is about 1.4 kg/m BE
2
and 1 kg/m in maintenance treatment in 45/MY (Karlsson, 1989)
2
other years 1.5 l/m BE 50 MY
(Road maintenance-roads free from
snow and ice, 1992)
5 Gravel road character is retained Road is perceived by road users as
paved road
7.1.3.4.4 Environmental impact due to dust control with bitumen emulsion

"Environmental effects of operation and maintenance of roads and streets" (1992),
in Swedish, quotes some positive environmental effects, for instance less use of
salt, reduced corrosion and a dust free environment near the road. One negative
secondary environmental effect may be that, when emulsion is to be removed
from vehicles and plant, environmentally hazardous degreasing agents are used.
Environmental impact relates to the following areas:
A. Vegetation and water pollution
B. Transport
C. Corrosion
D. Health hazards
A. Vegetation and water pollution

"Environmental effects of operation and maintenance of roads and streets" (1992)
states that in Norwegian laboratory experiments studies were made to find
whether noxious components can be washed out of oil gravel and affect drinking
water. It was found that water soluble and highly volatile fractions may reach
sources of water supply. Bergström and Grebacken (1995) have however asserted
that when emulsion has reacted and dust controlled the road, it is no longer
soluble in water and cannot be leached.
When aggregate from the wearing course is dislodged, the bitumen emulsion
remains on the particles and is not spread out into nature further than the
aggregate itself. Most of the aggregate particles removed from the road collect in
the ditches; when the ditches are later cleared they are collected up and deposited
in a controlled tip. According to Bergström and Grebacken (1995), the problem
may be considered to be of small significance and controllable.
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It is worth noting that occasionally the bitumen does not break but runs into the
ditch and from there into pools of water.
"Environmental effects of operation and maintenance of roads and streets" (1992)

says that one negative secondary environmental effect may be that when emulsion
is to be washed off vehicles and plant, environmentally hazardous degreasing
agents are used.
B. Transport
Bitumen is regarded in transport as dangerous goods since it contains fluxing oil
that is flammable (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995). In the Nynäs AB product
description sheet (1998) it is stated that BE 60 M/2000 is not classified as
dangerous goods by any national or international standardised transport
regulations.
C. Corrosion
Emulsion does not contribute to corrosion, but acts rather as a good undersealing
compound (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995). "Environmental effects of operation
and maintenance of roads and streets" (1992) quotes some positive environmental
effects such as reduced use of salt and corrosion, and a dust free road
environment.
D. Health hazards
Kandeman (1983) made an investigation of chemical health hazards, noise, dust
and exhaust gases in his work on the laying of emulsion concrete, surface dressing
and the production of bitumen emulsion.
Kandeman says that complaints have involved headaches, itching, white/red skin
rashes, dryness in the mouth and eyes. In all cases the personnel had been engaged
on laying emulsion concrete. This is puzzling, since the greatest exposure appears
to occur in conjunction with surface dressing, the spreading of bitumen emulsion
or production at the emulsion plant.
Bergström and Grebacken (1995) discuss some health hazards in production.

When the product is made, some hazardous substances such as diesel oil,
hydrochloric acid, emulsifier and the bitumen itself are used. But the process is
automated so that the personnel do not need to handle these substances.
Hydrochloric acid and emulsifier arrive at the plant in tanks which are simply
changed over. The emulsifier, EM 44, is a very strong basic soap and may on
contact cause skin and eye irritation. Health hazards for personnel working with
emulsion have been minimised. How this has been done is not described in
Bergström and Grebacken's report.
In Nynäs AB's product description sheet (1989) for BE 60 M/2000 it is stated

under the heading "Hazardous Properties" that the hazardous effects on human
health are as follows:
• The product contains emulsifiers of the amine type. Prolonged or repeated
contact with bitumen emulsion may cause skin and eye irritation in specially
sensitive persons.
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• Storage and handling of the product at high temperature, 50-80°C, may cause
skin burns.
According to the product information sheet, BM 60M/2000 is not classified as

hazardous according to the EU criteria.
7.1.3.4.5 Experiences from dust control with bitumen emulsion

The following experiences appear in the studied literature:
• Emulsion treatment shall be carried out as soon as the road has stabilised after
thaw so that natural moisture in the road structure can be utilised without the
road being deformed by the heavy vehicles needed for application.
• Weather must be dry when the road is treated with emulsion and for about
another day after compaction. The reason is that emulsion must have time to
bind the dust particles; rain during this binding stage will wash out the
emulsion and the treatment must be repeated.
• The temperature of the road structure must be above freezing and preferably
above +5°C for good results. Han (1992) recommends that dust control with
bituminous materials should not be carried out if the temperature is below 10-
15°C.
• When temperatures are very high, the newly treated road may have to be
watered.
• For satisfactory results, it is necessary for personnel to have greater know-
how and accuracy in dust control with bitumen emulsion than with salt.
• Damage mostly consisted of puncture marks. In the first year, damage
appeared in the form of small holes about 2 cm in diameter. The cause of this
damage may be that there had been a small protuberance, e.g. a stone, in the
road surface during treatment and that the quantity of binder at this point was
too small.
• It is stated in ROAD 94 that during dust control of gravel wearing courses
with emulsion, a base course for paved roads in accordance with Subclause
5.5.1 in ROAD 94 should be used instead of that specified for gravel roads in
Chapter 5, "Technical requirements for gravel roads". If this is done, dust
control with calcium chloride is thereafter inappropriate.
• Foley (1996) is of the opinion that if a gravel road is to be dust controlled
with bituminous materials, the use of sea water must cease at least 12 months
prior to dust control. The reason is that salt may give rise to efflorescence and
prevent penetration of the bituminous material into the wearing course. NaCl
has the same effect on bituminous materials. Foley (1996) recommends a
report written by Netterberg (1979) which gives details of damage to
bituminous materials caused by salt.
• The report "Unsealed Roads Manual-Guidelines to Good Practice" (1993)
contains a table that summarises previous experiences gained in Australia
during dust control of different soils with bitumen emulsion. See table 7.6.
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Table 7.6 Summary of experiences gained during dust control of different

soils with bitumen emulsion.
7.1.3.5 Clay
This subclause will deal with clay as a dust control agent. In case the fine material
has been lost as dust from the wearing course, soil binder must be added to bind
the loose aggregate. Greasy clay is generally used as soil binder. The need is
determined by analysing the particle size distribution curve for the material and
comparing this to the ideal aggregate curve.
An endeavour should be made to add the soil binder after thaw and at the time that
the wearing course is dressed. Natural moisture content is usually sufficient, and
this reduces the need for water and makes work easier.
In his tests in Älvsborg County over three seasons, Hallberg (1989) used a
residual product from the paper industry, non-fibrous filler. In its dry form, this
contains about 40% kaolinite clay. The remainder is cellulose fibre. The
dewatered fibrous material has a dry content of about 35%.
The effects of kaolin are considered superior to those of clay application in older
days, mainly due to the more homogeneous admixture into the wearing course
gravel which is accomplished due to the consistence of the material and on the
way it is spread. Care must be taken not to add too much material as this may
make the carriageway slippery.
Beskow (1934) states that in the usual case when the gravel wearing course is
badly bound and is easily corrugated, it should be treated either with a binder or
by increasing the soil binder content, or possibly by both. Soil binder is mixed
into the existing aggregate material with a grader. This addition of soil binder
should be carried out when the road is wet after rain or watering. Once the
material has been mixed in, the road should preferably be rolled, or traffic may be
used to perform the necessary compaction.
When the proportion of soil binder is determined and it is mixed into the wearing
course, care must be taken not to spread excessive quantities. This may cause
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problems for traffic in wet weather. For the best effect, soil binder should be
applied before the first dust control treatment of the year (Bergström and
Grebacken, 1995).
7.1.3.5.1 Working methods for clay spreading

Jämsä (1982) says that clay can, in principle, be spread in three ways:
Spreading soil binder from heaps at the side of the road

The material is spread with spade from the back of a lorry. After this, aggregate is
drawn into the road from the edges. The wearing course is then watered and the
material is mixed with a road grader or drag. Mixing should continue until the soil
binder and aggregate have been properly mixed into one another and formed a
firm wearing course. Drying of the mixed mass should be prevented.
Soil binder deposited along the sides of the road

When soil binder has dried out it breaks up, and after the next fall of rain the
material is mixed as in the previous case. This method is cheap and suitable for
roads with little traffic. The drawback of the method is that some of the soil binder
is often lost due to the effect of traffic and wind.
Soil binder and aggregate loaded from different piles

The materials are mixed together during loading and spreading on the road. The
material is spread on the road from the back of a tipper lorry to a layer of suitable
thickness, and is mixed into the wearing course with a grader.
Storage of soil binder over the winter makes work easier since the slabs of clay
are broken up by frost and this promotes the ease of mixing of the soil binder.
Storage is a measure that must often be resorted to since soil binder cannot at all
times be extracted in the period best for spreading, owing to slippery conditions or
poor bearing capacity in clayey areas.
In Hallberg's (1989) tests with kaolin, this was spread as follows: the material was
spread with a fertiliser spreader drawn by a tractor or a clay spreader that is often
a converted sand spreader. The edge masses, aggregate and kaolin were mixed
with a road grader. Water was added if needed.
According to Halberg (1989), the rate of spread of kaolin varies but is normally 7-
10 m3/km. According to Jämsä (1982), the quantity of clay spread at one time is
usually 6-12 m3/km.
7.1.3.6 Oil as dust control agent

Examples of oil used as dust control agent are crude oil and waste oil. The high
price and environmental aspects of oil limit its use as a dust control agent. It is
used at the rate of about 1.0-1.5 kg/m2.
Lindh (1981) points out that a road treated with oil is considered to have
somewhat better resistance to drying and the action of water than one treated with
calcium chloride. He summarises some field tests carried out on different test
sections by saying that the best results of dust control with oil have been achieved
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during periods of little precipitation which necessitate large quantities of calcium

chloride as dust control agent.
In 1995 a full scale test was carried out on a gravel road in South Halland using
"rape seed oil gravel". The purpose of this test was to find an alternative to
traditional dust control. Rape oil was mixed in at the rate of 2%. The road,
provided with a 3 cm thick layer of rape seed oil gravel, was compacted by traffic
to a hard and dust free gravel road. The road was harder than planned and could
not therefore be maintained with a grader. Two years later only traces of rape seed
oil gravel remained (Gunnarsson, 1997).
7.1.4 Costs of dust control using salt, lignosulphonates

and bitumen emulsion
The rate of spread and maintenance frequency are the factors that mainly affect
the cost of dust control.
Maintenance costs vary with the number of maintenance operations that must be
carried out each year and the resources which these require. The number of
operations varies from one (minimum) to three or four (maximum). Dust control
using calcium chloride needs the least resources and plant. Costs can be broken
down into two, material costs and plant costs (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995).
Han (1992) quotes four operations that must be included when dust control is
costed. These are road upgrading, surface preparation, dust control agent and
spreading.
Road upgrading includes improvement of drainage, geometrical improvements,

repair of damage to and deformations in the road, and regravelling if necessary.
Surface preparation includes labour, plant, watering, scarifying of the road
surface, compaction, traffic control and diversion if necessary for the actual
spreading to begin.
Dust control agent comprises material and transport costs.
Spreading comprises labour and plant used in spreading the dust control agent.
Hallberg (1989) gives a comparison between Dustex and calcium chloride. The
test was performed in Älvsborg County between 1986 and 1988. In view of a
possible investment in a storage tank, the total cost of dust control with Dustex
was judged to be higher.
Bergström and Grebacken (1995) compared bitumen emulsion by the soft method,
calcium chloride and Dustex. According to this, calcium chloride is more
expensive than Dustex. The comparison also shows that in the first four years
Dustex treatment is the most economical method. After this the Örebro method is
more cost effective. The Örebro method is described in detail in Subclause
7.1.3.4.
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In their degree project, Bergström and Grebacken (1995) made certain

assumptions so that they could make an objective comparison of the different dust
control methods. These assumptions are:
• Plant and resource costs are calculated for a 10 km long and 4 m wide
section.
• The roads are assumed to be in the same initial state, i.e. the same preparatory
work is required.
The costs calculated by Bergström and Grebacken (1995) comprise preparatory

work with watering, grading of the road, edge trimming if necessary, and
spreading of emulsion. The methods require slightly different resources and plant.
The results of the comparison are plotted in figure 7.11.
Figure 7.11 Comparison of bitumen emulsion, calcium chloride and Dustex.

Min = once a year, max = three or four times a year.
Vertical axis-SEK/km road
Horizontal axis-Year
"Dust control of gravel roads" (1993), in Norwegian, arrives at the following costs
for calcium chloride, Dustex and Norsalt.
Table 7.7 Costs of calcium chloride, Dustex and Norsalt.

Dust control agent Average cost NK/km
Norsalt 1.586
Dustex 4.686
Calcium chloride 6.605
Costs of dust control with bitumen emulsion

In 1998, BE 60M/2000 cost SEK 1860/tonne, and BE 60M/65 SEK 2025/tonne.
The costs of the soft and hard method are discussed below.
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According to Bergström and Grebacken (1995), the soft method on Gotland costs
SEK 8.4/m. The corrresponding cost in Örebro is SEK 8.0/m. Bitumen emulsion
on Gotland costs SEK 900/tonne exclusive of transport. The corresponding cost in
Örebro is SEK 850/tonne.
Karlsson (1989) has calculated the cost of dust control with bitumen emulsion
according to the soft method in the first year (1988). For a 5 m wide road, it was
about SEK 19/m. The way costs change in subsequent years is not given in the
report.
Krigsman (1993) says that the cost of dust control with bitumen emulsion
according to the soft method is twice as much in the first year as that of dust
control using calcium chloride. But in the second year the costs are equal. If no
measures need be taken in years 3 and 4, dust control with bitumen emulsion is
cost effective.
Thomasson (1991) has investigated the costs of the hard method. He compared
the costs of dust control with bitumen emulsion according to the hard method with
that using calcium chloride. The costs include the cost of surface preparation and
repair of frost damage. See table 7.8.
Table 7.8 Annual costs of dust control with bitumen emulsion and calcium
chloride (Thomasson, 1991).
Cost of dust control, SEK/m
Year With bitumen emulsion With calcium chloride
1987 18.5 6.5
1988 8.0 7.0
1989 7.0 7.5
1990 3.0 7.0
According to the table, the initial cost for a 5 m road is about SEK 3.7/m2.
According to Karlsson (1989), the initial cost for the hard method is SEK 3.5/m2.
This cost does not include the cost of any other maintenance carried out in
conjunction with dust control.
Cost of spreading clay

The cost of spreading clay using kaolin is mainly dictated by operating capacity.
The total cost of dust control with kaolin in 1989 was about SEK 40/tonne
exclusive of transport (Hallberg, 1989).
7.1.5 The benefits of dust control

Han (1992) and Foley (1996) set out the negative effects of dust in their reports.
• Reduced traffic safety and traffickability owing to lower visibility caused by

dust.
• Loss of binder material from the road. Dust chiefly consists of fine particles
from the gravel wearing course. A dusty road gives rise to a shortage of fines.
• Inconvenience and hygienic nuisance for those living along the road.
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• Environmental damage and emission to the ambient atmosphere of highly

volatile polluting dust.
• Deterioration in quality of agricultural products.
• Increased vehicle costs due to e.g. higher cleaning costs.
• Increased maintenance costs for installations and buildings along the road.
The above negative effects are described in greater detail in two reports,
"Economic Disbenefits of Dust from Unsealed Roads" (1993) and "Effect of Dust
Palliatives on Unsealed Roads in New Zealand" (1995).
The benefits of dust control can be mainly divided into short term and long term
benefits. These are sometimes referred to as direct and indirect benefits.
In the short term, dust control produces concrete benefits because the dust is
controlled and the road is made smoother, which means that the frequency and
extent of grading and the cost of regravelling and ditching are reduced.
"Guidelines for Cost Effective Use and Application of Dust Palliatives" (1987)
states on the basis of experience that, by effective dust control, the costs of
grading and regravelling have been reduced by 25-75% depending, for instance,
on the choice of dust control agent and on how often and at which state of the
road dust control was carried out.
In the long term, there are benefits for society and road users. "Guidelines for
cost effective use and application of dust palliatives" (1987) describes the
environmental and social effects of dust in greater detail. The areas discussed are
traffic safety, aesthetics, health, vegetation, land, water resources and vehicle
costs. By means of dust control, the following long term benefits are achieved:
• Vehicle costs (damage, fuel) are reduced because the road is more even
• Accident risk is reduced due to improved visibility
• Less disturbance to those living nearby and fewer complaints because of dust.
• The value of properties and other facilities increases
• Living standards are enhanced
• Reduced need for maintenance of buildings to remove dirt caused by dust
• Less damage to health and health hazards caused by dust
• Less sediment in water
• Reduced environmental impact on sensitive vegetation
• Extraction of finite resources such as fossil fuels, aggregate, rock and
bitumen is reduced or limited. As pointed out by Sander (1997) in her
licentiate thesis, the negative effect of the aggregate industry is reduced.
• Traffickability is improved
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7.1.6 Choice of dust control agent

Karlsson (1989) says that local conditions must be taken into account when the
dust control agent is chosen. The structure of the road, the composition of the
wearing course, the amount of heavy traffic etc are decisive for this choice.
General conclusions cannot be drawn from single test roads.
Han (1992) describes other factors that must be considered in choosing the dust
control agent, such as environmental laws and other regulations, access to
materials and equipment, and the views of road users. He considers environmental
impacts to be the most important factor in choosing the dust control agent.
The report "Guidelines for cost effective use and application of dust palliatives"
(1987) contains a table which may provide help in choosing the appropriate dust
control agent. This table takes into consideration five factors, traffic volume, type
of base course, climate, wearing course material and environmental impacts. The
ratings used are (2) good, (1) quite good and (0) bad; see table 7.9.
Table 7.9 Choice of dust control agent.

Agent Traffic volume Base course Climate Wearing course EI
fine content % passing
0.075 mm sieve
<100 100- >250 Clay Silt Sand Rain Norm Dry <5 5-10 10- 20- >30 1
250 y al 20 30
CaCl2 2 2 1 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 1 2 1 0 1
MgCl2 2 2 1 2 1 0 0 2 1 0 1 2 1 0 1
Dustex 2 1 0 2 1 0 1 2 2 0 1 2 2 1 1
Bitumen 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
Emulsion
Veg. Oil 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
What does not look right in the above table is that environmental impacts (EI) are
the same for all dust control agents.
Comparisons between dust control agents are usually made with respect to four
aspects:
• Construction, i.e. can ordinary maintenance plant be used to spread the agent
• Cost
• Dust control effect
• Corrosivity and other environmental effects
In FSB Version (1998), in Swedish, it is stated that the material for dust control
must be approved by the management authority. A report on the quantities of dust
control agent used must also be submitted to the authority once a year after the
season, but no later than 15 October.
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7.1.7 Laboratory tests to evaluate dust control agents

The effect of different dust control agents was tested by laboratory experiments
with respect to the following properties:
• Strength
• Durability
• Trafficability
• Resistance to freezing and thawing
• Moisture retention
• Density
As regards strength, Han (1992) and Hoover (1973) both say that a triaxial
compression test can be used to evaluate dust control agents. A cylindrical test
specimen (5.08 cm x 5.08 cm) of the wearing course material treated with the dust
control agent is loaded to failure in a triaxial compression test. By comparing the
compressive stresses at which failure occurs, different dust control agents can be
compared and evaluated.
In order to determine durability or susceptibility to erosion, Sultan (1974)

performed a very comprehensive investigation comprising a study of the
literature, laboratory experiments and field tests. In his laboratory experiments, he
used traffic abrasion apparatus to assess the effectiveness of some selected dust
control agents. Among these agents there was a product called Redicote E 52
Emulsion which is stated to be a cationic asphalt emulsion. In his summary of the
project, Sultan says that use of a 7.5 cm thick wearing course mixed with Redicote
E 52 cationic emulsion produced an excellent wearing course surface. Langdon
and Williamson (1983) refer to another laboratory method for the determination
of the durability of bituminous materials. The method is called Modified Pellet
Abrasion (MPA) test. This method is used to measure the abrasion of bitumen
bound test specimens. Bolander (1997) says that durability can also be determined
by an indirect tensile test. A cylindrical specimen (101.6 mm x 116.4 mm) is used.
Bolander (1997) recommends Hudson and Kennedy's report (1968) that describes
this test.
In order to investigate and test the trafficability of bituminous products, Hoover

(1973) used an equipment called Traffic Simulator Apparatus in his
comprehensive investigation in Iowa. The following bituminous products were
tested by Hoover:
• Redicote E-36, cationic bitumen emulsion
• MC-800, cutback bitumen
• Petroset SB, cationic latex emulsion
• Petroset RB, cationic latex emulsion
• Peneprime, a special asphalt emulsion
• Semi-Pave, a special asphalt emulsion
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The traffic simulator apparatus is a about 3.5 m long linear road simulator. The
width of the test lane is 0.9 m and its height above the ground is 0.6 m. The
apparatus is shown in figure 7.12.
Figure 7.12 Traffic simulator apparatus.
In the laboratory experiments, the most promising results were yielded by

Redicote E-36, MC-800 cutback bitumen and Petroset SB. The results of Hoover's
(1973) tests are summarised in figure 7.13. The experiments are described in
detail in Hoover's report.
Figure 7.13 Results of Hoover's (1973) tests with the Traffic Simulator
Apparatus.
In 1981, Hoover performed another test with the Traffic Simulator Apparatus. He
tested calcium chloride CaCl2, lignosulphonate and bitumen emulsion. The test
was carried out on eight sections on which the wearing course had different
compositions and material types. The material properties and wearing course
composition on these eight sections are set out in table 7.10. The results of the
tests are plotted in figure 7.14 (Hoover, 1981).
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Table 7.10 Material properties and wearing course composition for the eight
sections.
Figure 7.14 Results of Hoover's (1981) tests with the Traffic Simulator
Apparatus.
7.2 Grading of gravel roads

According to "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992), grading
is an operation in which the road is graded by one pass in each direction with the
aim of restoring the surface evenness of the road.
There is no other measure in gravel road maintenance that is so critical for

condition and costs as the adjustment of the shape of the road in terms of camber
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and superelevation. Camber and superelevation are adjusted by deep grading. All
other measures such as aggregate recycling, regravelling, ditch clearance etc will
be of little use if the road after grading remains flat without sufficient camber and
superelevation. A badly shaped gravel road is easily potholed by rain. A well
shaped road from which water quickly drains often stands up to several falls of
rain before further grading is needed (Road maintenance-roads free from snow
and ice, 1992).
7.2.1 Surface grading and deep grading

Two types of grading are referred to in the literature, surface grading and deep
grading.
According to Hubendick (1969), in surface grading the blade is set vertically or

at an angle in the direction of travel, so that its action is not to cut but to scrape.
The blade is set an angle across the road so that material that is scraped off is
mixed and rolls along the blade towards its rear end.
The grader thus leaves a windrow which must be spread across the road. This is
done with a windrow spreader that is mounted on the blade. The windrow
spreader is also set at an angle, but in the opposite direction, so that the material is
returned to the road and runs out between the teeth of the windrow spreader.
Hubendick (1969) considers that surface grading is really nothing but more or less
shallow dragging and should really be called dragging. See Clause 7.7, Dragging.
Hubendick adds that, in all other cases, grading is deep grading, i.e. "proper"
grading.
In deep grading, a small cutting angle is used, with the result that the blade easily
cuts into the road to a sufficient depth. A small cutting angle also gives a blade
angle that is advantageous for good mixing of dislodged material. Material that
has been cut out is then used for adjustment of the shape.
"Plant operator's handbook" (1995), in Swedish, describes deep grading as more

comprehensive dressing of the road. What must be done is to restore the shape of
the road. The endeavour in deep grading is to cut down to the bottom of potholes
and ruts. Deep grading is described in detail in the following.
The aim of deep grading can be described as follows:

• To shape the road so that it has the correct crossfall.
• To make the wearing course even. This can be done by either surface or deep
grading.
• To mix the aggregate material. This gives the wearing course aggregate a
more homogeneous composition which improves the cohesion of the road
(Persson, 1993). In order that grading may be meaningful, the gravel wearing
course must have the correct composition.
• To cut away clumps of grass and similar from the edge of the road, so that
water can drain from the carriageway.
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7.2.2 Factors which influence grading

According to "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992), the
factors which have the greatest effect on the scope and frequency of grading are as
follows:
• Traffic
• Weather
• Length of snow and ice free period
• Composition of wearing course
• Thickness of wearing course
• Ditches
• Presence of stones in carriageway and at the edges of the road
• Crossfall of the road
7.2.3 Frequency and times of year

The number of grading events depends on what dust control agent had been used
before. A road on which salt is used for dust control requires relatively extensive
maintenance, grading or dragging 3-4 times a year. (Bergström and Grebacken,
1995). The following five times are mentioned in the literature:
• Early spring: As the road thaws and its surface becomes soft, the road is
graded lightly to repair damage and to aerate and dry out the road (Road
• In summer: The road is graded to even out corrugations, ruts and potholes.
This must be done to as small an extent as possible, since dust control
treatment must often be complemented by repeated grading.
• In autumn: The road is graded as aggregate is spread so as to mix the new
aggregate with the old aggregate material and to shape the road.
• Other occasions: Grading may be necessary on other occasions if the
material on the road has been washed off by heavy rain or if the road has
become rutted, potholed or corrugated by the action of traffic. Manual of
Standard Photographs in Method Specifications 106 (1996), in Swedish, must
be used as an aid in assessing when a gravel road must be graded (Persson,
1993). Glänneskog and Skog (1994) add that in some cases grading is carried
out both before and after aggregate is spread as a maintenance measure.
7.2.4 Method specification for grading

Grading may be carried out in conjunction with rain or watering. Grading of a
gravel road adjacent to a paved road and the grading of roads with curves will also
be described.
• Grading in conjunction with rain is as a rule good economy but requires
attention and experience. Grading must never be carried out if there is too
little rain, and it should also be discontinued in heavy rain. It should also be
stopped in good time after rain has ceased. "Road maintenance-roads free
from snow and ice" (1992) states that a water tanker must be deployed when
there is a risk that the road will dry out.
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• The road must be watered to ensure that material dislodged by grading and
the base are moist enough for compaction by traffic. Watering is described in
Clause 7.5. Grading in conjunction with watering may be carried out in
several ways. "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992)
describes one alternative.
• The road is be watered in good time before grading begins.
• The road is broken up by two passes of the grader, one in each direction.
Dislodged material is deposited at the sides of the road; it should not run
on to the slopes.
• The road and the rows of aggregate are watered again.
• The rows of aggregate are graded in and are distributed evenly over the
road with a windrow spreader. The road is watered again if necessary.
• The road is compacted by the water tanker.
Grading of gravel road adjacent to a paved road is carried out in two passes.
figure 7.15 illustrates the reason for this (Plant operator training, 1995).
Figure 7.15 Grading of gravel road adjacent to a paved road.

DRAG 1=PASS 1
DRAG 2=PASS 2
GRUSVÄG=GRAVEL ROAD
BÖRJA DRAG 2 PÅ VÄNSTER SIDA FÖR ATT FÅ MED EV. ÖVERSKOTT=START PASS 2 ON
LEFT HAND SIDE TO GATHER UP ANY EXCESS
STRÄNGSPRIDARE=WINDROW SPREADER
BELAGD VÄG=PAVED ROAD
ÖVERSKOTT DRAS BAKÅT MED HYVELBLADET ELLER MED FRONTBLADET = EXCESS IS
DRAWN BACKWARDS WITH GRADER BLADE OR WITH FRONT BLADE
When roads with curves are graded, it is difficult to decide which sections should
be cambered or superelevated. If all curves are superelevated, there will be too
many transitional sections. Some of these will always be flat and drainage will be
unsatisfactory. "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992)
therefore recommends that only curves of small radius should be superelevated
after consultation with the grader operator and the road engineer. The rest of the
road should be cambered. It is difficult to quote a definite radius for
superelevation. The decision can only be made on the basis of experience and
judgment.
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7.2.5 Plant and equipment for grading

Grading is carried out with a grader and a windrow spreader.
The road grader is superior to all alternative equipment for the shaping and
smoothing of gravel roads. It is one of the most important items of plant in
highway engineering. The need for graders has decreased as the extent of the
gravel road network has been reduced, since an increasing number of roads are
treated with Y1G (Gustafsson, 1982). The most common graders used by the
Swedish National Road Administration are in the 14-17 tonne weight class.
Hubendick (1969) describes the construction and use of the road grader in greater
detail. A grader is a versatile construction plant which may have either a rigid or
articulated frame. It can be equipped with:
• Dozer blade for excavation work
• Grader blade for levelling, adjustment and winter work
• Grader blade and windrow spreader for grading gravel roads
• The road grader can also be used as a platform for implements.
Attempts have been made to find a replacement for or additions to the road grader
in both gravel road and winter road maintenance because both the first and
running costs of graders are high. Gustafsson (1982) compares a road grader with
a wheeled loader with a mounted blade, two lorries with blades and four road
drags. His results showed, inter alia, that it is only the road grader that can carry
out deep grading.
In all grading, it is essential that the blade is correctly set as regards cutting angle,
horizontal and vertical angle. See figure 7.16 (Plant operator training, 1995).
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Figure 7.16 Grader blade settings.

Skärvinkel =SV=Cutting angle
Bladlutning =BL = Blade angle
Med en liten skärvinkel får man en bladlutning som ger det losskurna materialet en god
genomblandning=A small cutting angle gives a blade angle that well mixes the loose material
Skärvinkel och bladlutning har följsamhet=Cutting angle and blade angle are complementary
Horisontalvinkel = HV=Horizontal angle
Vinkeln som bildas horisontell förhållande till hyvelramen=Angle that is formed horizontally
in relation to the grader frame
Vertikalvinkel=VV=Vertical angle
Vertikalvinkel är hyvelbladets lutning i sidled=The vertical angle is the lateral inclination of
the blade
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The duty of the windrow spreader is to distribute over the graded surface the
material dislodged by the grader. It is important that the spreader should be
correctly set, so that the material is evenly distributed and the intended crossfall is
retained.
Källqvist (1991) says that the old windrow spreader used by the National Swedish
Road Administration had many faults. The most serious of these was that it was
difficult to shape the wearing course to the correct crossfall on narrow gravel
roads, which make up the greatest proportion of gravel roads, in conjunction with
maintenance grading with two passes, one in each direction. According to "Road
maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992), a narrow road is one less than
5 m wide. Källqvist describes other shortcomings of the old windrow spreader as
follows:
• The horizontal angle of the blade could not be altered
• Lateral extension was limited
• The blade could not be bent longitudinally
• It was difficult to set the right vertical angle
In his BD report, Källqvist mentions a number of characteristics that give

spreaders greater flexibility:
• Better manoeuvrability that makes it possible to shape the road correctly
• Snap connector to grader to make implement change easier
• Manual or automatic setting of vertical angle
• Manual or automatic spread regulation
By developing a more effective windrow spreader, it is possible to achieve:

• Grading of higher quality which reduces the number of grading events and
gives road users better riding quality
• Automatic setting makes it easier to achieve the correct shape which reduces
the number of passes and makes it easier for new operators to achieve the
right quality
As a result of Källqvist's investigation, the National Swedish Road Administration

changed over to the type of windrow spreader shown in figure 7.17.
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Figure 7.17 Windrow spreaders. At left, made by Mähler, and at right, made by
Kommunalmaskin (Road maintenance-roads free from snow and
ice, 1992).
The windrow spreader shall at all times put the camber in the correct position
irrespective of road width. For narrow roads, the windrow of aggregate must be
inside the grader wheels, and on wide roads it must be outside the wheels. See
figure 7.18.
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Figure 7.18 Grading of narrow and wide road (Road maintenance-roads free
VÄGBREDD MINDRE ÄN 5 METER=ROAD WIDTH LESS THAN 5 M
Horisontalvinkel vid hyvling av smal grusväg=Horizontal angle when grading a
narrow gravel road
VÄGBEDD STÖRRE ÄN 5 METER ROAD WIDTH GREATER THAN 5 M
Horisontalvinkel vid hyvling av bred grusväg=Horizontal angle when grading a
wide gravel road
Different types of grader blade

Different blades can be mounted on the grader. All types of blade are divided into
lengths of 1.220 or 1.525 m. Blades are also available in different thicknesses. An
unserviceable section can be easily replaced, and in the event of uneven wear,
sections can be changed round. Blades are fixed in position with bolts or cotter
joints. There are two types of grader blade, a smooth blade and System 2000, a
toothed blade (Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992).
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A. Smooth blade
"Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992) quotes two drawbacks
of the conventional smooth grader blade:
• Material is removed by cutting, which requires a lot of energy.
• Wear on the blade and the aggregate material is high.
B. System 2000
The system was initially introduced for demanding winter grading and later began
to be applied for summer grading (Junes, 1989). Junes states that one prerequisite
for System 2000 is that roads should not be too stony. He says that the
recommended user and maintenance instructions should be complied with,
otherwise experiences will be gained at a high price. The blade consists of 4
mounting plates and 104 replaceable cutter teeth which are rotating tines
(Svensson, 1997). Grading is normally performed with toothed blades. Through
the years, these produced low steel costs and satisfactory results. Both types of
blade are shown in figure 7.19.
Figure 7.19 At front, smooth blade and behind, System 2000 that is mounted on
the blade (Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992).
Junes lists the following advantages of System 2000 from the standpoints of
quality and user convenience:
• Owing to the larger depth of grading, better grading quality and longer
grading intervals. The road should be more even immediately after grading,
and it should take longer for the road to need grading again.
• Less crushing of aggregate and better final results because a rougher surface
is obtained, which means that less water is needed and loose material stays on
the road and can be gathered up again.
"Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992) adds two more
advantages:
• Less energy than in using a conventional blade because cutting is achieved by
rotary action
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• Lower stress on plant and equipment.
"Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992) points out some
drawbacks of S2000:
• System 2000 always has a straight blade surface
• System 2000 demands care such as cleaning and lubrication for the system to
work.
Junes (1989) carried a comparative investigation of conventional flat untoothed

grader blades and System 2000 over a summer season. The comparison is
presented in the form of index numbers in table 7.11.
Table 7.11 Comparison of conventional flat untoothed grader blades and

System 2000.
Type of Life Capacity Fuel Costs
cutter
3 3
Blade depth km pass/ m (actual)/ Cost/km Cost/m
unit time unit time pass (actual)
Conventional 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
S 2000 4 1.5 0.85 1.3 1.03 1.2 0.8
The results show that System 2000 can cut deeper. The reasons for the differences
in capacity and costs depend on whether costs are counted for km of passes
carried out or the volume of material loosened up. Junes adds that in order for
capacity to be higher and cost to be lower, it is necessary for either deep grading
to be needed or for the surface to be very hard.
7.2.6 Costs of grading

Grading costs vary between Swedish counties. The highest cost is SEK 2900/km,
and the lowest SEK 1222/km. These differences may be due to different
operations being included in calculating costs. The mean cost for the country as a
whole is SEK 1550/km (Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992).
The right measure should be selected in order to restore a gravel road to good
standard at least possible maintenance cost. "Road maintenance-roads free from
snow and ice" (1992) lists different measures in table 7.12.
Table 7.12 Capacities and index numbers for the costs of different kinds of
measures.
Measures Capacity Index number
Watering, grading, dust control 8 km/day 12
Grading during rain without dust control 16 km/day 1
Grading during rain with dust control 16 km/day 4
The following criticism can be directed at table 7.12:

a. It is not clear how the index numbers have been calculated.
b. Is capacity really the same for grading during rain both with and without dust
control.
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According to "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992), the above
figures prove that week-end and shift working in suitable grading weather are
both justifiable and necessary from the standpoint of economy. It is very often
cost effective during rain to grade even roads that have an acceptable standard.
The alternative might be that expensive grading combined with watering must be
resorted to after the rain.
7.2.7 Experience from grading

The following practical experience is evident:
• The road must be sufficiently moist when it is graded; if the road is dry,
aggregate material is crushed to a higher degree. Aggregate also segregates
during grading, so that the fines are at the bottom and larger material above.
This results in a wearing course of bad composition and a road of
unsatisfactory cohesion, with a lot of loose aggregate. It is best to grade the
road the day after heavy rain.
• It is also important that the grader should achieve a sufficient crossfall on the
carriageway so that water can drain off. A crossfall of 3-5% is suitable on
gravel roads. If the gravel wearing course has sufficient thickness, properly
performed grading produces excellent results without additional measures.
According to "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992), a
wearing course 4-5 cm thick is considered the most suitable. If, on the other
hand, the wearing course is too thin, the grader can easily tear up stones from
the base course. Such stones are dangerous for road users and must be
removed immediately (Persson, 1993).
• The grader must not drive too fast. Speed must be adapted to road conditions.
On no account must it exceed 4-6 km/h. If speed is higher, the road may
become wavy, and the results will be completely different from those
expected (Persson, 1993).
• When grading is carried out with the intention of smoothing out corrugations,
ruts and potholes in the wearing course, it is essential to grade down to the
bottom of the deepest holes, otherwise the holes will reappear after a short
time. Figure 7.20 illustrates this.
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Figure 7.20 Reforming of corrugations (Problems associated with gravel roads,

1998).
• After dust control treatment, an endeavour should be made not to grade the
road too often, since the effect of the treatment is ruined by repeated grading
(Glänneskog and Skog, 1994).
• After a gravel wearing course has been graded, the road surface is loosened
up. It may be thought that compaction is desirable. However, investigations
made by Johansson (1980) showed that the road did not become more durable
after rolling subsequent to grading. Johansson found that, from the standpoint
of road users, compaction produced a smooth surface more quickly, but
production costs were higher. Johansson is therefore of the opinion that the
effect of using compaction plant is marginal.
• When roads that had previously been treated with emulsion are graded, it is
important to make sure that the grader does not penetrate right through the
previous emulsion-aggregate mix, since there is substandard material directly
below the wearing course. Grading can be carried out without added water,
preferably in the spring when the material is somewhat easier to grade
7.3 Regravelling
The object of regravelling is to give the wearing course sufficient thickness and
the correct particle size distribution (Persson, 1993). The particle size distribution
curve of the wearing course should conform to the ideal aggregate curve and
contain sufficient fine material (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995). Before
development of the aggregate recycling method, only regravelling was employed,
and this is still the case in most countries. The term regravelling means that
aggregate or rock material of 0-18 mm particle size is spread. Particles of 0-20
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mm size are also used. According to Bergström and Grebacken (1995), roads with
too high a fines content should be improved by adding 8-16 mm aggregate. The
need for aggregate should be determined by a person of great experience of these
roads and their condition.
A special regravelling means that the actual composition of the wearing course is
determined and the fractions necessary to achieve a material conforming to the
ideal aggregate curve are added (Isemo and Johansson, 1976). Regravelling was
initially carried out without consideration of the composition of the existing
wearing course.
Beskow (1934) confirms that improvement of the material composition of existing

roads can largely be accomplished by adapting both the quality and quantity of the
added material to the former composition of the road. What must be done first of
all is to earmark the sections where the composition of the existing road material
has been found unsatisfactory by practical observation, e.g. softening of the
surface, corrugations or other surface irregularities. According to Beskow, the
sections which exhibit insufficient bearing capacity after thaw or prolonged rain
should be strengthened by adding coarse aggregate, mainly the fractions 4-20 mm,
in quantities that can be determined on the basis of road analyses. This coarse
aggregate should be added while the road is soft.
Lack of stone material causes first rutting and then inadequate crossfall.
Aggregate should be spread before the road has lost its crossfall (Maintenance of
unpaved roads, 1985). The composition of the added material can vary depending
on what is locally available (Isemo and Johansson, 1976).
There are several reasons that aggregate must be spread on a road:

1. A wearing course of insufficient thickness because rain has washed away the
aggregate (Maintenance of unpaved roads, 1985).
2. The composition of the wearing course has become unsatisfactory because
the fines have been washed away or vehicle wheels have dislodged particles
of aggregate from the wearing course (Persson, 1993).
3. The aggregate layer is continuously broken down by vehicle wheels which
crush the coarser particles. This gives rise to a lack of stone material and an
excess of sand. Such a road is easily corrugated. Even when the road is
graded, the material in the wearing course is crushed (Persson, 1993).
4. According to the report "Maintenance of unpaved roads" (1985), aggregate
can also be spread when damage such as potholes, rutting or erosion tracks
has occurred on the road and has become extensive.
5. During thaw, the surface often becomes inconveniently soft. Aggregate must
then be spread on the road to make the carriageway sufficiently stable for
traffic (Persson, 1993).
As regards plant and equipment, regravelling requires no special implements

apart from a lorry with a spreader flap. The driver can adjust the vehicle speed and
control the spreader gap (Persson, 1993).
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As regards the frequency of regravelling, it is often most rational to spread

aggregate about once every three years. According to Persson (1993), Isemo and
Johansson (1976) and Hoover (1981), three times the annual amount is spread on
this occasion. Intervals may be shorter or longer depending on traffic and the
weather.
It is essential to repair or restore the drainage system before regravelling. If

aggregate is spread in spite of poor drainage, the new aggregate will soon
disappear. The carriageway must be moist when aggregate is spread, since new
material can then be mixed into the wearing course more easily. According to
Persson (1993), the appropriate time is therefore the spring or after the thaw, and
the autumn. In the autumn edge trimming, regravelling and dust control should be
carried out at the same time. The report "Maintenance of unpaved roads" (1985)
states that compaction is necessary to prevent rutting.
From the standpoint of costs, regravelling is one of the heaviest items in gravel
road maintenance (Isemo and Johansson, 1976). Bergström and Grebacken (1995)
say that the aggregate requirement is 30 m3/km every other year, which gives an
aggregate cost of about SEK 1500/km of road. Persson (1993) points out that 14-
25 m3 aggregate per km is annually needed. The quantity depends on road width
and traffic intensity, and whether the road is given dust control treatment.
7.4 Edge trimming and aggregate recycling

Edge trimming is carried out to improve the shape of the road and thus drainage.
Edge trimming also has the aim to prevent vegetation being carried into the road
by the grader. Aggregate recycling means that usable material found during edge
trimming is collected up instead of being removed. "Road maintenance-roads free
from snow and ice" (1992) states that about 30% of the length of public gravel
roads are maintained with recycled aggregate. Edge trimming and aggregate
recycling are referred to in foreign literature as a method developed in Sweden.
The object of aggregate recycling is to draw in edge material and in this way to
recover some of the material thrown to the sides, and to improve the abraded
gravel wearing course. The edge material may however contain some clumps of
grass and stones. These can be removed. The material that can be used is mixed
into the wearing course. By the addition of 4-18 mm fraction, a particle size
distribution conforming to the ideal aggregate curve can be achieved.
The reason why the 4-18 mm fraction is often added is given in "Road
maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992). A sufficient quantity of fine
material has already been added to the road by drawing in material thrown to the
edges, and therefore only the lack of stone material has to be made up. Since
crushed aggregate from which sand has been removed contains about 40% of the
0-4 mm fraction, of which there is an excess on the road, in most cases material of
4-18 mm fraction is most profitable to use. The choice between using crushed
aggregate from which sand has been removed and the 4-18 mm fraction is
determined by cost.
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According to "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992), table 7.13
can be used for guidance. The figures in the table include material from the
existing wearing course, edge material plus added aggregate fraction.
Table 7.13 Variation of aggregate requirement with road width.

Road width (m) 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6
Quantity of material 120 160 200 240 270 300
3
m /km
The term for the determination of how much supplementary material is needed is
called proportioning. This is done in different ways. Computer programs for the
calculation of distribution curves have been designed to facilitate proportioning.
In order to obtain an ideal gravel wearing course of the right thickness, several
calculations are often needed with different quantities of edge material and
supplementary aggregate.
In order to carry out aggregate recycling for spreading supplementary aggregate,

samples must be taken. "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992)
gives some recommendations on how this is to be carried out. "Lignin stabilised
gravel roads" (1988) recommends that samples of both the existing gravel wearing
course and edge material should be taken for sieve analysis. The volumes of the
sieved material to be used must also be calculated to ensure that supplementary
material is correctly proportioned.
In 1992, about 500,000 m3 of aggregate were used for the maintenance of gravel
roads. Spreading of appropriate aggregate fractions in combination with aggregate
recycling could reduce this requirement by about 50%. "Road maintenance-roads
free from snow and ice" (1992) states that if all road management areas in Sweden
applied the recycling method, the aggregate requirement would be reduced by
about 200,000 m3, lorry transport by about 1,000,000 km, and air pollution would
also decrease.
7.4.1 Working methods in aggregate recycling

"Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992) gives three methods for
aggregate recycling:
Alternative 1 – Classification using a vibratory screen

Edge trimming is carried out with a grader, and aggregate material that has been
thrown to the side is drawn up on the road. The drawn-up material is deposited in
a windrow about 1 m from the edge of the road. The grader can dress the windrow
with the tines and windrow spreader to break up the clumps of grass. The
windrow is loaded up into the vibratory screen for classification. The classified
material is spread evenly over half the road which makes it easier for traffic to use
the road. Material rejected after classification is disposed of in the surrounding
country or is carried away by lorry. The classified material is mixed with the
existing wearing course. More aggregate is spread a little later in the autumn when
the weather is suitable. The aggregate spread is mixed into the existing wearing
course. See figure 7.21.
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Figure 7.21 Classification with vibratory screen (Road maintenance-roads free

Alternative 2 – Classification using Saga oversize aggregate remover (towed

by tractor or wheeled loader)
Aggregate of 4-18 mm fraction is spread 1-2 days before the edge material is
drawn in. Edge trimming is carried out with a road grader and the windrow is
drawn up onto the road with a modified windrow spreader. The windrow is
classified and mixed with the towed Saga. Material rejected is loaded into the
wheeled loader to be taken away. The classified material is mixed into the
wearing course at the time of subsequent watering, grading and dust control
treatment. See figure 7.22.
Figure 7.22 Classification with tractor-drawn oversize aggregate remover

(Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992).
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Alternative 3 –Classification using Saga oversize aggregate remover (drawn

by grader)
Aggregate of 4-18 mm fraction is spread 1-2 days before the edge material is
drawn in. The edge is trimmed and the windrow drawn in with an articulated road
grader in one operation. The material is deposited with the grader blade in the
correct position for classification by the Saga towed by the grader. Saga is
followed by a wheeled loader with a large bucket which carries reject material to a
tip in a suitable place along the road. A road grader and water tanker following
behind carry out mixing and shaping. The Swedish National Road Administration
recommends that the road should then be given dust control treatment. See figure
7.23. "Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice" (1992) states that
Alternative 3 is shown by studies and follow-up investigations to be the most
effective plant combination.
Figure 7.23 Classification with grader-drawn oversize aggregate remover;

inset: edge trimmer.
7.5 Watering
Watering reduces crushing of the aggregate material, but its primary object is to
maintain the efficacy of previous dust control treatment or to facilitate subsequent
dust control treatment and compaction. Unless the road is sufficiently moist when
salt is spread, only the topmost layer of the wearing course will be bound by the
salt, and there is a much higher risk of corrugation and potholing in the
carriageway (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995).
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It is essential that the correct quantity of water is added. A large excess of water
during grading may give the wearing course aggregate a porridge-like
consistence. This makes conditions difficult for road users. The wearing course
material may segregate and some of it may run into the ditch. Subsequent
compaction is made difficult and the carriageway may become rutted. If too little
water is added, dust control treatment and subsequent compaction are jeopardised.
(Road maintenance-roads free from snow and ice, 1992).
The number of water tankers which carry out watering must be adapted to the
capacity of the grader, the need for water and the transport distance. It is best to
begin watering about 1 hour prior to grading. Permanent water stations should be
arranged to reduce transport.
In Sweden, about 400,000 m3 water or 14 m3/km of gravel road are spread every
year. The total cost of watering, in terms of 1990 prices, is SEK 17m. Watering is
expensive but it can be minimised by increased utilisation of rain. There are large
differences in cost between Swedish counties. The range is SEK 1076-116/km.
Han (1992) considers that water should be added at the rate of 0.03-0.3 gal/yd2
which is equivalent to 0.136-1.358 l/m2 or 0.544-5.432 m3/km for a 4 m wide
road.
Bergström and Grebacken (1995) claim that the road has optimum moisture
content when the best compaction is achieved, which occurs for about 4-6% water
in the wearing course. If work is planned properly, natural moisture after thaw can
be utilised.
7.6 Patching
Repair of potholes on a gravel road by hand is also referred to as patching. Using
a shovel, potholes are filled with suitable aggregate material.
Patching is recommended if there are only few holes and it is a long time until the
next grading event (Persson, 1993). Hubendick (1969) points out that the choice
between patching and grading should be determined not only by the number of
potholes but also by the cohesion of the carriageway, whether it is dry or moist,
etc. In other words, consideration must be given to how easy it will be to treat the
road. On the insides of curves, near paved areas or bridges, it may at times be
difficult to remove a few potholes by grader, especially if they are deep.
In the summer, plenty of dust control agent should be mixed into the aggregate
used for patching to prevent the material being lost in the form of dust. In the
same way, when frozen potholes are to be patched, calcium chloride solution
should be added to the aggregate so that it can melt the sides of the hole.
Hubendick (1969) says that the aggregate must not be thrown into the pothole but
laid in place in order to prevent segregation. Traffic will compact the material in
the hole. It is therefore necessary to add excess material so that the carriageway
will be flat after compaction.
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7.7 Dragging
The aim of dragging is to remove incipient corrugation, rutting, shallow potholes,
etc. Superficial levelling is achieved by drawing over the road a steel implement
that scrapes the surface.
In many cases it is unnecessary to grade the road when all is needed is superficial
levelling; dragging may be sufficient instead. Dragging produces the best effect
when the carriageway is moist.
A road drag is a steel frame with beams at an angle that scarifies and remixes the
aggregate wearing course (Bergström and Grebacken, 1995).
There are many versions of drags, ranging from simple home-made drags with
two or more grader blades bolted to a frame, to factory-made adjustable drags.
The drag is generally coupled to a tractor or lorry. See figure 7.24.
Figure 7.24 Road drag coupled to a tractor (Maintenance of gravel and earth
roads, 1994).
Drags are normally drawn over the road unconstrained. There are also steerable
drags, drags which can be loaded, and drags where the frame is carried on runners
and its height can be adjusted to a certain extent. Hubendick (1969) gives a
detailed description of how dragging is to be carried out. Examples of some drags
are given in figure 7.25.
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Figure 7.25 Some examples of road drags (Maintenance of unpaved roads,

1985).
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7.8 Ditching
Hubendick (1969) states that ditches are the most important part of the road. If
there are no ditches, there is nowhere for water to drain into. The result is that the
road structure contains too much water, it does not bind together, and has not the
bearing capacity it must have. Ditching is therefore important work. The term
ditching refers to both new ditches and the clearing of heavily blocked ditches.
Persson (1993) says that ditching must at all times be preceded by consultation
with the land owners concerned. In some cases a permit is also required from the
Swedish Environmental Protection Agency. An application for such a permit must
be submitted to the county executive board. The suitable depth and slopes of a
ditch are illustrated in figure 7.26.
Figure 7.26 Suitable depth and slopes of a ditch (Persson, 1993).
A shallow ditch can be provided to drain surface water from the carriageway
where space is limited by plots near the road, under bridges, etc. See figure 7.27.
Shallow ditches do not drain the road pavement.
Figure 7.27 Suitable depth and slopes of a shallow ditch (Persson, 1993).
Ditch clearance comprises edge trimming and clearing of the ditch so that it
regains its original shape and depth. The frequency at which a ditch must be
cleared varies. The average time between ditching operations is about 7 years.
Ditches should be inspected and repaired regularly. When a large flow of water
may be expected, for instance after a major timber felling operation, it is
particularly important that drainage should be in good order.
A road grader is used for normal work on ditches and slopes, and an excavator for
more difficult jobs. The grader blade should cut right down to the bottom and
draw soil up to the edge of the road.
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"Forest roads" (1992), in Swedish, says that bad material removed from ditches
should be run to a tip and spread out, or spread out on the ground near the ditch.
In FSB Version (1998), it is stated that environmental impacts must be given

special attention when ditches are cleared. Protected flora must not be removed,
and care should also be taken of flora on the slopes of the road. It should also be
borne in mind that soil removed from ditches may contain heavy metals and other
environmentally hazardous substances. Environmentally hazardous material must
be disposed of in accordance with the regulations of the county executive board or
the municipality. In determining the methods employed in ditching, due
consideration must be given to natural resources in the surroundings.
7.9 Removing stones from the road

Stones can work their way up into the road from the road structure. Large stones
in the road reduce capacity during grading or dragging. It is more difficult to
shape the road. The grader blade is subjected to greater wear. Snow clearance is
also impeded. Stones can damage plant and implements and cause accidents.
Traffic safety is jeopardised, and trafficability is reduced. When large stones are
being hoisted up, warning signs must be displayed. Cavities left in the road by
large stones must be made good with suitable material.
The eventual aim of measures is to remove large stones from the road structure.
An excavator or wheeled loader equipped with a combigrip are suitable plant for
this. See figure 7.28.
Figure 7.28 Excavator and wheeled loader equipped with combigrip (Persson,
1993).
Persson (1993) describes two methods for removing large stones from the road
structure, excavation and blasting.
Excavation means that stones are dug out or broken up with the bucket. The hole
is then filled with suitable pavement material. The surface is levelled and
compacted with the bucket or blade.
Blasting can be used when individual stones are to be removed. One drawback of
blasting is that often only the top of the stone is removed. The remainder can
continue to force its way upwards.
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If there are many stones in the road and the soil is susceptible to frost action,
removal of stones is time consuming and expensive.
Persson (1993) therefore proposes some preventive measures. One is to lower

the groundwater level by deepening the ditches, so that permanent improvement is
achieved.
In very difficult areas one alternative may be to dig out the subgrade. Other
conceivable measures are to install an anticapillary layer or insulation. The best
method is to remove boulders when the road is constructed.
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!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( S);(
8
Condition assessment of gravel roads
The purpose of condition assessment is to determine the condition of the road,

make predictions and assess the need for maintenance measures. The condition of
the road is defined as the surface condition of the road at a certain time. If the
condition of the road does not satisfy the specified requirements, measures must
be taken to improve the road so that it does satisfy these requirements.
This chapter describes assessment of the condition of roads, primarily by methods

used in Sweden but also those employed or suggested in Finland, Canada, USA,
New Zealand and Australia. In view of the fact that forest roads account for ca
50% of the total road network in Sweden, standard classes for forest roads are also
described.
8.1 Assessment of the condition of gravel roads in Sweden 155

8.1.1 Subjective assessment 155
8.1.2 Objective assessment 163
8.2 Condition monitoring according to GUPP 169
8.3 Assessment of the condition of gravel roads abroad 170
8.3.1 Finland 170
8.3.2 Canada 172
8.3.3 USA 176
8.3.4 Australia and New Zealand 186
8.4 Standard classes for forest roads 188
8.4.1 Standard classes for forest roads in Sweden 188
8.4.2 Standard classes for forest roads in Canada 191
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8.1 Assessment of the condition of gravel roads in

Sweden
Not enough is known of the way the condition of gravel roads changes in time.
There is an evident need, generally acknowledged, for a reliable method–either
subjective or objective-for the assessment of the condition of a road.
8.1.1 Subjective assessment

Several methods have been developed over the years in Sweden for assessing the
condition of gravel roads. The following methods will be described:
• Swedish Road Institute, 1934, in Swedish.
• Andren och Fransson-KTH, 1976.
• Improvement and maintenance of gravel roads, the "FUG scale", 1979, in
Swedish.
• DDp scale, 1982, in Swedish.
• Method Specification VVMB106, 1996, of the Swedish National Road
Administration, in Swedish.
8.1.1.1 Swedish Road Institute, 1934

In the report (1934) of the Swedish Road Institute, a distinction is made between
three different conditions of a gravel road:
C 1: Gravel roads in best condition in the summer, with even and hard
carriageway
C2: Gravel roads in the summer which are corrugated or potholed
C3: Gravel roads of medium standard in autumn and spring
The condition of the gravel road network in 1934 is set out in table 8.1.
Table 8.1. Condition of gravel road network in Sweden in 1934 (Report

(1934) of Swedish Road Institute).
Region Number of days during the year for a certain road condition
(((((((6-57( (((((((((!L( ((((((((((!?( ((!S(
651%"&'-(67&8&-( (((((((((JC( (((((((((QC( ((((((((((UC( (S;)(
!&-%'#/(67&8&-( (((((((((QC( (((((((((QC( ((((((((((JC( (S?)(
A5''/#-8( (((((((SL)( (((((((((QC( ((((((((((;)( (((Q)(
8.1.1.2 Andren and Fransson-KTH, 1976

In their degree project at KTH (1976), Andren and Fransson developed a model
for the classification of gravel roads. The model was based on subjective
assessment of three factors, "roughness", "binding ability" and "dusting
tendency". Subjective assessment is made on the basis of textual description and
photographs. The factors are assessed individually and are then combined into a
condition description.
For roughness a scale from A to D is used, where Class A is comparable to the

roughness of a paved road. For binding ability, a scale from A to D is used, and
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for dusting tendency a scale from A to C. These condition classes are set out in
table 8.2. Photographs are not shown in this report.
Andren and Fransson emphasise that the classification method shall be as simple
as possible, no measurements or sampling, only visual inspection of the road. As
far as can be ascertained, this method has not been used in practice.
Table 8.2 Condition assessment method proposed by Andren and Fransson.

Condition Roughness
class
@( A5(4#,%5'3(7".,"(#44&,%(8'.:.-9(,5245'%T(5'(32#//('519"-&33T(7".,"(85(
-5%("57&:&'(#44&,%(:&".,/&(3$&&8M(+"&('5#8(,#-(F&(,52$#'&8(%5(%"&(
'519"-&33(54(#($#:&8('5#8M(
E( I519"-&33(#-8(8&$'&33.5-3(7".,"(#44&,%(8'.:.-9(,5245'%T(F1%(-5%(%5(
31,"(#-(&[%&-%(%"#%(%"&H(#$$'&,.#F/H(#44&,%(:&".,/&(3$&&8M(652&(
$5%"5/&3(#/5-9(%"&('5#8M(!5''19#%.5-(54(2.-5'(&[%&-%M(
!( 6$&&8(213%(#%(%.2&3(F&('&81,&8T($'5-51-,&8(8&$'&33.5-3(#-8(
'519"-&33M(+&-8&-,H(%5($5%"5/.-9M(Y'5-51-,&8($5%"5/&3M(I1%3(
-5%.,&#F/&(7"./&(8'.:.-9M(
V( !#''.#9&7#H(.3('1-(857-T(#-8(8'.:.-9(.3(:&'H(1-,5245'%#F/&M(^[%&-3.:&(
$5%"5/.-9M(_&#:H('1%%.-9M(V&&$(,5''19#%.5-3M(
( Binding ability
@( B.%%/&(5'(-5(#99'&9#%&(5-(,#''.#9&7#HT(%"&'&(2#H(F&(/553&(#99'&9#%&(
#%(&89&3M(
E( 652&(/553&(#99'&9#%&(#%('5#8(&89&T(352&(#99'&9#%&(7.-8'573(5-(
,#''.#9&7#HM(
!( E#-K3(54(#99'&9#%&(.-(,1':&3(#-8(#99'&9#%&(7.-8'573(#/5-9(7"5/&(
,#''.#9&7#HM(
V( P#-H($'5-51-,&8(F#-K3(54(/553&(#99'&9#%&(5:&'(7"5/&('5#8T(/#,K(54(
,&'%#.-(4'#,%.5-3T(&[,&33(3#-8M(
( Dusting tendency
@( B.%%/&(5'(-5(813%(.3('#.3&8M(
E( P.-5'(813%(,/5183M(
!( Y'5-51-,&8(813%(,/5183M(
8.1.1.3 Improvement and maintenance of gravel roads, "FUG-

scale", 1979
Over the period 1979-1982 a joint Nordic road research project was carried out to
develop gravel road maintenance, designated "Improvement and maintenance of
gravel roads", "FUG". The countries participating in this project were Finland,
Iceland, Norway and Sweden.
In the joint Nordic project FUG (1979) and FUG (1983), a system was established
for the assessment of gravel roads. Over the project period 1980-81, a number of
test roads were selected in each country for maintenance studies and driving tests.
Their condition was assessed subjectively in a uniform manner in all the
countries. The factors assessed were surface roughness, binding ability and
dusting tendency. A scale ranging from 0 to 5, according to a Finnish system, was
used for surface roughness. This system is described in Subclause 8.3.1. For
binding ability a scale from 0 to 4 was used, and for dusting tendency a scale from
0 to 3. Assessment was performed according to a system tested in Sweden.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
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This model for assessment is mainly based on Finnish experience of quality

inspections. Marks 5, 4 and 3 denote the highest quality that can be attained for
each property. Instructions for quality assessment of gravel roads according to the
FUG scale are given in table 8.3.
Table 8.3 Instructions for quality assessment of gravel roads according to the
FUG scale (FUG, 1979) and (FUG, 1983).
Assessment Surface roughness
;MS`)MC( +"&(31'4#,&(54(%"&('5#8("#3('&%#.-&8(.%3(3"#$&(#-8(.3(:&'H(&:&-(#-8(4.'2M(
@-H('519"-&33(85(-5%(#44&,%(8'.:.-9(,5245'%M(
LMS`;MC( +"&(31'4#,&(54(%"&('5#8("#3(9&-&'#//H('&%#.-&8(.%3(3"#$&(#-8(.3(:&'H(&:&-(
#-8(4.'2M(+"&'&(2#H(F&(5-&(5'(%75(8&$'&33.5-3M(6$&&8(-&&8(-5%(F&(
/57&'&8(F&,#13&(54('519"-&33M(
?MS`LMC( +"&(31'4#,&(54(%"&('5#8("#3(9&-&'#//H('&%#.-&8(.%3(3"#$&(#-8(.3(253%/H(
&:&-(#-8(4.'2M(+"&'&(2#H(F&($5%"5/&3(54(2.-5'(8&$'&33.5-3(#-8(5%"&'(
'519"-&33M(V&$'&33.5-3(#-8('519"-&33(,#-(F&(#:5.8&8(5'(%"&H(#'&(54(
31,"(,5-8.%.5-(%"#%(3$&&8(-&&8(-5%(F&(/57&'&8M(a"&-(5:&'%#K.-9(5'(
$#33.-9(5%"&'(:&".,/&3(5'(1-8&'(3.2./#'(,5-8.%.5-3(.%(2#H(F&(-&,&33#'H(%5(
/57&'(3$&&8M(
SMS`?MC( +"&('5#8(2#H("#:&(F&&-(8&45'2&8(%'#-3:&'3&/HM(+"&'&(2#H(F&(
,5''19#%.5-3M(+"&'&(2#H(F&(3&,%.5-3(7.%"(3&%%/&2&-%3(5'(&/&:#%.5-3T(
.-8.,#%&8(FH(7#'-.-9(3.9-3M(6$&&8(213%(#%(%.2&3(F&(/57&'&8M(
CMS`SMC( +"&('5#8(.3(.-(3&:&'#/($/#,&3(8&45'2&8(%'#-3:&'3&/HM(+"&(31'4#,&(.3(
.''&91/#'(F&,#13&(54(8&$'&33.5-3T(,5''19#%.5-3(#-8(%5'-D1$(3&,%.5-3M(
+"&'&(#'&(3&%%/&2&-%3(#-8(&/&:#%.5-3(5-(%"&('5#8(%"#%(,#--5%(F&(#:5.8&8M(
+"&('5#8(31'4#,&(8&2#-83(,5-3%#-%(#%%&-%.5-(7"./&(8'.:.-9T(#-8(3$&&8(
213%(54%&-(F&(,"#-9&8M(
( Binding ability
LMS`;MC( B.%%/&(5'(-5(/553&(#99'&9#%&(5-(%"&(,#''.#9&7#HT(%"&'&(2#H(F&(/553&(
#99'&9#%&(#%(%"&(&89&3(54(%"&('5#8M(
?MS`LMC( 652&(/553&(#99'&9#%&(5-(%"&(,#''.#9&7#HT(5,,#3.5-#/(7.-8'573(54(
#99'&9#%&(5-(%"&(,#''.#9&7#HM(
SMS`?MC( E#-K3(54(#99'&9#%&(.-(,1':&3T(#-8(7.-8'573(54(#99'&9#%&(#/5-9(7"5/&(
,#''.#9&7#HM(
CMS`SMC( Y'5-51-,&8(F#-K3(54(/553&(#99'&9#%&(5'(#(/5%(54(/553&(#99'&9#%&(5:&'(
7"5/&(,#''.#9&7#HT(/#,K(54(,&'%#.-(4'#,%.5-3T(&[,&33(3#-8M(
( Dusting tendency
?MS`LMC( B.%%/&(5'(-5(813%(.3('#.3&8M(
SMS`?MC( P.-5'(813%(,/5183M(
CMS`SMC( Y'5-51-,&8(813%(,/5183M(
It is stated in FUG that the following requirements should be satisfied in order that
a subjective assessment system may be appropriate:
• Assessment should be easy and reliable since there are many users and their
training is variable.
• The difference between the classes should be obvious to both the road
management authority and road users.
• There should be good correlation with some objective method, e.g. bump
integrator, TÖI (Norwegian Institute of Transport Economics) meter.
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8.1.1.4 DDp scale, 1982

In the 1982-86 five-year plan for management activity, an experiment was made
in using condition assessments generally based on the FUG scale. Condition
assessments are based on a subjective assessment regarding the three factors
surface roughness, binding ability and dusting tendency. Three condition classes
were found sufficient for practical use. The 5 and 4 grade scales for surface
roughness and binding ability in the FUG model are compressed into 3 grade
scales. In the effect catalogues, this 3-grade scale is called the DDp scale, and in
some other literature the SNRA scale. See table 8.4.
Table 8.4 Condition classes according to the DDp scale.

Condition Surface roughness
class
!/#33(S( +"&('5#8(31'4#,&("#3(%"&(-&,&33#'H(,'5334#//(#-8(.3(&:&-(#-8(4.'2M(
b558( +"&'&(2#H(F&(5-&(5'(%75($5%"5/&3M(
!/#33(?( +"&('5#8(31'4#,&(/#'9&/H("#3(%"&(-&,&33#'H(,'5334#//(#-8(.3(253%/H(
@,,&$%#F/&( &:&-(#-8(4.'2M(+"&'&(#'&($5%"5/&3(#-8(31'4#,&('519"-&33(5-(,&'%#.-(
3&,%.5-3M(
!/#33(L( +"&(,#''.#9&7#H("#3($55'(,'5334#//(#-8*5'(.3(8&45'2&8(%'#-3:&'3&/HM(
B57( B#'9&(3&,%.5-3(54(%"&(31'4#,&(#'&(1-&:&-(57.-9(%5($5%"5/&3(#-8(
,5''19#%.5-3M(
( Binding ability
!/#33(S( B.%%/&(5'(-5(/553&(#99'&9#%&(5-(%"&(,#''.#9&7#HM(B553&(#99'&9#%&(2#H(
b558( 5,,1'(#%(%"&(&89&3(54(%"&('5#8M(
!/#33(?( B553&(#99'&9#%&(5,,1'3(5-(%"&(,#''.#9&7#H(%5(#(2.-5'(&[%&-%M(+"&'&(
@,,&$%#F/&( 2#H(F&(32#//(F#-K3(54(#99'&9#%&(#/5-9('5#8(&89&3(#-8(.-(,1':&3M(
!/#33(L( Y'5-51-,&8(F#-K3(54(/553&(#99'&9#%&(#/5-9('5#8(&89&3(#-8(.-(,1':&3M(
B57( B#'9&(3,#/&(5,,1''&-,&(54(/553&(#99'&9#%&(5:&'(7"5/&(,#''.#9&7#HM(
( Dusting tendency
!/#33(S( B.%%/&(5'(-5(813%(.3('#.3&8M(
b558(
!/#33(?( P.-5'(813%(,/5183(#'&(54%&-('#.3&8(#/5-9(%"&('5#8(Wa"&'&(%"&'&(#'&(
@,,&$%#F/&( F1./8.-93(#/5-9(%"&('5#8M(P.-5'(813%(,/5183(#'&('#.3&8(.-($/#,&3XM(
!/#33(L( Y'5-51-,&8(813%(,/5183(#'&('#.3&8(#/5-9(253%(54(%"&('5#8(Wa"&'&(
B57( %"&'&(#'&(F1./8.-93(#/5-9(%"&('5#8M(Y'5-51-,&8(813%(,/5183(#'&('#.3&8(
.-($/#,&3XM(
The DDP scale was used in 1982 to monitor and study a number of gravel roads in
the D, H, U, W, Y and Z counties. A total of 34 roads were observed. The total
length of road was ca 300 km (Olsson et al., 1983).
Comparison of FUG and DDp scales

Carlsson (1980) carried out objective measurements of surface roughness on
gravel roads before grading, a few days after grading and at a time between two
grading events. Surface roughness was measured with a specially equipped Volvo
145 which registered the relative vertical movement between the rear axle and the
chassis. The signal was evaluated according to the road roughness indicator
principle, according to which the upward movements of the rear axle relative to
the chassis over a given road section are added and this sum is then divided by the
distance driven.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
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Results were printed out every 300 metres both on punched tape and on a panel in
the car. This measuring vehicle is described in detail in VTI reports Nos 49, 83
and 123. Measurements were made at 50 km/h.
The Effect Catalogue (1989) states that, on the basis of Carlsson's surface
roughness measurements, it is possible to translate the values of the FUG scale
into surface roughness indices in terms of mm/km.
The Effect Catalogue (1989) gives a table in which the FUG scale is compared
with the DDp scale and surface roughness indices. See table 8.5.
Table 8.5 Comparison of FUG and DDp scales (Effect Catalogue, 1989).
Surface roughness(
61'4#,&('519"-&33(.-8&[(22*K2( (((SS?CC( ((((QLCC( ((((U;CC( (((())CC( ((((LJCC( ((((SUCC(
cdb(3,#/&( (((((((C( (((((((S( (((((((?( ((((((L( (((((((;( ((((((()(
VV$(3,#/&((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((B57(((((((((((((@,,&$%#F/&((((((((((((b558(
(
Binding ability
cdb(3,#/&( (((((((C( (((((((S(( (((((((?( ((((((L( (;(
VV$(3,#/&((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((B57((((((((((((@,,&$%#F/&((((((((((b558(
(
Dusting tendency
cdb(3,#/&( (((((((C( (((((((S( (((((((?( (((((((((((((((((((((L(
VV$(3,#/&(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((B57(((((((@,,&$%#F/&((((((((((b558(
8.1.1.5 Method Specification "VVMB 106, 1996" of Swedish

National Road Administration
The present system was introduced in 1990. In this, the three factors surface
roughness, binding ability and dusting tendency are amalgamated into two factors,
surface roughness and binding ability.
The condition of gravel roads is assessed in accordance with the SNRA Method
Specification 106:1996, "Assessment of the condition of gravel roads, functional
properties" which is abbreviated VVMB 106. Method Specification 106:1996
supersedes 106:1990.
A gravel road is divided into sections which, by comparison with verbal

descriptions and photographs, are judged to belong to a certain condition class.
During inspections 100 m sections are assessed at a time with regard to surface
roughness and binding ability. The lowest condition class to which at least 10 m
of the section can be assigned is considered to hold for the whole 100 m section.
Assessment according to this method is not made under freezing conditions but
only when roads are free from snow and ice (May-October). At other times
inspections are performed to an extent sufficient for changes in condition to be
reliably monitored. There is a proposal for this assessment method to be altered so
that it can also be applied during the frozen period.
Condition classes according to VVMB 106

The condition of gravel roads with regard to surface roughness and binding ability
is assigned to three classes, good, acceptable and low.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
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Condition classes regarding surface roughness
Class 1, good
The road surface has the necessary crossfall and is even and firm. There may be
one or two potholes; see figure 8.1.
Figure 8.1 Class 1, good.
Class 2, acceptable
The road surface largely has the necessary crossfall and is mostly even and firm.
There are potholes and surface roughness on certain sections; see figure 8.2.
Figure 8.2 Class 2, acceptable.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
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Class 3, low
The carriageway has poor crossfall and/or is deformed transversely. Large
sections of the surface are uneven owing to potholes and corrugations; see figure
8.3.
Figure 8.3. Class 3, low.
Condition classes with regard to binding ability
Class 1, good
Loose aggregate occurs on the carriageway to a slight extent (due to grading there
may be loose aggregate at the edges of the road and between ruts). No dust is
raised; see figure 8.4.
Figure 8.4. Class 1, good.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
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Class 2, acceptable
Loose aggregate occurs on the carriageway to a minor extent and in small banks
along the edges of the road. Minor dust clouds are raised along the road; see
figure 8.5.
Figure 8.5. Class 2, acceptable.
Class 3, low
Loose aggregate occurs to a large extent over the whole carriageway and in
pronounced banks along the edges of the road. Pronounced dust clouds are raised
along most of the road; see figure 8.6.
Figure 8.6 Class 3, low.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
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It is worth noting that the Swedish National Road Administration, West Region,
has drawn up a report which contain more photographs describing the three
classes of surface roughness and binding ability. (Manual of standard
photographs, Gravel Road Maintenance, 1996, in Swedish). When more
photographs are available, it is easier to determine what class the road is to be
assigned to.
Standard classes
With regard to traffic flow, a road should be assigned to a certain standard class
according to table 8.6 (Regulations for Maintenance and Operation, 1990, in
Swedish).
In determining the condition that a road must have, consideration should also be
given to buildings, public transport and other utility traffic, the distribution of
recreational and business journeys, and available economic resources. table 8.6
sets out the three standard classes.
Table 8.6 Standard classes for management and maintenance of gravel

roads.
Traffic flow, AADT Standard classes
e)C( !(
)C`S?;( E(
fS?)( @(
In the West Region, the standard classes have been altered so that C has been
replaced by B which is the lowest class in this region. See below. Classes A and
have been amalgamated into a Class A.
Traffic flow, AADTt Standard class

<50 B
>50 A
8.1.2 Objective assessment

It is obviously desirable that gravel roads should be qualitatively evaluated with
reference a measurable variable. It has however been found difficult to select a
variable that provides all-embracing information regarding the condition of gravel
roads. The variable which is most often measured objectively is the longitudinal
surface roughness which is expressed in terms of mm/km.
For Swedish gravel roads, surface roughness normally varies from 3000 to 9000
mm/km. Normal values for paved roads are 500-3500 mm/km. ("Data for
management planning", 1983).
In order to eliminate human factors which easily give rise to an irregular or

systematic spread of the results, a number of equipments have been designed for
direct measurement of the condition of a road. Four studies will be described,
Magnusson et al. (1977), Carlsson and Öberg (1977), Johansson et al. (1983) and
Sjögren (1998).
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8.1.2.1 Magnusson et al. 1977

Magnusson et al. (1977) performed a study to measure surface roughness on
gravel roads and to find a relationship between roughness and the speed selected
by drivers. The experimental part of the study was performed in two stages on 20
test sections each 200 m in length. The first stage was carried out during the thaw
period at the end of April while the second was performed at the end of May when
thaw had finished and the road had dried. Four meters were employed:
1. PCA Road Meter (Portland Cement Association)
2. GM Profilometer (General Motors)
3. Road Roughness Indicator
4. Friction Test Vehicle (BV11 J)
1. PCA Road Meter

The PCA Road Meter measures longitudinal roughness in the road by registering
the movements of the rear axle in relation to the chassis. Registration is performed
electromechanically. The results are dependent on the speed.
2. GM Profilometer
This is a car that measures longitudinal roughness in the road by means of a fifth
wheel. Both the movements of this wheel in relation to the chassis, and the
movements of the chassis, are registered. See figure 8.7.
Figure 8.7 GM Profilometer (Magnusson et al., 1977).

This is the oldest and simplest measuring equipment which registers the
longitudinal roughness of the road. In principle, it comprises a measuring wheel
mounted in a relatively heavy frame through a spring and shock absorber system.
The equipment which is towed by a car registers vertical movements of the wheel
in cm/km or mm/km. The results are highly dependent on the speed. The speed
during the tests was 32 km/h; see figure 8.8.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SJ)
Figure 8.8 Road Roughness Indicator (Magnusson et al., 1977).
4. Friction Test Vehicle

BV11 is a trailer drawn by a car. The trailer was originally designed to measure
friction. BV11 is equipped with a differential transformer mounted in such a way
that its output signal is a measure of the vertical position of the measuring wheel
relative to the frame. This signal is processed in a computing unit mounted in the
towing vehicle into an index corresponding to that given by the Road Roughness
Indicator or the OCA meter. BV11 is intended to measure both surface roughness
and friction. The prototype BV11 shown in figure 8.9 has been fitted with yet
another potentiometer for measuring the relative motion between the measuring
wheel and the applied load. The object was to find which of the two relative
movements provided the best reliability and agreement with assessment results.
For friction measurements it is necessary for the measuring wheel to be braked so

that there is some slip. In order to find whether the braking moment might disturb
the surface roughness measurements, measurements were made with the wheel
both braked and not braked. Results are dependent on the speed. Speeds in the test
were 30 and 50 km/h.
The trailer was originally designed for use on a relatively even road, and from the
vehicle engineering standpoint it is therefore less satisfactory for use on a very
uneven surface.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SJJ(
Figure 8.9 Prototype BV11 J (Magnusson et al., 1977).
It is not evident which of the four equipments mentioned in Magnusson et al.'s

study is most suitable for measurements of the surface roughness of gravel roads.
8.1.2.2 Carlsson and Öberg, 1977

Carlsson and Öberg (1977) performed a study to measure friction before and after
single course gravel surface dressing Y1G on gravel roads. Friction was measured
with the VTI friction test vehicle BV11. Friction was measured both before and
after a traffic count. Friction was also measured after a change in road conditions,
e.g. after rain. On each occasion, measurements were made at the centre of the
road and in wheeltracks, in both directions and at two different speeds. These
were 30 and 50 km/h in bends and 50 and 70 km/h at the other traffic count
points. Surface dressing of the road caused an increase in road friction by 0.1—
0.3. Experiences or conclusions relating to the use of BV11 on gravel roads are
not given in the report.
8.1.2.3 Johansson et al., 1983

The report Johansson et al. (1983) FUG relates to surface roughness
measurements on gravel roads using the following equipments:
2. TÖI (Norwegian Institute of Transport Economics) meter
3. CHLOE profilometer

The equipment was used at a speed of 32 km/h. The results exhibit good
correlation with the subjective valuation systems that consider surface roughness,
e.g. the 5-grade FUG system. See figure 8.10.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SJU
Figure 8.10 Relationship between subjective assessment (FUG) and surface

roughness measured with the Road Roughness Indicator on three
Finnish gravel roads (Johansson et al., 1983).
Vertical axis- Subjective evaluation
Horizontal axis- Road Roughness Indicator
The report states that similar correlations had been obtained between the Road
Roughness Indicator, the TÖI meter and the CHLOE profilometer.
2. TÖI meter
This is an equipment developed by the Institute of Transport Economics (TÖI) in
Norway. The equipment can measure rut depth and surface roughness at 50 km/h.
See figure 8.11.
Figure 8.11 General arrangement of TÖI meter (Johansson et al., 1983).
3. CHLOE profilometer
The name CHLOE refers to Huckins, Leathers and Other Engineers, i.e. the team
that developed the instrument.
The profilometer comprises a laced beam supported on the towing vehicle and
two wheels. The supporting wheel unit incorporates a balance arm mounted in
such a way that it is deflected by surface roughness. In the Swedish version the
"TRAC" value is calculated. This is considered to have better correlation than the
Present Serviceability Index (PSI) with subjective assessments. Measuring speed
is quite low, 15 km/h. See figure 8.12.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SJ>(
Figure 8.12 General arrangement of CHLOE meter (Johansson et al., 1983).
8.1.2.4 Sjögren, 1998, VTI Laser RST Vehicle

Sjögren (1998) carried out a small number of measurements with the VTI Laser
Road Surface Tester. This vehicle is normally used on paved roads to determine
their condition. It is a relatively expensive method.
The Laser RST measures, inter alia,

a. The longitudinal profile of the road along two wheeltracks separated by
150 cm. From the longitudinal profile two surface roughness indices, e.g. the
International Roughness Index (IRI) and Root Mean Square (RMS), are
calculated.
b. Texture along two wheeltracks
c. Fine macrotexture
d. Coarse macrotexture
e. Megatexture
f. Longitudinal profile
Sjögren (1998) claims that, with the help of the longitudinal profile in the two
wheeltracks and the surface roughness determined from this, and the differences
between roughness in the two tracks, it is possible to obtain a measure of the
extent of corrugations and potholes. Using the coarse macrotexture, 0.4-50 mm, a
measure of the occurrence of loose aggregate can be given.
Sjögren's conclusions are

• In a research context, measurements can be made on gravel roads with the
VTI Laser RST. However, several and repeated measurements are needed to
determine appropriate presentations and the accuracy of these. What Sjögren
means is that the accuracy must be specified for the dimensions to be studied.
This can be arrived at by making a measurement series on the correct
selection of test roads and comparing the results with traditional assessments.
• However, the use of the Laser RST on gravel roads as a regular measurement
method cannot be recommended, owing to the risk of damage to the
equipment and also because measurement conditions are difficult due to the
presence of dust and water on the surface which may cause the laser camera
to make erroneous readings. The risk of damage can be eliminated, but the
latter is more difficult to tackle.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
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• The surface roughness of gravel roads varies more across the road than that of
paved roads.
• It is important to measure the entire width of the road.
8.2 Condition monitoring according to GUPP

"Gravel Road Monitoring" (1995), in Swedish, describes a statistical model for
where and when an assessment of the condition of the gravel road network is to be
made.
Method Specification 106:1996 "Condition assessment of gravel roads, functional

properties" and the statistical model "Monitoring of gravel roads" are together
denoted "System for monitoring gravel roads" and abbreviated to GUPP.
The monitoring system GUPP is based on experiences obtained during

experimental activity in the West Region of the Swedish National Road
Administration in the spring, summer and autumn of 1994. Roads to be monitored
were selected in time and space according to one of the two selection models:
A. The regional selection model
B. The local selection model
A. The regional selection model

According to this model, the purpose of monitoring is to determine whether
condition is better or worse than a certain minimum standard. This monitoring
forms the basis for reports to the decision support system abbreviated to BESS.
The condition of gravel roads in a road network during the frostfree period is
obtained by statistical data processing ("Gravel Road Monitoring", 1995). The
way this statistical data processing is performed is described briefly, but not
clearly, in the report "Monitoring of Gravel Roads".
B. The local selection model

Monitoring can be used to verify contractors' work. In this case, statistical data
processing gives the condition of gravel roads in different geographical areas
during the frostfree period, and also the monthly variation in condition on a
regional level.
The term geographical area refers to the area for which management and
maintenance work has been procured. These areas are also called contract areas.
Under the monitoring system, the contractor carries out his own condition
assessments, and the road management authority performs spot inspections at its
discretion. Today, GUPP is applied in only a few regions, and reports are not sent
to BESS.
Selection in time and space

During the frostfree period of the year, every gravel road must be assessed on at
least one occasion during every period of either ten or two weeks. The time
between two assessments must be not less than nine and not more than eleven
weeks when the regional model is applied, and not less than one and not more
than three weeks when the local model is used.
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At the time of each assessment, the gravel road is to be assessed in places selected
at random. Gravel roads shorter than 1 km are not included in the monitoring
system. For gravel roads longer than 10 km there shall be at least 2 assessment
objets selected at random, plus one more assessment object per every 10 km or
part thereof in addition to the first 10 km. Three alternatives are given for the way
random selection is to be made. The assessment object is a section of gravel road
that covers the selected points. The three alternatives are:
Alternative 1
Points on the gravel road are selected from a table of random numbers. This table
is designed so that points far too close to one another are avoided.
Alternative 2
An ordinary table of random numbers or a random number generator is used to
determine the points. This may at times result in some crowding of points, but this
is statistically correct.
Alternative 3
The points are stratified. The gravel road is divided into the same number of
sections as the number of objects to be selected. The lengths of these sections
must be equal. One point in each section is then selected using a table of random
numbers or a random number generator.
If the producer makes the inspections, the road management authority shall make
random checks. The times the authority makes its checks should closely coincide
with the producer's inspections. The producer is therefore obliged to inform the
authority in good time, e.g. a few days, before each inspection as to which objects
will be assessed and the time of such assessments.
Reports on condition measurements and assessments are to be made using the

"Gravel road inspection sheet"; see Appendix No 2.
8.3 Assessment of the condition of gravel roads abroad

Systematic tests in this areas have been made in several countries. The way the
condition of gravel roads is assessed in Finland, Canada, USA, New Zealand and
Australia is described below. The methods applied for condition assessment, and
the scales used, vary both between countries and regions.
8.3.1 Finland
About 42% of the 75,000 km of State road network in Finland consists of gravel
roads. Traffic mileage on gravel roads is ca 7% (Männisto and Tapio, 1990).
Traffic mileage on gravel roads in Sweden is 1.32%. See Chapter 4.
For the assessment of the condition of gravel roads, the most important
information in the road register is that relating to bearing capacity and road length
at risk of frost damage. The road register gives e.g. the length of gravel roads,
year of construction, functional class and standard maintenance class, measures
taken on the road, traffic volume, traffic mileage and tonne mileage, road width,
lighting, speed limits, number of accidents and accident frequency (Jämsä and
Kankare, 1980).
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
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Subjective assessment
The condition of the wearing course is assessed visually according to the
assessment scale set out below. This assessment takes no account of occasional
frost damage. Assessment is primarily based on surface roughness, binding
ability, dusting tendency and crossfall (Routine road maintenance management
and monitoring at the Finnish National Road Administration, 1994).
Both verbal descriptions and example photographs aid assessment. Assessment

scales, condition classes and condition descriptions are set out in table 8.7. With
regard to surface roughness, the Finnish condition classes are very similar to the
FUG scale. See table 8.3 for comparison.
Table 8.7 Condition classes in Finland (Johansson et al, 1983).

Rating Condition Description
Class
;MSD)MC( )( +"&(31'4#,&(5'(%"&('5#8("#3('&%#.-&8(.%3(3"#$&(#-8(.3(:&'H(&:&-(
#-8(4.'2M(@-H($533.F/&(1-&:&--&33(85&3(-5%(#44&,%(8'.:.-9(
$/&#31'&M(
LMSD;MC( ;( +"&(31'4#,&(5'(%"&('5#8("#3(9&-&'#//H('&%#.-&8(.%3(3"#$&(#-8(.3(
&:&-(#-8(4.'2M(@(4&7(32#//(8&$'&33.5-3(2#H(&[.3%("&'&(#-8(%"&'&M(
A5(813%(.3(#$$#'&-%M(V'.:.-9(3$&&8(85&3(-5%("#3(%5(F&(/57&'&8(
F&,#13&(54(1-&:&--&33M(
?MSDLMC( L( +"&('5#8("#3('&%#.-&8(.%3(3"#$&(.-(9&-&'#/(#-8(.3(253%/H(&:&-(#-8(
4.'2M(+"&'&(2#H(F&(5,,#3.5-#/(32#//(8&$'&33.5-3(#-8(5%"&'(
1-&:&--&33M(+"&('5#8(.3(#(/.%%/&(813%HM(@-H(8&$'&33.5-3(5'(812$3(
.-(%"&('5#8(,#-(F&(#:5.8&8(5'(%"&H(85(-5%('&01.'&(3/57.-9(857-M(=%(
2#H(F&(-&,&33#'H(%5(3/57(857-(7"&-(2&&%.-9(#(,#'(5'(#//57.-9(
352&5-&(%5($#33M((
SMSD?MC( ?( +"&(,'533D3&,%.5-#/($'54./&(54(%"&('5#8(2#H("#:&(,"#-9&8(352&M(
+"&'&(.3(352&(7#3"F5#'8(31'4#,&M(+"&'&(2#H(F&(#(4&7(3.-93(%"#%(
7#'-(#F51%(8&$'&33.5-(5'(F12$3M(+"&'&(.3(#(258&'#%&(#251-%(54(
813%M(V'.:.-9(3$&&8("#3(%5(F&(3/57&8(5,,#3.5-#//H(#-8(%"&(8'.:&'(
"#3(%5(7#%,"(45'(1-&:&--&33M((
CMSDSMC( S( +"&(,'533D3&,%.5-#/($'54./&(54(%"&('5#8("#3(,"#-9&8(.-(2#-H(
$/#,&3M(+"&(31'4#,&(.3(1-&:&-(#-8(/.K&3(#(7#3"F5#'8M(+"&('5#8(
,5-%#.-3(F12$3(#-8(8&$'&33.5-3(%"#%(,#--5%(F&(#:5.8&8M(=%(
,5-%#.-3(#-(#F1-8#-%(#251-%(54(813%M(+"&(8'.:&'(213%(
,5-%.-1513/H(31':&H(%"&(31'4#,&(#-8(:#'H(".3*"&'(8'.:.-9(3$&&8M((
Jämsä (1983) and Johansson et al (1983) say that assessments and monitoring are
carried out in five stages:
Stage 1: Assessment of the description to which the condition most closely

corresponds.
Stage 2: If the condition of the road, on average, corresponds to the description,
or if it is slightly better or worse than the description, the assessment is adjusted as
necessary.
Stage 3: The road section is generally assessed as a whole, but it may be
necessary to divide it up into subsections.
Stage 4: For each standard class there is a target in the form of a minimum limit
for the condition of the wearing course, in terms of the scales in the table above.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SU?(
In Finland there are five standard classes for gravel roads. The highest is standard
class 3, and the lowest standard class 7. See table 8.8.
Stage 5: If the condition drops below the minimum limit of the target, then, if
weather conditions permit, the necessary measures must be taken to raise the
standard. See table 8.8.
Table 8.8 Targets for minimum standards in the standard classes.

AADT Standard class Target (minimum limit)
DSCC( U( SM)(
SCS`?CC( J( ?MC(
?CS`)CC( )( ?M;(
)CS`S)CC( ;( ?M>(
S)CS`JCCC( L( LML(
The difference between the Finnish and Swedish models is that in the Finnish
model the limits are different for measures to be taken depending on standard
class, while the Swedish model has the same limits irrespective of traffic. In the
Swedish model it is the time within which measures must be taken after the
standard has dropped below the lower limit which depends on standard class
(Standard project, 1979, in Swedish).
8.3.2 Canada
In their "Manual for condition rating of gravel surface roads", Chong and Wrong
(1989) describe a method for condition assessment.
The method is based on subjective assessment of three types of primary distress.

Each of these includes other secondary damage. These primary and secondary
distresses are as follows:
1. Surface defects
1.a Loose aggregate
1.b Dust
1.c Potholes
1.d Breakup
2. Surface deformation
2.a Corrugations
2.b Rutting
2.c Flat or reverse crown
2.d Distortion
3. Shoulder distress manifestations

3.a Excessive height
3.b Ponding
3.c Overgrowth
Two terms are used to describe defects. One is "Severity", the other "Density"
which indicates the extent of damage. Severity has three levels, slight, moderate
and severe. Density also has three levels, intermittent, frequent and extensive.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
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Verbal descriptions and example photographs aid assessments. During visual

assessments a straightedge is used to measure e.g. the depth and width of defects.
Chong and Wrong propose what operation and maintenance measures should be
taken depending on the results of assessments. table 8.9 shows the measures
needed for different levels of rutting. The following example gives a detailed idea
of how rutting and the measures that are needed are assessed. figure 8.13, 8.14
and 8.15 show the three levels of rutting, slight, moderate and severe.
Figure 8.13 Slight rutting.
Figure 8.14 Moderate rutting.
Figure 8.15 Severe rutting.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SU;(
Table 8.9 Management and maintenance measures needed for different levels
of rutting.
The condition of entire road sections is then assessed according to a 100-degree

assessment scale. See table 8.10. On the basis of this scale, there is a breakdown
into five classes, 80-100, 60-79, 40-59, 20-39, 0-19.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SU)
Table 8.10 The hundred-degree assessment scale (Chong and Wrong, 1989).
Description PCR Recommended
maintenance
I5#87#H(31'4#,&(7&//(3"#$&8(7.%"(7&//D8&4.-&8( >CDSCC( I51%.-&(2#.-%&-#-,&M((
3"51/8&'(F&%7&&-('51-8.-93M(A5(31'4#,&(8.3%'&33(
2#-.4&3%#%.5-3T(g13%(#(3/.9"%(,/#33.4.,#%.5-(45'(813%(
#-8(/553&(9'#:&/M(A5(4'53%("&#:&(5'(354%(3$5%3(7"&-(
&:#/1#%.5-(.3(2#8&(.-(/#%&(3$'.-9M(b558(8'#.-#9&(45'(
31'4#,&('1-D544(5-('5#87#H(#-8(3"51/8&'M((
I5#87#H(31'4#,&(7&//(3"#$&8(7.%"(3"51/8&'( JCDUQ( I51%.-&(2#.-%&-#-,&M(
F&%7&&-('51-8.-93M(652&(8.3%'&33(2#-.4&3%#%.5-3(.-( V13%(,5-%'5/(2#H(F&(
3/.9"%(%5(258&'#%&(,/#33(31,"(#3(813%T(/553&(9'#:&/T( -&,&33#'H(45'('&3.8&-%.#/(
$5%"5/&3T(&%,M(+"&'&(2#H(F&(#(4&7(354%(3$5%3(54(4'53%( #'&#3M((
"&#:.-9(7"&-(&:#/1#%.5-(.3(2#8&(.-(/#%&(3$'.-9M(
b558(8'#.-#9&(45'(31'4#,&('1-D544(5-('5#87#H(#-8(
3"51/8&'M(
P.[%1'&(54($'5$&'/H(3"#$&8('5#87#H(31'4#,&(#-8( ;CD)Q( =-,'&#3&8('51%.-&(
.2$'5$&'/H(3"#$&8(#'&#3M(6"51/8&'(8.3%'&33( 2#.-%&-#-,&(-&,&33#'HM(
2#-.4&3%#%.5-3(31,"(#3($5-8.-9(#-8(5:&'9'57%"( @88.%.5-(54(9'#:&/(#-8(
&:.8&-%(F&%7&&-('51-8.-93(.-(3/.9"%(%5(258&'#%&( 813%(,5-%'5/(#88.%.:&3(
,/#33M(<#'.513(31'4#,&(8.3%'&33(2#-.4&3%#%.5-3( F&,52&(-&,&33#'HM((
$'&3&-%(31,"(#3(7#3"F5#'8.-9T($5%"5/&3T(&%,MT(.-(
3/.9"%(%5(258&'#%&(,/#33M(B5,#/.3&8(F'&#K1$(2#H(F&(
$'&3&-%M((
P#g5'.%H(54('5#87#H(31'4#,&(.2$'5$&'/H(3"#$&8M( ?CDLQ( P#.-%&-#-,&(7.%"(
6"51/8&'(8.3%'&33(2#-.4&3%#%.5-3(.-(258&'#%&(%5( #88.%.5-(54(9'#:&/(
3&:&'(,/#33M(<#'.513('5#87#H(31'4#,&(8.3%'&33( -&,&33#'HM(V13%(,5-%'5/(
2#-.4&3%#%.5-3(2#K.-9(%'#:&/(1-$/&#3#-%(F&,#13&(54( #(213%(45'('&3.8&-%.#/(
7#3"F5#'8.-9T(813%T($5%"5/&3T(8.3%5'%.5-T(&%,M( #'&#3M(652&($5'%.5-(2#H(
B5,#/.3&8(F'&#K1$(#'&#3M( F&(-&&8('&"#F./.%#%.5-M((
c/#%(%5('&:&'&3(,'57-T(3&:&'('5#87#H(31'4#,&( CDSQ( I&"#F./.%#%.5-(-&,&33#'H(
8.3%'&33(31,"(#3(7#3"F5#'8.-9T(/553&(9'#:&/T(
$5%"5/&3T(&%,M(<&'H('519"(5-(:&".,/&3(4'52(3&:&'&(
8.3%5'%.5-(#-8(F'&#K1$(#'&#3M(6&:&'&(3"51/8&'(
8.3%'&33(%'#$$.-9(31'4#,&(7#%&'(#%(#//(%.2&3M(B.%%/&(5'(
-5(9'#:&/(81&(%5(3&:&'&(7.-8'57(54(/553&(9'#:&/T(5-(
'5#87#H(31'4#,&M((
Dobson and Postill (1983) present in their study a method for standard
classification of gravel roads. Roads are assigned in view of their "Quality of
Service" to three classes; see Table 8.11. Standard classification is based on
AADT and the proportion of heavy vehicles, road width, visibility conditions,
driving comfort and availability during the year.
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!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SUJ(
Table 8.11 The three standard classes.

Quality-of-service Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Characteristic
S( @V+( ?)CD;CC( SCCDLCC( CDS)C(
( +'1,K3(W\X( SL( SL( SL(
?( I5#8(a.8%"(W2X( h(JMU( ;MQDJMU( ;MQ(
L( <.3.F./.%H( ( ( (
( Y#33.-9(3.9"%(8.3%#-,&(W2X( ;>>( LL)( ?;;(
( 6%5$$.-9(3.9"%(8.3%#-,&(W2X( SCU( >;( JS(
;( ^#3&(54($#33#9&( I1%%.-9T( 6/.9"%('1%%.-9T( I1%%.-9T(
,5''19#%.5-T( ,5''19#%.5-T( ,5''19#%.5-T(
#-8($5%"5/&3( #-8($5%"5/&3( #-8($5%"5/&3(
#'&(-5%( #//57&8(( ,5''&,%&8(
%5/&'#%&8(( 3&#35-#//H(
)( @//D3&#35-(%'#:&/( i$&-(H&#'( i$&-(H&#'( 6&#35-#/(
'51-8( '51-8(( ,/531'&3(
#//57&8((
Dobson and Postill made 400 vehicles the upper limit for AADT since they
consider that roads with AADT in excess of 400 ought to be paved. According to
Dobson and Postill, management and maintenance activity can be planned and
performed better when their classification is employed. They also add that this
classification makes macroeconomic estimates possible.
8.3.3 USA
About 50% of the American road network is unpaved. Traffic flow on gravel
roads varies from 50 to 400 AADT (Han, 1992).
"Gravel-PASER Manual, Pavement Surface Evaluation and Rating GPM" (1994)

describes a method for condition assessment of gravel roads in USA. The method
is based on subjective assessment. Five road properties or distresses are used to
describe condition. All defects are described in words and with photographs.
Proposals for remedial measures are also given. The five properties and defects
are:
1. Crown
2. Drainage
3. Gravel wearing course
5. Surface defects
1. Crown
The term crown also describes crossfall and the height of the centre of the road
above the edges. There are three levels, excellent crown, poor grading and poorly
graded crown.
2. Drainage
The condition of both ditches and culverts is assessed with the help of
photographs and descriptions. There are four levels, excellent drainage, acceptable
drainage, poor drainage and no drainage.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SUU
3. Gravel wearing course

The thickness and quality of the gravel wearing course are assigned to three
levels, excellent gravel wearing course, acceptable gravel wearing course and
little or no gravel wearing course.
Surface deformation may be rutting, corrugation or potholes.
4.1: There are two levels of rutting, rutting only in wheeltracks and extensive
rutting combined with very poor drainage.
4.2: There are two levels of corrugation, moderate and significant corrugation.
4.3: There are three levels of potholes, few potholes, series of moderate potholes
and extensive potholes which covers almost the whole carriageway. Potholes on
bridges is also described.
5. Surface defects
In conjunction with defects, dusting and loose aggregate are described as follows:
5.1: Unexpectedly, dust is given only one level which is lot of dust. There should
be another level, e.g. no dust.
5.2: Loose aggregate is broken down into two levels:

Loose aggregate occurs extensively over almost the whole carriageway (level 1)
and extensive banks along the road edges (level 2).
GPM gives a table for assessing the condition of the wearing course with respect
to the above five properties and defects. With the help of photographs and verbal
descriptions, the road is assigned to five condition classes. The scale 1—5 is used,
with 5 as excellent. See table 8.12.
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!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SU>(
Table 8.12 The five condition classes (GPM, 1989).

Rating Visible distress Treatment measures
)( ^[,&//&-%( A5(8.3%'&33M( B.%%/&(5'(-5(2#.-%&-#-,&(
V13%(,5-%'5//&8M( -&&8&8M(
^[,&//&-%(31'4#,&(,5-8.%.5-3(#-8('.8&(01#/.%HM(
;( b558( V13%(1-8&'(8'H(,5-8.%.5-3M( I51%.-&(2#.-%&-#-,&(2#H(
P58&'#%&(/553&(#99'&9#%&M(( F&(-&&8&8M(
6/.%(7#3"F5#'8.-9M((
L( c#.'( b558(,'57-(LjDJjM(( I&9'#8.-9(-&,&33#'H(%5(
V.%,"&3($'&3&-%(5-(25'&(%"#-()C\(54( 2#.-%#.-M((
'5#87#HM( A&&83(352&(8.%,"(
b'#:&/(7&#'.-9(,51'3&(.3(253%/H(#8&01#%&( .2$'5:&2&-%(#-8(,1/:&'%(
F1%(#88.%.5-#/(#99'&9#%&(2#H(F&(-&&8&8(#%(#( 2#.-%&-#-,&(
4&7(/5,#%.5-3(%5("&/$(,5''&,%(7#3"F5#'8.-9(
5'(.35/#%&8($5%"5/&3(#-8('1%3M(
652&(,1/:&'%(,/&#-.-9(-&&8&8M((
P58&'#%&(7#3"F5#'8.-9(WSjD?j(8&&$XT(5:&'(
SC\D?)\(54(%"&(#'&#M(
P58&'#%&(813%T($#'%.#/(5F3%'1,%.5-(54(:.3.5-M(
A5-&(5'(3/.9"%('1%%.-9(W/&33(%"#-(Sj(8&&$XM(
@-(5,,#3.5-#/(32#//($5%"5/&3(W/&33(%"#-(?j(
8&&$XM(
652&(/553&(#99'&9#%&(W?j(8&&$XM(
?( Y55'( B.%%/&(5'(-5('5#87#H(,'57-(W/&33(%"#-(LjXM( A&&83(#88.%.5-#/(
@8&01#%&(8.%,"&3(5-(/&33(%"#-()C\(54( #99'&9#%&M((
'5#87#HM(Y5'%.5-3(54(%"&(8.%,"&3(2#H(F&( P.-5'(8.%,"(,5-3%'1,%.5-(
4.//&8T(5:&'9'57-(#-8*5'(3"57(&'53.5-M( #-8(,1/:&'%(2#.-%&-#-,&(
652&(#'&#3(W?)\X(7.%"(/.%%/&(5'(-5( #/35('&01.'&8M(
#99'&9#%&M((
!1/:&'%3($#'%.#//H(41//(54(8&F'.3M(
P58&'#%&(%5(3&:&'&(7#3"F5#'8.-9(W5:&'(Lj(
8&&$X(5:&'(?)\(54(#'&#M(
P58&'#%&('1%%.-9(WSjDLjX(5:&'(SC\D?)\(54(
#'&#M((
P58&'#%&($5%"5/&3(W?jD;jX(5:&'SC\D?)\(54(
#'&#M((
6&:&'&(/553&(#99'&9#%&(W5:&'(;jXM(
S( c#./&8(( A5('5#87#H(,'57-(5'('5#8(.3(F57/(3"#$&8( A&&83(,52$/&%&('&F1./8.-9(
7.%"(&[%&-3.:&($5-8.-9M( #-8(5'(-&7(,1/:&'%3M(
B.%%/&(.4(#-H(8.%,"&3M((
c.//&8(5'(8#2#9&8(,1/:&'%3M((
6&:&'&('1%%.-9(W5:&'(Lj(8&&$XT(5:&'(?)\(54(
%"&(#'&#M(
6&:&'&($5%"5/&3(W5:&'(;j(8&&$XT(5:&'(?)\(54(
#'&#M((
P#-H(#'&#3(W5:&'(?)\(54(%"&(#'&#X(7.%"(/.%%/&(
5'(-5(#99'&9#%&M((
Every condition class in table 8.12 is accompanied by a general description of the

condition of the road, and some measures are proposed depending on the defects
described above. For instance, the general description of Condition Class 2 is that
speed is low and often less than 40 km/h.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SUQ
In their report, Eaton and Beaucham (1992) describe a method for condition
assessment. The method is based on subjective assessment and presents an
"unsurfaced road condition index" URCI. This has a scale ranging from 0 to 100,
and the road condition according to this is the same as that given in "pavement
condition index" PCI for paved roads. Standard classes and condition classes are
briefly described in the following.
Standard classes for gravel roads according to Eaton and Beaucham are set out in
table 8.13.
Table 8.13 Standard classes.

Standard class ADT, number of vehicles per day URCI
S( f?CC( UCDSCC(
?( SCC`SQQ( ))DUC(
L( )C`QQ( ;CD))(
;( C`;Q( ?)D;C(
For condition assessment there are two types of inspection. One is "windshield
inspection" and the other a detailed inspection.
Windshield inspection is carried out from a car driven at ca 40 km/h depending on

road condition and speed limit. The road is not divided into sections, but the car
drives over the whole length of the road. This inspection is performed every
season, four times a year.
Eaton and Beaucham recommend that the detailed inspection should be carried
out every year at the same time. The inspection should be made when the road is
in the best possible condition. An inspection should not be made during the thaw
period.
For a detailed inspection, a gravel road is divided into sections which, by

referring to photographs, are judged to belong to a certain standard class with
respect to seven different types of distress. Sections 35-80 m long are assessed at
a time.
The seven distresses used for assessment are as follows:

1. Wrong crossfall
2. Insufficient drainage
3. Corrugations
4. Dust
5. Potholes
6. Rutting
7. Loose aggregate
Distress is described under three headings,

a. Brief description of distress, its causes and the consequences if no action is
taken.
b. Method of measuring the distress.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( S>C(
A straightedge 1.2 m long is used to measure the depth, area and width of the
distresses.
c. Levels of the severity of distresses:

1. Low severity (L)
2. Medium severity (M)
3. High severity (H)
The seven types of distress are illustrated in figure 8.16-8.22 (Eaton and
Beaucham, 1992).
Figure 8.16 The three levels for assessment of crossfall (Eaton and Beaucham,
1992).
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( S>S
Figure 8.17 The three levels for assessment of drainage (Eaton and Beaucham,
1992).
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( S>?(
Figure 8.18 The three levels for assessment of corrugation (Eaton and
Beaucham, 1992.)
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( S>L
Figure 8.19 The three levels for assessment of dusting (Eaton and Beaucham,
1992).
Figure 8.20 The three levels for assessment of potholing (Eaton and Beaucham,
1992).
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( S>;(
Figure 8.21 The three levels for assessment of rutting (Eaton and Beaucham,
1992).
Figure 8.22 The three levels for assessment of loose aggregate (Eaton and
Beaucham, 1992).
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( S>)
The inspection report is made on a special form; see Appendix No 3. The form
has two tables which must be filled in. One contains information regarding
degrees of severity L, M or H. The other table is headed URCI Calculation. URCI
is calculated in four steps. These are not described here.
After URCI has been calculated for the whole road, the condition class to which
the road is assigned is assessed. The relationship between URCI and the condition
classes is set out in figure 8.23.
Figure 8.23 The URCI scale (Eaton and Beaucham, 1992).
Priorities to different road sections are assigned using a Maintenance Priority

Graph. This is based on a combination of URCI and traffic volume AADT. The
maintenance priority graph is reproduced in figure 8.24.
Figure 8.24 Maintenance priority graph (Eaton and Beaucham, 1992).
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( S>J(
All roads in the network can then be assigned to three priority classes, low,
medium and high priority. The class the road is assigned to is determined by:
• Standard class
• Budget availability
• Local conditions
Roads with e.g. a lower URCI and a higher AADT should have a higher priority.
Depending on defects, recommendations are also made as to the management and
maintenance measures that need be taken. For each standard class there is a target
in the form of a lower limit for the condition of the wearing course according to
the scale presented in figure 8.24.
8.3.4 Australia and New Zealand

Australia has more than 500,000 km unpaved roads, gravel roads and earth roads,
that represent about 65% (1993) of the total road network of 800,000 km (Foley
and Cropley, 1996). Many of the roads lack aggregate. They are only graded earth
roads. 42% (1995) of the New Zealand road network is made up of gravel roads
(Foley and Cropley, 1996).
"A guide to the visual assessment of pavement condition" (1987) states that
damage to unpaved roads, i.e. gravel and earth roads, is to be divided into three
primary groups.
1. Deformation D
2. Surface Texture S
3. Potholes HO
The first two groups are subdivided into other secondary defects. Secondary
defects are denoted by two letters.
1. Deformation D
1.a Erosion channels DN
1.b Corrugation DC
1.c Rutting DR
1.d Shoving DS (Plastic bulging of surface)
2. Surface Texture S
2.a Coarse texture ST
2.b Loose material SL
A 1.2 m straightedge is used to measure the depth, area and width of the various
defects. The length and width of e.g. corrugation ridges and ruts can also be
measured with the straightedge. The length of road affected is also judged. All
defects are photographed. table 8.14 describes the measurements made in
conjunction with condition assessments.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( S>U
Table 8.14 Measurements made in conjunction with condition assessments.

Distress Attributes
1 Deformation D
!"#--&/(W3,51'X(VA( V&$%"(54(,"#--&/(W22X(
B&-9%"(54(#44&,%&8('5#8(W2X(
!5''19#%.5-3(V!( P#[M(8&$%"(W22X(
!'&3%D%5D,'&3%(3$#,.-9(W22X(
B&-9%"(54(#44&,%&8('5#8(W2X(
I1%%.-9(VI( P#[M(8&$%"(W22X(
B&-9%"(54(#44&,%&8('5#8(W2X(
6"5:.-9(V6( V&$%"(4'52(".9"($5.-%(1-8&'(#(SM?(2(3%'#.9"%(&89&(
?
@'&#(#44&,%&8(W2 X(
2 Surface Texture S
B553&(2#%&'.#/(6B( +".,K-&33(54(/553&(2#%&'.#/(W22X(
6.%1#%.5-T(#3(31'4#,&(/#H&'(5'(251-8(
B&-9%"(54(#44&,%&8('5#8(W2X(
!5#'3&(%&[%1'&(6+( Y'5g&,%.5-(54(#99'&9#%&T($'518(54(#:&'#9&($#:&2&-%(
31'4#,&(W22X(
?
@'&#(#44&,%&8(W2 X(
3 Potholes HO V&$%"(W22X(
?
@'&#(54($5%"5/&3(W2 X(
A12F&'(54("5/&3(
It is seen from "Unsealed Roads Manual-Guidelines to Good Practice" (1993) that

condition assessments can be based on the following five points:
1. Visible defects, i.e. the above defects deformation, surface texture and
potholes.
2. Thickness of gravel wearing course
3. Effectiveness of drainage system
4. Geometrical shape
5. Traffic safety, e.g. lack of road signs.
The report proposes an inspection form to be used for assessment and reporting.
In his handbook, "Unsealed Roads-A Manual of Repair and Maintenance for

Pavements", Ferry (1986) describes the system used in New Zealand for assessing
gravel and earth roads. The condition of the wearing course is assessed according
to the following five-degree scale. Assessment is mainly based on the surface
roughness of the road. See table 8.15.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( S>>(
Table 8.15 The five condition classes (Ferry, 1986).

Rating No Road condition
)( 61'4#,&("#3(,5''&,%(3"#$&(#-8(.3(3255%"(#-8(4.'2M(@-H(3/.9"%(F/&2.3"(85&3(
-5%(#44&,%(8'.:.-9M(
;( 6"#$&( .3( 9&-&'#//H( 2#.-%#.-&8( #-8( 31'4#,&( .3( &:&-( #-8( 4.'2M( +"&'&( #'&(
352&( 5,,#3.5-#/( 3.-9/&( $5%"5/&3( 5'( 1-&:&--&33M( V'.:.-9( 3$&&83( ,#-( F&(
2#.-%#.-&8(8&3$.%&(8&4&,%3M(
L( 6"#$&( .3(9&-&'#//H(2#.-%#.-&8( #-8(31'4#,&(.3(253%/H( &:&-( #-8(4.'2M(+"&'&(
#'&( 352&( 8&4&,%3( #-8( 813%( -1.3#-,&3( .-( 8'H( 7&#%"&'M( V'.:.-9( 3$&&83( #-8(
5%"&'( :&".,/&(5$&'#%.5-3(31,"(#3($#33.-9(#'&(%5(#(3/.9"%(&[%&-%(#44&,%&8(FH(
%"&($'&3&-,&(54(8&4&,%3M((
?( !'533D3&,%.5-( "#3( ,"#-9&8( 352&7"#%M( +"&'&( #'&( 3.9-.4.,#-%( 8&4&,%3( 31,"(
#3( ,5''19#%.5-3T( $5%"5/&3( 5'( '1%3M( V13%( $'5F/&2( &[.3%3( .-( 8'H( 7&#%"&'M(
V'.:.-9( 3$&&83( #'&( F&/57( 5$%.212( #-8( 352&( 8'.:&'3( #'&( %#K.-9( #,%.5-( %5(
&:#8&(8&4&,%3M((
S( !'533D3&,%.5-( .3( 31F3%#-%.#//H( 51%( 54( %"&( 3"#$&M( +"&'&( #'&( $/&-%H( 54(
,5''19#%.5-3T( $5%"5/&3( 5'( 1-&:&-( #'&#3( 5-( %"&( ,#''.#9&7#HM( V13%( .3( #(
-1.3#-,&(.-(8'H(7&#%"&'M(V'.:.-9(3$&&83(F#8/H(#44&,%&8M((
8.4 Standard classes for forest roads

Forestry in Sweden has a very great economic role. Many people live on income
from forestry and forest products, and forests are extensively utilised. The forest
roads constructed in forest districts are important for large scale forest utilisation.
The total value of forest roads in Sweden is SEK 10-15 milliard. The annual
management costs for forest roads amount to about SEK 800 million.
Forest roads are used for:

• Haulage of timber.
• Forestry services.
• Transport routes for tourism and recreation.
• Transport of personnel and equipment for defence and fire fighting.
8.4.1 Standard classes for forest roads in Sweden

In Sweden, standard classes for forest roads and ordinary gravel roads are
assessed differently. Ordinary gravel roads are assessed according to "Rules for
Management and Maintenance", Regulations for Maintenance and Operation
(1990) with regard to AADT. Forest roads are classified on the basis of other
properties and methods.
In Sweden, the standard of forest roads is assessed by geometric design and

bearing capacity.
It is geometric design that determines trafficability, while bearing capacity is of

critical significance for availability during the year.
8.4.1.1 Geometric standard classes

In view of geometric shape, a distinction is made between the following classes
(Forest roads: service, maintenance and upgrading, 1992, in Swedish):
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( S>Q
Road class 1: Single lane permanent road with wearing course of crushed
aggregate. Design speed is normally 60 km/h. This class is primarily intended for
specially important roads where there are relatively high demands regarding
speed, e.g. the longest forest roads or combined roads where traffic other than
forest traffic is also of great extent.
aggregate. Design speed is normally 40 km/h. This class is primarily intended for
major forest roads.
aggregate or graded natural aggregate. Design speed is normally 30 km/h. This
class is intended for roads with low demand regarding speed.
Road class 4: Single lane permanent road that has no proper wearing course.
Design speed is normally 20 km/h. Engineering design is based on assumption
that road standard is not maintained by continuous maintenance measures. Road is
put in order prior to each period of use. Roads in this class are considered to have
a life much shorter than roads in Classes 1-3.
Road class 5: Single lane road which cannot normally carry vehicle combinations
longer than 18 m. Width of carriageway is ca 3 m.
Road class 6: Simplest possible road which cannot normally carry vehicles with
trailers.
Classes 1-4 all have a carriageway width of 3.5 m and shall otherwise be designed
for traffic comprising the same vehicle type. Comprehensive improvements shall
not under any circumstances produce a standard lower than Class 4. Newly
constructed roads shall always have a standard corresponding to Classes 1-4.
Road classes 5 and 6 are only included to assign a standard to existing low class
roads.
The most common geometric defects of forest roads are:

• Narrow exits
• Insufficient, small and few, turning places
• Narrow carriageways
• Insufficient increase in width in horizontal bends
• Ditches blocked by vegetation
• Poor crossfall
Owing to the low geometric standard, mainly in the southern parts of Sweden,
many areas cannot be reached with 24 m vehicles, and timber must be
transhipped. Drivers are forced to leave the lorry trailer out on the major road and
to enter the narrow roads with only the lorry itself. The trailer normally carries
twice as much as the lorry, and three trips are therefore usually necessary before
the combination can be coupled up and the journey can continue. This assembly
operation normally takes 2-4 hours.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SQC(
8.4.1.2 Bearing capacity standard

The term bearing capacity refers to the ability of a road to support loads during
different parts of the year. Depending on road standard, bearing capacity varies
during the year. Some roads must be able to carry traffic during the whole year,
others only during the winter (Forest roads: service, maintenance and upgrading,
1992).
The design of forest roads, including those of lowest standard (Road Class 4) is
based on a typical vehicle of:
Total length: 24 m
Total width: 2.6 m
Total height: 4.5 m
Overall weight: 60 tonnes
Axle/bogie load: 10/18 tonnes on roads
Axle load on bridges: 14 tonnes
Bogie load on bridges: 18-22 tonnes
From the standpoint of bearing capacity, roads are assigned to four classes with
respect to the part of the year during which it is normally assumed that heavy
traffic can use the road without seriously damaging it. All roads must have
sufficient bearing capacity for vehicles with 10 tonnes axle load and 18 tonnes
bogie load. The four availability classes are as follows:
Availability Class A: The road shall be able to carry lorry and car traffic during
the whole year.
Availability Class B: The road shall be able to carry lorry traffic during the
whole year except during the thaw period. It shall be able to carry cars during the
whole year.
Availability Class C: The road shall be able to carry lorry traffic during the
whole year, except during the thaw period and prolonged rainy periods. The road
shall be able to carry cars during the whole year except during the thaw period.
Availability Class D: On the whole, the road shall be able to carry lorry traffic
only when the road structure is frozen. The road shall be able to carry cars during
the summer also.
8.4.1.3 Combinations of geometric classes and bearing capacity

classes
The geometric classes and bearing capacity classes can be combined into standard
classes as in table 8.16 (Forest roads: Service, Maintenance and Upgrading,
1992).
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@
!"#$%&'(>*(!5-8.%.5-(#33&332&-%(54(9'#:&/('5#83( SQS
Table 8.16 Division into standard classes (Roadplan 80, 1982, in Swedish).
General standard Satisfactory Carriageway with Some older roads
gravel no proper wearing
carriageway course, temporary
road
( Normal design speed, km/h Availability for
Availability 18m vehicle Lorries
60 40 30 20
combinations
B5''H(#-8(,#'(%'#44.,( (
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A
81'.-9(7"5/&(H&#'(
B5''H(%'#44.,(#//(H&#'( (
&[,&$%(81'.-9(%"#7M( 1B 2B 3B 4B 5B
!#'(%'#44.,(#//(H&#'(
B5''H(%'#44.,(#//(H&#'(
&[,&$%(81'.-9(%"#7(
1C 2C 3C 4C 5C 6C
#-8($'5/5-9&8('#.-M(
!#'(%'#44.,(#//(H&#'(
&[,&$%(81'.-9(%"#7(
B5''H(%'#44.,(2#.-/H(
.-(7.-%&'M(!#'(%'#44.,( - - - 4D D( 6D
.-(3122&'(#/35(
The most common class for forest roads in Sweden is Class 3C. The class to be
chosen in different situations is mainly a matter of planning the road network,
which is dependent on forestry, transport and highway economic factors.
8.4.2 Standard classes for forest roads in Canada

In Canada, a system called the ALSAT-L SYSTEM is applied (Paterson et al,
1975). The letters stand for the following:
AL = design Axle Load (kips), 1 kip = 4.4 kN
S = Speed (km/h)
A = Availability within the year
T = Traffic volume (passenger/day of the design axle)
L = road Life (years)
A road may be classified as e.g. 18K-30-A-250.05, i.e. the road carries 250
vehicles per day with an axle load of 18 kip (80 kN) at a speed of 30 km/h. A
denotes availability in all weathers except during the thaw period. The life is 5
years.
<+=(2&88&/#-8&(>)?@(
Chapter 9/ Planning and evaluation of operation and maintenance measures 192
9
Planning and evaluation of operation
and maintenance measures
Planning of operation and maintenance measures and compliance with

competition legislation are discussed in this chapter. Evaluation of the cost
effectiveness of operation and maintenance activity and nationaleconomic
estimates have also been studied, as well as the relationship between operation
and maintenance measures and their traffic economic effects in the form of
vehicle costs, traffic safety and trafficability. A study is also made of the
willingness to pay of road users.
9.1 Planning of operation and maintenance activity 193

9.1.1 Compliance with competition legislation in maintenance 194
9.1.2 Choice of operation and maintenance measures 195
9.2 Economic estimates in operation and maintenance 197
9.2.1 Effects of operation and maintenance measures 197
9.2.2 Nationaleconomic evaluation 206
9.2.3 Willingness to pay of road users 209
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9.1 Planning of operation and maintenance activity

In planning maintenance work on gravel roads, attention should be paid to the
criteria for condition assessment, the choice of roads to be maintained, prioritising
of roads to be subjected to remedial treatment, choice of operation and
maintenance measures. A core issue in maintenance planning is the condition
class to be achieved.
Planning must relate to the entire road network so that the correct priorities may
be decided on. There should be available a maintenance system to provide
assistance in maintenance planning.
In their report, Eaton and Beaucham (1992) present a complete system for the
classification and condition assessment of gravel roads and the planning of
operation and maintenance. The main points of this system are:
1. Identification of the road network
2. Division of the road network into different standard classes
3. Condition assessment and division of the road network into different
condition classes
4. Assignment of priorities to different road sections
5. Assessment of the need for operation and maintenance measures
6. Calculation of costs with reference to purely business economics aspects
7. Management of data
This method has been used in practice and, according to Eaton and Beaucham, has
been found quite good for planning operation and maintenance measures. Items 2
"Standard classes" and 3 "Condition classes" are described briefly in Chapter 8.
Different forms of maintenance strategies, based on experience, can be seen.

Bäckman et al. (1998) give some examples of strategies that can be applied to
gravel roads.
• Only acute maintenance

• Worst first
• Utilisation of coordination benefits
• Regular maintenance intervals
• Reduction of use and thus maintenance
Bäckman et al. (1998) add however that it is very unusual for a road management
authority to fully concentrate on one of these strategies, even though the first two,
only acute maintenance and worst first, are not uncommon due to the lack of
economic resources.
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9.1.1 Compliance with competition legislation in

operation and maintenance
The Swedish National Road Administration (SNRA) is the State agency
responsible for road planning, construction, operation and maintenance on the
State road network. The authority also has sectorial responsibility for traffic safety
and environment. For operation and maintenance there is a 3 year planning budget
which has remained nominally unchanged for several years.
It is worth noting that in 1990 the Swedish parliament passed a resolution that all
State activity shall be thrown open to competition. In 1997, State roads were
divided into ca 145 geographical areas, and 107 of these, covering 70,000 km, are
subject to competitive tendering. At present (1999), ca 99% of the geographical
areas are subject to competition.
The party who commissions operation and maintenance work is called the
principal or the road management authority. The party who carries out operation
and maintenance work is called producer or contractor. Those carrying out
operation and maintenance of gravel roads are Production SNRA profit centre,
Skanska, NCC, PEAB and other local companies; see table 9.1.
Table 9.1 Market percentages in terms of km of road and number of

geographical areas opened to competition in 1997 (Wikström in
the course "Operation and maintenance of Traffic Facilities-KTH,
1997, in Swedish).
Producer Percentage of roads (km) Number of geographical
open to competition areas open to competition
SNRA Production 68 70.5
Skanska 13 13.5
NCC 10 12
PEAB 6 8
Others, LBC etc 3 3
Totals 100 107
The procurement model for operation and maintenance services is based on

orders being expressed in terms of products and services. Quality shall be
expressed in terms of standard and service levels. Specifications of functional or
standard requirements shall be applied as far as possible. The forms of contract
applied by the National Swedish Road Administration are:
• Divided contract
• General contract
• Design and construct contract
• Design, construct and maintain contract
The Basic Management Package is formulated in such a way that the road
management authority shall, throughout the year, feel confident that it discharges
its responsibility for road management by making the producer responsible for
carrying out acute and routine measures without any action on the part of the
authority (Wikström in the course "Operation and maintenance of Traffic
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Facilities-KTH, 1997). The basic management package also comprises, inter alia,
winter road management, traffic sings, rest areas and pavement repairs.
According to Danielson (1997) in the course "Operation and maintenance of

Traffic Facilities-KTH", important criteria for competition are as follows:
A. In procurement, free and genuine competition shall apply in the short and
long term.
B. Procurement shall be correct, unambiguous and calculable.
C. Results shall be measurable.
D. Standard shall be consistent for all road classes irrespective of how and when
procurement was undertaken.
A. Free and genuine competition

Forms of procurement shall be such as to ensure that the previous public
monopoly is not replaced by a private monopoly because a producer becomes
established in a geographical area and makes it of no interest for other producers
to compete. There must also be an interest for the road management area during
both low and high periods in the business cycle. Since parts of operation and
maintenance activity had not previously been open to competition, various
measures may initially have to be taken to allow producers to build up new
competence.
B. Correct procurement
There must be methods to describe the worst standard that will be accepted and
the standard to aim for. Knowledge of the normal frequency of measures is also
required in order that the tender shall be calculable.
C. Measurable results
Methods of measuring the results of a measure have been developed over a long
time for certain types of activity, e.g. surfacings. There is a great need of objective
result measurement for other measures. One example may be gravel road
maintenance where conditions often change rapidly. It is important that it should
be possible to measure the worst condition that is accepted before remedial action
must be taken.
D. Consistent standard
Since grant allocations may vary from year to year, procurement must incorporate
such flexibility that the standard required can be adjusted easily depending on the
availability of funds.
9.1.2 Choice of operation and maintenance measures

Operation and maintenance measures are chosen so as to achieve the optimum
results for customers, the road management authority and other interested parties.
In their degree project, Andren and Fransson (1976) developed a method for
classifying gravel roads with respect to the factors surface roughness, binding
ability and dusting tendency. The method and the criteria employed are described
in Subclause 8.1.1.2. With respect to these criteria, an action diagram was
constructed showing whether or not a certain measure is necessary. See figure 9.1.
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No action necessary.
Action should be taken when traffic volume exceeds 250

vehicles/day.
Action should be taken soonest.
Minimum requirement for gravel roads irrespective of traffic

intensity. Action soonest.
Figure 9.1 Action diagram for operation and maintenance measures (Andren
and Fransson, 1976).
BUNDENHET=BINDING ABILITY
YTJÄMNHET=SURFACE ROUGHNESS
DAMNINGSBENÄGENHET A, B, C=DUSTING TENDENCY A, B, C
Andren and Fransson also drew up a relationship between running speed and the
number of vehicles that have passed since remedial action was taken on the gravel
road. The relationship shows that the maintenance cycle of a road, i.e. the period
between two consecutive measures such as grading, may be said to comprise three
stages, an initial stage when the road has binding ability, a stationary stage when
the condition of the road is reasonably unchanged, and a decline stage during
which deterioration is manifested by a drop in mean speed. On the roads studied
in the degree project, it was found that the mean speed was 55-65 km/h at points
where the condition became unacceptable after ca 6000-10,000 vehicle passages.
In their report, Beckemeyer and McPeak (1995) present a figure for the choice of
operation and maintenance measures; see figure 9.2. The figure is based on the
URCI scale; see Subclause 8.3.3.
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Figure 9.2 Relationship between gravel road condition and maintenance

measures.
9.2 Economic evaluations in operation and

maintenance
The term economic planning is defined as economic management of limited
resources, i.e. utilisation of resources in such a way that the greatest possible yield
is obtained. This applies regardless of whether the economic calculation is made
in view of the interests of a company or society. What makes these calculations
different is the purpose for which they are made. If they are made for a company,
the goal is generally to ensure that profits are as high as possible, i.e. the
endeavour is to maximise the difference between costs and revenues. In principle,
the same also applies in nationaleconomic calculations where consideration must
be given to the costs and revenues of society and an endeavour made to minimise
the costs and maximise the revenues of society.
However, the business economic calculation considers only the direct effects, not
the external effects such as negative impacts on the environment which are not a
business economic cost. In a nationaleconomic calculation all the effects of a road
are considered, regardless of whether or not they are expressed in monetary terms.
9.2.1 Effects of operation and maintenance measures

In order that the cost effectiveness of operation and maintenance may be assessed,
knowledge of the operation and maintenance measures and their effects is needed.
Changes in the condition of gravel roads are assumed to vary periodically, as
shown in the schematic diagram in figure 9.3 (Effect Calculation Models, 1986, in
Swedish).
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Figure 9.3 Assumed change in the condition of gravel roads.

Vertical axis-Condition
Horizontal axis-No of two-axle units passing
The relationships between effects in the following are based on a scale for
condition classification used in the joint Nordic project "Improvement and
maintenance of gravel roads FUG". The relationship between this scale and the
DDp scale was described in Subclause 8.1.1.4.
Both surface roughness and binding ability influence vehicle costs. Surface
roughness affects tyre wear, maintenance, repairs and depreciation. In contrast,
fuel consumption is affected only by binding ability.
Road user costs consist mainly of three elements:

A. Traffic safety
B. Trafficability (speed and riding comfort)
C. Vehicle costs (fuel consumption, tyre wear, maintenance and repair,
depreciation)
A. Traffic safety
As a rule, roads with a gravel wearing course have low geometric standard.
Speeds on these roads are lower than on paved roads.
In the Effect Catalogue-Operation and maintenance measures (1989), in Swedish,

it was claimed that it is reasonable to assume that a change from a gravel road to a
paved road entails a positive traffic safety effect. Whether such a trend also
applies when the surface condition of gravel roads is improved by grading is very
difficult to ascertain. However, it would seem to be a reasonable assumption that
greater surface roughness and better binding ability may have a positive effect
owing to more comfortable driving and lower incidence of loose aggregate. At the
same time, the increase in speed has a negative effect on traffic safety. On the
whole, therefore, it is somewhat uncertain whether any traffic safety effect can be
attributed to a change in the surface condition of gravel roads.
B. Trafficability
In conjunction with trafficability, both speed and driving comfort are evaluated.
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B.1 Speed
Running speed on a newly graded road is low because the road has not yet
developed binding ability. As binding ability increases, speed rises. Surface
roughness then deteriorates owing to traffic, precipitation etc, and binding ability
is reduced. However, the drop in speed caused by this is generally moderate.
From the Effect Catalogue-Operation and maintenance measures (1989) it is seen

that, on the basis of a number of investigations, deterioration by one surface
roughness class in the FUG scale appears to entail a drop in speed by about 1.5
km/h.
In "Effect Calculation models" (1986) it is stated that the change in trip time
consumption due to a change in the standard of gravel road management can be
calculated from the following equation:
∆T = BMT * 30 * BMDT * ½ * (1/vå1 – 1/vå0) * L
∆T = difference in trip time consumption between the standards studied

(veh.h/year)
BMT = period when road is free from snow and ice (months)
BMDT = mean daily traffic during period when road is free from snow and ice
(two-axle units/day), can be put at 1.1*AADT
Vå1, vå0 = running speed at the condition prevailing (Qå0, Qå0) when action is taken
L = road length (km)
The speeds vå1, vå0 ,at the conditions prevailing when action, is taken can be read
in figure 9.4.
Figure 9.4 Relationship between mean speed and surface roughness.

Vertical axis- Speed
Horizontal axis- Surface roughness, Low, Acceptable, Good
No properly designed tests with the aim of ascertaining the relationship between
speed and the surface condition of gravel roads have been made in Sweden.
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B.2 Riding comfort

In Sweden, Fäldner (1988) has made an investigation to estimate road users'
willingness to pay for the increase in comfort resulting from driving on a paved
road instead of a gravel road. This investigation comprises about a thousand
interviews.
Fäldner's investigation suggests that:

• Vehicle costs and driving comfort are the most important factors for the
choice of road for short trips in the countryside. These are followed by travel
time and traffic volume
• The comfort factor of the greatest importance is the condition of the road
• The values placed on different comfort factors vary greatly between
individuals
• For some individuals, beautiful nature, danger due to elk and desolation have
a great influence on the choice of road. However, it is only a small proportion
of individuals who are affected to a considerable degree by these factors.
It is stated in the Effect Catalogue-Operation and maintenance measures (1989)

that in the Swedish investigation it was also found that the value placed on the
difference in riding comfort between a good and a bad gravel road was of the
order of SEK 10/vehicle hour.
In Finland, a study was made to find the propensity of motorist to choose a good
but longer paved road instead of an uneven but shorter gravel road, a paved
uneven road or a road under reconstruction, in order find the cost of lack of
comfort. A riding comfort value was obtained (Effect Catalogue-Operation and
maintenance measures, 1989).
The value obtained in the Swedish investigation is in quite good agreement with
that in the Finnish investigation. Figure 9.5 sets out the relationship between
riding comfort and surface roughness.
Figure 9.5 Relationship between riding comfort and surface roughness (Effect
Catalogue "Operation and maintenance measures", 1989).
Vertical axis- SEK/veh.h
Horizontal axis- Surface roughness, Low, Acceptable, Good
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C. Vehicle costs
There are four components:
• Fuel consumption
• Tyre wear
• Maintenance and repairs
• Depreciation
"Vehicle operation costs on unsealed roads" (1994), abbreviated VOC, describes a

small literature study to find how these four components are influenced by surface
roughness.
VOC (1994) quotes Curtayne et al. (1987), according to which the relationship
between these four components and surface roughness on gravel roads, for buses,
is as set out in table 9.2 and figure 9.6. It is however not clear how "increase in
roughness" was determined.
Table 9.2 Relationship between the four components and surface roughness
of gravel roads for buses.
VOCs components Average contribution to Increase in VOC related to
total cost (%) increase in roughness (%)
Fuel consumption 25 5
Tyre wear 10 120
Maintenance and repairs 40 40
Depreciation 25 30
Figure 9.6 Relationship between the four components and surface roughness
of gravel roads for buses (VOC, 1994).
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The conclusions of VOC are that the differences in vehicle costs between unpaved
and paved roads are not more than 5%.
In the Effect Catalogue-Operation and maintenance measures (1989) it is stated

that the percentage breakdown of costs for a car travelling at a speed of 70-90
km/h on paved roads is as set out in table 9.3.
Table 9.3 Percentage breakdown of vehicle costs over the four components.
Cost item Percentage
Fuel cost about 40
Tyres about 10
Maintenance, repairs about 35
Depreciation, driven distance dependent about 5
Depreciation, time dependent about 10
A brief description of fuel consumption, tyre wear, maintenance and repairs and
depreciation is given below.
C.1 Fuel consumption

It appears from VOC (1994) that fuel consumption accounts for 25% of vehicle
costs. VOC summarises the results of a number of studies and states that the
differences in fuel consumption between unpaved and paved roads are 0-8%.
Measurements of how surface roughness and binding ability influence fuel

consumption have been made on a number of gravel roads in central Sweden
between 1980 and 1981 by Carlsson (1980). These investigations were part of the
joint Nordic project "FUG".
The measurements show that the clearly documented increase in evenness

resulting from grading a gravel road does not appear to influence fuel
consumption. On the other hand, increase in binding ability appears to reduce fuel
consumption.
Sävenhed (1986) and (1987) has studied how fuel consumption is affected and
changed when a gravel road remains ungraded over an entire summer. Reference
sections were a number of gravel roads which were graded to the normal extent.
The results show that the increase in evenness due to grading appears to influence
fuel consumption by only 1-3%. Loss of binding ability in the road surface causes
a 3-5% increase in fuel consumption. A clearly higher fuel consumption was
measured when the road surface was wet.
It is entirely logical that greater loss of binding ability should increase fuel
consumption, since lower incidence of loose material on the surface would reduce
rolling resistance.
Sävenhed (1986) points out that fuel consumption immediately after grading is
higher than a week after grading. According to Sävenhed, the reason is that the
road is compacted by traffic which makes the surface hard and even.
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Carlsson (1980) also made a subjective assessment of the surface roughness,

binding ability and dusting tendency of gravel roads.
In the Effect Catalogue-Operation and maintenance measures (1989) the

significance of binding ability for fuel consumption, according to Carlsson's
(1980) investigation, is summarised in table 9.4. Measurements were made on five
different occasions.
Table 9.4 Significance of binding ability for fuel consumption.

Assessed binding ability DDp scale Fuel consumption (%)
as per FUG scale
50 km/h 60 km/h 70 km/h
3—4, dry Good 100 100 100
2—3, dry Acceptable 101 104 103
1—2, newly graded Low 115 115 116
1—2, wet Low 116 118 120
0—1, very wet Low 125 129 128
In Norway, TÖI (Institute of Transport Economics) has measured fuel

consumption on dry and wet gravel carriageways. It was found that fuel
consumption on wet gravel carriageways was about 5% higher than in dry
conditions. If this figure is applied to the Swedish measurement results for the last
two surface roughness classes, increases in fuel consumption for different binding
ability standards and a dry carriageway can be estimated as in table 9.5 (Effect
Catalogue-Operation and maintenance measures, 1989).
Table 9.5 Significance of binding ability for fuel consumption on dry

carriageways.
Binding ability Fuel consumption (%)
FUG scale DDp scale
3—4 Good 100
2—3 Acceptable 103
1—2 Low 110
0—1 Low 120
C.2 Tyre wear

Tyre wear accounts for 10% of vehicle costs (VOC, 1994). Many investigations
have been made which show that tyre wear on gravel roads is considerably higher
than on paved roads. According to the Effect Catalogue-Operation and
maintenance measures (1989), on the basis of a literature study TÖI (1981) has
concluded that tyres wear down twice as rapidly on gravel roads than on paved
roads. Tyre manufacturers, e.g. GoodYear, have produced an index that shows
tyre life on different wearing courses. See table 9.6.
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Table 9.6 Tyre life on different types of road (Effect Catalogue-Operation

and maintenance measures, 1989).
Condition of wearing course Relative life, %
Motorway 100
Good paved road 80
Very good gravel road 70
Good gravel road 66
Poor gravel road 57
Very poor gravel road 50
"Effect Catalogue" (1989) tabulates a relationship between tyre wear and surface
roughness; see table 9.7.
Table 9.7 Relationship between tyre wear and surface roughness.

Surface roughness Tyre wear, %
FUG scale DDp scale

- Even paved road 88
4—5 Good 100
3—4 Good 106
1—2 Low 123
0—1 Low 140
C.3 Maintenance and repairs

VOCs (1994) states that maintenance and repairs account for 40% of vehicle
costs. The costs of repair, maintenance and depreciation have in many
investigations been presented together since they all affect one another. In Effect
Catalogue (1989) it is claimed that the average gravel road gives rise to ca 50%
higher maintenance and repair costs than a paved road. With this assumption as
the basis, the effect of the surface standard can be estimated as in table 9.8. It is
however not clear how this estimate was arrived at.
Table 9.8 Effect of surface roughness standard on maintenance and repair

costs (Effect Catalogue, 1989).
Surface roughness Maintenance and
repair costs (%)
FUG scale DDp scale

4—5 Good 100
3—4 Good 122
1—0 Low 165
0—1 Low 187
C.4 Depreciation
According to VOCs (1994), depreciation accounts for 25% of vehicle costs.
"Effect Catalogue" (1989) states that depreciation on the average gravel road is ca
25% higher than on a corresponding paved road. It is claimed that, with this
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assumption as the basis, the effect of surface roughness standard on depreciation

can be estimated as in table 9.9.
Table 9.9 Effect of surface standard on depreciation (Effect Catalogue,

1989).
Surface roughness Depreciation, %
FUG scale DDp scale
- Even paved road 85
4-5 Good 100
3-4 Good 103
2-3 Acceptable 107
1-2 Low 110
0-1 Low 113
Overall evaluation of the effect of operation and maintenance measures on

vehicle costs
On the basis of the data regarding the various components, it is possible to
calculate an overall index for vehicle costs on gravel roads of different standards.
"Effect Catalogue" (1989) states that vehicle costs on a normal gravel road are
SEK 0.85/vehicle km. Such a gravel road is characterised by surface roughness of
3-4 and binding ability of 2-3 according to the FUG scale. This gives the vehicle
costs for a perfect gravel road as SEK 0.77/veh.km. Vehicle costs for variable
surface roughness and binding ability standards are calculated using the correction
factors set out in table 9.10.
Table 9.10 Correction factors for vehicle costs for variable standards of
surface roughness and binding ability.
Binding ability Surface roughness
FUG scale 4—5 3—4 2—3 1—2 0—1
DDp scale Good Acceptable Low
FUG scale DDp scale
3-4 Good 1.00 1.09 1.17 1.26 1.35
2-3 Acceptable 1.01 1.10 1.19 1.27 1.36
1-2 Low 1.04 1.12 1.21 1.30 1.39
0-1 Low 1.08 1.16 1.25 1.34 1.43
According to "Effect Calculation models" (1986), a change in vehicle costs

(SEK/year) due to a change in surface conditions can be calculated from the
following equation:
∆F = BMT * 30 * BMDT * f0 * ½ * (1/kå1 – 1/kå0) * L; where
∆F = change in vehicle costs (SEK/year)
BM = period when roads are free from snow and ice (months)
BMDT = mean daily traffic (No of two-axle units/day) during snow and ice free
period, may be put at 1.1 * AADT
f0 = vehicle costs in perfect conditions, may be put at SEK 0.75/veh.km. In
the Effect Catalogue, this value is SEK 0.77/veh.km
kå0, kå1 = vehicle cost index in the condition prevailing when action is taken
L = length of road (km)
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The vehicle cost index kå0, kå1 as a function of road condition Q is plotted in
figure 9.7. B denotes binding ability.
Figure 9.7 Vehicle cost index for different standards of binding ability and
surface roughness (Effect Calculation models, 1986).
Vertical axis-Index
Horizontal axis-Surface roughness
9.2.2 Nationaleconomic evaluation

An essential requirement for a nationaleconomic calculation is that the decision-
maker should be in possession of information regarding the willingness of those
affected to pay for a certain measure.
According to economic welfare theory, it is theoretically possible to arrive at a

payment or compensation in monetary terms that precisely offsets the benefits or
disbenefits of the effects of a measure. An endeavour is made to consider all
effects, which are expected to arise in conjunction with operation and
maintenance activity, in monetary terms where this is possible. If the sum of the
positive effects, "benefits", is higher than that of the negative effects, "costs", this
can be interpreted as a gain for society.
At least two types of cost are generally studied in conjunction with a

nationaleconomic analysis of the cost effectiveness of maintenance measures,
namely maintenance costs and road user costs.
Maintenance costs increase if a higher standard is chosen. Road user costs

decrease at the same time.
Road user costs in the form of vehicle costs, traffic safety and trafficability can be
evaluated in monetary terms. The other effects, mainly environmental impacts,
must often be assessed subjectively.
No proper comprehensive nationaleconomic calculations have been made with

reference to gravel road maintenance. On the other hand, it is very usual for
different maintenance measures to be compared and assessed with respect to
business economic aspects.
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In deciding on maintenance measures, an attempt should be made to try to find an

optimum solution that takes many different factors into consideration. In looking
for this optimum solution, the long term costs of maintaining a certain quality
level should be compared with the benefits that can be gained with this quality
level. Dobson and Postill (1983) note that, from a nationaleconomic standpoint,
gravel roads with AADT>400 should be provided with some sort of paving.
Olsson et al (1987) monitored the standard of some selected gravel roads in

Malmöhus and Älvsborg counties. In conjunction with this project, a
nationaleconomic assessment was made and the condition of the different gravel
roads was evaluated using the DDp scale.
Olsson et al. calculated the annual road user costs, maintenance costs and total
costs during the period when roads were free from snow and ice. Calculations
were made only with respect to surface roughness, and on the assumption that the
surface condition of a gravel road changes linearly between grading events. Other
assumptions made for the calculation were as follows:
Traffic 100 vehicles/day
Proportion of lorry traffic 10%
Snow and ice free period 9 months/year
Maintenance costs during this period SEK 3000/km annually for at least Surface
Standard 2
Maintenance costs during the period when roads were free from snow and ice
were calculated for different minimum standards with reference to the cost of
maintenance for a road of a given condition. The calculated costs were corrected
with respect to value added tax (VAT) in order to be nationaleconomically
correct.
It is however not clear how costs are obtained for a minimum standard other than
minimum standard 2, since one of the assumptions was that maintenance costs
during the snow and ice free period were SEK 3000/km annually at minimum
surface standard 2. The results of calculations by Olsson et al. are plotted in figure
9.8, 9.9 and 9.10.
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Figure 9.8 Road user costs (Olsson et al., 1987).

Vertical axis-Cost (SEK1000/km/year)
Fordonskostnad=Vehicle cost
Tidskostnad=Time cost
Komfortkostnad=Comfort cost
Figure 9.9 Maintenance costs (Olsson et al., 1987).

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Figure 9.10 Total costs (Olsson et al., 1987).

Totalkostnad=Total cost
Trafikantkostnad=Road user cost
Underhållskostnad=Maintenance cost
Optimal standard=Optimum Standard
The results of Olsson et al. suggest that total costs will be least at a minimum
standard just below 2; see figure 9.10. It is also evident from the figure that
nationaleconomic costs rise very steeply if a standard higher than the optimum is
selected, while nationaleconomic costs rise more moderately if a standard lower
than the optimum is decided on.
9.2.3 Willingness to pay of road users

Ruckertz and Forsström (1991) have probably made the only study of the value
road users place on different surface standards on different types of road. These
road user values were estimated with reference to road users' willingness to pay.
Willingness to pay is expressed in terms of how much road users are prepared to
pay for a better road surface standard.
The study is based on a relatively new statistical method–stated preference. Stated

preference is ascertained by presenting individuals with a number of alternative
choices. Using this method, monetary values can be estimated for both existing
and hypothetical measures. The road alternatives investigated were a wide (13 m)
paved road, a narrow (6-9 m) paved road, and a gravel road. Since the primary
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objective of a willingness to pay study is to estimate the values road users place
on different road surface standards, a factor that gives a reasonable description of
the surface condition of the three road types is required. The factor chosen in the
study is surface roughness. The surface roughness of the gravel road is broken
down into four levels:
Level 1: A simple surfacing of Y1G type has been applied to the gravel road,
which means better tyre grip, no dusting and more relaxed driving than on a
gravel surface. There may be one or two roughness places, especially during the
thaw period. A speed of 70-90 km/h can be maintained on straight sections.
Level 2: The gravel road is even and firm. There may be one or two potholes. A
speed of 70 km/h can be maintained on straight sections.
Level 3: The gravel road is even in places. There may be potholes over short
sections. In most cases a speed of 70 km/h can be maintained on straight sections.
It may be necessary to lower speed somewhat when there are many depressions.
Level 4: Longer sections of deep potholes are usual. Where there are the most
roughness, the driver has the feeling of driving over a washboard. A speed of 50-
60 km/h can be maintained on some sections. Speed must however be steeply
reduced in some places.
Levels 2, 3 and 4 may be likened to the SNRA condition classes good, acceptable
and low with reference to surface roughness, but without speed restrictions.
In order that the values placed by road users on the different road conditions may
be estimated, a cost factor is also required in addition to the surface standard
factor. The cost item chosen in this study was petrol price per litre. Variations in
petrol price occur by changes in taxation, which are assumed to have a direct
coupling to road maintenance.
In order to find whether the place of residence of the persons interviewed has an
effect on the values, the sample was divided into four strata; Norrland, Central
Sweden, Southern Sweden and Metropolitan Regions (Stockholm, Göteborg and
Malmö). The results of the study regarding gravel roads are set out in table 9.11.
The terms Norrland, Central Sweden and Southern Sweden were not defined in
the study.
Table 9.11 Willingness to pay (SEK/l) in four strata in Sweden (Ruckertz and
Forsström, 1991).
Places Improvement from Improvement from Improvement from
standard standard Standard
2 to 1 3 to 1 4 to 1
Norrland 0.16 1.13 3.9
Central Sweden 0.10 1.21 4.12
Southern Sweden 0.06 0.74 3.32
Metropolitan Regions 0.02 0.79 3.44
Whole country 0.07 0.96 3.69
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The above results show that road users place quite a high value on an
improvement of the road network. Willingness to pay is highest for an
improvement from Level 4 (washboard) to Level 1 (Y1G). The average value
placed on this improvement is ca SEK 3.7/l. One remarkable result is that road
users appear to be uninfluenced by the difference between a newly graded gravel
road and one with Y1G.
Ruckertz and Forsström (1991) point out, however, that this result is not
statistically verified.
In order to find what the customers of the National Swedish Road Administration
think of the roads and of the way the Administration carries out its duties, the
Administration has on several occasions commissioned market survey institutes to
carry out road user investigations. Other interested parties apart from SNRA have
also considered it of interest to make such investigations.
Reference is made below to four investigations of attitudes regarding gravel roads.

These are: All these investigations are in Swedish.
A. Public attitudes to roads in Sweden (SNRA, October 1981)
B. Customer attitudes to the road management authority in Gävleborg County

(Informations Psykolog AB, January 1989)
C. Road maintenance in Western Norrland (FL Marknadsfakta AB, 1989)
D. Views on SNRA-An attitude survey among road users in Västerbotten (Stig

Johan Wiklund and students, 1990)
A. Public attitudes to roads in Sweden (SNRA, October 1981)

The National Swedish Road Administration and Statistics Sweden carried out a
comprehensive survey among the public to obtain a decision base for prioritising
measures in the road system. Those interviewed awarded marks to the condition
of gravel roads. The results are set out in table 9.12.
Table 9.12 Marks awarded by interviewees to the condition of gravel roads.
Percentage % Mark awarded
3 Very good
12 Good
37 Fairly good
32 Fairly poor
10 Poor
6 Very poor
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B. Customer attitudes to the road management authority in Gävleborg

County (InformationsPsykolog AB, January 1989)
The survey related to e.g. views on road management in Gävleborg County. 83%
consider that gravel roads shall be even and have no potholes. 36% want to have
fewer potholes in the carriageway of a paved road.
C. Road maintenance Western Norrland (FL Marknadsfakta AB, 1989)

If those interviewed had the chance to reallocate, reduce or increase, the resources
for road maintenance in Västernorrland County, 22% would increase recourses for
poor gravel roads. 20% would increase recourses for regravelling and grading on
gravel roads.
D. Views on SNRA – an attitude survey among road users in Västerbotten

(Stig Johan Wiklund and students, 1990)
If those interviewed had the chance to reallocate the resources of SNRA for road
maintenance in Västerbotten, 45-55% would increase resources for gravel road
management, while 1017% would reduce resources.
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Chapter 10/ References 213
10
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VTI meddelande 852A

Lindh Einar: Dammbindning på grusvägar. En litteraturstudie. (Dust control on gravel

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VTI meddelande 852A

Persson Håkan: Drift och underhåll av enskilda vägar. (Management and maintenance
of private roads). (In Swedish). Swedish National Road Administration. No 1993:33.
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Private roads. Report of Commission of Enquiry into revision of legislation

regarding private roads. (In Swedish). Enskilda vägar. Betänkande av utredningen
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Highway Administration. Publication No FHWA-SA-98-045. USA. 1998.
Regulations for Maintenance and Operation. (In Swedish). Regler för Underhåll och
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dammbindningsmedel på grusvägar. (A comparison of calcium chloride and
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project. Highway Engineering, Royal Institute of Technology. Stockholm, 1972.
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hårdgörning, tjälens betydelse samt trafik med nya typer skogstransportbilar.
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Filipstad, 1946.
Road 94-General Technical Construction Specifications For Roads. Swedish National

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Routine Road Maintenance Management and Monitoring at the Finnish National

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värdering av vägytestandard. (Market analysis Report No 1. Value placed by road
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grund-vattnet och efterbehandling av grustäkter. (Environmental impact of the
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VTI meddelande 852A

Simonsson Bo: Study of maintenance methods for earth and gravel roads in
developing countries. Swedish Road and Transport Research Institute. Linköping,
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literature. Dust control of gravel roads). (In Swedish). Swedish National Road and
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Sävenhed Hans: Vehicle fuel consumption on different types of wearing courses.

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VTI meddelande 852A

The effects of management measures-a brief situation report. (In Swedish) Effekter av
driftåtgärder-En kortfattad lägesredovisning.. Swedish National Road
Administration. Section for Planning Data. PP Bulletin No 11, 1980.
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Swedish). Swedish National Road Administration. BD Report. C. Gravel road
maintenance. BD 1. 90105-31. Borlänge, 1991.


Underlag för driftplaneringen -Del 3 Effekter. Service- och underhållsåtgärder. (Data

for management planning-Part 3. Effects. Service and maintenance measures). (In
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Underlag för driftplaneringen. 2. Åtgärdsanalys. (Data for management planning. 2.

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VTI meddelande 852A

Vägplan 80: Tillstånd och standard för det enskilda vägnätet som betjänar skogs-
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Chapter 11/ Figures and tables 225
11
Figures and tables
11.1 Figures
Chapter 2. Definitions 4
Figure 2.1 Schematic representation of the subdivision of maintenance 5
Figure 2.2 Relationship between different types of maintenance 6
Figure 2.3 Subgrade, substructure, formation level, pavement and slopes 9
Chapter 3. General description of the Swedish road network 12

Figure 3.1 Total length of the four wearing course types over the period
1990—1997 14
Figure 3.2 Lengths of State gravel roads in different counties in 1997 17
Chapter 4. Deterioration of gravel roads 24

Figure 4.1 Change in the wearing course due to crushing, dusting and rain
action 25
Figure 4.2 Examples of correct and wrong camber 27
Figure 4.3 Owing to the camber of the road, material tends to be displaced
towards the sides 28
Figure 4.4 The camber is gradually worn down, the edges are raised up, and
ruts are formed in the carriageway if this is not graded 28
Figure 4.5 Reverse camber 28
Figure 4.6 If the road structure is too weak, the camber may be flattened in the
middle 29
Figure 4.7 The wheels of a vehicle abrade the material on the inside of the
bend and throw it towards the outer edge of the bend 29
Figure 4.8 Normal camber on straight sections and superelevation in bends on
gravel roads 30
Figure 4.9 Relationship between vehicle speed, vehicle type, vehicle size and
quantity of dust 32
Figure 4.10 Relationship between vehicle speed and dust formation 33
Figure 4.11 Relationship between speed and quantity of dust 33
Figure 4.12 Equipment used to measure the quantity of emitted dust 34
Figure 4.13 Corrugation 36
Figure 4.14 Corrugation 36
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Figure 4.15 Schematic profile through a normally corrugated road surfaced

with fine sandy aggregate 37
Figure 4.16 Potholes in a regular pattern 39
Figure 4.17 Transitional form between regular and irregular potholes 39
Figure 4.18 Potholes in an irregular pattern 40
Figure 4.19 Deformations due to inadequate bearing strength 40
Figure 4.20 Plastic deformations 41
Figure 4.21 Inadequate wearing course 41
Figure 4.22 Rutting on gravel roads 41
Figure 4.23 Loose aggregate on the carriageway 42
Chapter 5. Technical requirements for Swedish gravel roads 44

Figure 5.1 Schematic use of 3 m straightedge 46
Figure 5.2 Structure of gravel pavement, dimensions in mm 48
Figure 5.3 Gravel wearing course, requirement for particle size distribution 49
Figure 5.4 Base course for gravel roads, requirement for particle size
distribution 50
Figure 5.5 Sub-base for gravel roads, requirement for particle size distribution 52
Chapter 6. Factors which influence the operation and maintenance of

gravel roads 57
Figure 6.1 Principle of optimum condition and relationship between costs and
road standard 58
Figure 6.2 Relationship between number of vehicles and the costs of different
operation and maintenance measures 59
Figure 6.3 Maintenance costs for gravel roads 60
Figure 6.4 Estimated annual loss of aggregate at different speeds 61
Figure 6.5 Limiting curves for carriageway composition of acceptable bearing
capacity 66
Figure 6.6 Range of variation for aggregates of different susceptibilities to
corrugation 67
Figure 6.7 The ideal road aggregate or "universal" aggregate 68
Figure 6.8 Aggregate of different fine contents 70
Figure 6.9 Effect of fines content on permanent deformations in base course
consisting of crushed gneiss-granite after 105 loading cycles 71
Chapter 7. Operation and maintenance methods 75

Figure 7.1 Relationship between the relative humidity at which the salt goes
into solution and temperature 85
Figure 7.2 Dust control treatment with a sand spreader 91
Figure 7.3 Fertiliser spreader 91
Figure 7.4 Visual assessment of dust emission on three different sections 100
Figure 7.5 Soft method, Gotland method 110
Figure 7.6 Soft method, Örebro method 113
Figure 7.7 Deposition of crushed gravel-bitumen mixture on the road 114
Figure 7.8 Spreading and adjustment 114
Figure 7.9 Rolling 115
Figure 7.10 Hard method 117
Figure 7.11 Comparison of bitumen emulsion, calcium chloride and Dustex 124
Figure 7.12 Traffic simulator apparatus 129
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Figure 7.13 Results of Hoover's (1973) tests with the traffic simulator apparatus 129
Figure 7.14 Results of Hoover's (1981) tests with the traffic simulator apparatus 130
Figure 7.15 Grading of gravel road adjacent to a paved road 133
Figure 7.16 Grader blade settings 135
Figure 7.17 Windrow spreaders. At left, made by Mähler, and at right, made by
Kommunalmaskin 137
Figure 7.18 Grading of narrow and wide road 138
Figure 7.19 At front, smooth blade and behind, System 2000 that is mounted on
the blade 139
Figure 7.20 Reforming of corrugations 142
Figure 7.21 Classification with vibratory screen 146
Figure 7.22 Classification with tractor-drawn oversize aggregate remover 146
Figure 7.23 Classification with grader-drawn oversize aggregate remover; inset:
the edge trimmer 147
Figure 7.24 Road drag coupled to a tractor 149
Figure 7.25 Some examples of road drags 150
Figure 7.26 Suitable depth and slopes of a ditch 151
Figure 7.27 Suitable depth and slopes of a shallow ditch 151
Figure 7.28 Excavator and wheeled loader equipped with combigrip 152
Chapter 8. Condition assessment of gravel roads 154

Figure 8.1 Class 1, good 160
Figure 8.2 Class 2, acceptable 160
Figure 8.3 Class 3, low 161
Figure 8.4 Class 1, good 161
Figure 8.5 Class 2, acceptable 162
Figure 8.6 Class 3, low 162
Figure 8.7 GM Profilometer 164
Figure 8.8 Road Roughness Indicator 165
Figure 8.9 Prototype BV11 J 166
Figure 8.10 Relationship between subjective assessment (FUG) and surface
regularity measured with the Road Roughness Indicator on three
Finnish gravel roads 167
Figure 8.11 General arrangement of TØI (Norwegian Institute of Transport
Economics) meter 167
Figure 8.12 General arrangement of CHLOE meter 168
Figure 8.13 Slight rutting 173
Figure 8.14 Moderate rutting 173
Figure 8.15 Severe rutting 173
Figure 8.16 The three levels for assessment of crossfall 180
Figure 8.17 The three levels for assessment of drainage 181
Figure 8.18 The three levels for assessment of corrugation 182
Figure 8.19 The three levels for assessment of dusting 183
Figure 8.20 The three levels for assessment of potholing 183
Figure 8.21 The three levels for assessment of rutting 184
Figure 8.22 The three levels for assessment of loose aggregate 184
Figure 8.23 The URCI scale 185
Figure 8.24 Maintenance priority graph 185
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Chapter 9. Planning and evaluation of operation and maintenance

measures 192
Figure 9.1 Action diagram for operation and maintenance measures 196
Figure 9.2 Relationship between gravel road condition and maintenance
measures 197
Figure 9.3 Assumed change in the condition of gravel roads 198
Figure 9.4 Relationship between mean speed and surface regularity 199
Figure 9.5 Relationship between riding comfort and surface regularity 200
Figure 9.6 Relationship between the four components and surface irregularity
of gravel roads for buses 201
Figure 9.7 Vehicle cost index for different standards of cohesion and surface
regularity 206
Figure 9.8 Road user costs 208
Figure 9.9 Maintenance costs 208
Figure 9.10 Total costs 209
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11.2 Tables
Chapter 2. Definitions 4
Table 2.1 Fraction limits (mm) previously used in highway engineering 10
Table 2.2 Fraction limits at present applied in highway engineering 11
Chapter 3. General description of the Swedish road network 12

Table 3.1 Administrative classification of Swedish roads (km), breakdown by
road management authority 13
Sweden over the period 1990—1997 13
different counties in 1997 15
Table 3.4 Length of State gravel roads (km) in different counties in 1997 16
Table 3.5 Vehicle mileage (two axle unit x 103) on different types of wearing
course, and percentages of total vehicle mileage on State road
network accounted for by the different types of wearing course 17
Table 3.6 Breakdown of different types of wearing course by AADT in 1997
(km) 18
Table 3.7 Breakdown of gravel roads by AADT (two axle units) and the
percentages of the total length - 22,136 km - of State gravel roads
with a certain AADT 18
Table 3.8 Breakdown of different types of wearing course by road width (m)
and the percentages of the total length of State roads of a certain
width accounted for by the different types of wearing course 19
Table 3.9 Lengths of gravel roads (km) on State road network in 1997 and
the percentages of the total length of State gravel roads of a certain
width accounted for by gravel roads 19
Table 3.10 Lengths of different types of wearing course by speed limit (km/h)
and the percentages of the total length with a certain speed limit on
the State road network accounted for by these lengths 20
Table 3.11 Lengths of gravel roads (km) with a certain speed limit in 1997 and
the percentages of the total length-22,136 km-of State gravel roads
with a certain speed limit accounted for by these lengths 20
Table 3.12 Lengths of paved and unpaved roads and the percentages of the
total length-422,667 km – of the State road network on 31
December 1997 accounted for by these lengths 21
Table 3.13 Summary of Swedish gravel road network in 1997 22
Table 3.14 Total budget of Swedish National Road Administration in 1994-
1996 for different maintenance services 23
Chapter 5. Technical requirements for Swedish gravel roads 44

Table 5.1 Technical life 45
Table 5.2 Requirements for longitudinal surface regularity, measured with a 3
m straightedge at the time when the road is opened to traffic, for
carriageways on roads with a wearing course of YG or with an
unbound wearing course 46
Table 5.3 Maximum permissible vertical compressive strain in the formation
for a gravel pavement 47
Table 5.4 Gravel pavement, mm 48
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Table 5.5 Gravel wearing course, requirement for particle size distribution 49
Table 5.6 Base course for gravel roads, requirement for particle size
distribution 50
Table 5.7 Sub-base for gravel roads, requirement for particle size distribution 51
Table 5.8 Maximum thickness of layer when compacted with a roller of
different line loads 52
Chapter 7. Operation and maintenance methods 75

Table 7.1 Quantity of CaCl2 (kg/metre run) used in Sweden for dust control 83
Table 7.2 Quantities of calcium chloride (tonnes/km) per application used in
Finland for different road widths 84
Table 7.3 Differences between Gotland method and Örebro method 113
Table 7.4 Summary of results of dust control with emulsion on Gotland 115
Table 7.5 Comparison of soft and hard methods 118
Table 7.6 Summary of experiences gained during dust control of different
soils with bitumen emulsion 121
Table 7.7 Costs of calcium chloride, Dustex and Norsalt 124
Table 7.8 Annual costs of dust control with bitumen emulsion and calcium
chloride 125
Table 7.9 Choice of dust control agent 127
Table 7.10 Material properties and wearing course composition for the eight
sections 130
Table 7.11 Comparison of conventional flat untoothed grader blades and
System 2000 140
Table 7.12 Capacities and index numbers for the costs of different kinds of
measures 140
Table 7.13 Variation in aggregate requirement with road width 145
Chapter 8. Condition assessment of gravel roads 154

Table 8.1 Condition of gravel road network in Sweden in 1934 155
Table 8.2 Condition assessment method proposed by Andren and Fransson 156
Table 8.3 Instructions for quality assessment of gravel roads according to the
FUG scale 157
Table 8.4 Condition classes according to the DDp scale 158
Table 8.5 Comparison of FUG and DDp scales 159
Table 8.6 Standard classes for operation and maintenance of gravel roads 163
Table 8.7 Condition classes in Finland 171
Table 8.8 Targets for minimum standards in the standard classes 172
Table 8.9 Operation and maintenance measures needed for different levels of
rutting 174
Table 8.10 The hundred-degree assessment scale 175
Table 8.11 The three standard classes 176
Table 8.12 The five condition classes 178
Table 8.13 Standard classes 179
Table 8.14 Measurements made in conjunction with condition assessments 187
Table 8.15 The five condition classes 188
Table 8.16 Division into standard classes 191
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Chapter 9. Planning and evaluation of operation and maintenance

measures 192
Table 9.1 Market percentages in terms of km of road and number of
geographical areas opened to competition in 1997 194
Table 9.2 Relationship between the four components and surface irregularity
of gravel roads for buses 201
Table 9.3 Percentage breakdown of vehicle costs over the four components 202
Table 9.4 Significance of cohesion for fuel consumption 203
Table 9.5 Significance of cohesion for fuel consumption on dry carriageways 203
Table 9.6 Tyre life on different types of road 204
Table 9.7 Relationship between tyre wear and surface regularity 204
Table 9.8 Effect of surface standard on maintenance and repair costs 204
Table 9.9 Effect of surface standard on depreciation 205
Table 9.10 Correction factors for vehicle costs for variable standards of
surface regularity and cohesion 205
Table 9.11 Willingness to pay (SEK/l) in four strata in Sweden 210
Table 9.12 Marks awarded by interviewees to the condition of gravel roads 211
VTI meddelande 852A

Appendix 1/ Length and the percentages of different wearing course types in the 232
different counties
Appendix No 1
Lengths of different wearing course types on the State road network in the
different counties over the period 1990-1997 and the percentages of the total
State road lengths in the counties accounted for by these wearing course
types.
Stockholm (AB)
Year Total Gravel Y1G Sealed Oil Gravel Bituminous
length Gravel
1990 3261 272 8.34 118 3.62 : 0.00 1 0.03 2868 87.95
1991 3047 241 7.91 134 4.40 : 0.00 1 0.03 2669 87.59
1992 3049 226 7.41 145 4.76 : 0.00 1 0.03 2675 87.73
1993 3068 197 6.42 174 5.67 : 0.00 1 0.03 2694 87.81
1994 3077 161 5.23 159 5.17 : 0.00 1 0.03 2754 89.50
1995 3113 128 4.11 76 2.44 : 0.00 1 0.03 2906 93.35
1996 3138 85 2.71 59 1.88 : 0.00 1 0.03 2991 95.32
1997 3138 85 2.71 26 0.83 : 0.00 1 0.03 3024 96.37
Uppsala (C)
length Gravel
1990 2933 602 18.46 243 7.45 : 0.00 31 0.95 2057 70.13
1991 2955 602 19.76 243 7.98 : 0.00 31 1.02 2079 70.36
1992 2976 587 19.25 258 8.46 : 0.00 31 1.02 2100 70.56
1993 2985 534 17.41 300 9.78 : 0.00 31 1.01 2120 71.02
1994 2977 530 17.22 296 9.62 : 0.00 40 1.30 2131 71.58
1995 3015 530 17.03 296 9.51 : 0.00 40 1.28 2149 71.28
1996 3013 530 16.89 296 9.43 : 0.00 40 1.27 2147 71.26
1997 3013 524 16.70 302 9.62 : 0.00 40 1.27 2147 71.26
Södermanland (D)
Year Tot. Gravel Y1G Sealed Oil Bituminous
length Gravel Gravel
1990 2708 543 20.05 205 7.57 : 0.00 3 0.11 1957 72.27
1991 2733 542 19.83 182 6.66 : 0.00 3 0.11 2006 73.40
1992 2733 531 19.43 187 6.84 : 0.00 3 0.11 2012 73.62
1993 2731 516 18.89 203 7.43 : 0.00 3 0.11 2009 73.56
1994 2777 512 18.44 206 7.42 : 0.00 3 0.11 2056 74.04
1995 2791 512 18.34 206 7.38 : 0.00 3 0.11 2070 74.17
1996 2832 512 18.08 205 7.24 : 0.00 3 0.11 2112 74.58
1997 2832 512 18.08 205 7.24 : 0.00 3 0.11 2112 74.58
VTI meddelande 852A

different counties
Östergötland (E)
length Gravel
1990 4621 1316 28.48 519 11.23 : 0.00 2 0.04 2783 60.23
1991 4681 1271 27.15 594 12.69 : 0.00 2 0.04 2813 60.09
1992 4701 1219 25.93 617 13.12 : 0.00 2 0.04 2862 60.88
1993 4702 1096 23.31 678 14.42 : 0.00 2 0.04 2925 62.21
1994 4706 1082 22.99 683 14.51 : 0.00 2 0.04 2938 62.43
1995 4706 1002 21.29 695 14.77 : 0.00 2 0.04 3006 63.88
1996 4731 987 20.86 705 14.90 : 0.00 2 0.04 3037 64.19
1997 4731 981 20.74 705 14.90 : 0.00 2 0.04 3043 64.32
Jönköping (F)
length Gravel
1990 4393 1195 27.20 603 13.73 0 0.00 310 7.06 2283 51.97
1991 4406 1104 25.06 649 14.73 0 0.00 291 6.60 2361 53.59
1992 4424 1041 23.53 704 15.91 0 0.00 259 5.85 2419 54.68
1993 4457 890 19.97 778 17.46 0 0.00 238 5.34 2551 57.24
1994 4524 841 18.59 813 17.97 0 0.00 224 4.95 2646 58.49
1995 4538 770 16.97 848 18.69 0 0.00 224 4.94 2696 59.41
1996 4550 746 16.40 851 18.70 0 0.00 223 4.90 2730 60.00
1997 4567 735 16.09 861 18.85 0 0.00 223 4.88 2748 60.17
Kronoberg (G)
length Gravel
1990 3615 1092 30.21 372 10.29 77 2.13 354 9.79 1719 47.55
1991 3616 1036 28.65 389 10.76 105 2.90 354 9.79 1731 47.87
1992 3616 922 25.50 482 13.33 120 3.32 348 9.62 1743 48.20
1993 3636 817 22.47 575 15.81 120 3.30 346 9.52 1777 48.87
1994 3632 731 20.13 576 15.86 120 3.30 344 9.47 1852 50.99
1995 3628 687 18.94 607 16.73 114 3.14 329 9.07 1891 52.12
1996 3628 652 17.97 636 17.53 114 3.14 329 9.07 1897 52.29
1997 3664 647 17.66 636 17.36 114 3.11 326 8.90 1941 52.97
VTI meddelande 852A

different counties
Kalmar (H)
length Gravel
1990 4058 651 16.04 461 11.36 : 0.00 106 2.61 2839 69.96
1991 4013 623 15.52 471 11.74 : 0.00 90 2.24 2829 70.50
1992 4034 550 13.63 575 14.25 : 0.00 75 1.86 2834 70.25
1993 4034 460 11.40 687 17.03 : 0.00 79 1.96 2808 69.61
1994 4033 418 10.36 698 17.31 : 0.00 75 1.86 2842 70.47
1995 4034 346 8.58 737 18.27 : 0.00 74 1.83 2877 71.32
1996 4033 340 8.43 742 18.40 : 0.00 74 1.83 2877 71.34
1997 4030 339 8.41 742 18.41 : 0.00 74 1.84 2875 71.34
Gotland (I)
length Gravel
1990 1489 338 22.70 346 23.24 : 0.00 10 0.67 788 52.92
1991 1489 279 18.74 344 23.10 : 0.00 15 1.01 844 56.68
1992 1488 170 11.42 340 22.85 : 0.00 15 1.01 956 64.25
1993 1489 100 6.72 337 22.63 : 0.00 15 1.01 1030 69.17
1994 1485 37 2.49 317 21.35 : 0.00 15 1.01 1109 74.68
1995 1486 1 0.07 317 21.33 : 0.00 15 1.01 1146 77.12
1996 1486 1 0.07 317 21.33 : 0.00 15 1.01 1146 77.12
1997 1486 1 0.07 317 21.33 : 0.00 15 1.01 1146 77.12
Blekinge (K)
length Gravel
1990 1539 167 10.85 240 15.59 57 3.70 156 10.14 919 59.71
1991 1522 134 8.80 238 15.64 68 4.47 161 10.58 921 60.51
1992 1536 103 6.71 241 15.69 105 6.84 161 10.48 926 60.29
1993 1545 76 4.92 247 15.99 118 7.64 149 9.64 955 61.81
1994 1545 59 3.82 249 16.12 124 8.03 149 9.64 964 62.39
1995 1551 46 2.97 242 15.60 129 8.32 151 9.74 983 63.38
1996 1552 46 2.96 242 15.59 129 8.31 151 9.73 984 63.40
1997 1552 46 2.96 242 15.59 129 8.31 151 9.73 984 63.40
VTI meddelande 852A

different counties
Kristianstad (L)1
length Gravel
1990 3679 545 14.8 444 12.1 : 0.00 193 5.2 2493 67.8
1991 3689 545 14.8 441 12.0 : 0.00 176 4.8 2523 68.4
1992 3683 542 14.7 441 12.0 : 0.00 176 4.8 2520 68.4
1993 3718 474 12.7 505 13.6 : 0.00 175 4.7 2560 68.9
1994 3719 413 11.1 539 14.5 : 0.00 175 4.7 2588 69.6
1995 3736 342 9.2 538 14.4 : 0.00 175 4.7 2677 71.7
1996 3747 342 9.1 538 14.4 : 0.00 175 4.7 2688 71.7
1997
1)
Kristianstad until 96. Skåne + Kristianstad from 97 onwards had got the name Skåne
Skåne (M)
length Gravel
1990 4268 807 18.9 508 11.9 : 0.00 6 0.1 2898 67.9
1991 4135 770 18.6 473 11.4 : 0.00 6 0.1 2839 68.7
1992 4147 755 18.2 424 10.2 : 0.00 6 0.1 2918 70.4
1993 4191 570 13.6 575 13.7 : 0.00 6 0.1 2996 71.5
1994 4191 475 11.3 614 14.7 : 0.00 6 0.1 3052 72.8
1995 4214 397 9.4 611 14.5 : 0.00 6 0.1 3156 74.9
1996 4214 376 8.9 610 14.5 : 0.00 6 0.1 3178 75.4
1997 7977 718 9.0 1149 14.4 : 0.00 181 2.3 5881 73.7
Halland (N)
length Gravel
1990 2968 282 9.5 475 16.0 14 0.47 1012 34.1 1203 40.5
1991 2984 280 9.4 471 15.8 14 0.47 1007 33.7 1212 40.6
1992 2996 266 8.9 485 16.2 14 0.47 1003 33.5 1228 41.0
1993 2981 218 7.3 539 18.1 14 0.47 980 32.9 1215 40.8
1994 3053 209 6.8 546 17.9 14 0.46 973 31.9 1282 42.0
1995 3053 200 6.6 550 18.0 14 0.46 971 31.8 1289 42.2
1996 3095 200 6.5 548 17.7 14 0.45 968 31.3 1314 42.5
1997 3093 197 6.4 549 17.7 14 0.45 962 31.1 1320 42.7
VTI meddelande 852A

different counties
V. Götaland (O)
length Gravel
1990 2659 305 11.47 109 4.10 : 0.00 266 10.00 1979 74.43
1991 2873 272 9.47 111 3.86 : 0.00 265 9.22 2234 77.76
1992 2883 251 8.71 112 3.88 : 0.00 250 8.67 2270 78.74
1993 2895 233 8.05 124 4.28 : 0.00 237 8.19 2301 79.48
1994 2897 212 7.32 130 4.49 : 0.00 246 8.49 2309 79.70
1995 2912 204 7.01 129 4.43 : 0.00 246 8.45 2333 80.12
1996 2911 184 6.32 136 4.67 : 0.00 243 8.35 2348 80.66
1997 2928 183 6.25 137 4.68 : 0.00 246 8.40 2360 80.60
Älvsborg (P)
length Gravel
1990 5184 1501 28.95 618 11.92 : 0.00 442 8.53 2623 50.60
1991 5220 1404 26.90 647 12.39 : 0.00 432 8.28 2737 52.43
1992 5220 1363 26.11 649 12.43 : 0.00 406 7.78 2802 53.68
1993 5215 1340 25.70 719 13.79 : 0.00 396 7.59 2760 52.92
1994 5223 1321 25.29 723 13.84 : 0.00 385 7.37 2794 53.49
1995 5240 1304 24.89 742 14.16 : 0.00 380 7.25 2814 53.70
1996 5260 1270 24.14 734 13.95 : 0.00 376 7.15 2880 54.75
1997 5254 1264 24.06 736 14.01 : 0.00 375 7.14 2879 54.80
Skaraborg (R)
length Gravel
1990 4068 798 19.62 438 10.77 : 0.00 298 7.33 2534 62.29
1991 4075 794 19.48 441 10.82 : 0.00 297 7.29 2543 62.40
1992 4085 740 18.12 464 11.36 : 0.00 291 7.12 2590 63.40
1993 4080 697 17.08 466 11.42 : 0.00 289 7.08 2628 64.41
1994 4082 668 16.36 470 11.51 : 0.00 288 7.06 2656 65.07
1995 4082 658 16.12 467 11.44 : 0.00 283 6.93 2674 65.51
1996 4095 642 15.68 469 11.45 : 0.00 282 6.89 2702 65.98
1997 4093 632 15.44 476 11.63 : 0.00 282 6.89 2703 66.04
VTI meddelande 852A

different counties
Värmland (S)
length Gravel
1990 4803 1473 30.67 492 10.24 : 0.00 814 16.95 2024 42.14
1991 4804 1457 30.33 501 10.43 : 0.00 812 16.90 2034 42.34
1992 4804 1439 29.95 492 10.24 : 0.00 778 16.19 2095 43.61
1993 4805 1403 29.20 517 10.76 : 0.00 771 16.05 2114 44.00
1994 4802 1390 28.95 529 11.02 : 0.00 770 16.03 2113 44.00
1995 4818 1377 28.58 541 11.23 : 0.00 771 16.00 2129 44.19
1996 4814 1372 28.50 537 11.15 : 0.00 768 15.95 2137 44.39
1997 4816 1372 28.49 537 11.15 : 0.00 768 15.95 2139 44.41
Örebro (T)
length Gravel
1990 2811 831 29.56 332 11.81 : 0.00 124 4.41 1523 54.18
1991 2949 883 29.94 331 11.22 : 0.00 110 3.73 1625 55.10
1992 2945 874 29.68 322 10.93 : 0.00 108 3.67 1641 55.72
1993 2961 806 27.22 373 12.60 : 0.00 108 3.65 1674 56.53
1994 2965 800 26.98 376 12.68 : 0.00 107 3.61 1682 56.73
1995 2978 772 25.92 395 13.26 : 0.00 107 3.59 1704 57.22
1996 2980 765 25.67 399 13.39 : 0.00 106 3.56 1710 57.38
1997 2984 761 25.50 398 13.34 : 0.00 106 3.55 1719 57.61
Västmanland (U)
length Gravel
1990 2522 521 20.66 469 18.60 : 0.00 24 0.95 1508 59.79
1991 2522 521 20.66 459 18.20 : 0.00 24 0.95 1518 60.19
1992 2524 521 20.64 459 18.19 : 0.00 24 0.95 1520 60.22
1993 2536 487 19.20 494 19.48 : 0.00 24 0.95 1531 60.37
1994 2536 487 19.20 494 19.48 : 0.00 24 0.95 1531 60.37
1995 2572 485 18.86 493 19.17 : 0.00 24 0.93 1570 61.04
1996 2572 485 18.86 492 19.13 : 0.00 24 0.93 1571 61.08
1997 2574 485 18.84 492 19.11 : 0.00 24 0.93 1573 61.11
VTI meddelande 852A

different counties
Dalarna (W) (Kopparberg)

length Gravel
1990 5080 1153 22.70 469 9.23 : 0.00 1286 25.31 2003 39.43
1991 4993 1138 22.79 459 9.19 : 0.00 1272 25.48 1940 38.85
1992 5004 1130 22.58 459 9.17 : 0.00 1246 24.90 1977 39.51
1993 4998 1086 21.73 494 9.88 : 0.00 1227 24.55 1992 39.86
1994 4998 1063 21.27 494 9.88 : 0.00 1186 23.73 2038 40.78
1995 5003 1061 21.21 493 9.85 : 0.00 1155 23.09 2084 41.66
1996 5002 1061 21.21 492 9.84 : 0.00 1167 23.33 2088 41.74
1997 5001 1030 20.60 492 9.84 : 0.00 1196 23.92 2107 42.13
Gävleborg (X)
length Gravel
1990 3584 536 14.96 374 10.44 : 0.00 845 23.58 1829 51.03
1991 3581 538 15.02 382 10.67 : 0.00 851 23.76 1810 50.54
1992 3580 531 14.83 366 10.22 : 0.00 874 24.41 1809 50.53
1993 3582 499 13.93 361 10.08 : 0.00 906 25.29 1816 50.70
1994 3577 455 12.72 338 9.45 : 0.00 963 26.92 1821 50.91
1995 3600 454 12.61 326 9.06 : 0.00 996 27.67 1824 50.67
1996 3597 426 11.84 322 8.95 : 0.00 1028 28.58 1821 50.63
1997 3596 426 11.85 307 8.54 : 0.00 1039 28.89 1824 50.72
Västernorrland (Y)
length Gravel
1990 5190 1998 38.50 268 5.16 : 0.00 1459 28.11 1465 28.23
1991 5128 1984 38.69 266 5.19 : 0.00 1448 28.24 1430 27.89
1992 5974 1986 33.24 264 4.42 : 0.00 1444 24.17 1431 23.95
1993 5125 1973 38.50 263 5.13 : 0.00 1453 28.35 1436 28.02
1994 5127 2000 39.01 253 4.93 : 0.00 1354 26.41 1520 29.65
1995 5124 1990 38.84 253 4.94 : 0.00 1358 26.50 1523 29.72
1996 5123 1990 38.84 243 4.74 : 0.00 1355 26.45 1535 29.96
1997 5134 1969 38.35 238 4.64 : 0.00 1335 26.00 1592 31.01
VTI meddelande 852A

different counties
Jämtland (Z)
length Gravel
1990 5974 2683 44.91 587 9.83 : 0.00 591 9.89 2113 35.37
1991 5966 2658 44.55 514 8.62 : 0.00 565 9.47 2229 37.36
1992 5974 2577 43.14 504 8.44 : 0.00 536 8.97 2357 39.45
1993 5991 2491 41.58 385 6.43 : 0.00 504 8.41 2611 43.58
1994 5989 2395 39.99 421 7.03 : 0.00 562 9.38 2611 43.60
1995 5996 2364 39.43 397 6.62 : 0.00 627 10.46 2608 43.50
1996 5995 2328 38.83 382 6.37 : 0.00 661 11.03 2624 43.77
1997 5994 2322 38.74 377 6.29 : 0.00 667 11.13 2618 43.68
Västerbotten (AC)
length Gravel
1990 9241 4046 43.78 652 7.06 : 0.00 2953 31.96 1590 17.21
1991 9251 4015 43.40 652 7.05 : 0.00 2972 32.13 1612 17.43
1992 9251 3962 42.83 654 7.07 : 0.00 3016 32.60 1619 17.50
1993 4248 3876 91.24 725 17.07 : 0.00 3015 70.97 1632 38.42
1994 9238 3781 40.93 791 8.56 : 0.00 3045 32.96 1621 17.55
1995 9251 3739 40.42 815 8.81 : 0.00 3039 32.85 1658 17.92
1996 9253 3696 39.94 841 9.09 : 0.00 3057 33.04 1659 17.93
1997 9251 3682 39.80 852 9.21 : 0.00 3058 33.06 1659 17.93
Norrbotten (BD)
length Gravel
1990 8724 3490 40.00 642 7.36 : 0.00 3304 37.87 1288 14.76
1991 8713 3452 39.62 688 7.90 : 0.00 3308 37.97 1265 14.52
1992 8713 3418 39.23 734 8.42 : 0.00 3305 37.93 1256 14.42
1993 8713 3304 37.92 840 9.64 : 0.00 3333 38.25 1236 14.19
1994 8720 3306 37.91 848 9.72 : 0.00 3311 37.97 1255 14.39
1995 8725 3250 37.25 936 10.73 : 0.00 3267 37.44 1272 14.58
1996 8727 3231 37.02 946 10.84 : 0.00 3263 37.39 1287 14.75
1997 8723 3225 36.97 948 10.87 : 0.00 3260 37.37 1290 14.79
VTI meddelande 852A

Appendix 2/ Gravel road inspection sheet 240
Appendix No 2
Gravel road inspection sheet (Method Specification 106:1996)
Inspection of gravel road Page No

Road No County Std class Length Date Observer
m
Serial No Evenness Binding ability

of 100m Condition Condition Remarks
class class
Section 1 2 3 1 2 3
B/F from
pervious
page
C/F
Totals
VTI meddelande 852A

Appendix 3/ Unsurfaced road inspection sheet 241
Appendix No 3
Unsurfaced road inspection sheet
VTI meddelande 852A

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VTI meddelande 852A • 1999

Operation and maintenance

Operation and maintenance

Cover: Heikki Heiniö, Finland

Published: Project code:

S-581 95 Linköping Sweden Project:

The following areas are treated in the report:

ISSN: Language: No. of pages:

Gunnar Svensson SNRA, Production

I wish to express my sincere thanks to my supervisor, the project manager, the

Linköping, May 1999

VTI meddelande 852A

3 General description of the Swedish road network 12

4 Deterioration of gravel roads 24

VTI meddelande 852A

5 Technical requirements for Swedish gravel roads 44

VTI meddelande 852A

6 Factors which influence the operation and maintenance of

7 Operation and maintenance methods 75

VTI meddelande 852A

8 Condition assessment of gravel roads 154

VTI meddelande 852A

9 Planning and evaluation of operation and maintenance

11 Figures and tables 225

VTI meddelande 852A

VTI meddelande 852A

roadbase, sub-base and protection course. Requirements relating to operation and

Chapter 9 covers planning and economic evaluation of road improvements. It

Chapter 10 lists the literature quoted in the report.

Chapter 11 lists the figures and tables.

VTI meddelande 852A

Maintenance costs for gravel roads constitutes about 17.3%, a significant

VTI meddelande 852A

Much of the earlier gravel road research consisted of small investigations of

1.2 The aim

VTI meddelande 852A

1.4 Information search

Information retrieval is based on keywords coupled together in blocks. Everything

A) Gravel road? + Low cost road? Unsurfaced road? + Unpaved road? +

C) Ditch + Drainage + Dikning(Ditch)

D) Construction + Production + Maintenance + Grading + Surfacing +

VTI meddelande 852A

2.1 Operation and maintenance 4

2.1 Operation and maintenance

According to the Swedish Association of Local Authorities, maintenance is

In the course "Operation and Maintenance of Traffic Facilities-KTH" (1997), in

VTI meddelande 852A

desired properties of a building or facility should be preserved or restored and

OAU PAU OFU PFU

Disruptions Lower costs

Expensive Greater Less

Figure 2.1 Schematic representation of the subdivision of maintenance

In the course "Operation and Maintenance of Traffic Facilities-KTH" (1997),

VTI meddelande 852A

Acute Planned Condition Periodic

Figure 2.2. Relationship between different types of maintenance (Sundquist,

Preventive maintenance (FU) is defined by Sundquist (1997) as measures whose

Event maintenance (AU) is defined as measures whose object is to remedy