SEMINARIO DE SAN JOSE

Tiniguiban, Puerto Princesa City

PSYCHOLOGY

Schools of Psychology
Handout 2

The psychological schools are the great classical theories of psychology. Each has been highly influential,
however most psychologists hold eclectic viewpoints that combine aspects of each school.

1. Structuralism

At the turn of the century, many advances in science were occurring due to a fundamental concept that
philosophers of science refer to as "elementism". Elementism refers to the conception of complex phenomena in
terms of basic parts or elements. This conception of science was leading to many important discoveries with
important applications in areas such as the biological sciences in the late 1800s. It was at this time that, what
most psychologists acknowledge as, the first "school of psychology" began. In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt began the
first psychological laboratory in Leipzig, Germany. The school of psychology that Wundt began and championed
all his life is referred to as "structuralism". For this reason, Wundt is often referred to as the father of structuralism.

Structuralism can be defined as psychology as the study of the elements of consciousness. The idea is that
conscious experience can be broken down into basic conscious elements, much as a physical phenomenon can
be viewed as consisting of chemical structures that can in turn be broken down into basic elements. In fact, much
of the research conducted in Wundt's laboratory consisted of cataloging these basic conscious elements. In order
to reduce a normal conscious experience into basic elements, structuralism relied on a method called
introspection. For example, one of Wundt's research assistants might describe an object such as an apple in
terms of the basic perceptions it invoked (e.g., "cold", "crisp", and "sweet"). An important principal of introspection
is that any given conscious experience must be described in it's most basic terms, so that a researcher could not
describe some experience or object as itself, such as describing an apple as an apple. Such a mistake is a major
introspection faux pas and is referred to as the "stimulus error". Through introspection experiments, Wundt began
to catalog a large number of basic conscious elements, which could hypothetically be combined to describe all
human experiences.

2. Functionalism

Functional psychology or functionalism refers to a general psychological philosophy that considers mental life and
behavior in terms of active adaptation to the person's environment. As such, it provides the general basis for
developing psychological theories not readily testable by controlled experiments and for applied psychology.

Functionalism was a philosophy opposing the prevailing structuralism of psychology of the late 19th century.
Edward Titchener, the main structuralist, gave psychology its first definition as a science as the study of mental
experience, of consciousness, to be studied by trained introspection.

William James founded this psychology. John Dewey, George Herbert Mead, Harvey A. Carr, and especially
James Rowland Angell were the main proponents of functionalism at the University of Chicago. Another group at

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Columbia, including notably James McKeen Cattell, Edward L. Thorndike, and Robert S. Woodworth, were also
considered functionalists and shared some of the opinions of Chicago's professors. Egon Brunswik represents a
more recent, but Continental, version. The functionalists retained an emphasis on conscious experience.

Behaviorists also rejected the method of introspection but criticized functionalism because it was not based on
controlled experiments and its theories provided little predictive ability. B. F. Skinner was a developer of
behaviorism. He did not think that considering how the mind affects behavior was worth while, for he considered
behavior simply as a learned response to an external stimulus.

3. Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and continued by others. It is
primarily devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior, although it also can be applied to
societies.

Psychoanalysis has three applications:

1. a method of investigation of the mind;

2. a systematized set of theories about human behaviour;
3. a method of treatment of psychological or emotional illness.[1]

Under the broad umbrella of psychoanalysis there are at least twenty-two different theoretical orientations
regarding the underlying theory of understanding of human mentation and human development. The various
approaches in treatment called "psychoanalytic" vary as much as the different theories do. In addition, the term
refers to a method of studying child development.

Freudian psychoanalysis refers to a specific type of treatment in which the "analysand" (analytic patient)
verbalizes thoughts, including free associations, fantasies, and dreams, from which the analyst formulates the
unconscious conflicts causing the patient's symptoms and character problems, and interprets them for the patient
to create insight for resolution of the problems.

The specifics of the analyst's interventions typically include confronting and clarifying the patient's pathological
defenses, wishes and guilt. Through the analysis of conflicts, including those contributing to resistance and those
involving transference onto the analyst of distorted reactions, psychoanalytic treatment can clarify how patients
unconsciously are their own worst enemies: how unconscious, symbolic reactions that have been stimulated by
experience are causing symptoms.

4. Behaviorism

Behaviorism also called the learning perspective (where any physical action is a behavior), is a philosophy of
psychology based on the proposition that all things which organisms do — including acting, thinking and feeling —
can and should be regarded as behaviors. The school of psychology maintains that behaviors as such can be
described scientifically without resource either to internal physiological events or to hypothetical constructs such
as the mind. Behaviorism comprises the position that all theories should have observational correlates but that
there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately
observable processes (such as thinking and feeling).

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From early psychology in the 19th century, the behaviorist school of thought ran concurrently and shared
commonalities with the psychoanalytic and Gestalt movements in psychology into the 20th century; but also
differed from the mental philosophy of the Gestalt psychologists in critical ways. [citation needed] Its main influences were
Ivan Pavlov, who investigated classical conditioning, Edward Lee Thorndike, John B. Watson who rejected
introspective methods and sought to restrict psychology to experimental methods, and B.F. Skinner who
conducted research on operant conditioning.[3] In the second half of the twentieth century, behaviorism was largely
eclipsed as a result of the cognitive revolution.

5. Gestalt

Gestalt psychology or gestaltism (German: Gestalt - "form" or "whole") of the Berlin School is a theory of mind and
brain positing that the operational principle of the brain is holistic, parallel, and analog, with self-organizing
tendencies, or that the whole is different from the sum of its parts. The Gestalt effect refers to the form-forming
capability of our senses, particularly with respect to the visual recognition of figures and whole forms instead of
just a collection of simple lines and curves. In psychology, gestaltism is often opposed to structuralism and Wundt.
Often, the phrase "The whole is greater than the sum of the parts" is used when explaining Gestalt theory

The concept of Gestalt was first introduced in contemporary philosophy and psychology by Christian von
Ehrenfels (a member of the School of Brentano). The idea of Gestalt has its roots in theories by Johann Wolfgang
von Goethe, Immanuel Kant, and Ernst Mach. Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the "Gestalt" is
perceptually primary, defining the parts of which it was composed, rather than being a secondary quality that
emerges from those parts, as von Ehrenfels's earlier Gestalt-Qualität had been.

Both von Ehrenfels and Edmund Husserl seem to have been inspired by Mach's work Beiträge zur Analyse der
Empfindungen (Contributions to the Analysis of the Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of
Gestalt and Figural Moment, respectively.

Early 20th century theorists, such as Kurt Koffka, Max Wertheimer, and Wolfgang Köhler (students of Carl
Stumpf) saw objects as perceived within an environment according to all of their elements taken together as a
global construct. This 'gestalt' or 'whole form' approach sought to define principles of perception -- seemingly
innate mental laws which determined the way in which objects were perceived.

These laws took several forms, such as the grouping of similar, or proximate, objects together, within this global
process. Although Gestalt has been criticized for being merely descriptive, it has formed the basis of much further
research into the perception of patterns and objects ( Carlson et al. 2000), and of research into behavior, thinking,
problem solving and psychopathology.

It should also be emphasized that Gestalt psychology is distinct from Gestalt psychotherapy, although there is a
commonality in their names. One has little to do with the other.

6. Humanistic

Humanistic psychology is a college of psychology that emerged in the 1950s in reaction to both behaviorism and
psychoanalysis. It is explicitly concerned with the human dimension of psychology and the human context for the
development of psychological theory.

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The humanistic approach has its roots in existentialist thought (see Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Heidegger, and
Sartre). It is also sometimes understood within the context of the three different forces of psychology;
behaviorism, psychoanalysis and humanism. Behaviorism grew out of Ivan Pavlov's work with the conditioned
reflex, and laid the foundations for academic psychology in the United States associated with the names of John
B. Watson and B.F. Skinner. This school was later called the science of behavior. Abraham Maslow later gave
behaviorism the name "the first force". The "second force" came out of Freud's research of psychoanalysis, and
the psychologies of Alfred Adler, Erik Erikson, Carl Jung, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Otto Rank, Melanie Klein,
Harry Stack Sullivan, and others. These theorists focused on the depth of the human psyche, which, they
stressed, must be combined with those of the conscious mind in order to produce a healthy human personality.

In the late 1950s, psychologists concerned with advancing a more holistic vision of psychology convened two
meetings in Detroit, Michigan. These psychologists, including Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers, and Clark
Moustakas, were interested in founding a professional association dedicated to a psychology that focused on
uniquely human issues, such as the self, self-actualization, health, hope, love, creativity, nature, being, becoming,
individuality, and meaning—that is, the understanding of "the personal nature of the human experience".

7. Cognitive

In psychology, cognitivism is a theoretical approach in understanding the mind using quantitative, positivist and
scientific methods, that describes mental functions as information processing models.

Cognitivism has two major components, one methodological, the other theoretical. Methodologically, cognitivism
adopts a positivist approach and the belief that psychology can be (in principle) fully explained by the use of
experiment, measurement and the scientific method. This is also largely a reductionist goal, with the belief that
individual components of mental function (the 'cognitive architecture') can be identified and meaningfully
understood. The second is the belief that cognition consists of discrete, internal mental states (representations or
symbols) whose manipulation can be described in terms of rules or algorithms.

Cognitivism became the dominant force in psychology in the late-20th century, replacing behaviorism as the most
popular paradigm for understanding mental function. Cognitive psychology is not a wholesale refutation of
behaviorism, but rather an expansion that accepts that mental states exist [behaviorists denied the existence of
complex intermediary mental states that cause behavior]. This was due to the increasing criticism towards the end
of the 1950s of simplistic learning models. One of the most notable criticisms was Chomsky's argument that
language could not be acquired purely through conditioning [even though radical behaviorists never argued that],
and must be at least partly explained by the existence of internal mental states. Chomsky's criticisms have been
refuted by Kenneth MacCorquodale in "On Chomsky's Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior".

The main issues that interest cognitive psychologists are the inner mechanisms of human thought and the
processes of knowing. Cognitive psychologists have attempted to throw light on the alleged mental structures that
stand in a causal relationship to our physical actions.

8. Biological

Behavioral neuroscience, also known as biological psychology[1], biopsychology, or psychobiology[2] is the

application of the principles of biology, in particular neurobiology, to the study of mental processes and behavior in
human and non-human animals. A psychobiologist, for instance, may compare the unfamiliar imprinting behavior
in goslings to the early attachment behavior in human infants and construct theory around these two phenomena.
Behavioral Neuroscientists may often be interested in measuring some biological variable, e.g. an anatomical,
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physiological, or genetic variable, in an attempt to relate it quantitatively or qualitatively to a psychological or
behavioral variable, and thus contribute to evidence based practice.

9. Purposivism

William McDougall conducted his researches at the Duke University of Durham, North Carolina. He believed that
objects, movements and behavior have a definite purpose, and that the ductless glands in people produce
hormones which give them purpose. Because purposivism placed an importance on hormones in life, it was called
“hormic” psychology.

10. Transpersonal

Transpersonal psychology is a school of psychology that studies the transpersonal, self-transcendent or spiritual
aspects of the human experience.

A short definition from the Journal of Transpersonal Psychology suggests that transpersonal psychology "is
concerned with the study of humanity’s highest potential, and with the recognition, understanding, and realization
of unitive, spiritual, and transcendent states of consciousness" (Lajoie and Shapiro, 1992:91). Issues considered
in transpersonal psychology include spiritual self-development, peak experiences, mystical experiences, systemic
trance and other metaphysical experiences of living.

Transpersonal psychology developed from earlier schools of psychology including psychoanalysis, behaviorism,
and humanistic psychology. Transpersonal psychology attempts to describe and integrate the experience of
mysticism within modern psychological theory. Types of mystical experience examined vary greatly but include
religious conversion, altered states of consciousness, trance and other spiritual practices. Although Carl Jung and
others explored aspects of the spiritual and transpersonal in their work, Miller (1998: 541-542) notes that Western
psychology has had a tendency to ignore the spiritual dimension of the human psyche.

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 SCHOOL METHOD OF STUDY SUBJECT MATTER BASIC QUESTIONS

Structuralism Introspection or analysis Experience through the What are the elements of
(Wundt, Titchener) of content of senses as dependent on consciousness and how
consciousness. the sensing person. are these mental
processes interrelated?

Study of the organism as Given the stimulus, what

a whole, functioning in its will be the response?
Functionalism Objective observation and environment (no attempt Given the response, what
(Dewey, James, Cattell) some use of introspection. to reduce mind into was the antecedent
elements: rather, study of stimulus?
consciousness as an
ongoing stream.

Free association, dream The role of motivation, What is the influence of

analysis, projective tests. particularly the anxiety and conflicting
Psychoanalysis unconscious, in the unconscious forces (id,
(Sigmund Freud) determination of behavior. ego, and superego) on the
individual’s adjustments to
his environment?

First, foremost, objective Stimuli and response, free Given the stimulus, what
observation and the of mentalistic concepts will be the response?
Behaviorism conditioned reflex method. and subjective methods. Given the response, what
(Watson, Skinner) The verbal report only if it was the antecedent
is objective. stimulus?

Study of conscious Perceptual and learning How can the principles of

experience, phenomena with perception be applied to
Gestalt Psychology phenomenological emphasis away from the understanding of
(Kohler, Koffka, Lewin) approach (Studying separate elements; motor behavior? What is
phenomena as perceived stresses the wholeness the essence or unity of
by the subject). and meaningfulness of human behavior?
behavior.

Humanistic and Existential A variety of methods but Subjective experiences What are man’s potentials
Psychology mostly interviews, literary rather than behavior, for growth? How can we
writings, and other humanness, or those help man achieve his
creative productions. qualities that distinguish potentials?
man from the lower
animals.

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 FIVE BASIC PERSPECTIVES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR

1. Psychoanalytic

Freud’s theory of personality emphasizes the influence of the unconscious mind. Although much of
Freud’s theory remains controversial, it has had a profound impact of early childhood experiences.

2. Behavioristic

It focuses on objective and observable behavior. B.F. Skinner was convinced that we can use behaviorist
approaches to actually “shape” human behavior.

3. Humanistic Psychology

It focuses on the uniqueness and the value of human experience. Carl Roger on Humanist Stress stated
that human nature is naturally positive, creative and growth seeking.

4. Cognitive Psychology

It focuses on the mental processing of information. Humans are like computers since they take in
information, process it and produce a response.

5. Biological

It views behavior from the perspective of biological functioning.

Branches of Psychology
Handout 3

As a scientific study, psychology may be classified as pure science or applied science. Branches of
psychology that fall under pure science are those that deal mostly on principles and theories of behavior, while
those principles which are applied in daily life or devoted to practical ends belong to applied psychology.

1. General psychology explains the underlying principles of human behavior. This includes the study of how and
why people behave as they do, and the principles of the structural and functional mechanisms of the human body.

2. Comparative psychology is that branch of psychology which studies the behavior and mental processes of the
different species. Activities of both human beings and animals are compared and differentiated, particularly in
relation to genetic and evolutionary theory. This is also known as animal psychology.

3. Development or genetic psychology is the study of human behavior in all aspects of growth and development.
The entire life of an individual, which is divided into stages (prenatal, neonatal, infancy, childhood, adolescence,
adulthood and senescence), are scientifically presented, together with its physical, mental, emotional, social and
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moral development during the period. As part of the development stages, detailed studies of child psychology,
adolescent and senescent psychology are considered.

4. Child psychology is the study of human behavior from prenatal until early adolescence stages. This science
deals with growth and maturation, the effects of environmental influences on individual patterns of development,
and the psychological and social interactions between the child and the society wherein they are both born and
reared.

5. Adolescence psychology is the study of behavior form puberty to later life. It involves the physical and mental
maturation of individuals as well as their attainment of emotional and social maturity.

6. Senescence psychology is the study of human behavior in old age.

7. Abnormal psychology is the study of the etiology or cause of personality defects or behavior which deviates
from the average reaction.

8. Experimental psychology deals with the investigation of different types of behavior through observation and
experiment in psychological laboratories. The aim of this branch of psychology is the understanding of the
fundamental causes of behavior.

9. Differential psychology is the study of differences and similarities between individuals, social groups and races.

10. Dynamic psychology is a scientific interpretation of mental phenomena emphasizing internal drives and
motives as the cause of behavior. In contemporary psychology, this is also referred to a Personality Psychology,
which is largely concerned with understanding the non-deviant individual case.

11. Physiological psychology is the study of the functions of the different organs of the body, especially the
nervous system, and their bearing on behavior and mental processes.

12. Educational psychology is concerned with the psychological aspects of teaching and formal learning
processes in schools. Important laws of learning, useful in effective instruction, are put to use.

13. Applied psychology is used in medicine, education, law, business, industry and many other fields.
Psychology, as applied in medicine, is called psychiatry. It is concerned with the treatment of mental diseases.

14. Legal psychology is the application of the principles of human behavior in law or any legal proceedings.
Psychology principles are used by lawyers in their professional practice when analyzing testimony and evidence,
examination of witnesses and study of delinquents and criminals.

15. Clinical psychology pertains to the diagnosis and evaluation of events in relation to the condition of a person
who has a problem. In this field, there are three kinds of specialists who practice clinical work: psychiatrists,
psychoanalysts and clinical psychologists.

16. Business psychology deals particularly with the behavior of consumers. Psychological methods are employed
to gain more customers. Psychological methods are employed to gain more consumers and impress prospective
buyers.

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17. Industrial and engineering psychology is a branch of applied psychology which investigates problems and
situations in business firms and industries. It is concerned with the improvement of the efficiency of employees
and workers, and the promotion of welfare of management. It deals also with the design of equipment and the
task of individuals who operate them.

Vocational guidance is applied in the scientific selection of a suitable employment or vocation, particularly
aimed at helping students choose their occupations or careers.

Mental hygiene is the systematic practice of measures for the prevention of mental illness and the
preservation of mental health.

18. Social psychology is the study of people’s behavior in relation to their families, groups and communities.

Aside from the stereotype roles of psychologist like clinical psychologist, child psychologist, industrial
psychologist, organizational or vocational psychologist, the following are other current opportunities for the
psychologist.

1. Health Psychologist – specializes on the promotion and maintenance of health, prevention and treatment of
illness; may also conduct teaching and research related to stress and illness. They may work hand in hand with
health physicians and other paraprofessionals like nurses and public health officials.

2. Sport Psychologist – focuses on social, mental and emotional problems of athletes.

3. Community Psychologist – attempts to improve the quality of life of individuals in a community through
intervention at a social system level.

4. Consumer Psychologist – studies motivation, perception and learning to understand decision making and
behavior of consumers.

5. Behavior Analyst – focuses on the application of basic facts and principles that arise out of experimental studies
of humans such as researches on addiction, energy wasting, self destruction etc. and non clinical types of
research.

6. Legal Psychologist or Forensic Psychologist – serves as consultant or expert witnesses in trial courts or focus
psychology in relation to law and the legal system.

7. Ergonomist – studies human engineering, how people interact with machines and other person made objects in
the environment; studies person machine systems in terms of the limitations and capacities of the human operator
or user.

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 Relation of Psychology to Other Sciences
Handout 4

Psychology draws upon the accumulated knowledge of several other sciences and is
conversely drawn upon by them. Eagle and Snellgrove (1974) present few representative
sciences and their important relations to psychology.

Psychology and Anthropology

Anthropology is becoming more and more concerned with the behavior of so-called
civilized as well as so-called primitive peoples. Through his studies of widely divergent cultures,
the anthropologist assists the psychologist in understanding the influences of environment on the
behavior of individuals.

Psychology and Chemistry

Some forms of behavior disorders that were formerly spoken of as sickness of the mind
can now be explained in terms of body chemistry. We are learning much through
psychopharmacology, the study of the effects to problems of the nervous system, developing
such aids as the ataractic drugs and others.

Psychology and Biology

Biology contributes much to psychology. For instance, in the study of emotions, knowledge
of the activity of the glands and parts of the brain and functions of each is required.

Psychology and Psychiatry

The fields of psychology and psychiatry often overlap; psychologists and psychiatrists
frequently cooperate with one another such as by working together in clinics. Psychiatrists are
physicians who specialize in the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of mild and severe mental
disorders.

Psychology and Sociology

Data from sociological studies in such areas as growth and shifts of population, urban and
rural living, voting trends, delinquency, and crime contribute to understanding the behavior of the
individual. In some areas, as in the study of families and other small groups, sociology is very

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close to the branch of psychology called social psychology. The distinction is that the psychologist
focuses primarily on the individual, while the sociologist focuses primarily on the group.

Psychology as a Behavioral or as a Social Science

Psychology may be referred to as a behavioral science when the discussion emphasizes

the individual and as a social science when the emphasis is on groups of individuals in
interaction. Thus, a subfield of psychology, like social psychology, tends to be viewed as part of
the social sciences because it focuses on social phenomena. Physiological psychology, on the
other hand, is though of as behavioral science because it studies the biological bases of the
behavioral science because it studies the biological bases of the behavior of individual organisms.
Educational psychology, when studying how an individual child learns to read or do arithmetic,
can be labeled as a behavioral science; but in its study of group interactions in the classroom, it is
a social science.

The Place of Psychology among the Sciences

Psychologists seek to provide a basic science of human thinking, learning, skills, motives,
conduct, and so on, that will serve all the sciences of man such as anthropology, sociology,
political science, and law in much the same way that biology now serves the agricultural and
medical sciences.

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