Chapter 7: Plane Electromagnetic Waves An Historical Perspective:

and Wave Propagation Faraday：Time-varying magnetic

field generates electric
fi ld
field.
Maxwell：Time-varying electric
fi ld generates
field t magnetic
ti
field.

Hertz discovered radio waves; Einstein's

special theory
y accepted
Maxwell's theory p of relativity

1791 1831 1873 1879 1887 1905

Faraday Faraday's law;
born Maxwell Maxwell died;
Maxwell born equations Einstein born

1 2

A Note about Oscillatory Behavior: Organization of Lecture Notes on Ch. 7:

In Jackson,
Jackson plane waves in dielectric media are treated in Secs.
Secs 7.1
71
and 7.2. Various special cases (plasma medium and high-frequency
limit) are treated in Sec. 7.5. Plane waves in conductors are treated in
Sec. 5.18 [e.g. Eqs. (5.163)-(5.169)] and Sec. 8.1 [e.g. Eqs. (8.9),
(8.10), (8.12), (8.14), and (8.15)] by methods different from those in
energy energy S
Secs. 7 1 and
7.1 d 7.2.
72
Common feature of oscillatory behavior:  Here, we will cover these sections in Jackson with a unified
type 1 type 2


treatment of plane waves in both dielectrics and conductors, and at all
energy storing
i mechanisms
h i
 Oscillations require frequencies. Equations in Jackson will be examined in greater detail,
energy exchange mechanism(s)
but in somewhat different order. So, in the lecture notes, the three
t i
energy storing energy exchange
h sections on these materials will be numbered Secs. I, II, and III rather
example medium
mechanisms mechanism(s)
than following Jackson’s section numbers. However, Secs. 7.3, 7.4,
mass-spring
i system
t 1 mv 2 , 1 kx 2
restoring
t i force
f mass & spring
i 7 8 and 7.9
7.8, 7 9 of Jackson will
ill be followed
follo ed closely
closel in subsequent
s bseq ent lecture
lect re
2 2k
1 LI 2 , 1 CV 2 notes (and numbered as in Jackson) .
LC oscillator Q, I L, C , & wire
2 2 We begin with a derivation of the generalized dielectric constant
B2  E2 dB , dE /0, which is applicable to both dielectric and conducting media.
EM wave 2 , 2 dt dt
not required
3 4
 I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant  /0 (continued)

Constant /0 [[Sec. 7.5 (part

(p A)])] Rewrite (7
(7.49), x  eE(x, t )   mx  m02 x, as
49) m
Dipole Moment of a Single Electron: The equation of motion x   x  02 x)  eE( x, t )
m(
for an atomic or molecular electron with mass m and charge –e in
the presence of an external electric field E(x,t) can be written: L ) it andd expandd E(x) about
Let** E(x, t ) = E(x)e b the
h equilibrium
ilib i
restoring force due to electron displacement F (x ) restoring position x  0, we obtain E( x)  E(0)  (x )E(0)    E(0),


force of the order of x E(0) if x  1
x  eE(x, t ) 
m  m x
  m 2
x (7.49) 
 0 x where  is the scale length of E(x). For example, if E(x) is a wave
x: displacement of  : electron
l t collision
lli i field, then   wavelength. By neglecting ( x )E(0), we have
frequency
the electron from assumed that the electron displacement is too small for the electron
p g force F ( x)  
 mx : damping F (0)  
F' (0) x 
its equilibrium (rate of change of to see any spatial field variation.
variation Thus,
Thus we assume that the electron
0  m02 x
position x = 0. electron momentum As in Sec. 4.6, we neglect is acted on by a spatially uniform field:
due to collisions) higher-order
higher order terms.
terms E(x, t )  E(0)e it ,
The "binding frquency" 0 is the natural oscillation frequency of and it is understood that E( x, t ) is given by the real part of the RHS.
the electron if it is set to oscillate about x  0 under the restoring force This is equivalent to a Fourier trnasformation to the  space
*This
 m02 . Since 02  1/ m, the restoring force is independent of m. 5
and E(x) is a complex quantity called the phasor [see Appendix A] 6

I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant  /0 (continued) I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant  /0 (continued)

Let x(t )  x0e it and substitute x   e E(0)

E( x, t )  E(0)e it 0
 x(t )  x0 e it  
 m 0
2  2 i

 x   x  02 x)  eE( x, t ),
into m( Rewrite x(t )  x0e it and 
it
p 0  ex0  em 2 E(0)
2
E(x, t )  E(0)e p(t )  p e it
 0  0  2 i
we obtain m( 2  i  02 )x0  eE(0) with the solution: q
In these equations, , E((0),
), x0 , and p 0 are pphasors containingg phase
p
e E(0) and amplitude information of E( x, t ), x(t ), and p(t ), respectively.
x0   m
0  2 i
2
The subscript "0" in x0 and p 0 refers to the fact that the oscillation
it
 x(t )   me E(0)e (1) is centered at x  0, where E(x, t ) is approximated by a spatially
0  i
2 2
uniform field E(0)e it (its value at x  0). If the oscillation is
(1) represents the forced oscillation of a simple harmonic oscillator centeredd at an arbitrary
bi point
i x, theh only
l difference
diff is
i thath the
h
with natural oscillation frequency 0 . The time-dependent x(t ) results it
electron would see a sptially constant field given by E(x)e .
in a time-dependent dipole moment at x  0 given by 2 E( x )
Thus, in general, p(t )  pe it with p  em 2 2 (7.50)
p(t )  p 0 e it , 0  i
2 E(0) This reduces to (4.72)
(4 72) in  Note that,
that in (7.50),
(7 50) x is a spatial variable (not the electron
where p 0  ex0  em 2 2
0  i  the static limit:   0.  7
displacement), and p and E(x) are phasors.
8
 I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant  /0 (continued) I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant  /0 (continued)
The Generalized Dielectric Constant : Assume there are N Divide the electrons in the medium into
molecules
l l per unit i volume
l andd Z electrons
l per molecule.
l l Divide i id theh copper, f 0  1
For copper
bound electrons:  j  0
electrons of a molecule into groups, each with electron number f j  and  0  4 1013 / s.
(  f j  Z ), binding freq enc  j , and collision freq
frequency frequencyenc  j [There free electrons:  j  0, f j  f 0 ,  j   0
may be one or more free electrons ( j  0) per molecule.] Then, the 2 fj Ne2 f 0
(7.51)     0  Ne   i
m j (bound)  2j  2 i m ( 0 i )
electric polarization (total dipole moment per unit volume) is j 
2 fj b 
P (x)  N  f j p j  Ne  2 E( x )   0  e E( x )  due to free
j
m j  j  i j
2  b  i  electrons (7.56)
a macroscopic  
(7.50)  0 e (4.36) a spatial f 0 Ne2  Drude model for the 
quantity variable where   (7.58)
m( 0 i ) electrical conductivity 
Extending the definitions of the static electric displacement (D)
 D( x )   0 E ( x )  P ( x )   E ( x ) (4.34) (4.37) In general,  j   j (see p. 310). Hence,  b is predominantly real.
and permittivity ( ) :  Wh    j , Im
When I  b become
b s large.
l  resonantt absorption
b ti
   0 (1   e ) (4.38)
to fields with exp(it ) dependence, we obtain D(x)   E(x) (2) Questions:
1    as   00. Hence
1. Hence, the derivation breaks down down. Why?
generalized
li d 
with   1   e  1  Nem  2 2
2 fj
0 0 
j j    i j 
 dielectric constant  (7.51) 9 2. What makes the medium dispersive (i.e.  depends on  ) ? 10

I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant  /0 (continued) I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant  /0 (continued)

i :
Discussion
Di (iii) W it      i  [   R
Write Re(( )),    IIm(( )]
)]. F
From (7
(7.56),
56) it can
(i) D   E implies a linear relation between D and E. The linearity be seen that   is due to  [i.e. the damping term in (7.49)].
results
l from
f the
h assumption i that
h the
h electron
l di l
displacement x is
i Hence,   is resposible for the attenuation of EM waves in the
sufficient samll so that, in (7.49), f (x)  x and E(x) can be material. For the insulating material,     , the attenuation
approximated by a constant E(0). constant is given by Jackson (7.55) in terms of  . For a good
(ii)  /  0 in (7.51) or (7.56) is a generalized dielectric constant, which conductor,     , the attenuation constant is given by Jackson
includes contributions from both bound and free electrons. It is (5.164) in terms of  . The attenuation constants in dielectric
thus applicable to both insulating and conducting materials. In the and conducting materials will be derived later in this chapter.
wave fields, free electrons oscillate about an equilibrium position Note that both bound and free electrons contribute to  
j like the bound electron. Hence,, both types
just yp of electrons can be [[see ((7.56)], but contribution from free electrons is usually
y far
treated on equal footing. The generalized  is an extremely useful more important than bound electrons (why?). Even the insulating
quantity As will be shown
quantity. shown, it allows a unified treatment of EM material contains a small number of free electrons to give the
waves in both insulating and conducting materials. 11
material a small conductivity. 12
 I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant  /0 (continued) I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant  /0 (continued)

(iv)  is derived in the  -space

space for a harmonic field of arbitrary (v) Consider a static (  0) electric field E in a dielectric medium
frequency. Hence, D( )   ( )E( ) is a constitutive relation without free electrons (f 0  0), we have
in  -space
p valid for all . For multi-frequency
q y fields,, we mayy
E( )   Eeit dt  E  eit dt  2 E ( )
 
obtain the t -space D through a Fourier transformation
2 fj Ne2 f 0
 ( )   0  Ne   i
D(t )  21  D( )e it d 
 in general m j (bound)  2  2 i
j j
m ( 0 i )
  0, f 0  0
( ) E( )e it d  [   E(t )]
 2
 21   (3)   0  Ne 
fj
m 2
j (bound)  j
Ne2 fj Ne2 f 0
 ( )   0  m   i
m ( 0 i )   b  b is real.
j (bound)  j  i j
2 2
Thus, in t -space, we have a static D given by
Since E(t )  21  E( )e it d  , we find from (3) that, in  
 
D  21 
 ( )E( )e it d   2b 

2 E ( )e it d 
general, D(t )   E(t ) because  is a function of . There are,   b E,
however, 2 special cases for which (3) will yield D   E in This recovers the static relation in (4.37) without making any
t -space, as discussed in (v) and (vi) below. approximation.
13 14

I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant  /0 (continued) I. Derivation of the Generalized Dielectric Constant  /0 (continued)

(vi) For time

time-dependent
dependent fields in a medium with negligible dispersion A note
t about
b t terminology
t i l : In
I general,
l the
th electric
l t i permitivity
iti it
[i.e.  ( )   (0 )] and negligible loss (i.e.  j  0), we have 
is a tensor (denote it by ε ) and we may write
D(t )  21  D( )e it d   21  (0 )  E( )eit d    (0 )E(t ),
 
)  11 12 13 
  
2 fj 2 fj D  ε  E, where ε   21  22  23 
e e  (0 )   0  Ne
where
w   0  Ne  
m  2 2
j  j  0  i j
m 
2 2
j  j  0  31  32  33 
This explains assumption (1) on p. 259 for the derivation of
(6.107); namely, the macroscopic medium is linear in its electrical The electrical
Th l t i l property
t
if
property and it has negligible dispersion and negligible loss. Under of the medium is

this
hi assumption,i we may write i D(t )   E(t ).
) Hence,
H iin (6.105),
(6 105) we uniform (or homogeneous) ε is indept.
indept of x
 
   1 
have E  t D   E  t E = 2 t E  E = 2 t E  D. linear ε is indept. of E

Questions: nondispersive
di i ε is i d t off 
i indept.
1. Assume an electromagnetic signal is propagating in the medium. 11   22   33 ,
isotropic
p
Wh t is
What i the
th condition
diti on the th signal
i l in i order
d for f  ( )   (0 )?  ij  0 if i  j
2. Why is the assumption of "negligible loss" also required? 15 16
 II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)
II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Assumption 1 : harmonic time dependence ( : real and positive)
Conductors - A Unified Formalism
Basic Equations :  E ( x, t )    E( x )  
 D( x, t )      By convention, the LHS is
Macroscopic p Maxwell equations:q  free , J free are due to D( x ) the real part of the RHS.
    
  D(x, t )   free (x, t ) free electrons. They are  B ( x, t )   B(x)  it 
  B(x, t )  0 neglected in (7.1). Let    Re   e  with .
  H ( x, t )    H ( x )  
  E(x, t )    B(x, t ) E(x, t )), D(x, t ),
) B(x, t )), (4) E(x), B(x) here are E, B
and H (x, t ) here are E, D,  J ( x, t )    J ( x)  
 t
     in (7.2) and (7.3)
  H (x, t )  J free (x, t )  t D(x, t ) B, and H in (7.1).  ( x, t )     ( x)  
 
Equation of continuity (conservation of free charges): real complex (called the phasor)
  (x, t )    J free (x, t )  0 (5)
t free   D(x, t )   free (x, t )   D(x)   free (x)
As discussed earlier, the constitutive relations D   b E (for bound   B(x, t )  0   B(x)  0
) andd D   E (for
electrons)
l t (f both
b th bound d and
d ffree electrons)
l t ) are in
i    (6)
  E(x, t )    B(x, t ) 
general applicable only in the  -space. Similarly, B   H and J   E  t    E ( x )  i B ( x )
are also  -space
space relations.
relations To utilize these relation
relation, we go to the   H (x, t )  J free (x, t )   D(x, t )   H (x)  J free (x)  i D(x)
 t
 -space by assuming harmonic time dependence for the fields. 
17
t
 free (x, t )    J free (x, t )  0   i free (x)    J free (x)  0 (7)18

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

Ohm's law: (5.159) II. Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
Assumption 2 : linear and isotropic medium, i.e.and P. 320 Using (8) and (9), we write the macroscopic Maxwell equations
D(x)   b E(x), B(x)   H (x), J free (x)   E(x) or (   v ). for harmonic fields in a linear and isotropic medium in terms of
Note: We have used 2 definitions of D. Here, D   b E. In (2), phasor fields and the ggeneralized  :
p
D   E  ( b  i  )E. (D has no physical significance.)
   E(x)  0
Rewrite (7):  i free (x)    J free (x)  0   B(x)  0
  E( x )
 
  i free (x)     E(x)  0   free ( x)  i  (10)
  E(x)  i B(x)
Hence,,   D(x)   free (x)     b E(x)  i
1    E( x )
  H (x)  i E(x)
   ( b  i  )E(x)  0     E(x)  0, (8) Discussion :
h   b  i 
where  takes
k the
h fform off the li d  d
h generalized derived
i d in
i (i) Bound
B d electrons
l andd free
f electrons
l are separatedd iin the
h Maxwell
M ll
(7.51) and (7.56). Similarly,   H (x)  J free (x)  i D(x) gives equations in (4) and (6), where  b contains the effects of bound
  H (x)   E( x)  i b E( x)  i[ b  i  electrons
l t andd  contains
t i the
th effects
ff t off free
f electrons.
l t
 ]E(x)  i E( x), (9)
where again  b and  are combined in the same manner as in (8). (ii) Bound electrons and free electrons are combined in the Maxwell
This gives an alternative derivation of the generalized  . However, equations
ti iin (10) h  (  b  i  ) contains
(10), where t i the
th effffects
t off both
b th
 in (7.51) and (7.56) gives the explicit expressions for  b and  . 19 bound and free electrons. 20
 II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued) II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

   E(x)  0
(i e  ,  independent of x)
Assumption 3 : uniform medium (i.e.
  E(x)  0 (11)
  
Assumption 4 :
E( x )
B( x)
E
 0 eiikk x
B0
E0, B0 here are E,
in (7.8)-(7.12)
E B

  B(x)  0

 
  B(x)  0


(12) 2      
E( x )
B ( x)
 2 E( x )
B ( x)
 0  k 2   2
E0
B0 
0 
  E(x)  i B(x)   E(x)  i B(x) (13)
 k   (dispersion relation) (16)
  H (x)  i E(x)   B(x)  i E(x) ((14))
2 2 *
Note: 1. k  k  k ; k  k  k .
(13)  2  E( x )  2  E( x )  2.
2
2 k 2  k and k  k unless k is real.
real
       0 (15)
(14)  B ( x)  B ( x)  3. k can be complex, but k is always real and positive.
(15) has the same form as (7 (7.3),
3) which is derived from the source-
urce k  E0  0 (17)
free Maxwell equations [(7.1)] for a non-conducting medium (  0). k  B  0 (18)
(11)-(13)   0
However (15) is applicable to both dielectric
However, dielectric and conducting media. B0  1 k  E0   k  E 0
 (19)

In (7.3),    b . In (15),    b  i  . Solution for (15) and (7.3) takes  k
1 k  B , which is implicit in (17)
Note: (14) gives E0   
steps But with    b  i  , the solution ffor
the same algebraic steps. or (15) 0
will be applicable to both dielectric and conducting media. 21
and (19). 22

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)
S t  time averaged power flow per unit area (called intensity) Discussion:
 E(x, t )  H (x, t ) (i) Assuming  ,  are given, (16)-(19) are conditions imposed on
t E(x)  E0eikx
 , k , E0 , B0 by the Maxwell equations.
equations
real quantities phasors H (x)  H 0eikx
(ii) The derivation of (16)-(19) only requires  ,  ,  , k , E0 , and B0
B  k  E0 ((19))
 12 Re E (x)  H (x)  H 0  0  
k constants but not necessarily real (we have assumed  to
to be constants,
 be real). Thus, any set of complex constants  ,  ,  , k , E0 , and
 12 Re   1k E0   k  E0  ei (k k )x 
  B 0 can be a valid solution of the Maxwell equations provided
E0  E0  E0
2 they satisfy (16)-(19) and the boundary conditions (if applicable).
((iii)) The ggeneralized  is in ggeneral a complex
p number.  can also be
 1 Re
2

  1 2

 k k E 0  E 0 k  E 0  e 
  i (k k  )x
 (20) a complex number. Either complex  or complex  can lead to
complex solutions for k , E0 , and B 0 . Even when  and  are real,
 1 Re
 2  k E
1
0
2
 
 E0 k  E0  ei (k k


)x
 (20) boundary conditions (if applicable) can lead to complex solutions
for k , E0 , and B 0 [to be shown in Sec. 7.4, Eq. (48)].
Note: E(x, t )  H (x, t ) t  12 Re[E (x)  H (x)] is derived in
Sec. 6.9 of lecture notes. 23 24
 II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued) Optional II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)
it ik x
((iv)) Under assumptions
p 1 and 4,, the fields (  e ) are those of b. Inhomogeneous
g pplane wave
a plane wave; namely, the surface of constant phase is a plane Consider another solution satisfying (16)-(19):
((see following
g examples).
p ) There are 2 typesyp of plane
p waves k  k x e x  ik z e z  k 2  k  k  k x2  k z2  
 2
depending on the form of the wave vector k (also called the  
E0  E0 x e x  iE0 z e z with  k  E0  k x E0 x  k z E0 z  0 (21)
propagation constant). B  iB e  B  ( k E  k E ) / 
 0 0y y  0y x 0z z 0x
a. Homogeneous plane wave E0e x where k x , k z , E0 x , E0 z , and B0 y are all real constants.
Consider the solution:
k  ke z ke z k  k x e x  ik z e z defined here can be converted to the form
  B0   E0 k  kn  k ( n R  in I ) as used on p. 298 of Jackson. Here,
E0  E0e x with 
B0 e y we reserve the notation n for later use as a real unit vector.
B  B e k  
 0 0 y
The physical meaning of such a solution becomes clear when
where e x , e y , and e z are real unit vectors, but E0 , B0 , and k can
we construct the physical quantity E(x, t ) from the phasor E(x ).
all be complex. This clearly satisfies (16)-(19) and is the most
familiar typ
ype of plane
p waves. Anyy plane
p perpendicular
p p to the z -axis E( x, t )  Re  E0eikx e it   Re  E0 x e x  iE0 z e z  e it ik x x k z z 
is a plane of constant phase.   E0 x cos t  k x x  e x  E0 z sin t  k x x  e z  e  k z z
25 26

Interesting II.phenomenon
Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued) II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

((v)) Orthogonality
g y of vectors k,, E0, and B0 in ((17)-(19)
)( )
Rewrite E(x, t )   E0 x cos t  k x x  e x  E0 z sin t  k x x  e z  e k z z
k  E0  0 
This represents a surface wave in the z  0 half space. It propagates   E , B , and k are algebraically 
) ( )  k  B 0  0    0 0
((17)-(19) 
along the x-direction with an amplitude peaking at z  0 and decreasing E0  B 0  0   orthogonal to one another 
exponentially along the positive z -direction. The surface wave is also E0 e x
For
o tthee homogeneous
o oge eous pplanea e wave, E0 ( E0e x ),
called an inhomogeneous plane wave (p.298). Any plane perpendicular
B 0 ( B0e y ), and k (  ke z ) are also geometrically ke z
to the x-axis is a plane of constant phase.
orthogonal. B0 e
Wh a plane
When l wave incident
i id z y

from a dense medium onto a surface wave For the inhomogeneous plane wave, the algebraic orthogonality
air of k ( k x e x  ik z e z ),
) E0 ( E0 x e x  iE0 z e z ),
) and B 0 ( iB0 y e y ) does
tenuous medium (e.g. (e g water to 0 x
water
air) is totally reflected from the not imply geometric orthogonality because k and E0 do not have
interface fields in the tenuous
interface, incident reflected clear geometric directions.
directions In t -space,
-space we have just shown
plane wave plane wave
medium form such a surface wave E(x, t )   E0 x cos t  k x x  e x  E0 z sin t  k x x  e z  e  k z z ,
due to boundaryy conditions at z  0. This will be discussed in Sec. 7.4.
which
hi h shows
h that
th t the
th wave propagates
t along
l th x-direction,
the di ti but
b t its
it
27 E-field also has an x-component. 28
 II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued) II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

(vi) k  E0  0 does not necessarily imply k  E0  0.

0
k   (16)
(A similar comment is made in Jackson, see footnote on p. 298.) 
k  E0  0 (17)
For the homogeneous a e (k  ke z , E0  E0e x ),
homogeneo s plane wave ) (vii) Rewrite (16)-(19):
(16) (19): k  B  0 (18)
0
k  E0  0  k  E
B 0  1 k  E   0 (19)
0
 k  E0  0  k
This set of equations is equivalent to (7.9)-(9.11) in Jackson, with
k  k x e x  ik z e z
But for the inhomogeneous
g plane
p wave:   in (7 9)-(7 11) interpreted as the generalized  . The difference is in
(7.9)-(7.11)
E0  E0 x e x  iE0 z e z
k  E0  0 notations. In (7.9)-(7.11), n is in general a complex unit vector subject
 k x E0 x  k z E0 z  0 to the condition n  n  1,
1 which leads to condition (7 (7.15).
15) Here,
Here we treat
 k x E0 x  k z E0 z k as complex vector [as in (21)] without any additional condition except
 k  E0  k x E0 x  k z E0 z  2k z E0 z  0 f those
for h iimposedd by
b the
h Maxwell
M ll equations
i [(16) (19)] Th
[(16)-(19)]. Thus, the
h
complex k is more convenient to use, as has been demonstrated in (21)
Thus, in general, the k  E0 term must be kept in (20) [see Eqs.
and will be seen again in Sec. 7.4.
(53) and (54) in Sec. 7.4.]
29 30

II. Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued) See Chap. II.
6.9 Plane Wave Equations in Dielectrics and Conductors… (continued)

Assumption 5 : k  kn  (kr  iki )n k : complex constant Definition of impedance and admittance of the medium :
n: real unit vector
Then, (17)-(19) can be written Rewrite B0   n  E0 (24)
(16), (22)
(16) (22)-(24)
(24) here
h are equivalent
i l to (22) In engineering literature,
literature this equation is often written
n  E0  0
n  B  0 (7.9)-(7.11) when n in (7.9)-(7.11) is (23) B n  E0
 0 H0  0  , (7.11)
B   n  E a real unit vector and  in (7.9)-(7.11)
(7 9) (7 11)  Z
 0 0 is interpreted as the generalized  . (24) 
where Z   is the impedance of the medium (p. 297). The
and k  E0  0  k  E0  0.
0 Thus,
Thus (20) reduces to admittance of the medium is defined as Y  Z1 =  . Z and Y are
S t  12 Re   E0 e2 kinx  n
2
(25) intrinsic properties of the medium.
 
Under assumption 5, the wave vector k has a geometric direction Let E0  E0ε1 and B0  B0ε 2 . Because n, ε1 , and ε 2 are mutually
(n)). Hence,, ((22)-(24)
) ( ) now represent
p homogeneous
g pplane waves with perpendicular, we have Z  E0 / H 0
geometrically orthogonal k , E0 , and B0 .  Z is the (complex) amplitude ratio of E0 and H 0 in the medium
(The definition is valid even if  ,  are complex). In vacuum,
In k  (kr  iki )n, kr (  2 ) ggives
ves thee wavelength,
w ve e g , ki gives
g ves thee
rate of attenuation, and n gives the direction of wave propagation. 
31
Z  Z 0   0  376.7  32
0
 III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
Conductors [A unified treatment of Secs. 5.18, 7.1, 7.2, On the
O th basis
b i off these
th equations,
ti we consider
id below
b l 4 radically
di ll
7.5, and 8.1 using the generalized  in (7.51)]
different cases which are distinguishable by the wave frequency
In Sec. II,, under assumptions
p 1-5,, we have obtained the familiar and the medium property characterized by the generalized
homogeneous plane-wave equations: permittivity:
k    k : w wave
ve number
u be oor ppropagationop g o co constant
s  ((16) 6)
 2 fj Ne2 f 0
   0  Ne   (7.51), (7.56)
n  E0  0 (22) i
j (bound)  j  i
m 2 2 m ( 0 i )
n  B  0 ((23)) j 
 0
b 
B0   n  E0 (24)
   2  2 k nx n
 S t  2 Re   E0 e
1 i (25) Case 1.
1 Waves in a dielectric medium

Case 2. Waves in a good conductor
for a uniform and isotropic medium, where E0 and B0 are (complex)
Case 3. Waves at optical
p frequencies
q and beyond
y
 E0  ik xit 
amplitude constants of the fields: 
E((x, t ) 
E
B ( x , )   Re  B  e 
Case 4. Waves in a plasma
 t   0 
andd n iis a (real)
( l) direction
di ti unit it vector t off theth (complex)
( l ) wave vector t
or propagation vector: k  kn  (kr  iki )n 33 34

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

Case 1.1: Lossless dielectric ( and  are real. Secs. 7.1 and 7.2))
Case 1: Waves
Wa es in a dielectric medium
medi m [§ 7.1,
7 1 § 7.2,
7 2 § 7.5
7 5 (Part B)]
2 Plane waves in a dielectric medium governed by Eqs. (16), (22)-(25)
2 fj Ne f 0 are best examplified by the simple case of no medium loss (i.e.  and 
   0  Ne  i ((7.51))
2 2
m j (bound)  j    i j m ( 0  i ) are both real).
  
Properties of : negligible (  f0  0 or very small) Time-averaged quantities:
1. In general, j << j (see p.310), hence Im<< Re. intensity: time averaged 
(25)  S t  12  E0 n 
2
 (7.13)
2. When  is near each j (binding frequency of the jth group of  Poynting vector
l )  exhibits
electrons), hibi resonant behavior
b h i in i theh form
f off anomalous
l E(x)  E0eik x , B(x)  B0eik x   n  E0eik x
dispersion and resonant absorption.
 u t  time averaged
g energy
gy density
y
3AAs  passes more j’s, Re decreases.
’ R d
 14 [ E( x)  E ( x)  1 B(x)  B (x)]  2 E0
2
Re  (7.14)
 
index of These 2 terms are equal [  B 0   n  E0 (24)].
refraction Im   equipartition of E-field and B-field energies
of water d 
vs
0 
(7.13) and (7.14)  S t  n  u t vg , where vg   1 ( )
frequency 35 dk  k 36
 III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

Time-dependent
p fields
f : Two linearly polarized waves can be combined to give
E(x)  E0eik x  E0eik xε1 E(x, t )  E1 (x, t )  E2 ( x, t )   ε1E1  ε 2 E2  eik xit (7.19)
Let 
ik x
  E0eik xε 2 (7.19) consists of the following 3 cases:
B(x)   n  E0e
1. (7.19) is a linearly polarized plane wave if E1 and E2 are in
where ε1, ε 2 , k are mutually perpendicular and
the fields are linearly polarized
polarized. phase, i e if E1  E1 ei and E2  E2 ei
phase i.e.
ε1  ε1 , n  ε1  ε1
Further let E0  E0 ei , then 2. (7.19) is an elliptically polarized plane wave if E1 and E2 are
E(x, t )  Re[E0eik xit ]  E0 cos  k  x  t    ε1 nott in
i phase,
h i if E1  E1 ei andd E2  E2 ei   .
i.e.
 ik x it 3. (7.19) is a circularly polarized plane wave (a special case of
B(x, t )   Re[n  E0e ]   E0 cos  k  x  t    ε 2
elliptical l i i ) if E1  E2 ( E0 ) andd     2.
lli i l polarization) 2 Hence,
H
 and  are real.  E(x, t ) and B(x, t ) are in phase.
S(x, t )  E(x, t )  H (x, t )  instantaneous Poynting
y g vector [(
[(6.109)]
)] E( x, t )  E0 (ε1  iε 2 )eik xit (7.20)

  E0 cos 2  k  x  t    n
2 For an alternative representation, we define    1 (ε  iε ), (7.22)
2 1 2
where *     1 and *     0. Then,, ((7.19)) [not
[ (7.20)]
( )] can be written
 At a fixed
fi d position,
iti S varies
i between
b t 0 andd the
th maximum
i (positive)
( iti )
value at the frequency 2. 37
E(x, t )  ( E ε   Eε  )eikxit (7.24) 38

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
A specific example of circularly polarized wave: y Case 1.2: Lossy dielectric [μand/or  are complex , Sec. 7.5 (Part B)]
Rewrite (7.20): E(x, t )  Re E0  ε1  iε 2  eik xit  E
x k   can be written: k  Re   i Im     i 2 (7.53)
Let ε1  e x , ε 2  e y , and n  kk  e z . We have where   kr gives (for arbitrary  and  )
E0 (e x  ie y )eikx it
 E x (x, t )  E0 cos  kz  t    negative helicity  the wavelength   2
 E (x, t )   E sin kz  t   y

 y 0   E  the phase velocity v    1
Exercise: Show that the instantaneous Poynting x   Re 
 
 the index of refraction n  v  Re 0 0  used on p. 314.
vector of a circularly polarized plane E (e  ie )eikx it c p 314
0 x y
wave is independent of time. positive helicity To find the meaning of  , we set ki  2 and n  e z in
Medium property: k   [(16)] gives the phase velocity (v)
S t  12 Re   E0 e 2 kinx  n
2
(25)
 1 c   
v   , where n    (index of refraction) (7.5)
R  E0 e z  ,
k  n 0 0 2 intensityy (avera
( gge
 P  S t  n  12 Re 
Next, we consider plane waves in a lossy dielectric, where the fields  power/unit area)
differ onlyy slightly g E, B are
g y from those in a lossless case dielectric ((e.g. Hence,  is the power attenuation constant given by
slightly out of phase). However, as a qualitative difference, the medium    P1 z P  2ki [ 2 Im  ]  used on p. 314.
absorbs the wave. So, our emphsis will be on the medium properties. 39 40
 III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

For the common case of weak attenuation, we let

 (Re
(R  ) and
d lloss tangent
t (t  l or   )
t (tan
  real ,      i  with     
1 of some materials at different frequencies
  
     1  i   2    1  i 2 

 k  Re   i Im      2i    (for real  and small  )
   k        (phase constant) reduces to the
 r 0 0 c expression on
  p. 311 when μ=μ0.
v       n (phase velocity)
1 c


 n  c   c    (index of refraction)
 v 0 0
    from Ramo,
Ramo Whinnery,
Whinnery and Van Duzer
Duzer, p.334.
p 334
  2ki  i        (power attenuation constant) (7.55)
   12  E0 e z ((intensity)
2  z 2
 P  2 Re  E0 e
1 y)

In (7.55),  (  tan l ) is commonly referred to as the loss tangent.


41 42

III. Properties of Plane Waves in III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
C
Case 2 Waves
2: W in
i a goodd conductor
d [Secs.
[S 5 18 andd 8.1,
5.18 8 1 applicable
li bl
to waves in metals under the condition ω<<0(~4´1013/s.
see p.
p 312),
312) i.e.
i e for very low frequency (e.g.
(e g 60 Hz) up to
A miraculous property of near terahertz frequencies]
water: Definition d t :
D fi iti off goodd conductor
The index of refraction (top) Ne2 fj Ne 2 f 0
  0    i (7 51)
(7.51)
and absorption coefficient m j (bound)  2j   2  i j m ( 0  i )
 
(bottom) for liquid water as a b 
 In general,  j  j , see p. 310.  
function of frequency in Hz  
 In general, Re( b )Im( b ) 
[Sec. 7.5 (Part E)]
 Ne 2 f 0
   b  i  (7.58) (7.56)
 m( 0  i )

43 44
 III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
  1), we
Fields in a good conductor: For a good conductor ( 
Up to low terahertz region, we have    0 b
( 0 is of the order of 4  1013 / s). Hence, 1 1
  ( b  i   
 )  (i  )  2 1  i 
i
1 1

2   When    0 ,   real 
have 2 2
i 2  (e 2 ) 2  1
1  i 
Ne 2 f Ne 2 f 2
  m ( i0 )   m 0  nem  and is independent of  . 
0 0 0
 ( n : free electron density)   k    2 1  i   1i (for forward wave) (5.164)
In    b  i /  [(7.56)],  /   Im( b ). So we may assume  b 2  : skin depth 
 1 where      is real by assumption. (5.165) and (8.8)
to be real. A good conductor is defined by:  (26)
b
 b   0  8.85  10 12 farad/m Let E0  E0e x , n  e z . Then, H 0    nE   e  E e   E e

0  z 0 x  0 y
Q i i  copper  5.9
Quantitative 5 9  10 7 / Ω m,  graphite
Ω-m 4
hi  6  10 / Ω
Ω-m
m   z i z t 
ik xit ikz it e
3 2
 E ( x, t )  E e  E e e  E e ex (27)
examples:  sea water  6 / Ω-m,  ground  10 -3.5  10 / Ω-m 0 0 x 0
 

 2 
 f    60 Hz for household current
0.3  300 GHz for microwaves
 H (x, t )  H 0eikxit   E0e y eikz it

  z i z t 
Question: Why is it dangerous if an electrical appliance falls into  2 1  i  E0e  e  ey (28)

your bath tub? 45 (27) and (28) are equivalent to (8.11) and (8.9). 46

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
Discussion :
  z i z t 
E ( x , )  e ex (27)
 t E0 e
(i) Rewrite 
H (x, t )   1  i  E e  ei  t e
z z
(28)
 2  0 y
 Inside the good conductor, the wave has a wavelength of
  2 and it damps by a factor of 1/ e over a distance of  .
(ii) E and H in a good conductor are 45o out of phase.
(iii) The fields in a good conductor are similar to those in a lossy
dielectric in that they both represent an attenuated plane wave
with k, E, H, mutually orthogonal. However, at the same
frequency, the wavelength is much shorter and the attenuation
constant much greater in the conductor than in the dielectric.
0 85 cm at f  60 H
0.85 Hz (h
(household
h ld current))
Examples:  copper   5 10
7  10 cm at f  10 Hz (microwave) 47 48
 III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

p : Let f  2  1010 Hz (typical

Examples ( yp microwave frequency)
q y) Hence,, we mayy approximately
pp y write the wave fields inside the
conductor as (27) and (28), i.e. E and H are parallel to the surface,
glass (   1,    4,    2.1104 )
0 0

copper   7 105 cm  even if the wave is incident at an oblique angle into the conductor.
  2  2  1.5 cm (Case 1.2)   2  4.4 104 cm Question: Does it make sense to use power lines of very large
  diameter (e.g.10 cm) in order to conduct higher
  2    8.8 104 cm-11 (7.55) d  2  4.5  103 cm -11
   P1 dP
dz 
current andd hence
h transmit
i more power??
(v) The 2 homogeneous Maxwell equations require that E and B
(iv) A wave incident from the outside into a good conductor (at any
b continuous
be i across the
h conductor
d surface.
f
incident angle) will propagate and attenuate inside the
E , H  (since   0, what happen to the surface current K?)
conductor approximately along the normal to the surface (see
Jackson Sec. 8.1). The reason is shown in the figure below. E (0 )  E (0 ) air
i conductor
d
   
x k x  1 E  1 H  (0 )  H  (0 )
air conductor  E x 
 


k z  E1 Ez  1  k x
z
0
 Wave propagates approximately along z. N : The
Note Th current density
d i in i a goodd conductor
d i finite
is fi i unless
l
z 49   0 (or   , i.e. the current flows on the surface). 50

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

Surface
f current K eff on a good
g conductor : Time - averaged power loss on the surface of a good conductor:
If   0, the "surface" current K eff is not exactly on the surface, dPloss power going into conductor
  S( z  0) t  e z
It is concentrated over a depth of  one skin depth. K eff (unit: A / m) da unit area of conductor surface St
is an integrated value of J (unit: A / m 2 ) over the penetration depth. 
 12 Re E( z  0)  H ( z  0)   e z  ez
1i z x (27), (28)
d   0 Eddz   E0e it 0 e  dz
   2
K eff  0 Jdz d e x Keff  12  E(0)  12
2  E (0) E(0)  e z  (30)
 2  2 

E  E0 e  e

 z i z t e (27)  1i   (12i )  (1i )
H  (27) (28)  E (0) 
(27), 

H (0) (31)
x 2  
z0
 it
 2  ((1  i ) E0e e x  e z  H ( z  0))  e z  H ( z  0)) ((29)) ( ) 
Sub. ((31)) into (30)
dPloss 1
2 
H (0)
( )
2  useful form to explain 
d
da 2 induction heating 
(29) here is (8.14) in Jackson; "  e z" in (29) is "n " in (8.14).  2 2
  14  H (0) (29)
(8.12)
(29) shows that the surface current Keff on a good conductor
2 2
depends only on the H|| on its surface. Physically, Keff is the  12 
1 H (0)  1 1 K
 (8.15)
2  eff
response of the conductor in order to shield its inside from H||
2 2
(Faraday’s law). Hence, Keff is determined entirely by H||. Note: If there is reflection, H (0)  H incident (0)  H reflected (0)
51 52
 III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

dPloss /da in ((8.12), ), obtained byy the Poynting

y g vector method,, can be Definitions
f : surface impedance
p Z s , surface resistance Rs , and
shown to be exactly the Ohmic power dissipated inside the conductor. surface reactance X s of metal
Presistive  ohmic power in the conductor/unit volume
  E (0)  Z s : ratio of 
 12 Re  J  E   12  E
2 Presistive (27  29)  K eff  (1  i )E (0)  E (0) 
2  1 i Z s  E (0) to K eff 
2z 2z
2  2  1 i
 12  E0 e  12  H 0 e (5.169) where Z s   Jackson p. 356, bottom  is called the surface

(27) (28) H0 = H||(z = 0)  Z s  Rs  iX s
2z impedance We may write 
impedance. 1 , (32)
dPloss  2 
 0 Presistive dz  12  H 0 0 e  dz  14  H 0
2 same as   where Rs  X s  
da (8.12) 
surface resistance surface reactance
Questions: 1. Why does a microwave oven save energy? Example: Rs of copper  0.026  at 10 GHz
2. How would you design an induction cooker? high  and 
The surface impe
impedance
dance Z s is an intrinsic property (rather than surface
property) of metal. It is in fact the impedance of a good conductor:
  1 i 1 i
Zs     .
 (metal)  1  i  2 
53 2  54

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)
Case 3: Waves at optical
p frequencies
q and beyond
y [Sec.
[ 7.5 (Part
( D)]
)]
Case 3.1:  >> 0 but < j for all or some of the bound electrons Let n  Nf 0 be the free electron density in the conductor
[a subcase of Sec. 7.5 (Part D), pp. 313-4, total reflection of (f 0  1, i.e. each atom in the conductor contains on average
light off the mirror and ultraviolet transparency of metals) approximately
i l one free
f electron,
l see p.312),
312) we obtain
b i from
f
2 fj Ne 2 f 0 (7.51)
   0  Ne   i (7 51)
(7.51) 2
m j (bound)  2j   2  i j m ( 0  i )    b  p2  0
      
b Ne2 f 0 where  p is the plasma frequency of the conduction electrons

 In general,  j  j , see p. 310.  m 2
  (   0 ) ne 2
  In general, Re( )Im( ) 
 b   2p  See bottom of p.313.
b
m *0
The free electron term is predominantly imaginary when  <<0.
and we have replaced m in (7.51) with the effective mass m * of
But, as shown above, when  >>0, it becomes predominantly real, the conduction electrons to account for the effects of binding
binding.
a qualitative departure from Case 2. This radically changes the For simplicity, we assume  b to be real by neglecting the weak
metal response to EM waves. Examples are given below and in damping
p g effects of bound electrons.
Case 3.2. Question: What is the physical reason for the free electron
term to become predominantly real when  >>0? 55 56
 III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)


E  E0e  k z it e x in (33) and H  i  E0e  k z it e y in (34) are
Sub.    b   2p 0 / 2 into k   , we obtain
evanescent fields which fall off exponentially inside the conductor.
 2p 0 They do not constitute a propagating wave. wave This is because E and
k   ( b  )
2 H are 90° out of phase. Hence, Re[E × H*] = 0  No power flow
Hence, k is either real (propagation without attenuation) or purely
Hence into the conductor. Thus, an incident wave will be totally reflected
imaginary (evanescent fields) depending on the wave frequency. from the conductor surface, with (33) and (34) representing the
shallow fringe fields inside the conductor. This is the principle of
  2p 0
When    0  p ,   0 and k  i  (   b )  i k . Then, “light reflection off the mirror”. By comparison, for microwave
b 2
reflection off a good conductor (Case 2), E and H are 45° out of
E  E0eikz it e x  E0e  k z it e x (33) phase in the conductor  Some power flows into the conductor.

  At higher frequencies (   0 /  b  p ),    b   2p 0 / 2  0.
H   e z  E  i  E0e  k z it e y (34)
 ence, k (  ) becomes real. The wave can then propagate
(24)    i  freely. This is the principle of “ultraviolet transparency of metals”.
Question: Why can the wave propagate without attenuation in
57 a conductor? (see discussion at the end of Case 3.2.) 58

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

3 2: >>j andd  >> j for

f allll electrons
l t in
i the
th medium
di 2
Sub.   1  p2 into k   and assume   0 , we obtain
C
Case 3.2
[a subcase of Sec. 7.5 (Part D), p. 313, applicable to X-ray 0 
1/ c 2

f
frequencies
i andd beyond]
b d] 2 2  2p 2
k    0 0 (1  2 )
Under the conditions  >>j (including 0) and  >>j, we may 
neglect j and j in (7.51),
(7 51) 2
  k c 2 2
  2p (7 61)
(7.61)
Ne 2 fj Ne 2 f 0 Although (7.61) predicts evanescent fields
  0    i (7 51)
(7.51)
for  < p, the validity of (7.61) requires 
m j (bound)  2j   2  i j m ( 0  i )
   >>j and   j for all the electrons in the
2
 NZe2 (use  f j  Z )
 
2 m medium.
di Thi in
This i  >>p. Hence,
i turn requires H
   1  p2 ,
j ( all )
(7.59) k is always real and the wave is always a
0 
propagating wavea e in the medium
medi m under
nder the p
where  2p  NZe
2  NZ is the density of all electrons  (7.60)
m 0 (bound and free) in the medium.  validity condition for (7.61). k
The above treatment for Case 3.2
3 2 applies to
59
both dielectric and conducting media. 60
 III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

Discussion: To examine the physical reason why we may neglect Case 4: Waves in plasmas [a subcase of Sec Sec. 77.5
5 (Part D),
D) p.
p 313]
collisions and binding forces in (7.51) under the conditions  >>j The plasma is a partially ionized (e.g. ionosphere) or fully
and  >>j, we ggo back to the equation
q of motion for the electrons: ionized (e.g.
(e g fusion plasmas) gas.
gas In general,
general effects of neutral
x   j x   2j x)  eE(x, t )
m( (7.49) gas (if present) and collisions can both be neglected. Ion motion
can also be neglected at sufficiently high frequencies. Then,
i E(x, t )  E(0)eit , we obtain
B assuming
By bt i [see
[ E (1)]
Eq.
2 fj Ne 2 f 0
e E(0)eit e i E(0)eit    0  Ne   i (7.51)
x(t )    x (t )  m 2 2
j (bound)  j    i j m ( 0  i )
m  2j   2  i j m  2j   2  i j
   
2

Ne f 0
Thus, when    j and  j , we have x(t )  1/ 2 and x (t ) negligible  ( 0 0)
m 2
 1/ . This implies that, for the same E(0), the collisional damping  2p same equation as (7.59) but 
force (m j x  1/  ) and the binding force (m 2j x  1/ 2 ) decrease    1   with a much smaller  p  (35)
0 2  
with increasing  and become negligible at a sufficiently large . where  p is the plasma frequency defined as
Exercise : Explain "m j x  1/  " and "m 2j x  1/ 2" qualitatively 2
 2p  nem  n  Nf 0  plasma electron density,
density normally 
from the simple case of constant acceleration a: v  at and x  12 at 2 . 0  much smaller than the density of solids.  (36)
61 62

III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued) III. Properties of Plane Waves in Dielectrics and Conductors (continued)

 2
Sub.   1  p2 into k   , we obtain Rewrite
R it  2  k 2c 2   2p (37)
0  For  < p , k is purely imaginary (k = i | k | ) and hence E and H
1/ c 2
2 are evanescent fields
fi ld given
i by
b (33) andd (34):
(34)
k 2   2  0 0 (1  p2 ) 2 (  0 for plasmas)
 
E  E0e  k z it e x ; H  i E e k z it e y
same equation as (7 61) but 
(7.61)  0
  2  k 2c 2   2p  (37)
 with a much smaller  2p  As in the case of light reflection off the mirror, an incident wave
 wave will be totallyy reflected [[Shortwave broadcastingg exploits
p the
(37) is the well known dispersion reflection of radio waves (~10 MHz) off the ionosphere].
relation for electromagnetic waves in a For  > p , k is real. Hence, the wave will propagate in the plasma,
plasma in the absence of an externally p but with a phase velocity greater than the speed of light [as can be seen
applied static magnetic field. (Sec. 7.6 k from (37)]. This implies that the plasma has an index of refraction (n)
considers
id theth dispersion
di i relation
l ti for
f a magnetized
ti d plasma.)
l ) When
Wh ω 2 
is extremely large (such as the gamma ray), all materials have a less than 1. From (35), we have   1  p2 < 1. Thus,
0 
dispersion relation given by (37) (Case 3.2).
3 2) But for the plasma,
plasma (37)
with   0 , we have n   < 1, as expected. p
is valid for all frequencies (e.g. MHz). 63
0 0 k 64
 7.3 Reflection and Refraction of Electromagnetic 7.3 Reflection and Refraction… (continued)

Waves at a Plane
a e Interface
te ace Between
etwee Dielectrics
e ect cs Kinematic Properties :
z E  E0e ik x it Boundary conditions for the fields at z  0 have the form:
Model:
k   E ik x ik y ik  x ik  y ik  x ik  y
ez B'     Xe x y  Ye x y  Ze x y at any x and y,
k
refracted wave (assumed) where X , Y , and Z are functions of the fields [see (7.37)]. Since
',' [n'  '' ]  
0 0 eik x x , eik x x , eik x x are linearly
li l independent,
i d d t we mustt have h k x  k x  k x .
 , [n   ] Otherwise, we will have the trivial condition X  Y  Z  0. For the
0 0

E  E0eik xit reason, k y  k y  k y . Hence

same reason Hence, k , k , and k  lie in the same plane.
plane
E  E0eik xit
k E k   E Without loss of generality, we choose a convenient coordinate
B   B  
k k  system in which k y  k y  k y  00. ThenThen, k , k , and k  all lie in the
incident wave (a given linearly reflected wave (assumed)
polarized homogeneous plane wave) x - z plane, which we call the plane of incidence.
 
Note : In Case 1.2 of Part III, n  cv  Re   . Here, n    .
0 0 0 0
Kinematic pproperties:
p relations between angles
g of incidence,,
reflection, and refraction
Dynamic properties: intensity, phase, and polarization relations 65 66

Reflection and Refraction… (continued)

Reflection and Refraction… (continued) z k
Dynamic Properties :
Assume  ,  ,  , and   (hence n and n) are all e nz
Information concerning the intensity , phase, and polarization is
k  k sin ie x  k cos ie z ',' [n'  '' ]
r
contained in the complex E0 , E0 , and E0 . The intensity, phase, and

real numbers. Let k   k sin r e x  k cos r e z
0 0
x
 polarization
l i ti off reflected
fl t d andd refract
f ted d waves with ith respectt to t those
th off
k   k  sin re  k  cos re  , [n  00 ]
 x z
k i
r
the incident wave can be obtained from the boundary conditions at z  0:
k
k     n c  1/ 0 0 ,   D continuous  [  E0  E0    E0 ]  e z  0 (39)
(16)   c
  

k       c n  n   / 0 0 , n     / 0 0   B continuous  [k  E0  k   E0  k   E0 ]  e z  0 (40)
 E continuous  [E  E  E ]  e  0 (41)
i  r  (angle of incidence  angle of reflection)   0 0 0 z
k x  k x  k x   sin i k  n  H  continuous  [ 1  k  E0  k   E0   1  k   E0 ]  e z  0 (42)
 sin r  k  n ((Snell's law)) ((7.36))   

A note on Jackson (7.33) : Note: (1) Here,  ,  ,  , and  (hence n and n) are in general
 
k 2  k 2 and k  k complex numbers (see first paragraph of Jackson, p. 306.) We
k 2  k  k  assume that  (or  ) is the generalized electric permittivity. Hence,
 2 *
 In general, k can be complex, but k is
 k  k  k always
y real and positive.
p the results derived below apply to any media (including metal).
 (2) For a complex n (or n), the phase velocity is the speed of light
Thus, Jackson's formula k  k in (7.33) is valid only when k is real.67
divided by Re[n]. [See lecture notes, the equation before (25)]. 68
 Reflection and Refraction… (continued) Reflection and Refraction… (continued)

C 1: E0  plane
 x 0 z
Case l off incidence
i id (the
(th x - z plane)
l ) (42)  1 k Ee  k z E0e x   e z  1  k x E0e z  k z E0e x   e z
z
k  k x e x  k z e z
  1  k x E0 e z  k z E0 e x   e z  0
k   k xe x  k z e z ez
k   k xe x  k z e z  1 k z  E0  E0   1 k z E0  0 k z  k cos i  c n cos i
 ,   k z  k  cos r  c n cos r
E0  E0e y ,  x
  n  E0  E0  cos i  n E0 cos r  0 (44)
E0  E0 e y
  E0 2n cos i
E0  E0e y E   2 2 2
(39) is automatically satisfied.  0 n cos i    n  n sin i
(43)  
(40)   k x E0e z  k z E0e x   e z   k x E0e z  k z E0e x   e z   (7.39)
(44)    n cos i   n2  n 2 sin 2 i
E0 
  k x E0 e z  k z E0 e x   e z  0    2 2 2
 E0  E0  E0  0 (43)  0 n cos i    n  n sin i
E

(41) also
l gives
i (43).
(43)
69 70

Reflection and Refraction… (continued) Reflection and Refraction… (continued)

For normal incidence (i  r  0), (7.39) reduces to
Case 2: E0  plane of incidence  0E 2 2n z
E  
z
k  k  sin ie x  cos ie z        n  n
  0 1    ez
k   k   sin
i re x  cos re z  ez (45) 
(47)
k   k   sin ie x  cos ie z   ,       ,  
 E0 1   
x
 ,  x n  n  , 
E0  E0   cos ie x  sin i ie z  E  
      n  n
reference
  0 1    polarization
E0  E0   cos re x  sin re z  (46) for (7.39)
E0  E0  cos ie x  sin
i ie z  and (7.41)
7 41) reduces to
 z
 E0 2 2n
 E    
Sub. (45) and (46) into (39)-(42) yields ez
    n  n
 E0 2nn cos i  0    1  ,  
E   2 2 2 2

 ,  x (7.42)
 0   n cos i  n n  n sin i  
  E0    1 n  n reference
f
  2 2 2 2
(7.41)  E    

   n  n polarization
 E0   n cos i  n n  n sin i 
0
   1 for ((7.41))
   2 2 2
 E0   n cos i  n n  n sin i
2 These two limiting results are identical and show that, if n  n,
71 72
there is a phase reversal of the reflected wave at the interface.
self-study Reflection and Refraction… (continued) self-study 7.3 Reflection and Refraction… (continued)
The results for normal incidence (i  r  0) can be expressed in terms Discussion: Sources of electromagnetic fields in dielectrics
of the impedance of the two media [The impedance of the medium is
defined on p. 297 and in the lecture notes following (7.11)]: The source-free macroscopic Maxwell equations [(7.1)] can be
 Z (lower medium)   converted into the microscopic form as follows:
 
z
    B  0
 Z  (upper medium)    ez
  B  0  B Jackson p.156
p 156 and
E   lecture notes Ch. 4
Thus, (7.39) reduces to  ,    B D   E  P t
 ,
x
  E     
 E0 2Z    
0
t  P 1
 E  Z   Z reference   D  0 1
 H  B M  
 E  
0
  pol J pol [lecture
0
0     notes, Ch. 4]
  polarization   H   D 0
 
 E0  Z   Z f (7.39)
for (7 39)   E P
 E0 Z   Z t   B  0 0  0   M  0
 t  t
If the lower medium is vacuum and the upper pp medium is copper,
pp , J M [(5.79)]
we have  Z  Z 0  376.7  [lecture notes following (7.11)]
Z   Z s  (0.026  i 0.026)  for copper at 10 GHz [(32)]
 0 0
E
t
 0 J M  0 J pol

Thus, E  / E0  1, i.e. almost all of the incident wave will be

reflected with a phase reversal of the reflected wave at the interface. 73 74

self-study 7.3 Reflection and Refraction… (continued) 7.4. Polarization by Reflection and Total
We see from the microscopic p Maxwell equations
q that,, upon
p action Internal Reflection
by the electromagnetic fields, bound electrons of atoms/molecules in a
Brewster's Angle i B : (for E0  plane of incidence)
dielectric ( ≠0,  ≠0) will produce polarization charge and current
densities (pol and Jpol) and magnetization current density (JM),  E0 2nn cos i
E 
 2 2 2 2
through which the dielectric will generate its own fields. In the  0   n cos i  n n  n sin i
macroscopic Maxwell equations, pol, Jpol, and JM are hidden in D and Re write   2 2 2 2 (7.41)
H, but the fields they generate will appear in the solutions. For  E0   n cos i  n n  n sin i
example,l as a wave is i incident
i id from f a vacuum into
i an  ≠0 medium,
di i
it E   2 2 2 2
 0   n cos i  n n  n sin i
will induce pol and Jpol (pol = 0 inside a uniform medium, whereas
Assume  ,  ,  , and   ((hence n and n) are all real numbers.
Jpol is
i always
l t) pol andd Jpol are the
present). th sources which
hi h generatet the
th
Let    . We see that, if i  iB , where iB satisfies
reflected wave and cause refraction of the transmitted wave.
Similarly in the case of a charged particle traveling in a dielectric
Similarly, n2 cos iB  n n2  n 2 sin 2 iB
medium at a speed greater than the speed of light in that medium, the then E0  0, i.e. there will be no reflected wave. Consequently, upon
poll and Jpoll induced by the fields of the charged particle will generate reflection
fl ti att theth incident
i id t angle l i  iB , waves with
ith mixed
i d polarization
l i ti
the Cherenkov radiation (treated in Jackson, Sec. 13.4). become linearly polarized with E0  plane of incidence.
75 76
 7.4. Polarization by Reflection and Total Internal Reflection (continued) 7.4. Polarization by Reflection and Total Internal Reflection (continued)

Total Internal Reflection: (occurs only when n  n)

Assume  ,  ,  , and   (hence n and n) are all real and n  n.
Calculation of iB :
k  k sin ie x  k cos ie z z k
Let 
Rewrite n2 cos iB  n n2  n 2 sin 2 iB k   k  sin r e x  k  cos r e z
n


 n4 cos 2 iB  n 2 n2  n 2 sin 2 iB  Snell's law,, sin i
sin r
 n [(
n [(7.36)],
)], can  ,  ,,n 
r
x
 ,  ,n
 
 n4 1  sin 2 iB  n 2 n2  n 4 sin 2 iB be written: sin r  sin
sin i0
i , i
k i
 
 n 4  n4 sin 2 iB  n2 n 2  n2   where i0  sin 1 nn [  90o ,  n  n].
k 

Thus,, if i  i , we have See p. 27

n2 0
 sin 2 iB 
n 2  n2 sin r  sin i  1  cos r  [1
 sin
 
2 1/2 sin i 2 1/2
r ]  i[( sin i0 )  1]
sin i0
n n 0
 tan iB  iB (7.43)  The propagation factor (eik x ) of the refracted wave behaves as
n
n  k [( sin i )2 1]1/2 sin i x
z ik sin
ik  x ik ( x sin
i r  z cos r )
e e  e sin
i i0
e i i0 (7.46)
77 surface wave 78

self-study7.4. Polarization by Reflection and Total Internal Reflection (continued) self-study 7.4. Polarization by Reflection and Total Internal Reflection (continued)

Wave vector and fields of the refracted wave: g vector : ((Consider E0  pplane of incidence as an example)
Poynting
y p )

Rewrite (7.46): e ik x

e
 k [( sin i )2 1]1/2 z ik  sin i x
e sin i0 sin i0   

Rewrite (20): S t  21 Re 1 k  E0  E0 (k   E0 )  ei (kk )x
2


We see that k  (of the refracted wave) may be expressed as k   k x e x  ik z e z  ei (kk )x
 e2k z z (52)
k   k x e x  ik z e z (48)
E0  E0 x e x  iE0 z e z  k   E0
 k x E0 x  k z E0 z  2k x E0 x ((53))
sin i , k   k [( sin i ) 2  1]1/2 and both k  and k  are real
where k x  k  sin i 0
z sin i 0
x z Sub. (52), (53), k   k x e x  ik z e z , and E0  E0 xe x  iE0 z e z into (20)
and ppositive quantities
q y the incident angle
determined by g i. Note that 2 2
 E0 x + E0 z
2 2 2
=k z E0 z /k x [from (50)]
(48) satisfies (16), i.e. k   k   k x2  k z2
 k      . 2 2  
1 [k  E 2  2k  E  2 ]e 2 k z z e  k x [ E  2  E  2 ]e 2 k z z e
S t  2
Consider the case with E0  plane of incidence and write  x 0 x 0x x 2  0 z 0x x
2
E0  E0 x e x  iE0 z e z (49) k x
 2  2 k z  2 2 k z z e x  1 E0 z 2 (k x2  k z2 )e2k z z e x
 [ E0 z  k x2 E0 z ]e 2 k x  
k   E0  0 [(17)]  k x E0 x  E0 z k z  0 (50)
 k 2
 k 2
 2 k  E0 z e  2 2 k z z  
  2 2 k z z
e x  2k  E0 z e ex (54)
Then,  k   E0  k  E  k  E
B0     k  [( )]  B0  i x 0 z z 0 x e y
[(19)] ((51)) x x
 Power flows along the x-direction. There is no power flowing from
(48)-(51) give the surface wave solution discussed earlier in (21). 79 the z  0 region into the z  0 region  total reflection as expected. 80
7.8 Superposition of Waves in One Dimension; Group Velocity 7.8 Superposition of Waves in One Dimension; Group Velocity (continued)

Superposition of 2 Waves: Consider 2 waves (Fig 1) c os(1t  k1 x)

(Fig. 1), The above qualitative picture can be analyzed as follows.
follows
and co s(2t  k2 x), in a dispersive medium characterized by    ( k ). cos(1t  k1 x)  cos(2t  k2 x)
 
Assume 1  2 and k1  k2 , then k1  k 2 gives the approximate 1 2 k k   k k
1 2  2 cos( 2
t  1 2 2 x) cos( 1 2 2 t  1 2 2 x) constructive destructive
phase velocity (v ph ) of the superposed wave (Fig.2). The difference in  vg interference  interference
  k k
 2 cos( 1 2 2 t  1 2 2 x) cos(t  kx) , 
wavelengths results in alternating regions of constructive/destructive   
 
interferences, or spatial modulations of the superposed wave (Fig. 2). (A) (B) 
v
1 2 k1  k2
ph
Fig. 2
In addition,, because of the difference in p
phase velocities,, regions
g of where   2   1  2  and k  2   k1  k2  .
constructive interference, which carry the field energy, will be at
Factor (A) is the envelope function of the modulated wave (Fig. 2),
different positions at different times, moving at the group velocity (vg ).
which divides the wave into packets
packets, each propagating at the speed
cos(1t  k1 x )  1 2
Fig. 1 2 1  2 d
cos(2t  k2 x )  vg  k1  k2
  (group
(g p velocity)
y)
k1  k2 dk
constructive destructive 2
 vg interference  interference Factor (B) gives the phase speed of the wave within each packet,
cos(1t  k1 x )
 cos(2t  k2 x )


v

ph

Fig. 2
81
v ph 

k
(phase velocity)
82

7.8 Superposition of Waves in One Dimension; Group Velocity (continued)

7.8 Superposition of Waves in One Dimension; Group Velocity (continued)
Superposition of an Infinite Number of Waves: When an
Discussion :
infinite number of waves (centered around 0, k0 with a spread k,
see Fig. 4) are superposed, interferences can result in cancellation (i) The pulse shape give by (7.85) is undistorted in time. However, if
2
everywhere
h exceptt for
f a region l th x
i off length  (Fig.
(Fi 3),3) where
h th
the (e g d 2 ) are included in the expansion of  (k )
high order terms (e.g.
dk
waves are constructively superposed into a wave packet. [(7.83)], the pulse will broaden with time.
dv 2
Reason: vg  vg (k )  vg  dkg k  d 2 k
n dk
k    r  r 0 0  2

 If 2  0,, there is a spread
d p in vg
c dk
 c
Phase velocity: v p   (7.88)
k n 
d c
Group velocity: vg   (7.89) (ii) k x  12  A shorter wave packet has a greater spread in k (and
dk n   (dn d  )
vg ). Hence, it broadens faster than a longer pluse.
L dkL d
Group delay:  g    2
(iii) Wave packets in vacuum remain undistorted (  kc  d 2  0).
vg d d dk
Can a wave packet propagate at the group velocity faster than The following section gives a more rigorous treatment of the wave
the speed of light? 83 packet including pulse broadening. 84
 7.9 Illustration of the Spreading of a Pulse as It 7.9 Illustration of the Spreading of a Pulse… (continued)
Propagates in a Dispersive Medium
u ( x, 0)  1 1   A(k )eikx dk  1 1   A *(k )eikx dk
Rigorously, the real quantity u ( x, t ), which we expressed in (7.80)  2 2  2 2 
    ikx
1  A(k )eikx i ( k )t dk , should  t u ( x, 0)  12 21  i (k ) A(k )e dk  12 21  i (k ) A (k )e dk
ikx
as 
2 
h ld be
b written*:
i *
u ( x, t )  12 1 
 A(k )eikx i ( k )t dk  c.c. (7.90)   e ik xu ( x, 0)dx  12
 1   A(k )ei ( k k ) x dkdx
2  2  
Assume (i)  , k are both real, i.e. no dissipation.
 12 1   A *(k )ei ( k  k ) x dkdx
isotropic hence  ( k )   (k ).
(ii) The medium is isotropic,
1   ixy
 e dx   ( y ) 2  
2 
 u ( x, t )  12 1
2

 A(k )e
ikx i ( k )t
dk  12 1 

2 
A *(k )e ikx i ( k )t dk  2
2  A(k )  A *(k ) (56)
 ik x 
 u ( x, t )  1 1 
 i (k ) A(k )e
ik i ( k )t
ikx
dk  e u ( x, 0)dx  2 [i (k ) A(k )  i  ( k ) A (  k )] (57)
t 2 2 t 2 
 ( k )
 12 1  i ( k ) A *(( k )e ikx i ( k )t dk

2  (56)  i 1(k ) (57) by assumption (ii)
*Note: In (7.90), A(k ) is not the Fourier transform of u ( x, t ). Hence,
 A(k )  1  e ikx u ( x, 0)  i  u ( x, 0)  dx
th "real
the " lity diti " A(k )  A *( k ) [see
t condition" [ Sec.
S 2.82 8 off llectu
t re 2    ( k ) t 
(7 91)
(7.91)
notes] is not applicable. 85 86

7.9 Illustration of the Spreading of a Pulse… (continued) 7.9 Illustration of the Spreading of a Pulse… (continued)

1 1  ikx i ( k )t
  u ( x, t )   A(k )e dk  c.c.
x2 2 2
 u ( x , 0)  exp (  2
) cos k0 x  (7.92)
2 initial conditions L2 L2 a 2k 2
 L  L   ( k  k0 ) 2
 ( k  k0 ) 2
ikx i t (1 )
   Re  [e 2 e 2 ]e 2 dk
Example :  u ( x, 0)  0 (7.93) 2 2
 t dvg d 2
 a2k 2   a2  0  1 ( x   a 2 k0t ) 2 a 2 k02 
 ( k )   [1  ] dk dk 2 (7.95)  exp[  ]  exp[ik 0 x  i (1  )t ]
2  Expect spreading of pulse. 1  (1  ia 2 t ) 12 2 L2
(1  ia 2 t ) 2 
 Re  2 L 2  ((7.98))
1  ikx i  2  L
 a wave packet propagating forward 
 A(k )   e [u ( x, 0)  u ( x, 0)]dx  (k0   k0 )  a wave packet propagating backward 
2  (k ) t
1  ikx  x 2 /2 L2
  e e cos k0 xdx where L is a function
2 
of t given by (7
(7.99):
99):
L L2 L2 2  1
 exp[( )  k  k0  ]  exp[( )  k  k0  ]
2 2
(7.94) L(t )  [ L2  ( a L t ) 2 ]2
2 2 2 
87 88
 Superluminal Effect Experimental results

89 90

Homework of Chap. 7

Problems: 2, 3, 4, 6, 13,
14, 19, 20, 21, 28

Optional: 1,
1 22
22, 23
23, 27,
27

91