WEEK 16

True north (also called geodetic north) is the direction along Earth's surface towards the
geographic North Pole or True North Pole.
Magnetic north is the direction that a compass needle points to as it aligns with the Earth’s
magnetic field.
Compass North is the direction in which a compass needle points.

Compass Variation and Deviation

All information on a chart, including your own plotting, is related to TRUE North.

Thus all bearings on a chart are related to TRUE NORTH. Compasses point to MAGNETIC
NORTH, which varies from True North by an error called VARIATION.

Compasses also are subject to their own errors; this is called DEVIATION.

COMPASS BEARING = TRUE BEARING +/- MAGNETIC VARIATION +/- COMPASS

DEVIATION

Magnetic Variation is due to the differing positions of the Geographic North Pole and the
Magnetic North Pole. The boat's compass and a hand bearing compass point to the Magnetic
Pole, but all bearings on charts are related to the Geographic Pole (True North).

Around UK coasts variation is around 4° West to 7° West. In other parts of the world it can reach
more than 50° (East or West). Because the Magnetic North Pole moves, the variation changes
from year to year. The compass rose on the chart gives the annual change, around 7’ East per year
around the UK.

(For an 1870 version of Variation at 18° , see Chart of 1870 )

We therefore have to convert our True bearings into Magnetic and vice versa.
The simple way to remember is that whenever the Variation is West, the Magnetic bearing will be
greater than True (see diagram above), ie you have to add Variation to True bearing to get
Magnetic (or subtract Variation from Magnetic to get True).

“Variation West, Magnetic Best”

“Variation East, Magnetic Least”

If you use a plotter correctly (see conventions ) it will do the sums for you.

Deviation

Compass Compensation - a good article

Boats themselves can also affect compasses due to their construction, steel engines, keel, ferro-
magnetism, electromagnetism, (loudspeakers, mobile phones, hand held VHF) and deck cargo on
large ships. This effect is called Deviation, and will vary with the heading of the boat. You can
plot a graph of the effect of change in boat heading on the Deviation, this is called a Deviation
Curve. Deviation can be measured by ‘swinging the compass’, that is, checking the compass
reading when the boat is on a known heading, round a 360° series of headings, and plotting the
resultant errors. You can then read off Deviation and apply this to the boat's compass heading to
get a Magnetic course, or vice versa, apply it to a Magnetic heading to obtain a Compass Course

Compass adjustment - Compass Deviation Card

ERROR

degree
s

HEADING OF BOAT

On commercial vessels it is so important that checks are carried out on every watch:

“The standard compass error is determined at least once per watch and, when possible, after any
major alteration of course; the standard and gyro compasses are frequently compared, and
repeaters are synchronised with the master compass.”

There is an example of a Deviation curve at the back of your RYA Training Almanac. You need to
be aware of deviation and its causes.

Swinging the Compass

1) Locate two transit objects (objects in line) and determine their true bearing on the chart
(2) Secure the boat at anchor so that these transits are exactly aligned. Swing the boat's head until
it is pointing due north.
(3) Read off the transit bearing on the compass and apply the variation.
(4) The difference between this result and the true transit bearing is the deviation on this heading.
If the true bearing is greater, the deviation is named east; if it is the lesser, the deviation is named
west.
(5) Repeat the procedure taking transit bearings on each of the cardinal points.
(6) From the results, make up a deviation card

Further errors are caused by boat heel, and the difficulty of reading when on a moving platform.
An electronic compass can be set up to remove the effect of deviation, but it is still a magnetic
compass.

Hand bearing compasses usually show very small deviation effects which can be ignored if you use
them away from a magnetic area.

Deviation can also be East or West, but the same logic applies:

“Deviation West, Compass Best"

“Deviation East, Compass Least"

Summary and Examples

Examples:

True bearing = 273° (T)

Var = 5° W
Magnetic bearing = 278° (M)
True bearing = 008° (T)
Var = 13° E
Magnetic bearing = 355° (M)

Magnetic bearing = 273° (M)

Var = 7° W
True bearing = 266° (T)

Compass bearing = 177° (C)

Deviation = 5° E
Magnetic bearing = 182° (M)

More variation and deviation examples: complete the table below:

True Variation Magnetic Deviation Compass

1 114 4W 5E

2 7W 309 314

3 050 6E 044

4 2E 248 2W

5 156 148 5E

6 358 9W 010

7 004 358 4W

8 6W 3E 191

Answers

True Variation Magnetic Deviation Compass

1 114 4W 118 5E 113

2 302 7W 309 5W 314

 3 050 6E 044 0 044

4 250 2E 248 2W 250

5 156 8E 148 5E 143

6 358 9W 007 3W 010

7 004 6E 358 4W 002

8 188 6W 194 3E 191

Converting a compass course into a true course and the other way around
Use this mnemonic to remember the formula to convert a compass course into a true course or the
other way around:
True virgins make dull company.
TVMDC: True, Variation, Magnetic, Deviation, Compass
Put this calculation one under the other, so vertical, like here under, and no matter what... leave
the compass course on top:
CC compass course
DEV Deviation +
MC magnetic course
VAR Variation +
TC true course
Fill in as much as possible and calculate what is missing.

Converting a true course into a compass course

CC ?
DEV -2+
MC 98
Ask yourself “What plus -2 is 98?
Answer = 100
The courses and bearings laid on a chart are true, but we steer courses and take bearings using a
compass.
The compass used in small vessels is more commonly a magnetic compass, although some may be
fitted with a gyro compass.
It is suggested that this section be read in conjunction with Learning Outcome 7 on magnetic
compass and azimuth circle.
Firstly, we will deal with the magnetic compass and the errors involved.
The difference between direction as measured by the compass and the true direction as measured
on the chart is termed compass error, stated differently: - It is the angular difference between true
north and compass north. It is named east or west to indicate the side of true north on which the
compass north lies.

The Compass Error is a

combination of two
separate and distinct
components, namely
variation and deviation.
Variation
When influenced only by the
earth’s magnetic field, a
compass needle will point
towards the earth’s north
magnetic pole. This pole is located somewhere to the north of Canada and is slowly moving.
Examination of a globe will show that from a position on the East Coast of Australia the compass
will point in a direction to the east of true north. This is magnetic north, and the angle between it
and true north is called variation. In our case variation is east.
To find the value of variation for any position simply consult the nearest compass rose on a marine
chart. The variation will be given for a specified year, together with the rate of change, allowing
calculation of variation for any subsequent year. See appendix for variation chart of the world.
Example
Chart Aus 823 gives the following information on the compass rose to the south of St Bees Island:
Mag Var 8°40’E (1979) Increasing about 2’ annually.
In 1997 the variation will have increased by 2’ each year for 18 years, a total of 36. Adding this to
8°40’ we find that the variation for 1997 is 9°16’E.
Now we will consider Deviation.
Deviation
In the unlikely event that a vessel is constructed entirely from non magnetic materials and has no
electronics close to the compass, variation is the only error which will need to be accounted for.
In all other cases the vessel and/or its equipment will create magnetic fields of their own. Some of
these will be built into the vessel on the slip, others will change as the vessel moves around within
the influence of the earth’s magnetic field.
The compass adjuster is usually able to reduce the effect of the vessel’s magnetic fields, but the
causes are so complex that it is inevitable that some effects remain. For the ship’s compass to
work at all the effect of the ship’s magnetism must be less that the force of the earth’s magnetic
field.
To illustrate the effect of the vessel’s own magnetic field, imagine a vessel on which the compass
needle is attracted towards the stern. When that vessel is heading towards magnetic north the
effect of the pull towards the stern is to reduce the directive force at the compass but not to deflect
it from magnetic north. As the vessel turns onto easterly headings the compass needle is
deflected towards the stern i.e. towards west. When the vessel heads west the compass needle is
deflected to the east. There will be no deflection when the vessel heads south, but an increase in
directive force.
This deflection of the compass away from magnetic north is called deviation. As with variation it
is named East or West and the value will change according to the ship’s heading. A deviation card
is produced by the compass adjuster when the vessel is first commissioned and at intervals
throughout its life. It is displayed close to the compass position. An example of a deviation card
can be found on Page 78.
The relationship between compass, magnetic and true courses and bearings is shown in the
following diagram.

Rules for applying Variation and Deviation.

To avoid drawing diagrams every time variation and deviation are applied, a number of memory
aids have been developed to clarify the rules of application:
Television Makes Dull Company (T V M D C) reminds us that to true we must apply the variation
to find magnetic, and to this we apply deviation to arrive at compass (course or bearing).
If we start with a compass bearing and wish to convert it to true so that it can be used on the chart
the order of operation is reversed (C D M V T).
Having decided the correct order in which to apply variation and deviation, we need to know
whether the correction should be added or subtracted. This may be decided using the word:
CADET
This simply indicates that to get from compass to true (the end points) we Add East.
Given that we add east (deviation or variation) it follows that we must subtract west (deviation or
variation).
It also follows that if we add east to get from compass to true, we should add west when going
from true to compass.
A simple layout for applying these rules is shown on the next page.
Compass Error
If we expect to take several bearings whilst steering the one steady course it makes good sense to
arrive at a single correction to apply to all those bearings. Remembering that the variation
remains effectively the same whilst operating in one area, and that deviation only changes when
we change course, we can find the compass error for the course being steered and apply that to all
bearings taken whilst on that course.
Example:
We are steering 076°(C). The deviation from the deviation card for 076° is 3°W and the variation
from the chart is 11°E. The compass error (combined variation and deviation) is therefore 8°E.
Since we are converting compass bearings to true we add East (CADET).
Therefore whilst steering 076°(C) add 8° to any compass bearing to convert it to true.
Simple layout for applying variation and deviation.
(Deviation is taken from the deviation table at the end of this section.)
1. Changing from compass to true.
Compass Course 215° (C)
Deviation 6° W (in this case between 210 and 220)
Magnetic Course 209° (M) (add E so subtract W)
Variation 11° E (from chart)
True course 220° (T) (add E)
2. Changing from true to compass
True Course 220° (T)
Variation - 11° E (from chart)
Magnetic Course 209° (M) (from T to C subtract E)
Deviation + 5° W (from table for 210)
Compass course 214.5 ° (C) (add W)
For most practical purposes this compass course is sufficiently accurate, but to be strictly correct
we should re-enter the deviation table with a Compass Course of 214°, rather than the magnetic
course of 209°. In this case deviation would be 6°W and the total working as follows:-
True Course 220° (T)
Variation 11° E
Magnetic Course 209° (M)
Deviation 5.5° W ( Deviation (2) 6° W)
Compass Course 215° (C) 214.5 (C) Compass Course
The difference is rarely likely to be great, but beware a deviation card which indicates rapid
changes in deviation.
When working with bearings the same lay-out is followed but remember that the deviation table
is entered with Ship’s Head, Not Bearing.
The Gyro Compass
Although it is popularly believed that the gyro compass indicates true North, this is not
necessarily the case.
The gyro is subject to course, speed and latitude errors. These are kept to the minimum by input
corrections.
The gyro error is rarely more than one or two degrees for a correctly maintained gyro.
To avoid confusion with magnetic errors, gyro error is named high (H) or low (L).
Gyro error is named high when the gyro course or bearing is higher than the true course or
bearing. Therefore high error must be subtracted from the gyro reading to obtain the true
reading. The opposite applies to low error.
Example
Gyro error is known to be 2° high. The true course to be steered is 076°. What is the gyro course?
True Course 076°
Gyro error 2° H
Gyro Course 078°
A bearing taken with the same gyro gives 246° (G). What is the true bearing?
Gyro bearing 246°
Gyro error 2° H
True bearing 244°
Measuring Compass error by Transit Bearings
When two well charted objects are in transit a compass bearing is taken.
The true bearing is taken from the chart using parallel rulers.
Comparison of the compass bearing and the true bearing gives the compass error.
A transit bearing when two or more objects lie on the same line, as in
Figure 2.17.
If the deviation is required it is calculated by applying the charted variation to the compass
error.Try checking the compass error using an azimuth circle on your compass and a Transit
Bearing. A more difficult one is using a pelorus for a Relative Bearing, then converting this to a
Compass Bearing.
Ask the Master to show you. Then practice.
Example:
In this case a bearing has been taken of “Leading Lts 045“
True Bearing 045
Compass Bearing 048
Compass Error 3 W
Variation 11 E
 therefore Deviation 8 E

Figure 2.17: Compass Error by Transit using a Azimuth Circle.

In the second method you require to know your exact position, this can be obtained by :-
A. Corrected G.P.S.
B. Ranges from radar
C. Ranges from Vertical Sextant Angles
The object should be on the chart and well distanced from the vessel.

Compass Error

If we expect to take several bearings whilst steering the one steady course it makes good sense to
arrive at a single correction to apply to all those bearings. Remembering that the variation
remains effectively the same whilst operating in one area, and that deviation only changes when
we change course, we can find the compass error for the course being steered and apply that to all
bearings taken whilst on that course.
Example:
We are steering 076(C). The deviation from the deviation card for 076 is 3W and the variation
from the chart is 11E. The compass error (combined variation and deviation) is therefore 8E.
Since we are converting compass bearings to true we add East (CADET).
Therefore whilst steering 076(C) add 8 to any compass bearing to convert it to true.

Simple layout for applying variation and deviation.

(Deviation is taken from the deviation table at the end of this section.)

1. Changing from compass to true.

Compass Course 215 (C)

Deviation 6 W (in this case between 210 and 220)

Magnetic Course 209 (M) (add E so subtract W)

Variation 11 E (from chart)

True course 220 (T) (add E)

2. Changing from true to compass

True Course 220 (T)

Variation - 11 E (from chart)

Magnetic Course 209 (M) (from T to C subtract E)

Deviation + 5 W (from table for 210)

Compass course 214.5  (C) (add W)

For most practical purposes this compass course is sufficiently accurate, but to be strictly correct
we should re-enter the deviation table with a Compass Course of 214, rather than the magnetic
course of 209. In this case deviation would be 6W and the total working as follows:-

True Course 220 (T)

Variation 11 E

Magnetic Course 209 (M)

Deviation 5.5 W ( Deviation (2) 6 W)

Compass Course 215 (C) 214.5 (C) Compass Course

WEEK 17
Checking for Compass error
Without terrestrial features a practical way for a navigator to check the accuracy of the ships
steering compass is to compare its bearing of a heavenly body with that predicted. The predicted
position of GHA and Declination of heavenly bodies are tabulated in Nautical Almanacs. The
most accurate bearings can be observed from sun on rising and on setting. Due to refraction in the
earth’s atmosphere the moment of sunrise and sunset is actually when the sun is half a diameter
above the horizon, this normally being the tabulated time.

Bearings used by coastal navigators are measured from North in a clockwise fashion through 360º
back to North – not so the tabulated quadrant notation of azimuths or amplitudes.

Azimuths are tabulated from North or South towards East or West, i.e.:
N 20 ºE = 020º N 20 ºW = 340º S 20 ºE = 160º S 20 ºW = 200º

Amplitudes are tabulated from East or West towards North or South, i.e.:
E 20 ºN = 060º E 20 ºS = 110º W 20 ºN = 290º W 20 ºS = 250º

The symbols AZI and AMP may help to memorise the different reference points of azimuths or
amplitudes, being oriented as from the heavy lines of Z or M.

Three methods commonly used to find compass error from the sun:

1. a scientific calculator, or
2. azimuth or amplitude tables and form, or
3. the ABC tables and form.

In all three methods the time, the ship’s approximate position, the local variation and ship’s
compass bearing of a rising or setting sun must be known. The time of the risings or settings in
local time (at the ship’s longitude) is tabulated in the current Nautical Almanac. The ship’s Mean
Time of the observation must be converted into Universal Time (UT) so the sun’s declination can
be extracted from the tables for method 1 & 2, and the sun’s declination and GHA can be extracted
from the tables for method 3.
Finding time of Sunrise or Sunset, Declination and GHA
Nautical almanacs and online sources publish annual details of celestial positions. Follow the
steps below to use the Nautical Almanac:
 In the Nautical Almanac select the required date’s Three Day page. In the right corner
select the sunrise/sunset column and match the observer’s latitude with the local time of
sunset/sunrise.

 Interpolate your latitude if not listed. Example - Find sunrise on 2/1/11 in position 59º 30’N
& 150º 45’E.
Tabulated range is N58º- 08:45 & N60º - 09:02.
The difference in time is 08:45 - 09:02 = +00:17.
The difference in latitude is N58º - N60º = N2º = +120’.0.
The correction is time range ÷ latitude range x difference in latitude, eg: (17 ÷ 120) x 90 =
+12’.7. Time of local sunrise = 08:45 + 12’.7 = 08:57’.7

 In the Almanac select the Conversion of Arc to Time page. Match the observers Longitude
in degrees + additional minutes. Example - if in position 150º 45’ E the tabulated time is 10
hrs + 3min.

 Convert the tabulated local time of sunrise/sunset to UT. If your Longitude East then
subtract, if longitude West then add. Remember the sun event is either earlier (East) than
that experienced at Greenwich or later (West) than that at Greenwich. Example:
08:58’ local sunrise – 10:03hr position east = 22:55 UT on 1/1/11

 Go back to Almanac’s Three Day page and on the left hand SUN column match the UT
time with the tabulated declination. At the page bottom is the ‘d’ correction of the
declination changes per hour. On 1/1/11 at 22:00 UT a declination of S22º 58’.2 is tabulated
with a ‘d’ correction of 0’.2 per hour. To interpolate for 00:55:
(0.2 ÷ 60’) x 55 = 0.18 so declination = S22º 58’.2 – 0’.18 = S22º 58’.02

 For ABC azimuth tables the GHA & LHA are required. In the Three Day page SUN column
match the UT time with the tabulated GHA. Enter the Almanac’s Increments and
Corrections for the average of additional minutes of UT or interpolate from the GHA rate of
change over one hour. On 1/1/11 at 22:00 UT a GHA of 149º 05’.6 is tabulated and at 23:00
UT 164º 05’.3 is tabulated. To interpolate for 00:55:
164º 05’.3 - 149º 05’.6 = 14º 59’.7 (say 15º ÷ 60) x 55 = 13.75º = 13º 45’
149º 05’.6 + 13º 45’ = GHA 162º 50’.6

 The LHA is the angle between the observer’s zenith (longitude) measured westward to the
heavenly body’s GHA. To calculate LHA, if the observer’s longitude is East it is added to the
GHA, if West it is subtracted from the GHA. 162º 50’.6 + 150º 45’ E = LHA 313º 35’.6.
1. Scientific calculator method:
Example - find the amplitude for sunrise with a tabulated Declination of 22º 30’S in Latitude of
33º 45’S. Convert the degree/minutes to degrees/decimals and enter the formula Sin Amp=Sin
Dec ÷ Cos Lat. Enter
the quantities to calculate Sin Amp; covert this to Amp using the invert sine key pads. Calculator
key pads differ, but a common system is shown below.

22.5 33.7
Sin ÷ Cos = Inv Sin = 27.4
0 5

Next covert Amp to 360º notation, East if rising, West if setting and named as the declination, in
the case above, E 27.4º S or 117.4º T then compare with ships compass for error.
Follow the worked example A1 below, then try the questions A2 and A3.

2. Azimuths or amplitudes tables and form

After finding time of sunrise/sunset and declination from a current Nautical Almanac use nautical
tables (Nories or Burtons) as per their instructions in the Explanation of the Tables. (click on link
to see table extracts):

Follow the worked example A1 below, then try the questions A2 and A3.

3. The ABC tables and form.

After finding time of sunrise/sunset, declination and GHA from the current Nautical Almanac
calculate the LHA. Then use nautical tables (Nories or Burtons) as their instructions in
the Explanation of the Tables.
(click on link to see tables):

Follow the worked example B1 below, then try the questions B2 and B3.

Worked Examples

Required:
Time, approx lat & long, variation and ship’s bearing of sun on rising or setting
Nautical Almanac of the sun’s GHA and Declination
Nautical (Navigational) Tables – Nories, Burtons, etc
Azimuth or Amplitude form
ABC form
Amplitude tables (example only)
Traverse tables (example only)

Example A1 using the Azimuth/Amplitude form or calculator:

At sunrise on 11th January 2011 in latitude 45° 00’S
and longitude 75° 30’E
the sun was observed (half a diameter over the horizon) to bear 110° C
Find the time of sunrise, true amplitude and deviation if variation = 9° E
(Determine declination to nearest 1°)

From Almanac

Date…11/1/11.......…Heavenly body …Sun……Compass bearing…110° (C)

Latitude….45° 00’............ (N) (S) ....... Longitude………75° 30’..…(E) (W)

Average local time of rising (E) or setting (W)…..04h 27m …...

Time correction (if required to < 1 degree)

Time difference from UT (-E) or (+W) -5h 00m hours

Time difference from UT (-E) or (+W) -0h 02m mins

-05h 02m hours & mins

UT (GMT) (04h 27m -05h 02m) Date 10/1/12 23h 25m hours & mins

UT tabulated Declination (hours) S21° 53.70m hours

d correction (minutes) + or - 0.4 x 25’/60 = 0.17m mins

Heavenly body declination at chosen long. S21° 53.53m (N) or (S)

From amplitude or azimuth tables

Enter with declination and latitude (apply same name as declination)

Tabulated/calc. Amplitude (E) (W) E 32°S (N) (S)

or Azimuth (N) (S) S 58°E (E) (W)
(T) True Azimuth 90 + E 32°S = 122°T (Amplitude tables)
180 - S 58°E = 122°T (Azimuth tables)

(T) True bearing 122°T

W+ (V) Variation 9°E
(M) Magnetic 113°M
E- (D) Deviation 3°E
(C) Compass 110°C

From calculator
Sin Amp=Sin Dec ÷ Cos Lat= 0.5272 Amp = 31.82 = E 31° 49’ S = 121.8°T

Question A2 using the Azimuth/Amplitude form or calculator:

At sunset on 12th January 2011 in latitude 60° 00’N
and longitude 20° 25’W
the sun was observed (half a diameter over the horizon) to bear 327.5° C
Find the time of sunset, true amplitude and deviation if variation=10° W
(Determine declination to nearest 1°)

From Almanac

Date……………Heavenly body ……………Compass bearing…….…….(C)

Latitude………………..…(N) (S) Longitude……………………...…(E) (W)

Average local time of rising (E) or setting (W)……..……………...

Time correction (if required to < 1 degree)

Time difference from UT (-E) or (+W) ……..……………... hours

Time difference from UT (-E) or (+W) _______________ mins

_______________ hours & mins

UT (GMT) (Local +/- Long) Date ________ _______________ hours & mins
UT tabulated declination (hours) ……..……………... hours
d correction (minutes) + or - _______________ mins

Heavenly body declination at chosen long. _______________ (N) or (S)

From amplitude/azimuth tables or calculator

Enter with declination and latitude (apply same name as declination)

Tabulated/calc. Amplitude (E) (W..................................(N) (S)

or Azimuth (N) (S)..................................(E) (W)

(T) True Azimuth …………………

(T) True bearing………………..

W+ (V) Variation ..………………
(M) Magnetic ..………………
E- (D) Deviation ..………………
(C) Compass ..………………
WEEK 18
1. What is SOLAS?
The International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) is an international maritime
safety treaty from the International Maritime Organization (IMO), the maritime arm of the
United Nations. It regulates safety of life at sea, which includes any ocean-going vessels. The IMO,
in 2015, issued guidelines regarding verified weight of all containers shipped at sea.
2. Why were the new guidelines created?
Declaration of shipping weights has been required for a long time. Verification of shipping
weights has not. Verification is now mandatory because misdeclared weights have caused unsafe
conditions at sea for vessels and crew.
3. Who is responsible for compliance?
Anyone listed on the bill of lading as the shipper will ultimately be responsible for providing the
verified gross weight. That may be the shipper of original origin, or it can be a non-vessel
operating common carrier (NVOCC) or freight forwarder. Any business within the logistics chain
that declares itself the shipper is essentially the responsible party.
4. Who enforces the new guidelines?
In general, the enforcement is the responsibility of the maritime organization of each country
beginning July 1, 2016.
Although enforcement begins July 1, implementation should ideally begin by May to avoid
disruptions and fines, as some containers get transshipped after July 1 and will depart from their
original port of origin as early as May.
If non-compliant, the containers shall not be loaded on the vessel, according to the rule. Both the
terminal and the shipper can be held responsible.
5. How do you comply?
Two methods are allowed. With method 1, you must weigh the entire container, contents and
packing. Method 2 requires you to weigh contents separately, adding the packing material and the
container tare weight to compute the declared weight.

Regulation 19 - Carriage requirements for shipborne navigational systems and equipment

Summary

Navigational equipment - carriage requirements for new ships.

Requirements are based on tonnage and are cumulative.
Existing ships may continue to meet requirements of SOLAS Chapter V/74, except GNSS /
terrestrial navigation receiver to be fitted at first survey after 1 July 2002, and AIS transponder to
be fitted by specified dates.
Each item of equipment to comply with the relevant IMO Performance Standards.
Regulations allow for "other means" to be used to comply with the functional requirements of
each equipment item.
Regulation 19
1. Application and requirements
Subject to the provisions of regulation 1.4:

1.1 Ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002 shall be fitted with navigational systems and
equipment which will fulfil the requirements prescribed in paragraphs 2.1 to 2.9
1.2 Ships constructed before 1 July 2002 shall:

1.2.1 subject to the provisions of paragraphs 1.2.2, 1.2.3, and 1.2.4, unless they comply fully with
this regulation, continue to be fitted with equipment which fulfils the requirements prescribed in
regulations V/11, V/12 and V/20 of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974
in force prior to 1 July 2002;
1.2.2 be fitted with the equipment or systems required in paragraph 2.1.6 not later than the first
survey after 1 July 2002 at which time the radio direction-finding apparatus referred to in V/12 (p)
of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea, 1974 in force prior to 1 July 2002 shall
no longer be required; and
1.2.3 be fitted with the system required in paragraph 2.4 not later than the dates specified in
paragraphs 2.4.2 and 2.4.3.
1.2.4 be fitted with the system required in paragraph 2.2.3, as follows;
.1 passenger ships irrespective of size, not later than the first survey* after 1 January 2016;
.2 cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards, not later than the first survey* after 1 January
2016;
.3 cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 3,000 gross tonnage, not later than
the first survey* after 1 January 2017; and
.4 cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 500 gross tonnage, not later than the
first survey* after 1 January 2018.
The bridge navigational watch alarm system shall be in operation whenever the ship is underway
at sea.
The provisions of paragraph 2.2.4 shall also apply to ships constructed before 1 July 2002.
* Refer to the Unified interpretation of the term first survey referred to in SOLAS regulations
(MSC.1/Circ.1290).
1.3 Administrations may exempt ships from the application of the requirement of paragraph
1.2.4 when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the
implementation date specified in subparagraphs 1.2.4.1 to 1.2.4.4
2.
Shipborne navigational equipment and systems
2.1 All ships irrespective of size shall have:
2.1.1
a properly adjusted standard magnetic compass or other means, independent of any power supply
to determine the ship's heading and display the reading at the main steering position;
2.1.2 a pelorus or compass bearing device, or other means, independent of any power supply to
take bearings over an arc of the horizon of 360°;
2.1.3 means of correcting heading and bearings to true at all times;
2.1.4 nautical charts and nautical publications to plan and display the ship's route for the
intended voyage and to plot and monitor positions throughout the voyage. An electronic chart
display and information system (ECDIS) is also accepted as meeting the chart carriage
requirements of this subparagraph. Ships to which paragraph 2.10 applies shall comply with the
carriage requirements for ECDIS detailed therein;
2.1.5
back-up arrangements to meet the functional requirements of subparagraph .4, if this function is
partly or fully fulfilled by electronic means;*
* An appropriate folio of paper nautical charts may be used as a back-up arrangement for ECDIS.
Other back-up arrangements for ECDIS are acceptable (see appendix 6 to resolution A.817(19), as
amended).
2.1.6 a receiver for a global navigation satellite system or a terrestrial radionavigation system, or
other means, suitable for use at all times throughout the intended voyage to establish and update
the ship's position by automatic means;
2.1.7
if less than 150 gross tonnage and if practicable, a radar reflector or other means, to enable
detection by ships navigating by radar at both 9 and 3 GHz;
2.1.8 when the ship's bridge is totally enclosed and unless the Administration determines
otherwise, a sound reception system, or other means, to enable the officer in charge of the
navigational watch to hear sound signals and determine their direction;
2.1.9 a telephone, or other means, to communicate heading information to the emergency
steering position, if provided;
2.2 All ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size shall, in
addition to the requirements of paragraph 2.1, be fitted with:
2.2.1 a spare magnetic compass interchangeable with the magnetic compass, as referred to in
paragraph 2.1.1, or other means to perform the function referred to in paragraph 2.1.1 by means of
replacement or duplicate equipment;
2.2.2 a daylight signalling lamp, or other means to communicate by light during day and night
using an energy source of electrical power not solely dependent upon the ship's power supply.
2.2.3 a bridge navigational watch alarm system (BNWAS), as follows:
2.2.3.1 cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size
constructed on or after 1 July 2011;
2.2.3.2 passenger ships irrespective of size constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than the first
survey after 1 July 2012;
2.2.3.3 cargo ships of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2011, not later
than the first survey after 1 July 2012;
2.2.3.4 cargo ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 3,000 gross tonnage
constructed before 1 July 2011, not later than the first safety survey after 1 July 2013; and
2.2.3.5 cargo ships of 150 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 500 gross tonnage constructed
before 1 July 2011, not later than the first survey after 1 July 2014.
The bridge navigational watch alarm system shall be in operation whenever the ship is underway
at sea.
2.2.4 a bridge navigational watch alarm system (BNWAS) installed prior to 1 July 2011 may
subsequently be exempted from full compliance with the standards adopted by the
organisazation, at the discretion of the Administration.
2.3 All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards and passenger ships irrespective of size shall, in
addition to meeting the requirements of paragraph 2.2, be fitted with:
2.3.1 an echo sounding device, or other electronic means, to measure and display the available
depth of water;
2.3.2
a 9 GHz radar, or other means to determine and display the range and bearing of radar
transponders and of other surface craft, obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks to
assist in navigation and in collision avoidance;
2.3.3 an electronic plotting aid, or other means, to plot electronically the range and bearing of
targets to determine collision risk;
2.3.4 speed and distance measuring device, or other means, to indicate speed and distance
through the water;
2.3.5 a properly adjusted transmitting heading device, or other means to transmit heading
information for input to the equipment referred to in paragraphs 2.3.2, 2.3.3 and 2.4
2.4 All ships of 300 gross tonnage and upwards engaged on international voyages and cargo
ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards not engaged on international voyages and passenger ships
irrespective of size shall be fitted with an automatic identification system (AIS), as follows:
2.4.1 ships constructed on or after 1 July 2002;
2.4.2 ships engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002:
2.4.2.1 in the case of passenger ships, not later than 1 July 2003;
2.4.2.2
in the case of tankers, not later than the first survey for safety equipment* on or after 1 July 2003;

* Refer to regulation I/8

2.4.2.3 in the case of ships, other than passenger ships and tankers, of 50,000 gross tonnage and
upwards, not later than 1 July 2004;
2.4.2.4 in the case of ships, other than passenger ships and tankers, of 300 gross tonnage and
upwards but less than 50,000 gross tonnage, not later than the first safety survey after 1 July 2004
or by 31 December 2004, whichever occurs earlier; and
2.4.3 ships not engaged on international voyages constructed before 1 July 2002, not later than 1
July 2008;
2.4.4 the Administration may exempt ships from the application of the requirements of this
paragraph when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the
implementation date specified in subparagraphs .2 and .3;
2.4.5 AIS shall:
2.4.5.1 provide automatically to appropriately equipped shore stations, other ships and aircraft
information, including the ship's identity, type, position, course, speed, navigational status and
other safety-related information;
2.4.5.2 receive automatically such information from similarly fitted ships;
2.4.5.3 monitor and track ships; and
2.4.5.4 exchange data with shore-based facilities;
2.4.6 the requirements of paragraph 2.4.5 shall not be applied to cases where international
agreements, rules or standards provide for the protection of navigational information; and
2.4.7
AIS shall be operated taking into account the guidelines adopted by the Organization.* Ships
fitted with AIS shall maintain AIS in operation at all times except where international agreements,
rules or standards provide for the protection of navigational information.
* Refer to the Guidelines for the Operation of AIS on Ships
2.5 All ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the requirements
of paragraph 2.3 with the exception of paragraphs 2.3.3 and 2.3.5, and the requirements of
paragraph 2.4, have:
2.5.1 a gyro compass, or other means, to determine and display their heading by shipborne non-
magnetic means, being clearly readable by the helmsman at the main steering position. These
means shall also transmit heading information for input to the equipment referred in paragraphs
2.3.2, 2.4 and 2.5.5;;
2.5.2 a gyro compass heading repeater, or other means, to supply heading information visually at
the emergency steering position if provided;
2.5.3 a gyro compass bearing repeater, or other means, to take bearings, over an arc of the
horizon of 360º, using the gyro compass or other means referred to in subparagraph .1. However
ships less than 1,600 gross tonnage shall be fitted with such means as far as possible;
2.5.4 rudder, propeller, thrust, pitch and operational mode indicators, or other means to
determine and display rudder angle, propeller revolutions, the force and direction of thrust and, if
applicable, the force and direction of lateral thrust and the pitch and operational mode, all to be
readable from the conning position; and
2.5.5 an automatic tracking aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range and bearing of
other targets to determine collision risk.
2.6 On all ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards, failure of one piece of equipment should
not reduce the ship's ability to meet the requirements of paragraphs 2.1.1, 2.1.2 and 2.1.4.
2.7 All ships of 3000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the requirements
of paragraph 2.5, have:
2.7.1 a 3 GHz radar or where considered appropriate by the Administration a second 9 GHz
radar, or other means to determine and display the range and bearing of other surface craft,
obstructions, buoys, shorelines and navigational marks to assist in navigation and in collision
avoidance, which are functionally independent of those referred to in paragraph 2.3.2; and
2.7.2 a second automatic tracking aid, or other means to plot automatically the range and
bearing of other targets to determine collision risk which are functionally independent of those
referred to in paragraph 2.5.5.

2.8 All ships of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the
requirements of paragraph 2.7 with the exception of paragraph 2.7.2, have:
2.8.1 an automatic radar plotting aid, or other means, to plot automatically the range and
bearing of at least 20 other targets, connected to a device to indicate speed and distance through
the water, to determine collision risks and simulate a trial maneuver; and
2.8.2 a heading or track control system, or other means, to automatically control and keep to a
heading and/or straight track.
2.9 All ships of 50,000 gross tonnage and upwards shall, in addition to meeting the
requirements of paragraph 2.8, have:
2.9.1 a rate of turn indicator, or other means, to determine and display the rate of turn; and
2.9.2 a speed and distance measuring device, or other means, to indicate speed and distance over
the ground in the forward and athwartships direction.
2.10 Ships engaged on international voyages shall be fitted with an Electronic Chart Display and
Information System (ECDIS) as follows:
2.10.1 passenger ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1 July 2012;
2.10.2 tankers of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or after 1 July 2012;
2.10.3 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed on or
after 1 July 2013;
2.10.4 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 10,000
gross tonnage constructed on or after 1 July 2014;
2.10.5 passenger ships of 500 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2012, not later
than the first survey on or after 1 July 2014;
2.10.6 tankers of 3,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1 July 2012, not later than
the first survey on or after 1 July 2015;
2.10.7 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 50,000 gross tonnage and upwards constructed before 1
July 2013, not later than the first survey on or after 1 July 2016;
2.10.8 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 20,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 50,000
gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2013, not later than the first survey on or after 1 July 2017;
and
2.10.9 cargo ships, other than tankers, of 10,000 gross tonnage and upwards but less than 20,000
gross tonnage constructed before 1 July 2013, not alter than the first survey on or after 1 July 2018;
2.11 Administrations may exempt ships from the application of the requirements of paragraph
2.10 when such ships will be taken permanently out of service within two years after the
implementation date specified in subparagraphs 2.10.5 to 2.10.9 of paragraph 2.10.
3. When "other means" are permitted under this regulation, such means must be approved
by Administration in accordance with regulation 18.
4. The navigational equipment and systems referred to in this regulation shall be so installed,
tested and maintained as to minimize malfunction.
5. Navigational equipment and systems offering alternative modes of operation shall indicate
the actual mode of use.
6. Integrated bridge systems* shall be so arranged that failure of one sub-system is brought to
immediate attention of the officer in charge of the navigational watch by audible and visual
alarms, and does not cause failure to any other sub-system. In case of failure in one part of an
integrated navigational system,** it shall be possible to operate each other individual item of
equipment or part of the system separately.

* Refer to resolution MSC.64(67), annex 1 - Performance standard for Integrated bridge systems.
** Refer to resolution MSC.86(70), annex 3 - Performance standard for Integrated navigational
systems.

Parts of a Compass
Listed below are the common parts of a basic orienteering compass.

1. Scales
These help measure distance on a map. If you check the common scale for the maps in your area
before buying a compass and can get them to match, this can make map work a bit easier. A
common scale for USGS topographic maps is 1:24,000, but this isn’t always the case – so check. If
your compass and map scales don’t match, most orienteering compasses have centimeter and inch
scales.
2. Direction of Travel
This is an arrow that is marked on the baseplate. It guides the direction of travel while following a
bearing in the field.
3. Orienting Arrow
The orienting arrow is marked on the bottom of the housing and rotates with the housing. It
allows the baseplate to be aligned relative to the magnetic needle. To take a basic field bearing,
the housing is turned until the orienting arrow and the magnetic needle are aligned. These two
elements are then kept in alignment while following the bearing.
4. Declination Scale
Declination is the difference, in angle of degree, between magnetic north and true north. The
declination scale makes it easier to adjust for this difference. More advanced orienteering
compasses often have an adjustable declination scale that can be set, usually by way of a tiny screw
on the bottom of the compass.
5. Dial
The dial is part of the housing and is marked in two degree increments. When the dial is rotated,
the orienting arrow, declination scale and orienting lines also rotate as part of the housing.
6. Index Line / bearing marker
This is where a bearing is read. A bearing is an angle relative to true north (true bearing), or
magnetic north (magnetic bearing).
7. Magnetic Needle
A magnetic strip of metal that is on a pivot in the center of the housing. The north end is usually
painted red, while the other end is often white or black.
8. Orienting Lines
These lines are marked on the bottom of the housing and rotate with it, the same as the orienting
arrow. They are also often called meridian lines and north-south lines. When taking a bearing
from a map, the orienting lines are aligned with the north-south map grid lines.
9. Housing
A liquid filled capsule that contains the magnetic needle. Orienting lines are etched on the
bottom of the housing, and the dial is fixed to the top of the housing. The liquid helps dampen
the needle movement, making it easier to get a more accurate reading.
10. Base Plate
The base plate is used to taking bearing on a map. The edge is placed between two points and the
orienting lines and dial act as a protractor to give the bearing. The base plate is marked with
scales, direction of travel arrow and index line.

TMC
The Transmitting Magnetic Compass (TMC) is a product used as an addition to traditional
mechanical magnetic compasses. It is used to convert the compas signal from analog to digital,
which makes it possible to show the magnetic heading in more than one place.
VARIATIONS OF MAGNETIC DECLINATION
Daily Variation -also known as Diurnal variation -extreme eastern position of the needle usually
occurs early in the morning and the extreme western position occurs just about after noon time.
-usually neglected when observing magnetic directions
Annual Variation • Also known as yearly variation • Amounts only less than 1 minute of arc and
thus considered negligible Secular Variation • Slow, gradual but unexplainable • The meridian
swings in one direction for about 150 years and comes to a stop then swings back in the opposite
direction • It is important and not negligible because of its magnitude • No means of formula to
predict this variation • Nature and behavior can only be described from past observations

Irregular variation • Occurs unpredicted • During magnetic storm and disturbances associated
with sun spots and auroral display occurrence
Isogonic Chart - tells you how far from true north a compass will point anywhere along an
isogonic line Isogonic Lines Agonic Lines Historical Magnetic Declination
Direction Compasses – Magnetic Compass
IMO A.382 (X)- Magnetic compasses carriage and performance standards
A.694(17)-General Requirements for Shipborne Radio equipment forming part of the GMDSS and
for electronic navigation aids.
Gyro Compass
A.424 (XI)-Performance standards for gyro-compasses
A.694 (17)-General Requirements for Shipborne Radio equipment forming part of the GMDSS
and for electronic navigation aids.
Gyro Compass- HSC
A.821 (19)–Performance standards for gyro-compasses for high-speed craft
A.694 (17)-General Requirements for Shipborne Radio equipment forming part of the GMDSS
and for electronic navigation aids.
Display of direction information
Gyro Compass Heading Repeater
A.424 (XI)-Performance standards for gyro-compasses
A.694 (17)-General Requirements for Shipborne Radio equipment forming part of the GMDSS
and for electronic navigation aids.
Gyro Bearing Repeater
A.424 (XI)–Performance standards for gyro-compasses.
A.694 (17)-General Requirements for Shipborne Radio equipment forming part of the GMDSS
and for electronic navigation aids.
Transmitting Heading Device (THD)
MSC.116(78)– Application of performance standards for Transmitting Heading Devices (THDs) to
Marine Transmitting Magnetic Heading Devices (TMHDs)
A.694 (17)-General Requirements for Shipborne Radio equipment forming part of the GMDSS
and for electronic navigation aids.
Transmitting Magnetic Heading Device (TMHD)
MSC.86 (70) ANNEX 2-Adoption of new and amended performance standards for Navigational
equipment.
A.694 (17)-General Requirements for Shipborne Radio equipment forming part of the GMDSS
and for electronic navigation aids.
SC.116(78)– Application of performance standards for Transmitting Heading Devices (THDs) to
Marine Transmitting Magnetic Heading Devices (TMHDs)
Rate of Turn Indicator
A.526 (13)– Performance standards for rate of turn indicators
A.694 (17)-General Requirements for Shipborne Radio equipment forming part of the GMDSS
and for electronic navigation aids
Gyro Compass – Basic Principle, Operation
and Usage on Ships
Gyro Compass is a navigational compass containing gyroscope motor that registers the direction
of true north along the surface of the earth and it does not depend on magnetism or a compass
with a motorized gyroscope whose angular momentum interacts with the force produced by the
earth’s rotation to maintain a north-south orientation of the gyroscopic spin axis, thereby
providing a stable directional reference.

The Principle of Gyroscope

A gyroscope consists of a spinning wheel or rotor contained within gimbals which permit
movement about three mutually perpendicular axes, known as the horizontal axis, the vertical
axis, and the spin axis. When spun rapidly, assuming that friction is not considered, the
gyroscope develops gyroscopic inertia, tending to remain spinning in the same plane
indefinitely. The amount of gyroscopic inertia depends on the angular velocity, mass, and radius
of the wheel or rotor.

If a gyroscope is placed at the equator with its spin axis pointing east-west, as the earth turns on
its axis, gyroscopic inertia will tend to keep the plane of rotation constant. To the observer, it is
the gyroscope which is seen to rotate, not the earth. This effect is called the horizontal earth
rate and is maximum at the equator and zero at the poles. At points between, it is equal to the
cosine of the latitude.
If the gyro is placed at a geographic pole with its spin axis horizontal, it will appear to rotate about
its vertical axis. This is the vertical earth rate. At all points between the equator and the poles,
the gyro appears to turn partly about its horizontal and partly about its vertical axis, being
affected by both horizontal and vertical earth rates. In order to visualize these effects, remember
that the gyro, at whatever latitude it is placed, is remaining aligned in space while the earth moves
beneath it.

Cut Section of a Gyro compass

Gyrocompass Operation
The gyrocompass depends upon four natural phenomena:

1. gyroscopic inertia,

2. precession,

3. earth’s rotation, and

4. gravity.

To make a gyroscope into a gyrocompass, the wheel or rotor is mounted in a sphere, called the
gyrosphere, and the sphere is then supported in a vertical ring. The whole assembly is mounted
on a base called the phantom. The gyroscope in a gyrocompass can be pendulous or non-
pendulous, according to design. The rotor may weigh as little as half a kilogram to over 25 kg.

To make it seek and maintain true north, three things are necessary.

1. First, the gyro must be made to stay on the plane of the meridian.

2. Second, it must be made to remain horizontal.

3. Third, it must stay in this position once it reaches it regardless of what the vessel on which
it is mounted does or where it goes on the earth.
To make it seek the meridian, a weight is added to the bottom of the vertical ring, causing it to
swing on its vertical axis, and thus seek to align itself horizontally. It will tend to oscillate, so a
second weight is added to the side of the sphere in which the rotor is contained, which dampens
the oscillations until the gyro stays on the meridian. With these two weights, the only possible
position of equilibrium is on the meridian with its spin axis horizontal.

To make the gyro seek north, a system of reservoirs filled with mercury, known as mercury
ballistics, is used to apply a force against the spin axis. The ballistics, usually four in number, are
placed so that their centers of gravity exactly coincide with the center of gravity of the gyroscope.
Precession then causes the spin axis to trace an ellipse, one ellipse taking about 84 minutes to
complete. (This is the period of oscillation of a pendulum with an arm equal to the radius of the
earth.) To dampen this oscillation, the force is applied, not in the vertical plane, but slightly to the
east of the vertical plane. This causes the spin axis to trace a spiral instead of an ellipse and
eventually settle on the meridian pointing north.

Using the Gyrocompass

Since a gyrocompass is not influenced by magnetism, it is not subject to variation or deviation.
Any error is constant and equal around the horizon, and can often be reduced to less than one
degree, thus effectively eliminating it altogether. Unlike a magnetic compass, it can output a
signal to repeaters spaced around the vessel at critical positions.

But it also requires a constant source of stable electrical power, and if power is lost, it requires
several hours to settle on the meridian again before it can be used. This period can be reduced by
aligning the compass with the meridian before turning on the power.

The directive force of a gyrocompass depends on the amount of precession to which it is subject,
which in turn is dependent on latitude. Thus the directive force is maximum at the equator and
decreases to zero at the poles. Vessels operating in high latitudes must construct error curves
based on latitudes because the errors at high latitudes eventually overcome the ability of the
compass to correct them.

The gyrocompass is typically located on the wheelhouse as close as possible to the center of roll,
pitch and yaw of the ship, thus minimizing errors caused by the ship’s motion.

Repeaters are located at convenient places throughout the ship, such as at the helm for steering,
on the bridge wings for taking bearings, in after steering for emergency steering, and other places.
The output can also be used to drive course recorders, autopilot systems, plotters, fire control
systems, and stabilized radars. The repeaters should be checked regularly against the master to
ensure they are all in alignment. The repeaters on the bridge wing used for taking bearings will
likely be equipped with removable bearing circles and azimuth circles.
Fibre Optic Gyrocompass
A fibre optic gyrocompass is a compass and instrument of navigation. It is sometimes part of a ships set of
compasses, which also include a conventional gyrocompass and a magnetic compass. The compass comprises
a fibre optic gyroscope sensor, which links to a computer and then locates north. This in turn links to a compass
readout to provide a heading.[1] It has very high reliability and requires little maintenance during its service life.
[1]
The entire system usually includes a sensor unit, a control and display unit, and an interface and power supply
unit. It is often linked with the ship's other navigational devices including GPS.

The Ring Laser Gyrocompass

The Ring Laser Gyros (RLG) can be used as the stable elements (for one degree of
freedom each) in an inertial guidance system. The advantage of using a RLG is that
there are no moving parts. Compared to the conventional spinning gyro, this means
there is no friction, which in turn means there will be no inherent drift terms.
Additionally, the entire unit is compact, lightweight and virtually indestructable,
meaning it can be used in aircraft.

The basic principle of operation is that a single RLG can measure any rotation about its
sensitive axis. This implies that the orientation in inertial space will be known at all
times. The elements that measure actual accelerations can therefore be resolved into
the appropriate directions.

Here's how a RLG can measure rotation about its sensitive axis:

The input laser beam is split into two beams that travel the same path but in opposite
directions: one clockwise and the other counter-clockwise.

The beams are recombined and sent to the output detector. In the absence or rotation,
the path lengths will be the same and the output will be the total constructive
interfernence of the two beams.

If the apparatus rotates, there will be a difference (to be shown later) in the path
lengths travelled by the two beams, resulting in a net phase difference and destructive
interference. The net signal will vary in amplitude depending on the phase shift,
therefore the resulting amplitude is a measurement of the phase shift, and
consequently, the rotation rate.